THE 



HISTORIC NOTE-BOOK:. 



WITH AN 



APPENDIX OF BATTLES 



BY THE 

REV. E. COBHAM BREWER, LL.D.. 

V, 
AUTHOR OP " THE DICTIONARY OF PHRASE AND FABLE," " THE READER'S 
HANDBOOK," "DICTIONARY OF MIRACLES/' ETC. 




PHILADELPHIA: 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 
]891. 



u ys- 



</ o 



TO THE 

RIGHT HON. THE COUNTESS MANVERS 

WHOM TO KNOW 

(to use the words of sir RICHARD STEELE) 

' IS A LIBERAL EDUCATION ' 

C!)fii« *?^i)Staric ^atcii' arc iutti) pcrmtiSiSion ©rtriratclr 

BY 

THE AUTHOR 



PEEFAOE 



This volume, entitled ' The Historic Note-Book,' is the third and last of 
a series. The first was the ' Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,' the object 
of which was to explain the meaning of words and expressions in which 
an allusion is made to some fable, custom, or character, more or less 
familiarly known. 

The • Eeader's Handbook,' the second of the series, undertook to 
unfold in a few lines the tale of the best known epic poems of ancient and 
modem times, the plots of novels and plays, ballads and romances, and 
to give short biographical sketches of their respective authors. 

The present book does for history what the first of the series did 
for phraseology, and the latter did for poetry and romance. It is purely 
historical, and explains with the utmost possible brevity allusions to 
historical events, acts of parliament, treaties, and customs, terms and 
phrases, made in books, speeches, and familiar conversation. 

Probably no one could turn over a couple of pages of this book and 
not find some item which he would be at a loss to explain or to find in 
any book near at hand. It may be hidden in some comer of history, 
some modem or ancient encyclopaedia, some law dictionary, periodical, or 
book of antiquities ; but, being neither tabulated nor inserted in the index, 
would be as hard to light upon as the traditional grain of wheat in a 
bushel of chaff. It might require hours, perhaps days, of research to hunt 
out, and the handling of many books. This is the sort of lore here set 



viii PREFACE 

do\\Ti. Some items have been kept bj the author in the form of queries 
for many yeiirs waiting for sohition, and those solutions have been ulti- 
mately found in most unexpected pla-ces. 

I have been an author for sixty years, have WTitt^n many books, 
and of course have been a very miscellaneous reader. In my long expe- 
rience I have remarked how little the range of * literary ' reading has 
varied, and how doubt still centres on matters which were cruces in my 
eArly years. So that a work of this kind is of as much usefulness in 
1891 as it would have been in 1830. I always read with a slip of paper 
and a pencil at my side, to jot down whatever I think may be usefiil 
to me, and these jottings I keep sorted in different lockers. This has 
been a life -habit with me, and tbe compiling of them into a subjec- 
tive volume consists chiefly in selecting, sorting, explaming, correcting, 
and bringing down to date. What I myself have wanted to know, I 
presume others younger than I am may wish to know also ; and what I 
have found difficult to discover, I presume others with fewer books may 
find difficult also. I know that many a time and oft I should have been 
most thankful if I could have laid my hand on a book, and found, without 
much tedious research, the explanation of some item in this book at the 
time unknown to me ; and I judge others by myself. This very unromantic 
way of looking at a big book has been the secret of my success as an 
author. It was begun at the age of eighteen, and my first book of note 
was the * Guide to Science,' the sale of which has been almost fabulous. 
The ' Dictionary of Phrase and Fable ' was more than twenty years in 
hand, and has had a very wide circulation ; the present book cannot foil 
to be equally useful, and I hope will not be less acceptable to the 
general. 

In these 'Historic Notes' I have had the advantage of two press- 
rea,ders of unusual learning, judgment, and wide reading — one in London 
and one in Philadelphia. With a diligence and discrimination beyond all 
praise, they have called attention to every doubtful statement, date, or 



PREFACE ix 

proper name, and much of the accuracy of the book is undoubtedly due 
to their painstaking co-operation. For myself I am under unbounded 
obligation to them, and hope they will accept my thanks thus publicly 
acknowledged and without stint. 

Little more need be said. The arrangement is somewhat different to 
that usually followed in Historical Dictionaries. The items are not set 
under the ruling word, but generally under the first noun or adjective of the 
phrase. Thus under ' Massacre ' will be found all articles of that category, 
massed together, and not distributed under the name of the place where 
the deed of blood was committed. This has been done to bring the 
subject together in a compact form. Similarly with Church Councils, 
Literary Forgeries, and so on. When this allocation has been found 
impracticable, as in ' Irish Associations,' ' Monastic Orders,' ' Sunday 
Fete Days,' and so on, then under the general heading will be found an 
alphabetical list of all the articles in the book on the subject, which may 
be turned to if required. 

Some antiquated customs have been pointed out, and a suggestion has 
been occasionally made which may possibly direct attention to what 
appears to the author of these ' Notes ' a national want or national defect. 
See p. 697, article Poets' Corner, and p. 115, article Borromeo. 

In one instance, that of 'Abigail,' in which a word has an ancient 
and modern history, the recent revival of the word in the reign of 
Queen Anne has been thought more consistent with the scope of this 
book than the well-known tale in the life of David. Those, however, who 
prefer the older story may, if they think proper, consult the ' Dictionary 
of Phrase and Fable.* 

Finally the book here offered to the public is not a ' Book of Dates,' 
though dates have been added whenever required. Inventions and 
Discoveries, the great staple of a book of dates, find no place here ; and 
hundreds of the articles here inserted are wholly independent of dates. 



PEEFACB 



Similarly, the book is not an ' Historic Dictionary,' but a dictionary of 
historic terms and phrases, jottings of odds and ends of history, which 
historians leave in the cold or only incidentally mention in the course 
of their narratives. If I might borrow the motto of ' Notes and Queries,' 
'When found make a note of,' it would most aptly describe the end and 
object of these ' Historic Notes.* 

THE AUTHOR 



If I might make the suggestion without being impertinent, I think the book would 
be admirably adapted to the upper forms of Ladies' Schools, and to those in private 
life who seek to extend their general knowledge, after having laid aside their ele- 
mentary books. Of course, these Historic Notes are mainly designed and were 
specially written for the general public, and this, their educational use, is a mere 
aft ?rthought. 



HISTOEIC NOTE-BOOK 



ABBOTT 



A ]]!tre marqtis d I 'A, of first-class 
quality. A is the distinctive mark of 
money minted in Paris, which is purer 
and more free from alloy than any other 
money in the French dominions. For 
A 1 see Diet, of Fhrase and Fable, p. 1. 

Aarau {Peace of), 3, 9, 11 Aug., 1712. 
This treaty concluded the war of Toggen- 
burg. 

Aaron's Breastplate, 4 rows. 

1. Reuben, snjrffus; Simeon, topaz ; Ijevi, carbuvcle. 

2. Judah, ("TJi.ia^rf; Daun, jacinth; Naphtali, rt<;'ffe. 

3. Gad, amethyst ; Asher, hcryl ; Issachar, sapphire. 

4. Zcbulon, diamond; Joseph, onyx; Benjamin, 

jaspar. 

Abbasides (3 syl.). Califs of Bagdad, 
so called from Abul Abbas (Abdallah ben 
Mohammed), who defeated Mervan II., and 
became calif, 18 Feb., a.d. 750 ; ceased 
1258, by the overthrow of Mostasem,put to 
death by Hulakou or Hulagu, a Mogul 
prince. The Abbasides succeeded the 
Ommai'ades. 

The Abbaside califs were, Aboul-Abbas (750); 
Abou Giafar Almanzor (754) ; Mohammed Mahdi 
(77-5); Hadi (785) ; Haroun al Raschid (7H6) ; Amyn 
(80"J) ; Al Mamoun (813), and 30 more. 

Abbate (2 syl.). A young Italian 
clergyman who has received the tonsure, 
but has not taken full orders. 

Abbates Milites, or Abba-comites. 
10th cent. Lay abbots, who deputed deans 
or priors to the spiritual oversight of 
their abbeys. 

Pronounce Ab'-a-teez Mil'-i-teez. 

Abbaye de Monte h Regret. 

The guillotine. What is now the Bue des 



Bourses, in Paris, was formerly the Monte 

d, Eegret, the place for public executions. 

Pronounce Ab-bay-d' Mont ah Ra-gra'. 

Abbds Commendataires. The 

*225 abbots appointed by the king of 
France, The office was a perfect sinecure, 
but the abbe commendateire drew one- 
third of the revenues of his convent. 
Many of these abbots were laymen, but 
generally they were literary men, often 
noblemen's sons included under laymen. 
Pronounce Ab-bay Com-men-da-tareB. 
Abbey. In Scotland, a sanctuary for 
debtors against legal process afforded by 
the abbey of Holyrood. 

Abbots in commendam. Abbots 
commended to hold an abbey and its dig- 
nity in charge till a regular abbot has been 
appointed. In the Eeformation several 
abbots and other ecclesiastics were allow- 
ed to enjoy their livings for life, or for a 
time. By 6, 7 Will. IV. c. 77, s. 18, no 
ecclesiastical dignity, office, or benefice, 
after the living possessors, was allowed to 
be held in cot7imenda?7i. 

Abbeys and other Catholic livings held in com- 
mendam were mere sinecures for life. 

Abbot sford Club (The). A literary 
club founded in Edinburgh (1835) for the 
publication of works belonging to Scotch 
history, literature, and antiquities. Above 
30 quarto volumes were published. The 
club no longer exists. 

Abbott Scholarships. I. In the 

University of Cambridge: two for classics 
and mathematics, for undergraduates in 

B 



2 



ABDICATED 



ABIGAIL 



their first year. Value about 60 Z. a year, 
tenable for three years ; founded by John 
Abbott of Halifax, Yorkshire, 1871. 

II. In the University of Oxford : three 
for the sons of poor clergymen ; founded 
the same year by the same founder. 

Abdicated Monarehs. The follow- 
ing monarchs of Europe have abdicated : 

Amadeus I. (duke of Aosta) Spain 1873 

Charles IV. of Spain aorcedl ... „. ... 1808 

Charles V. of Spain and Germany .„ ... 155G 

Charles X. of France (forced) ... 1830 

Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced) ... ... 1849 

Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia ... m. ... 1802 

Christina of Sweden 1654 

Diocletian and Maximian 80S, .308 

Felipe V. of Spain 1724 

Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced) ... 1860 

James II. of England (forced) 1(389 

Louis Bonaparte of Holland 1810 

Louis Philippe of France (forced) 1848 

Ludwig of Bavaria (forced) 1848 

Matilda (Lady of England) „. 1154 

Milan of Servia ; ... ... 1889 

Napoleon I. of France (forced) 1814 

Napoleon III. of France (forced) 1870 

Otho of Greece (forced) 18(;3 

Pedro II. of Brazil (forced) 1889 

Poniatowski of Poland (forced) 1795 

Richard II. of England (forced) 1399 

Stanislaus Leszczinski (forced; 1735 

Victor Amadeus of Sardinia 1730 

Victor Emmanuel 1819 

Several dethroned without even the mocking 
Bhow of abdication, like Edward II. of England 
'1827) ; Henry VI. of England (1471) ; &c. 

Abeceda'rians. Anabaptists who 
set their faces against all human learning, 
lest it should impede the progress of the 
soul in its apprehension of Divine truth. 
The Catholics at one time opposed all 
learning except what they called sacred 
literature, such as the lives of the saints, 
and other religious books. 

Abel'ians or Abelo'nians. A sect 
of the ancient Christian Church which 
married, but lived in continence, as they 
assumed Abel did (4th cent.). 

Abenzerraghes. A wealthy and 
powerful family of Spanish Moors, de- 
scended from Yusef ben-Zerragh. The 
word divided is A-ben-Zerragh[es], and 
is pronounced Ah'-ven-zerark'-ey. Their 
struggles with the family of Zegris, and 
destruction in the palace of the Alhambra, 
in Granada (fifteenth century), have fur- 
nished the subject of a charming Spanish 
romance, ' The History of the Civil Wars 
of Granada.' Chateaubriand made it the 
subject of his 'Adventures of the Last 
Abenzerraghe,' and it furnishes the text 
of one of Cherubini's operas. The feud 
began 1474. 

Often written Abcncerragcs. 



Ab'erdeen' {University of), 1500; 
founded by James IV. It was originally 
founded in 1494, by W. Elphinstone, 
bishop of Aberdeen, and called King's 
College. In 1858 Marischal College 
{q.v.) was united to the University of 
Aberdeen. (21, 22 Vict. c. 83). 

Aberdeen man's privilege {An). 
To alter or change one's mind on second 
thoughts. 

These good folks, Alan, make no allowance for 
what your good father calls the Aberdeen man s 
privilege, of ' taking his word again,' or what the 
wise call ' second thoughts.'— Sir W. ScOTT, Red- 
gauntlet, Letter 7. 

Ab'garus, king of Edessa (a.d. 13- 
50). Is said by Eusebius to have written 
a letter to Christ asking Him to cure his 
disease, pronounced by his physicians to 
be incurable. Christ replied, after His 
ascension, that one of His disciples should 
be sent to effect the cure. Thaddeus was 
the apostle selected, and Abgiirus was 
restored to perfect health. Of course this 
is only tradition. (Euseb. i. 13.) 

Abhorrers. A political party in 
England, in the winter 1G79-1680. 
They looked with ' abhorrence ' on Lord 
Shaftesbury's proposal to set aside not 
only James, who was a Roman Catholic, 
but also his daughter Mary, who was a 
Protestant, married to the Prince of 
Orange. See ' Petitioners,' &c. 

Macaulay says, they were a church 
and state party which declared their ab- 
horrence of those who sought to dictate 
to the king (Charles II.) as to the routine 
of the new parliament in 1680. 

Abigail {An). A woman of low de- 
gree and intriguing character, so called 
from Abigail Hill, a niece of Sarah, 
Duchess of Marlborough, introduced into 
the court of Queen Anne as a bed- 
chamber woman. Abigail took the fancy 
of the queen, became prime favourite, 
and ousted the duchess from her high 
position in 1707. Harley was Abigail's 
uncle, as the duchess was her aunt, and 
Abigail had been privately married to 
Mr. Masham, groom of the bedchamber 
of George, prince of Denmark, the 
queen's consort. {See 1 Sam. xxv. 3). 

Her (the Duchess of Marlborough) indignant 
mind instantly attributed this omission to the 
contrary advice of the queen's Abigail, and . . . 
she broke loose on Anne without regard to tha 
presence of the public— UowiTT, Hut. oj Eng, 
(Amie, 251). 



ABIGAIL 



ABSOLUTION 



8 



Ab'igail Earwig (Mrs.). Mrs. 
Masham, the favourite of Queen Anne, 
on the downfall of the Duchess of Marl- 
borough. 

Abingdon Hospital, 1689; founded 
by John Mason of Abingdon, for the in- 
firm, aged, and indigent. 

Abingdon Law. First hang the 
offender, then try him. So called from 
Major Brown of Abingdon, an officer in 
the parliamentary army. 

Abjuration Bill {The), 1690. A bill 
which required of everyone who took any 
public office or trust to swear by oath to 
recognise the right of the reigning sove- 
reign to the crown under the Act of Settle- 
ment, promising to disclose any traitorous 
conspiracy, and abjuring the right of the 
Pretender. Enforced 1701, altered in the 
reigns of Anne, George I., and George 
III. ; and repealed in 1858. 

Abjuration Oath (The). Formerly 
there were three oaths required of all 
persons before admission to any public 
office, viz. The Oath of Allegiance, The 
Oath of Supremacy, and The Abjuration 
Oath. The Abjuration Oath is that no 
foreign prince, state, or potentate, hath 
or ought to have any jurisdiction, power, 
superiority, or authority, ecclesiastical or 
civil, within the British realm. Enforced 
by Act 13 Will. III. c. 6 (1701). The 
three oaths amalgamated into a declara- 
tion by Act 21, 22 Vict. c. 48 (July 13, 
1858). 

Abjuration of Henri IV., 1593. 
The renunciation of Protestantism by 
Henri IV., for the purpose of securing 
the crown of France, and putting an end 
to civil war. 

Abo. I. (Peace of), 17, 18 Aug., 1743, 
between Sweden and Russia, effected by 
the mediation of England. 

n. {The Treaty of), 28 Aug., 1812, be- 
tween Bernadotte, king of Sweden, and 
Alexander, the czar of Russia; effected 
by a personal conference of the two 
sovereigns. 

Abraham's Call. His first call 
was out of Haran, which, according to 
Clinton, was in the autumn B.C. 2093. 
His second co.!! was 4 May, B.C. 2055 
(Gen. xii. 1). The reason why Abraham 
was called by God to leave Chaldea was 



because that country was greatly pol- 
luted with idolatry, which was less pre- 
valent at the time in Egypt. See ' Era of 
Abraham.* 

Abrahamites (4 syl.). I. A sect 
which, in the 9th cent., sprang up in the 
East, and revived at Ajitioch the tenets 
of the Paulicians. The founder was 
Ibraim or Abraham of Antioch. Cyriacus 
opposed the heretics while Charlemagno 
was in power. 

Pronounce A'-bram-mites. 
II. Bohemian deists (1782), who pro- 
fessed to be followers of John Huss, but 
reduced their religion to what they sup- 
posed was that of Abraham before his 
circumcision. The only part of the Bible 
which they retained was the Lord's 
Prayer. They were banished from Bo- 
hemia in 1783, and were scattered abroad 
in various parts of Hungary, Transyl- 
vania, and Slavonia. See above. 

Abraham-men. A class of sturdy 

beggars who simulated lunacy, and wan- 
dered about the country extorting money 
by working on the compassion or fears of 
those who passed by, A ' Tom o' Bed- 
lam ' was an Abraham-man or * Abram 
Cove.' So called from the Abraham ward 
in the Bethlehem Hospital. 

Pronounce A'-brum-men. 

Abrantes {Treaty of), 6 June, 1801, 
between Spain and Portugal. Signed at 
Abrantes, Estremadura, in Portugal. 

Absolute Loyalists. In the middle 
of the 17th cent, meant the friends and 
followers of the Duke of Montrose. The 
Engagers {q.v.) and the Whiggamors {q.v) 
were also in a measure supporters of the 
king ; but there was no possibility of 
united action between them, and they 
only weakened the royal cause. 

Absolute Wisdom, 1821. Alder- 
man Wood was so called. He was a 
staunch supporter of Queen Carolme, and 
being charged with having ill-advised the 
queen, he admitted that his advice might 
not be * absolute wisdom,' and he was 
jocularly called 'Absolute Wisdom Wood.' 

Absolution Thursday. In 

French ' Jeudi Absolu,' the day before 
Good Friday, when the priest recites the ' 
seven penitential psalms, gives a sermon, 
and then pronounces the ' Misereatur ' 
and the ' Indulgentiam.' 

b2 



ABSOLUTISTS 



ACH^AN 



Absolutists {The), 1819. The mon- 
archical party of Spain, opposed to the 
radical ' Exaltados ' (g.u.). They wished 
to restore the absolute power of the king, 
and consisted of the nobility in general, 
the clergy, and, what seems somewhat 
inconsistent, the lower orders. Of course 
the Absolutists wanted to abrogate the 
Constitution of 1812. 

Abstainers. Teetotalers, or those 
who abstain from alcoholic drinks. 
Abstinence societies are now generally 
called temperance societies. Established 
in America, at Boston, in 1826 ; in 
London (The British and Foreign Tem- 
perance Society) 1831; the National, 
in London, 1842. 

Abyssinian War (T^e). Between 
the British and Theodore, king of Abys- 
sinia. This expedition (for the release of 
missionaries, Capt. Crawford and others) 
was under Sir R. Napier, who jomed the 
army at Senafe', Jan. 1868. Col. Phayi-e 
defeated Theodore at Magdala 10 April, 
which was bombarded and talien on 
13 AprQ. The return of the British 
army commenced 18 April, 1868. 

Academic School of Philoso- 
phers {The). Founded by Plato the 
Athenian (b.c. 429-347), who tau<;ht in 
the Academy, a garden about a quarter of 
a mile from the city, in the north-west- 
ern suburb. It belonged origmally to 
Academos, and was adorned by Cunon, 
son of Miltiades, the great general. 
Plato's disciples were called the Academ'- 
ics, or Garden sect. Plato was the dis- 
ciple of Socrates. 

Academics {The). One of the 
Grecian sects in the early ages of Chris- 
tianity. They maintained the total un- 
certainty of all sensuous impressions, 
and, therefore, the impossibility of man's 
knowing anything for certain. They 
doubted the existence of a God, they 
doubted the immortality of the soul, and 
doubted whether virtue was better than 
vice, or vice better than virtue. 

Academy {The). A London weekly 
journal, chiefly of reviews, commenced 
9 Oct., 1869. 

Ae'amoth Plero'ma. With the 
ancient Gnostics, plerotna meant the ful- 
ness of knowledge, and acamoth, inferior 
wisdom. 



Accord' {The). So the Treaty of 
Edinburgh is called. This treaty was 
between Queen Elizabeth and the Scots 
for the evacuation of Scotland by the 
French; concluded 6 July, 1560. 

Accusative {The). John Calvin 
was so called by his companions (1509- 
1564). Also ' The pope of Geneva.' 

_ Acem.etes {The), or ' Acoemeti ' 
(i.e. Watchers), 5th cent. A religious 
order founded by St. Alexander, an 
Asiatic (died 480). So called because 
one of them was always to be on the 
' watch.' That is, one of the three classes 
was to be in rotation performing service 
all day and all night (Greek, a-koimetos, 
sleepless). 

Pronounce As-se -me'-teez. 

Aceph'ali {The), 482. A faction 
among the Eutychians — heretics who 
denied the true manhood of Christ. 
Their founder was Peter Mongus, bishop 
of Alexandria, who renounced his error, 
and then his followers were 'without a 
head ' (Greek, a-TcejphaU, headless). They 
were reconciled by Mark I. in 799. 

Subsequently those Christians who 
belonged to no special chin-ch, and ac- 
knowledged no ordained chief, lilie the 
Vaudois, were called Acephali (men with- 
out a head to their church). 

Pronounce A-sef'-fa-le {see below). 

Acephalites {The). Certain level- 
lers in the reign of Henry I., who ac- 
knowledged no leader {see above). 
Pronounce A-sef'-f a-lites. 

Achss'an League {The). A con- 
federacy of the twelve towns of Achtea. 
It was dissolved by Alexander the Great, 
but reorganised B.C. 280, and again dis- 
solved B.C. 147. The second of these 
leagues, founded at Megalopolis, con- 
tained all the chief cities of Peloponnesus. 
It contended with the Macedonians and 
the Romans for the liberty of Greece; 
but, being beaten at Scarphea by Metellus, 
and at Leucopetra by Mmnmius, it caved 
in soon after the taking of Corinth. 

The twelve cities of Achsea, in Ionia, wer 

founded by the Heraclldte. 

AchaB'an 'War {The). Roman am- 
bassadors at Corinth enjoin the dismem- 
berment of the Achaean League and 
are insulted (b.c. 147). Kritolaos, general 
of the league, at once besieged Heracleia 
(B.C. 146), but was defeated at Scarphea 



ACH^MENIDES 



ACT 



by Metellus, and slew himself. Diteos, 
successor of Kritolaos, was- defeated at 
Leucopetra by Munimius (b.c. 14G) ; 
Corinth was then destroyed ; and all 
Greece was erected into a Roman province, 
Sept. 146. 

Aelisemenides {Tlie\ also called 
Kai-anians, the sixth dynasty of Persia. 
The first four were fabulous, the fifth or 
Pishdadian dynasty was mythic, the sixth 
is semi-historic. It gave fourteen sove- 
reigns, and lasted 329 years (b.c. G60-331), 
when Persia fell tinder the Greeks. Seat 
of government IsjDahan. 

Kai-anians. Kai (mighty) cpJlcd by the Greeks 
Kur[os], and by the Latins Cyrus, grandson of 
Achaemenes. The founder was Kai-Kobad or 
Cyrus I. 

Pronounce Ak-ke-men'-e-deez. 

Acllilles [The English). John 
Talbot, first Earl of Shrewsbury, 1373- 
1453. 

The Duke of Wellington is represented by a 
statue of Achilles of gigantic size once in Hjde 
Park, London, close to Apsley House il7G9-18J-2j. 

Achilles {The Second). Dentatus, 
the Roman tribune. It is said that he 
slew at different times 300 of the enemy ; 
and when treacherously set upon by 
twenty-five of his countrymen, although, 
at the time, he was more than sixty years 
of age, he killed fourteen of them before 
he was slain. 

Achilles of Germany {The). 
Albrecht, elector of Brandenburg (1470- 
1487), was called the Achilles and also 
the Ulysses of Germany. He was the 
third son of Friedrich I., elector of 
Brandenburg. 

Achilles of^ome{The). Sicinius 
Dentatus (put to death B.C. 450). 

Achiropoetos. A picture of Christ 
and the Virgin made without human 
hands, i.e. miraculously (Greek, a-cheiro- 
poictos). One of the best known is the 
picture of Christ preserved in the church 
of St. Jolm of Lateran, at Rome. This 
picture is said to have been begun by St. 
Luke, and finished by angels ; a Catholic 
tradition. 

Pronounce A-ki'-ro-poe'-to3. 

Acil'ian Law (The). I. b.c. 197, by 
C. Acilius, tribune of the people, about 
planting colonies on the coast. 

II. B.C. 101, by the tribune M. Acilius 
Glabrio, respecting extortioix. 



Acolsrtes. Their original duties were 
to help the deacons or sub-deacons at 
the altar service, to prepare the wine 
and water for the communion, to light 
the lamps, to hold the candles, and to 
carry from place to place the consecrated 
elements. The word meant followers or 
attendants. These duties are now for 
the most part assigned to the sacristans. 

Pronounce Ak'-ko-lites. 

Acre-fight (An). A sort of duel by 
single combatants (English and Scotch) 
between the frontiers of the two king- 
doms. (Cowell, ' Institutiones &c.') 

Act for Uniformity {The), 1549 
(2, 3 Edw. VI. c. 1), meaning ' uniformity 
of public worship.' It commanded the 
adoption of the new Liturgy throughout 
the kingdom, in place of the Latin Mass 
Book. Those who neglected to comply 
were liable to imprisonment for six 
months for the first offence, loss of their 
benefices for the second offence, and 
imprisonment for life for the third offence. 

other Acts of Uniformity are 5, 6 Edw. VI. c. 1; 
1 Elxz. c. 2 ; 13, 14 Car. II. c. 4. 

Act in pais. A thing done out of 
court, and not a matter of record. {Pais 
is the French word ' pays,' meaning in 
old law oH Von suit le droit.) 

Act of Cura'tory (in Scotch law). 
Extracted by the clerk upon anyone's 
acceptance of being curator. 

Act of Explanation {The), 16G4. 
For the removal or modification of some 
of the most obnoxious clauses of the Act 
of Settlement in Ireland {q.v.). See 
'Magna Charta of the Protestants of 
Ireland.' 

Act of Grace {The), 1696. Provides 
maintenance for debtors imprisoned by 
their creditors (Scotch law). 

In England it is usually applied to insolvent 
acts and general pardons at the beginning of a new 
reign, or on some very special occasion. 

Act of Oblivion {The). 1. In 1653 
procured by Cromwell himself, abolishing 
the memory of all offences committed 
before the battle of Worcester. This 
act relieved the minds of royalists from 
the fear of further forfeitures. After the 
conspiracies of 1654 all who had ever 
borne arms for the king were decimated 
— that is, were fined one-tenth of all the 
estates then in their possossion th.e fins 



ACT 



ACT 



to be spent in recouping the state the 
expenses it had been put to by the royalist 
rebellions. 

II. In 1660 (12 Car. II. c. 11). In- 
demnity for treason and state offences 
committed between 1 January, 1637, and 
24 June, 1660. 

Act of Safety {The), 1789, in Swedish 
history. When Gustavus HI. was aban- 
doned by his nobles and chief military 
officers, he threw in his lot with the other 
three orders. These orders passed the 
Act of Safety, which conferred on the 
King of Sweden the same powers which 
are enjoyed by the English crown, viz. 
that of making peace and war. At the 
same time they granted him liberal sup- 
plies, and raised the army to 50,000 men. 

Act of Security (T/ie), 1704. Passed 
by the Scotch parliament in the reign of 
Queen Anne, to the effect that 'unless 
a satisfactory settlement of the rights, 
liberties, and independence of Scotland 
should be obtained in the course of the 
present reign, the Scotch parliament 
would, on the queen's decease, meet and 
name a successor different from the 
person who succeeded to the English 
throne.' This led to the Act of National 
Union, which was ultimately carried 
16 Jan., 1707. The first united parliament 
23 Oct., 1707. 

Act of Seppvration {The), 1848. 
A voluntary resignation of livings and 
professorships signed by 470 of the Scotch 
presbyters, who protested against any 
interference with the free choice of 
ministers by their respective congrega- 
tions. See ' Free Church of Scotland.' 

Act of Settlement {The). I. In 
1053 an Act for the settlement of Irish 
confiscated estates. All Irish landowners 
charged with participation in the massacre 
of 1641 {q.v.) were absolutely deprived of 
all their lands. Those who had taken 
part with Charles in the civil war were 
deprived of two-thirds of their estates. 
The rest was partitioned among three 
classes of claimants, viz. the soldiers 
who had been in service before Cromwell 
arrived — the adventurers who had ad- 
vanced money on the understanding that 
they were to be repaid in Irish land — 
and Cromwell's own army. A portion of 
Wiclclow and its vicinity was assigned 
to the first of these, nine counties were 



divided between the other two classes of 
claimants. Connaught was reserved for 
the Irish. The counties of Dublin, Kildare, 
Carlow, and Cork, with the lands of 
bishops, deans, and chapters, were kept at 
the disposal of parliament. One county 
was set aside for Cromwell himself. 

II. In 1G62 passed by the Irish parlia- 
ment. First, all the confiscated lands of 
Ireland were vested in the hands of King 
Charles II., and were then confirmed to 
the adventurers and soldiers to whom 
they had been granted. All officers in 
the king's service before 1649 were to re- 
ceive their arrears in land at the rate of 
12.S. 6^. in [he pound. Protestants and 
innocent Papists, whose estates had been 
given to adventurers, were to have those 
estates restored, and the present holders 
were to be granted lands elsewhere of 
equal value. Those who had joined the 
king in exile were in like manner to be 
restored to their estates, and the'present 
holders were to be ' reprised ' by other 
holdings. See ' Settlement, Act of.' 

When James II. landed in Ireland, one of his 
first acts was to abolish this Act of Settlement so 
as to displace the Protestant holders in favour of 
the Catholic claimants, 1689. 

Act of Succession {The). I. a.d. 
1534 (25 Hen. VIII. c. 22), ordaining that 
the succession should descend with the 
issue of Anne Boleyn ; thus setting 
aside Mary, the daughter of Katharine. 

II. In 1537 (28 Hen. VIII. c. 7), by 
which both the preceding marriages of 
the king were declared void, and both 
Mary and Elizabeth were illegitimatised, 
the succession being fixed on the issue 
of Jane Seymour. 

III. In 1701, whereby it was enacted 
that no Catholic should reign in England ; 
and the succession was settled in the 
House of Hanover. 

Act of Uniformity {The), 1661. 
An Act passed in the reign of Charles II. 
obliging all clergymen to subscribe to 
the Thirty-nine Articles, in order to 
secure uniformity of doctrine and disci- 
pline in the national religion. Upwards 
of 2,000 persons who had been ministers 
during the Commonwealth refused to 
subscribe, and either threw up their 
' livings ' or were ejected from them. 

Act of Union {The), 1648. French 
history. An agreement of all the parle- 
ments of France to stand fast by each 



ACT 



ACTA 



other, and not suffer one parlement to 
be favoured more than the others. This 
Act was made by the lawyers because 
Mazariu had proposed to keep back, for 
four years, the salaries of all the parle- 
ments except that of Paris. The object 
of Mazarin was to sow discord among 
the lawyers and then strip them of their 
prerogatives. This Act and the * Arret ' 
(q.v.) led to the Fronde war. 

Act of 1870 (The). On the education 
of the children of the labouring classes. 
This was the first legislative provision for 
public elementary education in England 
and Wales. The Act of 1876 made it com- 
pulsory for every child to receive elemen- 
tary education. 

Acts of 1848 {The). In Hungarian 
history. The Acts passed into law the 
Hungarian ideas of liberty, fraternity, 
and equality. They passed the Diet 
without opposition, and were proclaimed 
at Presburg, April 11, amidst the wildest 
enthusiasm, in the presence of Kaiser 
Ferdinand V. 

By these laws the privileges of the nobility were 
abolished, the soil was declared free, the right of 
free worship was accorded to all, liberty of tho 
press was granted, and Transylvauia was declared 
a part of tho mother-couutry. 

Acts and Opponencies abo- 
lished in the University of Cambridge, 
1839. They used to be held in Latin, 
and in syllogistic form. A proposition 
was stated, as a major premise ; a minor 
was added; and an inference drawn. 
The respondent denied one of the three. 
The opponent supported his proposition, 
which was again denied. This went on, say 
five times, and then the respondent stated 
the reasons of his denial. If satisfactory, 
the moderator complimented him with 
' bene disputasti,' or ' optime disputasti,' 
or * optime quidem disputasti.' If he 
argued badly or failed altogether, the 
moderator said * descendas,' and no 
degree was conferred on him. 

Acts of the Apostles. A book 

of the New Testament containing a re- 
cord of what was done by the apostles 
between the ascension of Christ and the 
first imprisonment at Rome of the apostle 
Paul. A part of it is supposed to have 
been written by Luke, the evangelist, 
and all of it to have been edited by him. 
Ilosenmiiller says it was written about 
L.T). 65. 



Acts of the Lords of the 

Council. Acts of committees of the 
Privy Council. If the sovereign is pre- 
sent the acts are called ' Orders in 
Council.' 

Acta, in ancient Rome, were public 
registers kept by actuaries. In these 
registers were officially entered the acts 
of the public assemblies ; the acts of the 
senate ; the judgments of the law courts ; 
the births, deaths, marriages, and di- 
vorces. Each register had its distinctive 
name, as Acta Populi, Acta Senatus, 
Acta Urbdna, and so on. 

Acta Diur'na. A gazette published 
daily in ancient Rome, both under the 
republic and the empire, containing an 
abstract of the proceedings of public 
assemblies and law courts, the punish- 
ment of offenders, public works, births, 
deaths, and marriages, and so on. Julius 
Cassar, B.C. 59, had the proceedings of 
the senate published in the Acta Diuma, 
but Augustus repealed this rule. It was 
not finally discontinued till A.D. 328. 
The ' Blue Book ' of old Rome has been 
appealed to by historians as of the highest 
authority (Suetonius, In CcBsarem, xx.). 

Acta Pilati. An apocrj^hal report 
of the crucifixion, said to have been sent 
by Pilate to Tiberius. See * Forgeries.' 

Acta Sancto'rum. Many folio vols., 
containing, in Latin, the lives of Christian 
saints, and based on the Acta Sincera 
of He'ribert Rosweyde, on which he had 
laboured for twenty years. He died 
1629, before it was printed. Father 
John Bolland (159G-1665) was entrusted 
with Rosweyde's collection, and associated 
with himself ten others, who brought 
down the work to 1753, in 32 folio vols. 
This ended series 1. 

In 1789 John Limpen and six others 
carried the work down to 1782, closing 
series 2. 

A 3rd series was begun after the dis- 
persion of the Jesuits, and five new vols. 
were added by Jolin Baptist Fonson with 
four assistants, bringing down the hagio- 
graphy to the year 1826, and completing 
the 53rd vol. 

In 1837 a new society of Bolland ists 
was organised under the sanction of the 
Belgian government, who brought tho 
«rork down to 1855. In 1875 the 61st 
rol. was published and others have beea 
added since. 



ACTE 



ADDITIONAL 



There is a French hagiography, called Les Pciits 
F.ollandhtes, in 17 large octavos, edited by Blgr. 
Paul Guerin, chamberlain to Leo XIII. Tlie 7th 
edition was published in 1880. This compilation 
contains hundreds ol lives not in the Latin books. 

Acte Additionnel. See 'Addi- 
tional Act,' 1815. 

Pronounce Act Ad-dis'-se-o-nel. 

Acte Constitutionnel {L'\ June 
24, 1793. Presented to the French nation 
by the Convention, and based on the 
' Rovereignty of the people and indivisi- 
bility of the Kej)ublic.' 

Pronounce Act Con-sti-tu'-se-o-nel. 

Ac'tiac "War (T/ie). This arose out 
of the rupture between Ootavian and 
Antony, two of the Triumvirs (b.c. S3). 
Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, 
queen of Egypt, and defeated Antony at 
Actium, 2 Sej)t., B.C. 31. Both Cleopatra 
and Antony killed themselves. Alex- 
andria was taken by Octavian Aug. 30 
(B.C. 33), and Egypt was made a Eoman 
province B.C. 80. 

Ae'tian Years. Years in which 
the games at Actium were celebrated. 
These games were held by the Romans 
once in five years, and were instituted 
B.C. 30 by Augustus. 

Aetiat'ic Era [The). This era be- 
gins from the battle of Actium, between 
Antony and Octavianus. The defeat of 
Antony made Octavian master of the 
Roman empire, 2 Sej)t., B.C. 31. 

The era of Augustus was later by four years 
than the Actiatic era. It began B.C. 27. 

Acton Burnel {The Sfattde of), 
12 Oct., 1283. So called from the place 
of its enactment. It gave creditors their 
remedy by what is called ' Statute-mer- 
chant,' i.e. a bond of record under the 
hand and seal of the debtor, authenti- 
cated by the king's seal. If the debtor 
failed to pay on the date assigned, execu- 
tion was summarily awarded. This was 
called Pocket Judgment (2 Edw. I.). 

The Statute of Acton Burnel is sometimes called 
the Statute of Merchants (Statutum Mervatorum). 

Adaman'tius. So Origen was called 
on account of his great perseverance and 
persistency (185-253). 

Ad'amites (3 syl.), or Adam'ians. 
A fanatical sect of the second century, 
which wanted to revert to the life of 
Adam and Eve before the Fall. They 
rejected marriage and went about naked. 



Ad'amites {The), or 'Brethren of 
the Free Spirit,' 15th and 16th cent. A 
religious sect that imitated Adam's 
nakedness before the fall, asserting that 
their redemption by Christ had restored 
their innocence. They met together quite 
naked to pray and preach, both men and 
women. This sect was propagated at 
Antwerp by one Tandemi, who drew after 
him 3000 followers ; and in Bohemia by 
one Picard (St. Augustine, De Hceres. et 
Isidor. book viii. c. 5). 

In Nolf.i and Querii's, Jan. 10, 1885, Is given an 
extract of a Camisard prophetess, who, on Nov. 16 
(no year stated, but about 1707), did strip quite 
nalred, and after the ceremony of the mass, ran 
to the High Altar of Lincoln's Inn Fields, and in 
' several strange and indecent postures . . . did 
hold forth in a powerful manner,' for about a 
quarter of an hour. 

Adams Prize {TJie). For pure 
mathematics, astronomy, &c. Value 80Z.; 
for any graduate of the University of 
Cambridge ; awarded every two years. 
Founded from a fund raised by members 
of St. John's College in honour of Mr. 
Adams, who first discovered the planet 
Neptune, in 1848. See ' Regius Proressor 
of Divinity.' 

Ad'amus Ma^is'ter, Adam of Bre- 
men, died 1076. He wrote a ' History of 
the Churches of Hamburg and Bremen ' 
(from 788 to 1072). 

Addenbrooke's Hospital. 120 

beds and a children's ward. Founded, 
in Cambridge, by John Addenbrooke, 
M.D., fellow of Catharine Hall, 1706, and 
further endowed in 1813. 

Pronounce Ad'-den-brook's. 

Addison {The American), Joseph 
Dennie (17G8-1812). 

Addison {The Spanish), Benedict 
Jerome Feyjoo (1701-1764). 

Addison of the ITorth., Henry 
Mackenzie, author of the ' Man of Feeling * 
(1745-1831). 

Addison's Disease. A bronzing of 

the skin which goes on till the patient 
assumes the appearance of a mulatto. 
It was first described by Dr. Thomas 
Addison of Guy's Hospital. 

Additional Act {An), 1815. So 
Napoleon called his new constitution, 
granting freedom of election for the re- 
presentatives, who were to be elected 
every five years, and to be paid stipends ; 
it also provided for juries, lor the right of 



ADDLE 



ADMIRAL 



petition, for freedom of worship, and for 
the inviolability of property. 

Published April 25, 1815, and accepted at the 
Champ de Mai, May 31, 1813. 

Addle Parliament {The). 5 April 
to 7 June, 1614. So called because it 
displayed a great spirit, pregnant with 
most momentous consequences, but did 
not pass one single bill. Its eggs were 
addled and produced no living creature. 
See ' Parliament.' 

It remonstrated, for example, Tvith the king 
(James I.) on his levying ' benevolences,' but 
passed no act to restrain or prevent the imposition 
in future. 

Addressers, 1759. A knot of Irish 
commercial men who addressed the 
British Govermnent for Catholic relief. 
The ' Address ' was drawn up 1 -y Charles 
O'Conor, signed by 400 citizens of 
Dublin, and presented to the Speaker. 
The Speaker took the Address ill silence, 
and the deputation retired. TJie Viceroy 
published it in the Dublin Gazette, the 
deputation was sent for again, and the 
Speaker thanked them for theil Address. 
This being the first recognitic-ii of the 
Catholics, forms a political epoch in the 
history of Ireland. 

In 17G0 the Catholics drew up an 
'Address' to King George III on his 
accession to the crown, praying for 
Catholic relief ; and in 1793 the Catholic 
Relief Bill received the royal assent. 

Adelantados Mayores, 1230. A 
new order of noLility created by Fer- 
nando III. of Castile and Leon, for the 
provinces of Spain, instead of counts and 
governors. 

Pronounce Ad'-e-lan-tah'-doze Mayor'-reez. 

Adel'phi {The). A secret society of 
Piedmont, sprung out of the Carbonari, 
after the unsuccessful outbreak of 
24 June, 1817. 

Adiaphoristic Controversy 

{Tlie), 1548. By what is called the 'In- 
terim ' {q.v.), Karl Y. allowed the cuj? to 
the laity, and the clergy to marry. The 
Protestant party called a conference at 
Leipsic to consider this concession, and 
voted that it might serve its purpose in 
things indifferent, but did not touch 
upon points which were really essential. 
This decision caused a si^lit in the 
Lutheran party, and the disputation 
which ensued between them was called 
the Adiaphoriatic Controversy, or the 



controversy upon what the Leipsic con- 
ference called matters of indifference or 
of no moment. Vestments formed part 
of the controversy, and the famous 
Hooper ' lifted up his voice against 
' Aaronical habits.' 

Greek, adiaphoros, indifferent. 

Ad'jutant-G-eneral. A military 
officer on the staff of the commander-in- 
chief, charged with all matters relating 
to the discipline and drill of the army. 

Adju'tators, or * Council of Adju- 
tators,' 28 April, 1647. Two delegates 
from each of the eleven parliamentary 
re;_;iments, summoned to a meeting at 
Triploe Heath, in lieu of the Council of 
Oflicers. This Council of Adjutatora 
settled all questions of pay, disbanding, 
officers, and so on. It was also called the 
' Council of Assistors ; ' and after their 
petition to Pai-liament (soon after the 
battle of Naseby), that Cromwell and his 
army should not be sent to Ireland, the 
Presbyterians called them the ' Council 
of Agitators,' which name they readily 
adopted. Charles I. addressed Cornet 
Joyce as ' Mr. Agitator Joyce,' when he 
came to remove him (the king) fi*om 
Holmby House. 

Ad'mirable {The), James Crichton, 
a Scotchman (1561-1582). 

Admirable Doctor {The), or ' The 
Wonderful Doctor,' Roger Bacon, fre- 
quently called 'Friar Bacon,' born near 
Ilchester, in Somersetshire. He was a 
Franciscan, and one of the most learned 
men that ever lived. So great his know- 
ledge, so numerous his discoveries, so 
wonderful his philosophical experiments, 
that he was condemned for necromancy 
by the Franciscan Council of Paris during 
his sojourn in France, and Poj^e Nicholas 
IV. commanded that he should be im- 
prisoned. He was accordingly incarce- 
rated at Paris from 1278 to 12S9. Being 
released he returned to Oxford, where he 
died. (1214-1294.) 

He has left several works behind him, which 
show a considerable acquaintance with the laws of 
mechanics, statics, optics, and the chemical pro- 
perties of bodies. He wa,s a good mathematician, 
and knew both Greek and Hebrew. 

Admiral. The title of the highest 
class of British naval officer. Called a 
' flag officer ' from being entitled to fly a 
flag when in command of a squadron. 
Admiiala formerly were distinguished by 



10 



ADMIRALTY 



ADRIANOPLE 



tl-e colour of their flag, whetlier red, 
white, or blue, but these distinctions were 
abolished in 1864, and the ensign of all 
admirals is now white. There are, how- 
ever, three grades, called admiral, vice- 
admiral, and rear-admiral. Admirals and 
vice-admirals must retire at the age of 
65, and rear-admirals at 60. 

The retiring pay of an admiral is 8501. per annum 
(30 years' service) ; half pay, 'Zl. 2s. a day. 

The retiring pay of a vice-admiral is 725Z. per 
annum (29 years' service); half pay, II. lis. 6(1. a day. 

The retiring pay of a rear-admiral is 600^ per 
annum (27 years' service) ; half pay II. 5s. a day. 

N.B.— Admirals of the fleet retire at the age of 
70, and their half pay is 31. 7«. a day. 

Admiralty Court (The), or 'High 
Court of Admiralty.' Erected by Edward 
III. about 1350. Held before the Lord 
High Admiral or his deputy. There used 
to be two courts, viz., the Instance Court, 
and the Prize Court. The former was a 
municipal tribunal for the determination 
of private injuries or private rights 
arising at sea, or intimately connected 
with maritime subjects. The latter de- 
cided all matters of capture, prizes, re- 
prisals, and so on, which were all sub- 
mitted to the Admiralty laws and the law 
of nations. The prize court was virtually 
abolished by 3, 4 Vict. c. 65, s. 22 (1840), 
and great changes were made in 1861 
and 1875. 

Admiralty Droits. Derelict ships 
and other property picked up at sea by 
British vessels, if not claimed. These 
perquisites were formerly claimed by the 
Lord High Admiral ; but by the Merchant 
Shipping Act (1854) are now placed under 
the control of the Board of Trade, by 
which all the proceeds are now paid into 
the public exchequer. 

Seizures of property belonging to an enemy in 
time of war are deemed droits of Admiralty. 

Admiralty Office {The), 1512. 
Instituted by Henry VIII.; business 
regulated by 2 "Will. IV. c. 40 (1832). 

Admonition of Parliament 

(The), or ' The Admonition to the Parlia- 
ment,' 1571, by certain puritans in the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, condemning 
everything in the Church of England 
not in accordance with Calvinism. This 
admonition condemned every rite and 
ceremony not expressly commanded in 
Scripture, and set at naught all general 
rules and church canons. 

The two fundamental principles of the Admoni- 
tion were these : (1) We ought to have the same 



kind of church government as that of the Apostolio 
times, to be g Uhered from Scripture, and Scrip- 
ture only. (2i Nothing used in the Church of Romo 
may in any wise be continued. Wilcox and Field, 
the supposed authors, were imprisoned. A second 
Admonition by Carter called forth a reply by 
Archbishop VVhitgift. 

Admonitionists [The), 1571. Cer- 
tain puritans in the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth, authors of the 'Admonition 
of Parliament ' {q.v.). 

Pronounce Ad-mo-nish'-shun-ists. 

Adop'tian Controversy (T^e). A 

controversy which arose in Spain in the 
8th cent., whether Jesus Christ was the 
Son of God by generation, or by adoption 
only. Elipand archbishop of Toledo, and 
Felix bishop of Urgel, maintained that 
Jesus Christ had two distinct natures, one 
divine and the other human. In his di- 
vine nature he is the Son of God by gen- 
eration, the ' only begotten of the Father ; ' 
but in his human nature he is the Son of 
God by adoption only (Rom. viii. 29). 
Alcuin took the orthodox side. Two syn- 
ods were convened on the subject : one 
at Ratisbon in 792, and the other at 
Frankfort m 794, m which Adoptianism 
was pronounced heretical. Duns Scotus 
and Durandus were Adoptianists. 

Adop'tianists {The). 'Adoptians,* 
or ' Adoptiani,' 8th cent. Spanish heretics 
who maintained that Christ was the Son 
of God only by adoption. This heresy was 
condemned at the Synod held at Frank- 
fort in A.D. 794. 

Ador'ni and Frego'si Contests 

{The), In Genoa, 1360-1527, contests 
between the two powerful families of 
Gabriele Adorno and Domenico da Fre- 
goso, who contended for the chief magis- 
tracy. Adorno was appointed doge and 
deposed, then Fregoso was appointed doge 
and deposed, and so it went on till 12 Sept. 
1527, when Andrea Doria gave Genoa a 
new constitution. 

Adrianites (4 syl.). Followers of 
Adrian Hamstedius (16th cent.). They 
held that the body of Christ was formed 
entirely of the substance of the Virgin 
mother. 

The followers of Simon Magus are also called 
Adrianites. 

Pronounce A'-dre-an-ites. 

Adrianople, Peace of {The), Sept. 
14, 1829. A treaty between Russia and Tur- 
key. The war preceding this treaty was 
the most disastrous in which Turkey had 



ADVENT 



-aSMILIAN 



n 



ever been engaged, and the treaty added 
large territories to Russia. It acquired 
Aniipa and Poti, with a considerable ex- 
tent of coast on the Black Sea, a portion 
of the pashalik of Akhilska, with the two 
fortresses of Akhilska and Akhilkillak, 
and in many other ways greatly weaken- 
ed Turkey. As Lord Aberdeen said in 
his despatch, it gave Russia the control of 
Asia Minor, and the keys to the Persian 
and Turkish provinces whenever she may 
choose to extend her conquests to Tehe- 
ran (Ta-rain) or to Constantinople. 

Advent Sundays. Instituted 5G7, 
by the Council of Tours, to coiximemorate 
the four Advents of Christ — 

1. His advent to Bethlehem, where He 
was born. 

2. His advent to Jerusalem, where He 
was crucified. 

3. His advent into man's heart when 
he believes and receives Him as a Saviour. 

4. His advent in the clouds when He 
comes to judge the world. See ' Sun- 
days.' 

Adventure Bay (S.E. of Tas- 
mania). So called by Captain Furneaux, 
from the ship Adventure in which he 
Bailed, 1773. 

Adventurers. 1. 1641-1650, persons 
who had adventured money for the re- 
duction of Ireland during the rebellion. 
Those who adventured 200Z. were to have 
1,000 acres in Ulster. Those who adven- 
tured 'SOOZ. were to have 1,000 acres in 
Connaught. Those who subscribed 450Z. 
were to have 1,000 acres in Munster, and 
those who subscribed 600Z. were to have 
1,000 acres in Leinster. 

II. 1652, those soldiers who had served 
in Ireland since the landing of Cromwell 
in 1G49, and were entitled to a share of 
the lands in lieu of their arrears of pay. 

Adversity Hume. Joseph Hume, 
M.P. (1777-1855). So called because he 
was for ever presagin t the ruin of Great 
Britain. ' Prosperity Robinson, M.P., just 
before the commercial crisis of l!-i25, 
boasted that the country was never in a 
moi'e prosperous condition. Cobbett gave 
Robinson his sobriquet, and that of Hume 
followed naturally. 

Advocate {Lord). About 1500, the 
principal public prosecutor in Scotland. 
lie is assisted by a solicitor-general and 



four junior counsel (termed 'advocates 
depute '). Virtually he is secretary of 
state for Scotland. 

Pronounce Ad'-vo-kate. 

Advocates' Library (The), Edin- 
burgh, 1682. By the copyright law of 1709 
it obtained the privilege of receiving gra- 
tuitously a copy of every new book. This 
magnificent library belongs to the Faculty 
of Advocates {q.v.), and was established 
by Sir George Mackenzie. 

It contains about 170,000 books, and of course the 
number increases every year. 

Advoca'tus Diab'oll. One ap- 

pointed to advance every conceivable 
reason why a person whose name is sub- 
mitted for canonisation should not be ad- 
mitted into the calendar of the saints. 

Advo wson (' Advocatio '). The right 
of presentation to a living. Advowsons 
were originally vested in those laymen 
who were founders or benefactors of liv- 
ings ; but at the dissolution of the mon- 
asteries in the reign of Henry VIII. liv- 
ings were given to laymen who took the 
tithes and appointed vicars to represent 
the patrons. These vicars were paid 
stipends, generally ' the small tithes.' By 
sales the right of presentation to livings 
has passed into private hands. 

^gine'tan Standard (T/ie). That 
is, the standard of weights and measures 
used in the island of iEgina, and intro- 
duced into Greece by Periander of Corinth 
(B.C. 665, 625-585). 

A, E, I, O, IT. The five vowels, 
adopted by Fricdrich III., second of the 
Habsburg dynasty,f or the imperial device: 
Austria Est Imperare Orbi Universe (or 
Imperatura). In German : Alles Erdreich 
1st Oesterreich Unterthan. 

In isr.fi, after the seven-weeks' war with Prussia, 
Austria was denuded of Germany, and in 1870 the 
king of Prussia became the emperor of Germany. 
Then the famous anagram might have been in- 
scribed on the conqueror's banners, Austria's 
Empire Is Overthrown Utterly. 

iS'lian and Fuf ian La-w (The), 
B.C. 156, in ancient Rome, empowering 
magistrates to preventer dissolve comitia 
when the auspices were unpropitious. 

-Elian Sen'tian Law (The), b.c. S, 
regulating the manumission of slaves. 

^mil'ian Laws(T7ie). These were 
(1) the law by Mamevcus .^i^miliuSj dicta- 



12 



CHILIAN 



^TOLIAN 



tor of Rome, to shorten the censors' term 
of office, B.C. 434. 

And (2) the sumptuary laws of Marcus 
^miHus (Scaurus), relative co the kind 
and quantity of food to be set on table at 
entertainments, B.C. 115. 

^mil'lan Road (T^e), between 
Bononia (Bologna) and Placeutia; made 
by Marcus ^milius Lepidus, the consul, 
B.C. 187. It was a continuation of the 
Flaminian Way. 

.Slolian Poets. See ' Lesbian Poets.' 

.ffio'lians {The) had for their posses- 
sion the plain land of Thessaly, with 
Phocis, Boeotia, part of Peloponnesus [i.e. 
Arcadia and the parts near), and their 
colony in Asia Minor. 

In Asia Minor they founded Lesbos, Smyrna, and 
iElis. 

-Sol'ic Migration [The). In the 
mythic period of Greek history. Accord- 
ing to mythic history, ^olos was the 
eldest son of Hellen and grandson of 
Deucalion. He spread his ancestral name 
through the greater part of northern 
Greece and along the western coast of the 
peninsula. In the 11th cent. B.C. some of 
them migrated to Asia Minor, where they 
founded, on the north-west coast, above 
thirty cities. They were ultimately ab- 
sorbed in the Eoman Empire. 

.ZEIra or A.E.-R.A, Annus Erat (or 
Est) Regni Augusti. The Spaniards began 
their dates from the advent of the reign 
of Augustus, the Roman Emperor. See 
'Era.' 

Ae'rians or 'Aeria'ni.' A religious 
sect, founded by Aerius, a priest, in the 4th 
cent. In doctrine they corresponded with 
the Arians, but they also maintained that 
all priests are bishops. Their great ' he- 
resy,' however, was forbidding masses for 
the dead. 

Pronounce A-e-ri-ah'-ne. 

Aeroliths or Aerolites. 

Pronounce Air'-ro-lites, 

B.C. 654, a shower of stones fell on the Alban 
Mount (Lwy). 

B.C. 467, a great stone fell at JEgospotami, on the 
Hellespont (Parian Chronicle). Pliny says it was 
about the size of a waggon. 

A.D. 1402, Nov. 7, a ponderous stone, weighing 
250 lbs., fell from the sky near the town of Ensis- 
heim, in Upper Alsace. A part of it is still preser- 
ved in the parish church. The Emperor jNIaximi- 
lian witnessed the fall of this meteor, and had the 
Btono placed in tlie church to prove that ' God in- 
sit>ted on a crusade against the Turks.' 



A.D. 1510 there was a great fall of meteors ia 
Lombardy, some fiO lbs. in weight, and some aa 
much as 120 lbs. They were of a rusty colour. 

A.D. Iii27, Nov. 27, a stone weighing 59 Iba. fell on 
Mount Vassier, in Provence. This is attested by 
Gassendi. 

AD. 17)1, May 26. Two masses fell at Agram, in 
Sclavonia, one weighing K! lbs. and the other 71 lbs. 
The analysis of these stones by Klaproth is pre- 
served in the Vienna museum (95 parts are iron, 3 
nickel). 

A.D. 1803, April 26. A shower of stones fell near 
L'Aigle. M. Biot was deputed by the French Go- 
vernment to repair to the spot and report on the 
phenomenon. Between 2,000 and 3,000 stones had 
fallen, the largest being 17 lbs. in weight. 

A.D. 1807, March 18. A stone fell at Smolensk, in 
Russia, weighing 100 lbs. It was black and shiny. 

A.D. 1813, Sept. 10. A stone, weighing 17 lbs., fell in 
the county of Limerick, at 10 o'clock in the morn- 
ing. 

A.D. 1815, Feb. 15. A stone weighing 25 lbs. fell 
in the town of Dooralla, in British India. The 
Indians consecrated it in a temple, and approach 
it with reverence and clasped hands. 

A.D. 1822, June 2, Sunday, 3 o'clock p.m. I mysr! t 
saw an aerolith fall at Gislingliam, Suffolk, lb 
made a deep hole in the earth about 3 yards from 
a wheat stack. It then bounded off in an opposite 
direction to the stack and burst. It fell with a 
tremendous noise, like crashing thunder. I was 
too young at the lime to search tor pieces, and not 
a little terrified. The window I was sitting at was 
some 20 yards oil. 

In the Imperial Museum of St. Petersburg is an 
immense mass. The fall was witnessed by Pallas 
in Siberia. 

The largest aerolith known is one which fell in 
Brazil. It is estimated to weigh 14,000 lbs. 

A.D. 1887. An aeroUth fell near St. Joseph, in the 
West Indies. It weighs 2 tons (i.e. 2,280 lbs.), and 
buried itself in the earth between 15 and 18 feet. 

J. Norman Lockyer says, the number of meteors 
which fall daily to the earth ' exceeds twenty-one 
minions.'— A'ivieteeni/i Century (Nov. 1889, p. 787). 

^schylos [The French). Prosper de 
Cre'billon (1G74-1762), noted for his power 
in dej)icting rage and terror. His plays 
are ' Xerxes,' ' Semiramis,' ' Electra,* 
' Pyrrhus,' and ' Catiline.' 

Pronounce Eas'-ki-lua. 

.ffito'lian Confederacy {The), b.c. 
323, called into existence by the Lamian 
war {q.v.). The states used to assemble 
annually in the autumn at Thermum, and 
the assembly was called the Panaetolicon. 
B.C. 189 the Jiltolian States were subjected 
to the Romans. 

The object of the Lamian war was (on the death 
of Alexander the Great) to liberate Greece from 
Macedonia. The Athenians were the principal 
insurgents, but were defeated in 322 at Cranon, by 
Antipater. 

.Sto'lian League {The). iEtolia 
joined the Greek confederates in the 
Lamian War B.C. 313, but the .^tolian 
League rose into no great prominence till 
the Macedonian War (e.g. 214), when 
SjDarta joined it, and it became the anta- 
gonist of the Achtean League, which sided 
with Philip V. of Macedon. It was the 
ui) wise policy of the -lEtolian League which 
made Rome master of Greece. 



AFFSHARS 



AGAMEMNON 



13 



The .5:tolian Confederacy included JEtolia, 
Acarnania, part of Xhebsaly.Locris, and the island 
of Cephalonia. 

Affsliars {The). An eastern tribe 
known by the celebrated Nadir-shah, who 
received the crown of Persia on condition 
that he would compel the people to aban- 
don the doctrines of the Sophi, and re- 
ceive those of the Sonnee. After a reign 
of 11 years he was assassinated. 

Afghan {Treaty of), 1881. A secret 
treaty between Rvissia and the amir of 
Afghanistan. Russia on her side engaged 
to be the perpetual friend of the amir, to 
recognise the successor appointed by the 
amir, and to assist the amir against any 
of his foes, if such assistance was required 
(the English were meant). The amir, on 
his part, engaged not to wage any war 
without permission from Russia, and to 
keep Russia well informed of whatever 
took place within the kingdom of Afghan- 
istan. 

Afghan "War {The). A diplomatic 
contest between France and Russia in- 
duced Dost Mohammed of Cabul to invite 
the friendship of Great Britain in 1836. 
This led to a diplomatic contest between 
Great Britain and Russia respecting 
Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed joined 
Persia, and war was proclaimed against 
him at Simla by Lord Auckland, gover- 
nor-general of India, 1 Oct., 1838. Dost 
Mohammed gave himself up at Cabul to 
SirW. MacNaghten, 3 Nov., 1840; but 
his son Akbar Khan completely outwitted 
General Elphinstone and the envoy. Sir 
William MacNaghten, both of whom were 
treacherously put to death. Negotiations 
for quitting Cabul were purposely de- 
layed till winter had set in ; and then the 
whole British force, which, with women 
and children, amounted to 20,000 souls, 
were as treacherously destroyed in the 
Khyber Pass, 1842. 

No event in British history is more deplorable 
than this. The total Incompetency of such men as 
General Elphinstone and Sir Willi? m MacNagliten 
so demoralised the soldiers under them, that 
every Englishman is ashamed of the miserable 
fiasco in which was not one single redeeming 
■ trait. Dost Mohammed and Alcbar Khan, no doubt, 
were villains, but our 'leaders' actuallj invited 
treasonable dealings. 

African Methodist Episcopal 
Church {The), 1816, seceded in Phila- 
delphia under Richard Allen. They are 
coloured Methodists. 

African Paris {The). Algiers. 



African "War {The). The first 
African war was undertaken by the 
Romans for the restoration of Hiempsal 
to the throne of Numantia. Alieno- 
boj-bus, the leader of the Marian party 
in Africa, had dethroned him, but Cneiua 
Pompey slew Ahenobarbus, and restored 
Hiempsal B.C. 81. 

The second African war was between 
Ctesar and Scipio, B.C. 46. Csesar defeated 
the party of Pompey at Thapsus, in Africa, 
and thus put an end to the civil war. 

The third African war was undertaken 
by the Romans against Tacfarinas, a 
Numidian, in the reign of Tiberius. 
Tacfarinas, having collected a large gang 
of freebooters, defied for some years the 
Roman arms in Numidia, but was ulti- 
mately overthrown and slain by Dola- 
bella, A.D. 17-24. 

The fourth African war was between 
the Romans and Vandals in A.frica. The 
Vandals under Genseric took possession 
of the Roman dominions in Africa, and 
continued masters for 105 years (a.d. 
429-534). Belisarius was sent into Africa 
by the emperor Justinian to win back 
the African dominions, and he utterly 
overthrew the Vandals, took Carthage in 
533, and I'eturned to Rome in triumph in 
the autumn of the year following, a.d. 534. 

Africa'nus. Three of the Scipios 
were so called from their African con- 
quests: (1) Publius Cornelius Scipio 
Africanus Major, B.C. 234-183 ; (2) Pub- 
lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, his elder 
son; and (3) Lucius Cornelius Scipio 
Africanus, younger brother of No. 2. 

Africa'nus {The Arabian). Akbar 
Khan (7th cent.). 

Africa'nus cf New Eome {The). 
Belisarius, Roman general in the reign 
of Justinian (505-565). He is called 
' The Third Africanus.' 

If the three Scipios were all called Africanus, 
Belisarius v.as the fourth, not the third. 

Aftas'ides (3 syl.). A dj-nasty 
founded by Abdallah ben al Aftas about 
1030 ; overthrown 26 Feb., 1094. 

Agamemnon, Menela'os. Atreus 
had two sons — Plisthenes and Thyestes. 

(Thyestes usurped the throne of Argos). 

PlisthenOs had two sons — Agameirmon 
and Menelaos. 

Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, daughter of 
Tyndiiros. 

JUeiiulaos married Helen, sister of Clytemnestra^ 



14 



AGAP^ 



AGITATOE 



The two brothers married two sisters. 
Both the wives were false. Clytemnestra 
became the mistress of the regent 
.^gisthos, and Helen eloped with Paris, 
son of Priam king of Troy. 

Ag'apse. Originally love feasts, in 
which contributions for the poor brethren 
were made. These feasts were held after 
the communion service. Afterwards, 
they were degraded into wakes, toi)k the 
place of the heathen Parentalin, and 
were held at the tombs of relatives or 
'saints.' Great efforts were mude to 
abolish these unseemly gatherinj,s, but 
they continued even into the 13th cent. 

Enjoined by the council of Gangra, A.D. 340 ; 
forbidden by the council of Laodicca in 366; by 
the council of Carthago in .S97 ; by the council of 
Orleans in 533 ; and by the council of Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 816. The last mention of them is in 
1250. 

Agapein'one (The abode of love), in 
Somersetshire, 1848. Founded by Henry 
James Prince and a Mr. Starkey, and 
hence the members are called Princeites, 
Starkeyites, and Agapemonians. The 
object of this abode is perpetual joy. 
Pain and grief, sorrow and sickness 
should be banished from the abode. 
The Princeites are taught perfect resig- 
nation, and Prince himself tells us, ' He 
has no wish, no desire, no will of his own 
at all.' See * Princeites.' 

Agapemo'nians {The)', Agape- 
mo'llianism.. The Agapemonians are 
those who dwell in Agapemone, and 
Agapemonianism is their special views, 
social, moral, and religious. 

Agape'taa, 3rd cent. Certain ascetics 
who lived together as man and wife, but 
preserved a life of celibacy. St. Cyprian 
(200-258) condemned the practice, and 
the church generally did the same, 
though several of these Agapetse are en- 
rolled among the saints, as Cecilia and 
Valerian, Gombert and Bertha, Injurieux 
and Scholastica, Jeanne Marie de Maille 
and Robert de Sillery, Julian and 
Basilissa, Thierry and his wife, &c. 

Du Cange says (vol. i. p. 129, col. 1): So called, 
'quod cum mulieribus ac virginibus, quas donii 
Bub niiapctarxtm seu dilectarum appellatione deti- 
nebant, prava commercia habere dicerentur.' 

Age of Leo X. {The), 1513-1521. A 
proverbial phrase for magnificence and 
high art. Leo X. was a great patron of 
learning and art, and his court was mag- 
nificent in the highest degree. 



Agents of Captain Right. See 

under ' Whiteboys.' 

Ages. The Golden Age, a mythical 
period when the earth brought forth 
spontaneously, and the gods held con- 
verse with men. 

The Silver Age, the second period, 
when the gods taught men the useful arts. 

The Age of Bronze, the third or transi- 
tion period, semi-historical. The age of 
heroes. It followed the ' Stone Age ' {q-v.). 

The Iron Age, the historic period, when 
wars abound, and man earns his food by 
labour. 

The Wire Age, the present age of tele- 
graphs and telephones. 

Aggregate Bodies, 1785. Irish 

volunteers in favour of free trade, and 
the extension of the franchise to the 
people at large. Some of them adopted 
the American fashion of tarring and 
feathering their victims ; and some, call- 
ing themselves 'houghers,' deliberately 
maimed their victims, especially the 
soldiers. The introduction of the ques- 
tion of Catholic disabilities broke up the 
associations. As Plow den says, ' at night 
they existed with all their attributes of 
power . . . but on the following day the 
room of their assembly was shut, their 
colours waved no more, their uniform 
was no longer seen in the streets, and the 
body was disbanded.' See 'Irish Asso- 
ciations.' 

Ag'idae {Dynasty of the), b.c. 1058- 
219. One of the dynasties of Sparta; the 
other was the dynasty of the Proclidae. 
They were contemporaneous. The former 
was founded by Agis, son of Eurysthen>s ; 
and the latter by Procles, son of 
Aristodemos. These dynastic kings were 
followed in B.C. 219 by the 'Tyrants,' 
viz. — Lycurgos, 219; Machanidas, 210; 
and Nabis, 216. 

Agiosemandrum. A wooden 
instrument used in Christian churches 
in Turkey instead of a bell ; because the 
use of bells in Turkey is forbidden. 

Greek atjios senmino, meaning the holy (service) 
caller. Incorrectly, but generally spelt sy. 
Pronounce Ag'gi-os'sy-man'-drum. 

Agitator {The). Daniel O'Connell 
(1775-1847). He began agitating for the 
Repeal of the Union in 1842, and the 
'Monster Meeting' was held in 1843. 
He was arrested for sedition and con- 



AGITATOES 



AGEICULTUEE 



victed, but the judgment was reversed 
by the House of Lords (1844), 

Agitators {The). The committee 
appomted in 1647 to mcanage the 
affairs of the army when it formed a 
separate body in the state. The com- 
mittee consisted of two of the superior 
officers of each of the eleven parha- 
mentary regiments. The secret object 
of the council was to get possession of 
the person of the king (Charles I.), and 
withdraw him from the power of the 
Parliament. Cornet Joyce was one of 
these agitators, and, at the head of fifty 
horse, actually took possession of the 
king at Holmby House. The real appel- 
lation of this committee was the Council 
of Adjutators or Assistors, but the Pres- 
byterians nicknamed them the Council 
of Agitators, which they readily adopted. 

Ag'labites (3 syl.). Califs of Kair- 
wan, so called from Ibrahim ibn el 
Aglab, who was invested with the 
government by Harun al Easchid, a.d. 
800. He made himself independent in 
802, a,nd founded the dynasty of the 
Aglabites. 

Succeeded by Abu I'Abbas (811) ; Ziadet Allah 
(81»: Abu Akkal (827); Abdul Abbas (837); Abu 
Ishak Ibrahim (874) ; Abd ul Abhas II., murdered 
by his son and successor, Ziadet Allah (90C) ; 
dynasty overthrown a.d. 909. 

Ag'noites or ' Agnoitse ' (3 syl.). I. 
A.D. 370, followers of Theophronius the 
Cappadocian, who denied the omniscience 
of God. 

II. A.D. 535, followers of Themistius, 
deacon of Alexandria, who denied that 
Christ knew the time of the day of judg- 
ment. 'Of that day and that hour 
knoweth no man, no, not the angels 
which are in heaven, neither the Son, 
but the Father [only].' (Mark xiii. 32.) 
They die out before 700. 
_Du Cange says (vol. i. p. 137, col. 1) 'quod novis- 
Biinam horam Christo, etiam quoad divinam ejus 
naturam, ignotam esse arbitrarentur." 

Agnos'tic {An), 1885. One who 
maintains that there are subjects wholly 
beyond the scope of human thought ; not 
subjects now unknown, but subjects 
actually unknowable. On the other 
hand, an agnostic repudiates the belief 
that there are propositions which men 
ought to believe without such logical 
evidence. 

Agnosticism. The faith of an 
agno.'itic. The refusal to say that we 



know or believe what we have no scien- 
tific or experimental grounds for profess- 
ing to believe or know. 

Agnostics are not atheists, because they believe 
the question of Gods existence unfathomable, 
ana the question of his non-existence equally so 
Man, they say, has no means of knowing either 
the one or the other. Human knowledge cannot 
go beyond human observation and experience 
I he term 'agnostic' was introduced by Professor 
Maxley in 1809 at a private meeting preliminarv to 
the formation of the IMetaphysical Society. Plato 
said, ' Speculations about the gods are speculations 
of man respecting the gods.' 

Agonalia. A Eoman festival held 
several times a year in honour of the 
guardian deities of the state. So called 
from Agonius, the god who presided 
over business. (Ovid, Fasti i. 331.) 

Agrarian Agitation, b.c. 480. 
The great Eoman agrarian agitation 
was set on foot by Spurius Cassius, who 
had been three times consul. To win 
popular favour, he told the people that 
the senate ought to give an account of 
the land taken from the Volsci, which 
ought to have been equally divided 
amongst the whole people irrespective of 
rank. The senate, to allay the popular 
clamour, promised to give the matter 
their best consideration, but arrested 
Cassius and hurled him from the Tar- 
peian rock. Things went on till B.C. 
464, when Herdonius the Sabine got pos- 
session of the Capitol. Then the senate 
promised to pass an agrarian law, if the 
people would eject the invaders. The 
invaders were expelled, but it was not 
till B.C. 365 that Licinius Stole, the 
plebeian tribune, got a law passed mak- 
ing it penal for anyone to hold more than 
500 acres of the public lands. 

Agreement of the People {The), 
1G47. A paper drawn up by the Levellers 
and presented to the Council of Agitators 
or Adjutators, for the abolition of kings 
and lords ; biennial parliaments with six- 
monthly sessions ; a widely-extended 
franchise, and a more equal distribution 
of representation. See ' Lilburue.' 

'Biennial parliaments with six-monthly ses- 
sions means the parliament was to meet for six 
montlis every two years, the other eighteen 
montiis were to be wholly under the control of 
the Executive Council. In 1649 Colonel John 
Lilburne objected to this clause, and said it was 
not agreed to by the people at all. 

Agriculture. 

The Board of Agriculture was incorporated in 
17' 13, and dissolved in 1816. 

The Report of Children's Employment Commis- 
sion on Agricultural Gangs was puWished in lsi;7, 
and their employment was regulated by Act oJ 
Parliament tho same year. 



16 



AGEICULTUEAL 



ALABAMA 



The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester was 
chartered in 1845, and opened in 1841). 

Tihe Ttoyal AoriruUural Socieij was incorporated 
by charter in 1840. 

The Scotch Society, called ' Improvers of Agri- 
culture in Scotland,' was established in 1723. 

Minister of Agriculture appointed 1889. 

Agricultural Protection So- 
ciety of Great Britain [The)^ 
17 Feb., 1844. Founded in opposition 
to the Anti-Corn-Law League to advocate 
protection in opposition to free trade. 

Agrippa. Son of Aristobulus, who 
was the son of Herod the Great and his 
second wife Mariamne the Asmonean. 
It was this gi-andson of Herod the Great 
who was made king by Caligula. He 
slew James the apostle. His son, also 
named Agrippa, went with his sister 
Berenice to hear Paul's defence. 

Ahab of the 3^3"ation {The). 
Charles I. was so called by the Levellers. 

Aids. Sums to be paid by the tenant 
to ransom his lord if taken prisoner, or 
to make his lord's eldest son a knight, or 
to dower at marriage the lord's eldest 
daughter. Subsequently aids were ex- 
acted to pay a lord's debts, or to enable 
a lord to pay aids to his own superior 
lord. Of course, those who held imme- 
diately of the king could never be called 
upon for this last-named contribution. 
Introduced by William the Conqueror, 
and abolished by 12 Car. 11, c. 24. 

Ainaly-Cavak {Treaty of), Jan. 
8, 1784, between Turkey and Russia, 
whereby the Ottoman Porte abandoned 
the Crimea and Kuban to Russia. 

Ainslie's Supper, 1566. A supper 
given at Ainslie's tavern in Edinburgh 
by the Earl of Bothwell, at the rising of 
parliament, to its leading members. 
After the banquet Bothwell informed his 
guests that he was about to marry the 
widowed Queen Mary ; and drawing forth 
a bond, he induced them to sign their 
full and entire approval of the alliance, 
although at the time he was married to 
Jane Gordon. 

The tavern itself was afterwards called ' Ains- 
lie's Supper.' 

Aix-la-Chapelle {Congress of), 
from 14 Feb. to 24 Nov., 1818. To settle 
the affairs of Europe after the restora- 
tion of the Bourbons. 

Aix-la-Chapelle {Convention of), 
30 Nov., 1818. For the evacuation of 
France by the Allies. It was signed by 



the plenipotentiaries Oct. 9, and ratified 
by France Oct. 13. 

Aix-la-Cha,pelle (Peace o/), 2 May, 
16G8. Between Louis XIV. and Carlos II. 
respecting the Spanish Netherlands. 

Aix-la-Chapelle {Treaty of), 1748. 
Between George II., Louis XV., Maria 
Theresa of Austria, Ferdinand VI., 
Charles Emmanuel III., the Republic of 
Genoa, and the United Provinces. 
Signed by England, France, and the 
United Provinces, 18 Oct. ; by Spain, 
20 Oct. ; by Austria, 23 Oct. ; by Modena, 
25 Oct. ; by Genoa, 28 Oct. ; by Sardinia 
7 Nov. (1748). It was a mere truce 
forced on the signatories by sheer ex- 
haustion. France still contemplated the 
humiliation of England ; the ' Family 
Compact' was still maintained; Maria 
Theresa had still designs on Silesia. 
In 1755 a league was secretly formed 
between Russia, Spain, Austria, and 
France for the renewal of war on the 
first favourable occasion ; and, in 1750, 
the ' Seven Years War ' began. 

Ajax of the East {The). Leo, 
appointed by the eunuch Eutropius to 
the command of the Asiatic army ; called 
the Ajax of the East from the bulk of his 
body and the dulness of his mind. He 
was originally a wool-comber. 

Akerman, in Bessarabia {Treaty 
of), 26 Oct. (4 Sept.), 1826. Between 
Russia and Turkey, placing Moldavia, 
Valachia, and Servia under the protec- 
tion of Russia. This was to secure the 
fulfilment of the treaty of Bucharest. 

Akh'shidites (3 syl.). An Egyptian 
dynasty, generally called ' The dynasty of 
the Ikhshidites,' founded by Abu Bekr 
Mohammed Akhshid, or Ikhshid, a.d. 936. 
The dynasty was overthrown in 970 by 
the Fatimite general Goher. 

Alabama. An American state, so 
named, in 1817, from its principal river. 
The river was so called by the Indians 
in allusion to the well-stocked hunting- 
grounds. The name is properly that 
of an Indian band, or tribe, of the 
Muscogee stock. 

Pronounce Al'-a-bah'-mah. 

Alaba'ma {The). A vessel built by 
Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead, and known 
as ' No. 290.' On 31 July, 1862, it sailed 
surreptitiously from the Mersey and pro- 



ALABAMA 



ALBERT 



17 



ceeded to Terceira, one of the Western 
islands, where she was supplied with 
guns, coals, and stores by a vessel sent 
from London for the puri^ose. Captain 
Semmes then took charge of her, named 
her the ' Alabama,' and hoisted the Con- 
federate flag. She committed great 
damage to the American shipping, cap- 
turing 65 vessels, and destroying property 
to the amount of four million dollars; 
but in JiTne 1864 she was sunk near 
Cherbourg by the United States steamer 
'Kearsage.' In 1871 it was agreed to 
refer the question to five arbitrators, 
who were to decide if the English Govern- 
ment were responsible, and if so, what 
fine was to be paid by England for the 
damage done to the United States of 
North America. 

Alaba'ma Claims {The), 1868. A 
money demand made by the United 
States of America on Great Britain for 
damage done by a corvette named the 
' Alabama,' and built at Birkenhead for 
the Confederates, who were at war with 
the United States. The British Govern- 
ment, which had declared itself a neutral 
power, had forbidden the corvette to leave 
the docks ; but, notwithstanding this pro- 
hibition, it put to sea, displaying a British 
flag, and succeeded in destroying 65 of the 
United States vessels ; but in 1864 it en- 
countered the ' Kearsage ' off Cherbourg, 
and was sunk. After the war, the United 
States demanded compensation, and five 
arbitrators met at Geneva to consider the 
question in 1872. The sentence of these 
arbitrators was to award damages to the 
amount of 3,250,000?., with interest in 
settlement of the American claims. The 
money was duly paid, and a large surplus 
remained in the hands of the American 
Government after all recognised claims 
had been paid in full. See ' Alexandra.' 
The arbitrators were the king of Italy, the 
President of the Swiss Contederation, the Emperor 
of Brazil, a representative of Great Britain, and 
another of the United States. 

Alba Comiti'va. A free company 
of English, also called ' Les Tards Venus,' 
q.v. 

Alban Hall (St.), Oxford, 1549; 
founded by Robert de St. Alban. The 
head of the Hall is called the principal. 

Al'bany or Albyn. The ancient 
name of Scotland ; a corrupt spelling of 
Albanigh, connected with the word J-Zj^s, 



and meaning hilly or mountainous. The 
Romans called the south part Caledonia. 
The west, now called Argyllshire, was 
colonised by the Scoti of Ulster, and these 
Irish Scots, in the time of their chief, 
Kenneth Macalpine, having conquered 
the Picts who occupied the eastern parts^ 
added that portion to his dominion, and 
called the two Scot-land (q.v.). 

Allbany, New York, North America. 
So called in honour of James, duke of 
York and Albany (afterwards James IT.), 
to whom Charles II. gave the proprietor- 
ship of the colony. 

Alba'ti (The), 1399. A class of her- 
mits who dressed in white linen. Pope 
Boniface IX. fancied their leader aimed 
at his deposition, and put him to death. 

Albe or Albane'ser. Lord Byron 
was so called. A correspondent in ' Notes 
and Queries' (March 28, 1887, p. 425) 
says : ' Madame Cottin wrote a romance 
entitled " Claire d'Albe." This romance 
was well known to Shelley, who induced 
his first wife to translate it. into English.' 
May not the intimacy between Claire and 
Byron have suggested the application of 
Aibe to Lord Byron ? 

Mr. Forman suggests L-B CLord Byron). Others 
fancy it is a contraction of Albemarle (Street), 
the place of business of Murray, his lordship's 
publisher. 

Albert I. (Albrecht I.). One of the 

promiscuous kings of Germany (124.S, 
1298-1308), son of Rudolf I. of Habsburg. 
In this reign is placed the tale of William 
Tell. 

Albert (Albrecht) II. Founder of 
the present line of Austrian emperors, 
and first of the House of Habsburg (1394, 
1438-1439), son. of Albert IV., duke of 
Austria, and son-in-law of Siegmund, 
the preceding kaiser-king. He was sur- 
named 'the Illustrious,' 'the Magna- 
nimous,' and ' the Grave,' but reigned 
Q-nlj about a year and a half. Like his 
next two successors, Frederick III. and 
i\. aximilian, he died of dysentery brought 
on by eating too freely of melon. 

Albert (Albrecht) the Bear, so called 
bet^ause his cognisance was a bear. He 
was a fine tall fellow with a quick eye, 
and so well featured that he was familiarly 
called 'the handsome.' He was the 
first margrifoi Brandenburg (1106-1 170). 

C 



18 



ALBERTUS 



a.lexa:^der 



Albert the Bear died the same year as 
Thomas Becket did. 

Albertus Magnus (11PS-1'2S0\ 
bishop of Ratisbou. A marvellous man, 
whose literary works cover '21 folio vo- 
lumes. Thomas Aquinas was his pupil. 
He made a speiiking h:'ad of brass, and 
his knowledge of chemistry was ascribed 
to the black art. He was the founder of 
the Second Age of Scholastic Philosophy, 
or the Aristotelian school. 

Albigen'ses (Th^), llth and 12th 
cent. Reformers or ' heretics ' of mid- 
France, so called from Albi or Albigia, 
where their tenets were first condemned, 
in 1176. They were defended by Count 
Ravmond of Toulouse. Roger viscount 
of Beziers, and the Counts of Fois and 
of Be'arn. Alexander III. exoommuui- 
Ciited them iu 1179, and Innocent III. 
organised a crusade against tliem in 
1204. It is said that eO.LX'>0 were mas- 
si\cred in 1209. Another crusade against 
them was set on foot in 1219. 

The Waldenses shouki not be confounded -with 
the Albigenses, although ni;uiy of their rel\S"ous 
views were the same ; but the WaHciises ro^e in 
the i^th cent, under the teaching of Claudius of 
Turin. The peculiar faith of tlie Albigejises was 
that God the Father created the first matter : but 
the Evil Principle arranged it and stamped evory 
created thing with all their present forms and 
attributes. 

Albieen'ses {Wars with the). The 
first. 12iil>-1229. set on foot by Philippe 
Auguste of France. The second, 1226, 
prompted by Pope Honorius HI. and set 
on foot by Louis VIH., called the Lion. 
The third, 1545-1547, set on foot by 
Francois I. of France. In the last war 
John, baron of Oppido, cut them off root 
and branch. 

Alcacebas {Treaty of). Between 
Isabella of Castile and" Alfonso V. of 
Portugal ; signed at Alcacebas, in Estre- 
madura, Sept. 24, 1479. 

Alcan'tara {Knights of), 1212. A 
Spanish order, so called by Alfonso IX., 
king of Castile, ftom the city of Alcan- 
tara. It was founded in 1156 by Don 
Suarez and Don Gomez, but called by 
them ' Knights of the Peai--tree ' ; which 
was changed in 1176 by San Julian del 
Pereyro into ' Knights of San Julian.' 

Alcibi'ades of Germany {The). 
Albrecht, margraf of Bairouth (1522- 
1555). 



Aldermen. Since tlie Municipal 
Corporations Act (<7.r.) in 1S35, one 
third of the councillors are elected alder- 
men, but they are not eligible for the 
offices of coroner or recorder, and aro 
exempted from serving on juries. They 
hold office for six yeiurs, one-half going 
out every three years. 

Since 1S89 aldermen are chosen by the 
new organisation called the County 
Council ((7-v.), and hold office for six 
years in the Council. The councillors 
are in oftice for tliree years only, and are 
elected like members of parliament. 

Aldine Editions. A series of 
books published by Aldo ^laniazio (Aldus 
Manutius^ between 1490 and 1597. 
During this j>eriod 90S books, chiefly 
Greek and Latin classics, with carefully 
corrected texts of Boccaccio, Dante, 
Petrarch, and other Italian authors, were 
issued. Aldo was the first to use tlie 
Italian type. His mark is an anchor 
entwined by a dolphin. Pickering, a 
London publisher, published an edition 
of the British poets, which he called the 
Aldine (2 syl.). 

Aldrich'ian Professorships 

{Tht'). One for anatomy, one for the 
practice of medicine, and one for chemis- 
trv, in the Universitv of Oxford, founded 
by George Aldrich, M.D., in 1798. 

That for anatomy is now annexed to the Linacre 
professorship of physiology ; that for the pr;\ctice- 
of medicine is attiiched to the Kegius professor- 
ship of medicine ; and that of chemistry is in- 
corporated with the Wayuliete professorship of 
chemistry. 

Ale-conner. A judge of ale, an an- 
nual office of great antiquity, appointed 
in the court leet of each manor. His 
duty was to taste the ale and beer, and 
decide if they were wholesome, sound, 
and sold at a proper price. Ale-conners 
were called Gu^tatores cervim<B. 

Alexander {The EngJish). Henry 
V. (,1388. 1413-1422). He resembled 
Alexander in the shortness and glory of 
his reign, his princely liberality, his en- 
joyment of life, his great military talents, 
and his wonderful hold on the hearts 
of the people over whom he reigned 
or whom as a general he commanded. 
Captain Fluellen would j-iut it thus : 
Alexander was born at Macedon and 
Henry V. was born at Monmouth, and 
both begin with M. 



ALEXANDER 



ALEXANDRINE 



ID 



Alexander {The Second). Sandjar 
or Mog-Efldyn-Sandjar, third son of 
Malek Shah, king of Persia (1118-1175). 
He was called Sandjar from the place of 
his birth, but his proper name was Abou'l 
Hareth Moez Eddyn. 

Alexander-Newski {Knights of), 
1725. A Russian military order. Cor- 
don, a flame or poppy colour. 

Alexander's Wine. A celebrated 
poison, so called from Rodriguez Borgia, 
historically known as Pope Alexander 
VL, traditionally said to have been killed 
by drinking one of the Borgia poisons, in 
a bowl of wine intended for another 
person. 

Alexandra {The). A screw-steamej" 
seized, 1863, by the government at Liver- 
pool, during the civil war of America, 
under suspicion of its being a Confede- 
rate vessel (England had declared itself 
neutral in the war). The case was tried 
in the Court of Exchequer, and judgment 
given against the government. An ap- 
peal was made to the House of Lords, 
and the previous judgment being con- 
firmed, the vessel was restored to the 
owners in April 1864. See ' Alabama.' 

Alexan'drian Codex. A manu- 
script in Greek of the entire Bible written 
on parchment, and now in the British 
Museum. It is in uncial letters, without 
accents, and without spaces between the 
words. The probable date is about a.d. 
500, or a little before. It belonged (in 
101)8) to the patriarch of Alexandria, and 
in 1621 was taken to Constantinople by 
Cyrillus Lucaris, the patriarch. The 
patriarch gave it to Charles I., king of 
England, in 1628, and it was placed in 
the Royal Library'. It was transferred 
to the British Museum in 1753. See 
• Bibles.' 

There are two other Greek MSS., one the Codex 
Vaticanus, in Rome, and the other an imperfect 
copy called the Sinaitic Codex, in St. Petersburg. 
The Alexandrian Codex contains the epistles of 
Clemens Romanus, a third and fourth book of the 
Maccabees, the epistle of Athanasius to Marcel- 
Uqus, a hymn to the Virgin, &c. 

Alexan'drian Era {The). Dates 
creation Aug. 29, B.C. 5502. 

This must not be confounded with the Era of 
Alexander, Nov. 12, 824. See under ' Era." 

Alexan'drian Library {The). 
This magnificent museum and library 
was begun, B.C. 204, by Ptolemy Soter, 



and completed by his son, Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus. It was in the quarter of Alex- 
andria called Bruchion, and contained 
700,000 volumes. It was burnt in the 
siege of Alexandria by Julius Csesar, but 
partially restored and again destroyed by 
Theophilus, a fanatical Christian bishop, 
by order of the Emperor Theodosius. We 
are told that the library contained a copy 
of every known literary work in the 
civilised world, whether Egyptian, Jewish, 
Greek, Latin, Phcenician, Punic, Chaldee, 
Syriac, or Persian. 

According to Abdallatif a230), Amrou, A.D. 640, 
burnt the library, saying: 'If the books contain 
truth, they are needless, being mere repetitions 
of the blessed Koran ; if not, they are mischievouB, 
and better destroyed.' 

Alexan'drian Massacre {The), 

A.D. 215. When Caracalla, the Roman 
emperor, visited Alexandria, the people 
made some allusion to his flagitious 
crimes and to those of his mother ; upon 
which he ordered a general massacre of 
all the inhabitants. Many, especially of 
the Christians, escaped by flight, but 
the slaughter was immense, especially 
of young men of military age. See 
' Massacres.' 

Alexan'drian School {The). It 
may be divided into two periods : Th.e 
first, or Ptolemoean period (from B.C. 32o- 
30), was given to mathematics and poetry; 
the former unrivalled, the latter little 
better than mathematical verse, perfect 
in anatomy, but without a living soul. 
The second period (from B.C. 30 to a.d. 
640, the fall of the Ptolemsean dynasty 
to the irruption of the Arabs) was the 
philosophic period. The introduction of 
Christianity produced the systems of 
Neo-Platouism and Gnosticism. The 
former was a fusion of Christian doctrines 
and dogmas with the ideas of Plato, the 
chief exponent of which was Philo the 
Jew ; the Gnostic school dipped into the 
religious tenets of Origen and other 
fathers of the Church. The dogmas of 
the Logos and the Trinity are ascribed 
by many to Alexandrian influence. 

Alexan'drine MS. {The) of the 
Bible. See ' Codex Alexandrlnus.' 

Alexan'drine Platonism. The 

philosophic system of Plato applied to 
the Christian system. Platonism led to 
mysticism, the Aristotelian philosophy 
led to sophistry and disputation. In the 
middle ages the Alexandrine Platonism, 
C2 



20 



ALEXANDKINB 



ALL SCULS 



matured in Asia, adopted in the Greek 
Church, and afterwards introduced into 
the Western Church, produced much 
mischief. Joannes Scotus, surnamed 
'Erigena,' was the reviver of mystic 
theology. 

Erigena divides nature into four classes: (1) 
tliat which creates and is not created ; (2) that 
•which is created and creates ; (3) tliat wh.ch is 
created and does not create ; and (4) that which 
neither creates nor is created. 

Alexan'drine T^ar [TJie). The 
war between Cfesar and Pompey, from 
August, B.C. 48 to Januar f , B.C. 47. After 
the d(^feat of Pompey at Pharsalia, Cesar 
pursued him into Egypt, where Pompey 
was assassinated. Cesar tlien ph\ced 
Cleopatra and her younger brother on the 
throne of Egypt, and the war was over. 

Alexan'drists. Disciples of Alexan- 
der of Aphrodisia, a peripatetic philo- 
sopher (2nd cent. B.C.). He was an expo- 
nent of Aristotle, and has left comments 
on nearly all Aristotle's works. The 
Alexandrists in the 12th Christian century 
were combated by the Averroists (q.v.), 
and for a time there were two antago- 
nistic and concurrent sects called the 
Alexandrists and the Averroists. 

Alex'ians, or ' Brethren and Sisters 
of Alexius.' Lollards, who rose at 
Antwerp, about 1300, and were admitted 
by Sixtus IV. among the religious orders 
in 1472. Also called CeUites {q.v^, and 
Matemans. Kecognised by Pius IX. in 
1870. See ' Monastic . . . Orders.' 

Alfonsi'nas. The Alfon'sine tables 
of astronomy (1252), in which Alfonso X., 
' the Astronomer,' corrected some of the 
errors of the Ptolemaic system. The 
king was assisted in this work by Isaac 
Hazan, a Jewish rabbi. It would be more 
correct to say that these tables were con- 
structed by the order and under the 
patronage of Alfonso by Isaac Hazan, 
assisted by Christian and Arabian savants 
united at Toledo. See ' Ilkanian and Eu- 
dolfine Tables.' 

These tables recognise what was called the 
Trepidation,' of Ptolemy's system. This was a 
mere cabalistic mystery, and has not the smallest 
foundation in any scientific observation. Milton 
makes Satan, in his way to earth, 
Pass the planets seven ; and pass the fixed [stars] ; 
And that crystallin sphere, whose balance weighs 
The Trepidation talked [of] ; and that first moved 
[primum mobile]. — Paiddisc Lost, iii. 481, &c. 

It was Alfonso X. who (puzzled over the intri- 
cacies of cycles and epicycles), exclaimed, ' What 
fb muddle ! 1 could have done creation better.' 

Alfonsine Tables (T/ie). (See above. 



Alfonso the MagnanimoTis. 

Alfonso V. of Aragon (1385, 1410-1458), 
by far the most accomplished sovereign 
of the 15th cent. 

Algerine Act {The), 1881. So 
Daniel O'Connell called the prohibition 
of holding political meetings in Ireland. 

The time at which he (O'Connell) should have 
been called up for judgment did not arrive till 
within a month or two of the expiration of tho 
statute under which he was convicted, and which 
he called the ' Algerine Act.'— Personal Recollection 
of Lord Cloncurry, pp. 418-421. 

Pronounce Al'-je-reen'. 

Algon'quin Tongue {The). The 
language of the native north-east 
Americans, dialects of which are spoken 
over the greater portions of eastern 
North America. 

Mr. A.. Gatschet, after a careful study of what 
remains of the Beothuk language, has cometotha 
conclusion that it belongs to ' a separate linguistic 
family to the Innuit, Tinne, Iroquois, and Algon- 
kin.'— Lady Blake, Nineteenth Century (Dec. 18S3, 
p. 905). 

AlhamTDra of the Crimea {The). 

Aloupka, built of rich greenstone, in 
various colours ; the Gothic and Saracenic 
being the prevailing orders of the archi- 
tecture. 

Alien Acts {The). 33 Geo. III. c. 4, 
Jan. 4, 1793, and 34 Geo. III. c. 43, 67, 
&c., A.D. 1794, were passed on account of 
the great number of foreigners who cama 
to England in the years 1792, 1798. The 
object of these acts was to confer on the 
crown the power of banishing aliens from 
the realm. These acts were superseded 
by the Peace Alien Act, 6 Will. IV. c. 11, 
A.D. 1836, which required the masters of 
ships arriving from a foreign port to 
declare the number of foreign passengers 
on their bills, and also required each pas- 
senger on landing to show his passport. 
As no penalty is attached to non-com- 
pliance, the provisions soon fell into 
neglect. 

By the Junian Law, B.C. 126, all aliens were 
banished from Rome. In 122 the law was extended 
to Latins and Italiots. 

All Saints' Day, Nov. 1. In com- 
memoration of all the dead who have 
' died in the Lord,' especially those for 
whom no special day has been appointed. 
Called also ' All Hallows,' and, in French, 
'La Toussaint.' These terms were, in 
830, substituted by Gregory IV. for the 
previous one of A.1 Martyrs.' 

All Souls College, Oxford, 1437. 
Founded by Henry Chichele, archbishop 



ALL SOULS 



ALMOHADES 



21 



of Canterbury. The head-master is 
called the Warden. 

All Souls Day. ' Festa Animarum,' 
Nov. 2, in commemoration of all the dead. 
It was instituted by Odilon, abbot of 
Clugny, in 998. Till. 1582 it was ob- 
served in Milan on the third Monday cf 
October. 

■ilso called 'Animarum Commemoratlo,' or 
' Omnium Fidelium Commemoratlo ' ; in French, 
' Trepasses ' (or Jour des Trcpasses). 

All the Hacks, 1807-1809. An 

imbecile ministry which succeeded the 
bungling parliament called, in ridicule, 
'All the Talents.' The Duke of Port- 
land was premier, and his chief supporters 
were Perceval, Castlereagh, Canning, 
and Hawkesbury (Lord Liverpool). The 
duke died Oct. 30, 1809. 

All the Talents {Administration 
of), 5 Feb., 1806, to 23 March, 1807 
Formed by Lord Grenville after the death 
of Pitt (Jan. 23, 1806). It consisted of 
Lord Auckland (President of the Board 
of Trade), Lane Barham, duke of Bed- 
ford (Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland), Erskine 
(Lord Chancellor), Sir Gilbert Elliot 
[Lord Minto] (President of the Board of 
Trade), Lord Ellenborough (Chief Justice 
of the King's Bench), General Fitzgerald 
(Secretary of War), Earl Fitzwilliam 
(Secretary of War), Charles James Fox 
(Foreign Secretary), Lord Grenville 
(First Lord of the Treasury), Earl Grey 
(Lord of the Admiralty), Earl of Moira 
(Master-General of Ordnance), Lord 
Henry Petty (Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer), Pigott (Attorney - General), 
Eomilly (Solicitor-General), Lord Sid- 
mouth (Privy Seal), Lord Spencer (Secre- 
tary for the Home Department), Lord 
Temple (Vice-President of the Board of 
Trade), Windham (Secretary for the 
Colonies). N.B. — Canning was not a 
member of this ministry. 

Alleluiat'ica (Victoria), 30 March, 
A.D. 430. A legendary victory won by 
St. Germanus over the Picts and Saxons 
at Mold. 

Alliteration. 

C. — Hamconius wrote a poem in which 
every word begins with C. It opens 
thus : — 

Certamen Catholicntn cum Calvinistis 

Hucbald wrote a poem of 100 lines, 



every word of which begins also with C. 
The last two lines are : — 

Conveniet claras claustris componere cannas, 
Completur Claris carmen cantabile calvis. 

M. — In the * Materia More Magistralis ' 
every word begins with M. 

P. — Placentius, the Dominican (16th 
cent.) wrote a poem containing 253 Latin 
hexameters, and entitled ' Pugna Por- 
corum,' every word of which begins with 
P. It opens thus : — 

Plaudite, porcelli ; porcorum pigra propago 
Progreditur . . . 

T. — Tusser has a poem of 12 lines in 
rhJ^ne, on Thrift, every word of which 
begins with T. 

The alliterative poem beginning * An 
Austrian army awfully arrayed ' contains 
26 lines. Each line in succession begins 
with one letter in alphabetical order. See 
' Reader's Handbook,' p. 719. 

The distich on Cardinal Wolsey is not 
so well known : — 

Begot by butchers, but by bishops bred, 

How high his Honour holds his haughty head. 

Allo'dia, or ' allodial lands.' Free- 
holds, that is lands held without the re- 
quirement of military service. In times 
of trouble it was by no means unusual 
for such a tenant to place his lands under 
a lord, and pay him military service for 
protection. See ' Mesne lord.' 

Almack's. A suite of assembly 
rooms, built in 1765, in King Street, 
St. James's, London, by a tavern-keeper 
named M'Call, who inverted the two 
syllables of his name, Mac-call, into All- 
mack or Almack. The rooms became 
famous for fashionable balls under the 
management of a committee of ladies of 
the highest rank. The rooms are now 
called Willis's Rooms, from a proprietor 
named Willis. 

Al'magest. The Arabic translation 
of Ptolemy's ' Magna Constructio,' by 
command of Al Mamiin, a.d. 827. It 
was retranslated by Gerard of Cremona, 
about 1230. Ptolemy's ' Sjoitaxis of As- 
tronomy ' was written about a.d. 150. 

Almiran'te (-EZ), without the adjunct 
of a proper name, means Columbus. 

So El Marchese, among Mexicans, means Cortes ; 
and II Segretario, among the Florentines, means 
Machiavel. 

Al'mohades (3 syl.). A dynasty 
that ruled in Africa and Spain in the 



22 



ALMORAH 



AMBOISE 



12th and ISth cent. TLe word means 
' The Unitarians,' and they assumed that 
they alone of all the earth worshipped 
God properly. The founder of the sect 
was Mahommed Ibn Toumert, of the 
Atlas region. The power of the Mohades 
was destroyed in Spain in 1257 and in 
Africa in 1269. (Mohades, 2 syh) 

Almo'rah, in Hindustan (Co»ue7i:'207i 
of), 27 April, 1815, for the cession of 
Kumaon to the British. 

Almo'ravides (4 syl.). A dynasty 
in Africa and Spain founded by Yahia 
Ibn Ibrahim about 1050 ; driven out of 
Spain in 1155; suppressed in Africa 1208. 
The word Almoravides is a corruption 
of *A1 Morabeth' (the frontier people). 
Called in English the Marabuts. 

The founder is sometimes called Abdallah Ibn 
Ya&im, •who undertook to instruct the tribes on 
the slopes of the Atlas range in the Mahometan 
taith. 

Alog'ians {The), or ' Al'ogi.' 2nd 
cent. Those who denied the divinity of 
the Logos, and rejected the Gospel of 
St. John with the Apocalypse. (Greek, 
d, negative, Aoyos, the word.) 

Alom.l)rados [The). Religious sect- 
aries of Spain first mentioned in 1575, 
suppressed by the Inquisition in l(i23. 
They were an early school of the lUumi- 
nati. 

Alphonsine Tables. See ' Alfon- 
Bine ' lire. 

Altenberg, in Hungary (Congress 
of), 12-28 Sept., 1809. For the negotiation 
of peace between France and Austria. 

Alter ego. Is an official title origin- 
ally in use in the Two Sicilies, meaning 
the vicar-general of the king, to whom was 
deputed sovereign power. The French 
lieutenant-general of the kingdom was 
a similar officer. 

It is now used to signify a vary dear friend, a 
' second self.' 

Altmark, in Prussia {Truce of), 26 
Sept., 1628. Between Gustavus Adolphus 
of Sweden and Sigismund of Poland, for 
six years. 

Extended to 26 years Sept. 12, 1635. 

Altona, in Holstein {Convention of), 
20 June, 1689. Between Christian V. of 
Denmark and Christian Albert of Hol- 
stein-Gottorp. by the mediation of the 
kaiser. (Al'-to-nah.) 



Amal ( The). The chief or king of the 
Goths. The Amals, or ' sons of Odin,' 
were a race of heroes who reigned over 
the Goths in the 5th and 6th Christian 
centuries. The word means celestials — 
Amal'aric, or rather Amalric, one of this 
race, means ' the celestial king.' Theo- 
dorick the Great was an Amal. Kingsley 
in his ' Hypatia ' frequently uses the word. 

Amalflan Code {The), or ' Tabula 
Amalphitilua.* A code of maritime laws 
compiled by the Amalfians in the 11th 
cent., and observed by all Italy. 

Amazo'nian Brigade {The), 1792. 
The dames de la Halle and the women of 
the Faubourg St.-Antoine enrolled them- 
selves into this brigade in the French 
Revolution. Their head-dress was a hoii- 
net-rouge, or red night-cap, with a tri- 
colour cockade, and their arms were pikes. 

Amazons. Runjeet Singh of La- 
hore formed a regiment of 150 of the 
prettiest girls in Cashmere, Persia, and 
the Punjab. They were magnificently 
dressed, armed with bows and arrows, and 
appeared on horseback as cavalry. This 
regiment was more for the amusement of 
the maharajah than for war service. 

Anibarva'lia, a festival in which the 
Romans, in solenm procession, prayed for 
their fields and increase of corn. {Ain^ 
round about, a7*ra = the fields.) 

It was the day of the ' little ' or private Ambar- 
vaha, celebrated by a single family for the -welfare 
of all belonging to it ; as the great college of the 
Arval brothers at Rome officiated in the interest 
of the whole city. — Patee, Marius the Epicurean, 
chap. i. 

Arnb er Witch ( The) . A literary for- 
gery, professing to be a * story of the 
olden time.' "VSTien it first ajipeared the 
great scholars of Germany applied severe 
tests of historical and philological criti- 
cism to the work, and declared it to be 
an undoubted relic of antiquity. Even 
those acute neologists, the Tiibingen Re- 
viewers, found it ' hoary with the lapse of 
centuries.' When the wise ones had fully 
committed themselves, Dr. Reinhold came 
forward and proved beyond a doubt that 
he was himself the author. See ' Literary 
Forgeries.' 

Amboise {Conspiracy of), 1560. 
Formed by the partisans of the Prince of 
Conde, to carry off Francois 11., and to 
massacre the Guises, who had removed 
from Paris to Amboise when they gained 



AMBOISB 



AMEKICAN 



23 



secret information of the conspiracy. 
Called the Conspiracy of Amboise because 
the conspirators assembled there to carry 
out their purposes. It was betrayed to 
the Duke de Guise, and 27 barons, 11 
counts, and 7 marquises were executed 
in one day. 

Pronounce Ahm-bwoiz. 

Amboise {Edict of), 19 March, 1563. 
It gave to the Huguenots free exercise of 
religion in those towns which were in the 
power of the Calvinists at the date of 
7 March, 15G3 ; permission to the lords 
hauts justiciers to hold assemblies 
throughout the whole extent of their do- 
mains ; permission to the nobles of the 
second rank to celebrate their worship in 
their own houses, but only for their house- 
hold ; finally, permission in each baili- 
wick pertaining directly to the parle- 
ments for a single place of worship. To 
all other persons it accorded only the 
right of private worship. See ' Edict of 
January.' 

Amboise, in France {Treaty of), 
12 March, 1503. Concluding the ' Eelieious 
War ' (15G2-G3) ; signed by Charles IX. of 
France. 

Am.boy'na {The Massacre of), 1624. 
The Dutch laid claim to all the Spice 
Islands in the Indian Archipelago. In 
one of these (Amboyna) the English East 
India Company had established, in 1612, 
a small settlement at Cambello. In the 
whole island there were some 20 English, 
80 Japanese, and 200 Dutch. The Dutch 
pretended that the English and Japanese 
had combined to expel them from the 
island, so they seized Captain Tower son, 
with 9 other Englishmen, 9 Japanese, and 
1 Portuguese, and, after torturing them, 
cut off their heads. See ' Massacres.' 

Ambro'sian Chant, or 'Hymn,' 
called ' Ambrosianum,' mentioned by 
Isidore in his ' De Eccl. Offic' Book I. c. G. 
It was a chant or hymn introduced into 
the church at Milan in the 4th cent., 
now known as the ' Te Deum laudamus,' 
said, as we now have it, to have been the 
joint work of St. Ambrose and St. Augus- 
tine. 

Ambro'sian Library {The), at 

Milan, founded by Cardinal FAderigo 
Borromeo in 1G02, and plundered by 
Napoleon in 1796. The plunder was re- 
stored in 1816. So named in honour of 
St. Ambrosias, patron saint of Milan. 



N.B. St. Ambrose was Bishop of Milan, 
A.D. 374-397. 

Ambro'sian Liturgy, ' Missal,' 
' Office.' So called from being edited and 
supplemented by St. Ambrose, bishop of 
Milan (340, 374-397). This liturgy is one 
of the most ancient ; and must, of course, 
have been in use before the time of St. 
Ambrose. This is called the Liturgy of 
Milan, and is one of the chief liturgies of 
the Roman Church, the other three being 
the Roman, the Gallican, and the Spanish 
Liturgies. 

Ambro'sian Mass, * Missa Ani- 
brosiana.' Used at Milan, according to 
the service employed by St. Ambrose. 

Am'brosin. A coin of the middle 
ages, struck by the dukes of Milan, on 
which St. Ambrose was represented on 
horseback, with a whip in his right hand. 

Amedieu (2 syl.), or 'Friends of 
God,' 1400. A religious congregation who 
wore no breeches, but a grej"^ cloak girded 
at the loins with a rope. Pius V. united 
them to the Cistercians and Soccolanti. 

Amen Corner, London. Before the 
Reformation the clergy used to walk in 
procession every year on Corpus Christi 
day to St. Paul's Cathedral. They mus- 
tered at the upper end of Cheapside, and 
there commenced chanting the Pater- 
noster, which continued through ' Pater- 
noster Row ' ; at the end of the Row they 
said Avien, and the spot was called 
* Amen Corner.' They then began the 
Ave Maria, turning down ' Ave-Maria 
Lane.' After crossing Ludgate, they 
chanted the Credo in' Creed Lane ' (which 
no longer exists). 

Corpus Christi Day, called in French the ' Fete 
Dieu,' is tlie Tliursday after Trinity Sunday ; it waa 
the greatest Church festival in the year. 

American — 

Academy of Arts and Sciences, incorporated by the 
legislature of Massachusetts, 1780. 

Academy of Fine Arts, founded at New York, 1808. 

Antiquarian Society, incorporated by the legisla- 
ture of Massachusetts, lsl2. 

Anti-Slavery Society, formed 1833. 

Association for Uie Advancevient of Science, projeo* 
ted at Boston, 1847. 

Bible Society, founded in New York, 1816. 

Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, insti- 
tuted 1810. 

Colonisation Society, founded at Washington, 1816. 

Company (of Russia) for carrying on the fur trade 
with the north-west coast of America, incorpor- 
ated 179!). 

Philosophical Society, originated by Franklin, 1713li 

Temperance Society, t ^niied at Boston 1826. 

Tract Society, institubba at Boston 1811. 



24 



AMERICAN 



AMIENS 



American Cato (Tl^\ Old S>jumiel 

psiriotic part hi tbe Air.; .lion. 

aiid xras g^oT^mor of M,s-> ^ 

Anierican Pabius il'nf\ O^ot^ 

American Land League {Th^\ 

l<-<^2 A branch of the Iris^h • Lsxid 

I , - rresssed the ssnieyeAT. The 

1 . ■w-a* reorcanised into the 

".-■eAgne' i.^.r.). S^' 'Irish 

American Post&gre Stamps 
(T/i.t'1. Each denciiiiiiation of «ainp 
co.iitAins & diSeTexit head. There are 
twelve denoniinationsv and twelve beads 
of American worthier 

J p.- -- - •=^.-^ - •-.- - — 

a. Ar -tV 

&. C. .«ntV 

6. A 



of Lcxin^om w*s fc«cyS»t 1? April. ITvT^ atnd tJia 
cv.'tss.-i ;:,--■ ,-■ v.-sv":': :,> ^>-"■.^. c^Tvst r;ritJ».in ■«-«*. l»y 
cr,\ .-rocJA-iuisya in th« 

A: 
y i-v>i^T»^?«>n<* of tl»« 

rv. ~ - .-. in :rr^ ; Hoii*»d 

or. 

i » proTisjca&l oonip*ct ^rith 

At. ". 'jsi : ».TiTsou7><.>«i to rskjlj*a»«n*, 

5 v. , >. .utilities ceart-si 30 Jan., 17SS. 

Tbe iriLiiii '..r-jcp* ex^acti-^* New York, 3? Kov.: 

Kztox took possos&ioa of the town. 

American \^aT {Th^ SW'ow^ 
lSl*2-lSli. The American War of Inde- 
j>?.ndence t<^nniuated in 17SS, The 
ssecond war between America and Great 
Britain was declared by the Unitt^i 
States. Jitne IS, 1S1:2. and c<\nclnded 
Dec, 24. 1S14, by the Pe^ct? of Ghent. 
The chieX battles were : (Ccij:>iMU, Eni?- 
lish victories ; «><37tV, AmericAn victorie^ 

St v> rvvvv \ --. -. ...-V, .. ... losi. 

-^ r.fcVt. 

r - ■. -Vet. lii^ 



American War of Indepen- 
dence Ih/.. 17T.>-17SS. Tlie first skir- 
mish w.^s at Lt^\:-:ictor.. IP April. 1775 ; 
issv;e doT.btfnl. but tir.iniwrtAnt.. Ter- 
r.v>.-.,^t<?d by the PeAoe of Versailles. 
&:c-;k d at Paris S Sept., 17SS. The olv 

ject of the ^ * - -lalte the United 

StAte.s of A -.■en dent of Eng- 

land. The ._ > of the war are 

sill ;\"hied- iiioSi u:. .:, 7ww<t»j tyj^e were 
acul :ful. Those in i:i:'i7-cf were won by 
V •,--,— -^.--c Those in Ciij:''-^*!-^''* ^ere 



--e OTex Washrr>£!t«a>, 
Tv-on t'TT lord Ko^ei. 



i i. ■.> r^rw IKE, U Sep., 1777 vHc-ws over Wasiiis^. 

Sr.V.xt-at^r. IP Sfp^. 1777 : *2sd 6 Oct., 1777. 

> ■.■.^',-1 :~~7 <>*t.i=« over Ba .-goyneX 

"«', 2? Jaa., 17> 0«-an by 

.•r..,17SQ. 
- Morpajj over Tark-tonV 

C-. .r.y.r, Ic I>.;i:rch, IJSl iComT«iallis over 

H.': IntK Hn.T., SB Apiil, 17S1 ilU-wdoa over 

i-...Atr' -Spriag. ? Sept.. 17=1 (rf».iT»«»d by .^mold-i 
:i , . iikit, l;* Oct. 17S1 iW «»sliiii^<oa over Coir»- 

liie wax lasted eifbt rears to a day. Tbe b&ttle 



. ,-: :-. crar.d 

r,$Ton by sarprjs*, : - n«a 

. .. s baa^cet. tivosf .' - -;4.) 

Aia.erican Civil Wax ,r,.< . iScSl- 
ISt^?, Between the Federals of tlie 
Northern States and the Confederates of 
tiie Sonthem and slave-holding StAJeiS. 
The total loss of life was ScWOOO, The 
Federals were the victors, and American 
slaveholdiiig ttas abolished. Cost of the 
war, to the' Federals, iHO.OL>0.0007> ster- 
lin^; to the Confederates, 460,000,0001. 
Total, l.iOO.OOO.OOO;. sterling. 

Ami du Peuple [L\ A scandalous 
democratic journal conducted by lMa.ra4 
in the French Ke volution. Its articles 
were most ferocious, and no one was 
spared except the very scum of the 
people. The original name of this in- 
famous joumid was the 'Publiciste 
Parisien,' and its last title was *Iie 
Joomal de la Kepublique,' 

ProBoarsoe LrfJi'-n}« dxi Pea'pL 

Amiens (Peac^e oA 1 Oct., ISOl. 

One of the most fatuous ever made 
by England. As Lord Grenville said : 
'Elngiand gave up everything, and 
France notliiug. France tept Savov, 
Belgium, the Crermanic StAtes on the 
left bank of tlie FJiine, Upper ItAly, and 
Holland. In Asia she wa^ to have 



AMIS 



ANABAPTISTS 



25 



Pondichcrry, Cochin, Nepjapatam, and 
the Si)ice IsiandH ; in Africa she was to 
have the Cape of Gof)d Hope and 
Senef^al ; in the West Indies she was to 
hold Martinique, St. Lucia, Guadaloupe, 
Tobiif^o, Curasao, and most of St. 
Domingo; in America s' e was to be 
repossessed of St. Pierre and Miquelon; 
and in South America she was to keep 
Surinam, Demerara, Berbice, and Esse- 
quil)0.' We had spent in the nine years 
4(;i,H00,000/., and retained nothing but 
Ceylon and Trinidad. Addington's 
Ministry. On 22 May, 1802, a fresh 
rupture put an end to the * Peace.' 

Amis des Noirs {SocieiS des). The 
first anti-slavery society instituted at 
Paris by Brissot de Warville, Feb. 1788. 

PronouncG Ah'-mo da Nwar'. 

Amnesty Association ( Tlifi),imo. 

The members were nearly all Fenians, 
and one of them was Mr. Parnell. 
Other members were Egan, Biggar, 
J. Nolan, John Levy, James Carey, 
John Sullivan, and Daniel Curley. 

Amor'ian Dynasty [The), of the 
Byzantine Empire. It includes Michael 
II., the Stammerer, who was born at 
Amoria, in Phrygia, from 820-829 ; 
Theophilus, 829-842, and Michael III., 
the Sot, 842-8G7. This dynasty was 
then succeeded by the Macedonian under 
Basil I. 

Michael II. conspired afjninst Leo the Armenian, 
and was mado emiicror in H20. 

Amor'ian "War (TM, a.d. 838. 

Between the Emperor Theophilus (son of 
Michael the Stammerer), and the Calif 
Motassem (son of Harun al Rashid). 
So called from Amorium, in Phrygia, 
the birthjilace of Theophilus. The 
Saracens had the word Amorium in- 
erribed on their saddles, in revenge of 
Theophilus's siege of Sozopetra, the 
birthplace of MotasscA. The Saracens 
•were the victors, but the slaughter on 
both sides was great. Gibbon gives it 
as 70,000 Moslems and 30,000 Christians. 
Theopliilus waa defeated at Dasymon, and 
Amoi'ium was lost. 

AmpMctyon'ic Council {The). 
Established B.C. 1124 to the 2nd cent. 
A.D. A politico-religious court of twelve 
Grecian tribes held twice a year. In 
spring, the members met in the Temple 
of Apollo, at Delphi ; and in the autumn 
they met in the Temple of Ceres, at 
2 



Anthela, near Thermopyloe. Their pur- 
pose was (1) to determine questioris of 
international law; and (2) to preserve 
the religious institutions of Greece. 

^'"schin<!8 gives the ffillowing names : the 
TheBsalians, B<*otianH, DorianH. lonjans, Perrhte- 
bians, Maf,'n<!to8, Locrians, (i'",)it;ans, Phthiots, 
Malians, I'hocians, and one omitted, probably 
the Oolopians. In the time of Demosthenes the 
glory had departed from the council. 

Amphis'san "War {The). The 
third sacred war of Greece, from Feb. 
to Aug. B.C. 338. Tlie Locrians oi 
Amphissa rebuilt Cirrha on the ' Sacred 
Land,' and the matter, B.C. 33'J, was laid 
before the Amphictyonic Council, which 
declares war against these Locrians. 
Philip II. of Macedon undertakes the 
war for the Council, and is joined by the 
Peloponnesians ; but Athens and Thebes 
take the side of the Locrians. Amphissa 
is taken and destroyed in the summer 
of 338, and in August of the same year 
the Thebans and Athenians being over- 
thrown at Cheronea, the war is brought 
to an end. 

Am'pian Law {The), b.c. 64. A 
law by T. Am'pius, one of the tribunes, 
to allow Ponipey to wear the sjnnbols of 
triumph at the Circensian games. 

Amyclse'an Silence, perilous 

silence. It is said that the Amyclfeans 
were forbidden to disturb the peace by 
raising a cry of danger from invasion. 
This law was passed, because the people 
were always crying ' wolf,' out of fear of 
the Spartans. It so happened that the 
Spartans came at last, and none durst 
sound a note of warning, and so the city 
was taken. Hence the Greek proverbs, 
' AmycljB perished through silence,' and 
' more silent than the Amyclaeans ' 
{Anujclis ipsis taciturnior). 

Anabaptists, 1521. The nickname 
of a religious party who maintained that, 
as baptism should not be administered 
without a personal confession of faith, 
the baptism of infanta was worthless, 
and those who had so been bai)tizecl 
must be baptized aga,in as adults, at 
their own express desire, and after a 
confession of faith. 

In Germany, John of Leyden, Munzer, 
Knipi)erdoling, and others were called 
Anabaptists, and maintained that Christ 
was not God, that righteousness is of 
works, that there is no such thing as 
original sin, that infants ought not to ba 



23 



ANACEEON 



ANDELOT 



baptized, that all men are of one rank, 
and that civil magistrates are anti- 
scriptural. See ' Mennonites.' 

The Anabaptists of Moravia called 
themselves apostolical. They went 
barefoot ; had a community of goods ; 
dressed in black ; and had very gloomy 
views of future judgment, the malice of 
Satan, and the enduring pains of hell. 

Anac'reon {The French). I. Pontus 
de Thiard, one of the ' Pleiad poets ' 
(1521-1605). 

n. p. Laiyon, perpetual president of 
the * Caveau Moderne,' a Paris club 
noted for its good dinners. No one not a 
poet could be a member of it (1727-1811). 

Anaereon {The Persian), Mo- 
hammed Hafiz. His collected poems are 
called ' The Divan ' (1310-1389). 

Anaereon '{The Scotch). Alex- 
ander Scot (nourished 1550). 

Anaereon {The Sicilian), Gio- 
vanni Meli (1740-1815). 

Anaereon Moore. Thomas Moore 

of Dublin, who translated Anacreon's 
odes from Greek into English in the 
spirit of the original, and wrote numerous 
odes and other poems of unusual merit 
(1779-1852). 

Anacreon_ of Painters {The). 

Francesco Albano (or Albani), 1578-lCCO. 
Anaereon of the Guillotine. 

Bertrand Barere de Vieuzac, president 
of the National Convention in 1792. So 
called from the flowery language he 
employed in speaking on the measures 
of the Keign of Terror. 

Anaereon of the Temple {The). 

Guillaume Amfrye, abbe de Chaulieu 
(1C39-1720), the Tom Moore of France. 
Called 'of the Temple' from the place 
of his abode. Sometimes called the 
Horace of France. 

Anaereon of the Twelfth Cen- 
tury. Walter Mapes or Map (1150-1196). 
His song ' Meum est propositum ' has 
been translated by Leigh Hunt. 

Anagni, in Italy {Council of), 
24 March, 1160, in which Pope Alexander 
III. exconamunicated Frederick Bar- 
barossa. 

Anally, in Ireland. The modern 
Longford. 



Anatomy {Professorship of), in the 
University of Cambridge, 1707 ; founded 
by the University. Stipend 800Z. a year. 
See ' Lowndean Professor.' 

Anatomy Act {The), 2, 3, Will. IV. 
C. 75, 1832. It provides that a person 
must have a licence to practise anatomy ; 
it enjoins that inspectors be appointed 
to visit chambers where anatomy is 
carried on ; that any one may leave his 
body to be dissected, if he chooses. The 
law is not applicable to post-mortem 
examinations. 

The cause of this Act of Parliament was that 
pei'sons previously used to murder people and 
sell their dead bodies for dissection. Burke and 
Hare murdered sixteen persons and sold their 
bodies. They used to inveigle men, women, and 
children into a house, make them drunk, and then 
smother them by placing a pitch plaster over the 
mouth and nose. 

Anatomy of Melancholy {The), 

1621. ' A carnival of quotations, Greek, 
Latin, German, French, and Italian ; 
philosophical, geometrical, medical, 
poetical, astrological, musicai pedagogic' 
The subject is melancholy, its nature, 
seat, varieties, causes, symjitoms, pro- 
gnosis; its cure, by legitimate and for- 
bidden means, by dietetics and by phar- 
macy. Author, the Kev. Robert Burton 
(1576-1640). 

Ancenis, in France {Treaty of), 
10 Sept., 1468. A treaty of pe^ice be- 
tween Louis XL and Francois XL, due 
de Bretagne. 

Ancient of the Mountains {The). 

Chief of the Assassins. 

The Assassins settled in Persia in 1090. Mur" 
dared the iUarquis of Montferrat in ll'./'2 ; Louis 
(Ludwig) of Bavaria in 1213 ; the Khan of Xartary 
in 12o4, &c. In 1257 the mischievous sect was 
extirpated. 

Ancients. The Moravian elders 
who are the civil and ecclesiastical heads 
of the community. They preside over 
the education of the children, enjoin 
penances, pronounce excommunications, 
and determine the rank of each member 
of the community. 

Between the French ' National Council ' and 
'Corps Legislatif were 'two councils,' one of 
which was cslled the Conseildes A iscifns (consisting 
Of '250 members), the other being the Coiiseil de 
Cinq-cents. The Florentine Coujicil in the 13th 
cent, were called the Anziani. Se)iator means 
' senior,' or elder. 

Andelot {Treaty of), 28 Nov., a.d. 
587. Between Gontran of Orleans and 
Childebert II. of Austrasia. By this 



ANDREW 



ANGELUS 



27 



treaty Burgundy was assigned to 
Gontran. 

Andrew {Knights of St.), 10 Sept., 
1698. A Russian military order (founded 
by Peter the Great). The cordon is sky- 
blue. The motto is 'For Religion and 
Loyalty.' 

The Scotch order is generally called the Order 
Of the Thistle. 

Andrews {University of St.). Lec- 
tures commenced here in 1410. Charter 
granted by Henry Wardlaw, bishop of 
St. Andrews, 27 Feb., 1411. Chartered 
3 March, 1432, by James I. of Scotland. 
St. Salviltor College founded, 1455, by 
James Kennedy, bishoi? of St. Andrews. 
St. Leonard's College founded, 1512, by 
prior John Hepburn. St. Salvator's and 
St. Leonard's Colleges united 1747, and 
called the ' United College.' 

The PoBdagogy of Wardlaw was enlarged in 15.88 
by Archbishop Beaton, and called St. Mary's or 
New College. 

Andrussow, in Russia {Truce of), 
80 Jan., 1667. Between Alexis Michailo- 
witz, czar of Russia, and John II., king 
of Poland, for fifteen years. It stipulated 
for the re-annexation to Russia of 
Smolensko, Polotsk, Mohilef, and Kief, 
with the abandonment of part of the 
Ukraine and Severia. 

Ane'da or Agne'da. The modern 
Latin name of Edinburgh (Scotland). 

Angel of the Church of Smyrna 

(The). Polycarp, the fourth of the 
Apostolic Fathers {q.v.). He is so ad- 
dressed in the Book of the Revelation. 
It is said that he was a disciple of John, 
the apostle, who appointed him bishop. 

Angel of the Schools {The). 

Thomas d'Aquinas, the fifth doctor (1224- 
1274). See ' Angelic Doctor.' 

Angelic Doctor {The). 'Doctor 
Angelicus,' ' Angel of the Schools,' ' the 
Eagle of Divines," the Universal Doctor,' 
&c. Thomas Aquinas, or St. Thomas of 
Aquino, in Italy, of the Dominican order 
(born 1227, died 1274, canonised by 
John XXII. in 1369, and declared by 
Pius v., in 1567, to be the ' Fifth Doctor 
of the Church ' ). He was a schoolman 
of the Aristotelian class, and a Nominalist 
{q.v.). His great oi^ponent was Duns 
Scotus, a Realist {q.v.), of the Franciscan 
order j and from these two leaders 



Nominalists were called ' Thomists,' and 
Realitits ' Scotists.' 

The five doctors ■were Ambrose (340 307) ; 
Augustine (354 4:50) ; Jerome (315-420) ; Gregory, 
and Aquinas. See Addis and Arnold's Diet., 
' Doctors of the Church.' 

It is said that Thomas Aquinas was called the 
"Angel of the Schools,' or the 'Angelic Doctor,' 
from his controversy ' Utrum Angolus possit 
moveri do extremo ad extremum non transeunda 
per medium.' Aquinas took the negative. 

Angel'ici, 1st cent. Certain Chris- 
tians who worshipped angels. They 
were most numerous in a.d. 180. Men- 
tioned by St. Augustine in his ' Liber de 
Haeresibus,' ' qui angelos cultu divino 
prosequebantur.' Angelolatry was for- 
bidden by the Council of Laodicea in 366, 
but enjoined by the Second Council of 
Nice in 787. See ' Angelites.' 

Angel'ici. An order of knighthood 
instituted 1191 by the Emperor Isaac II. 

Angel'icus, meaning ' Hymnus An- 
gelicus,' is the hymn sung in the Mass, 
' Glory to God in the highest, &c.,' sung 
by the angels at the Nativity. The 
Trisagion is also called 'Hymnus An- 
gelicus.' 

The monk's dress is called ' Angelicus,' 
or ' Angelica Vestis,' ' quod et ipsi di- 
cantur angeli a patribus,' as in the 
Revelation the ministers of the churches 
of Asia are addressed as ' Angels.' 

An'gelites (3 syl.), a.d. 494. Mono- 
ph'ysites (4 syl.), or heretics who main- 
tained that Christ had but one nature. 
They I'eceived their name from Angelius, 
in Alexandria, where they used to meet. 
See 'Angelici.' 

AngeVium (T/ie). The annunciation. 
First mentioned by Gelasius in 492. 

An'gelus, 1095 (Council of Clermont). 
A prayer and a bell which calls to the 
prayer. The Angelus is a prayer to the 
Virgin Mary, instituted by Urban II. It 
begins with the words ' Angelus Domini 
nuntiavit Marias ' (Luke i. 28), then follows 
the salutation of the angel Gabriel, ' Ave 
Maria,' &c. The prayer contains three 
verses, and each verse ends with the 
salutation, ' Ave Maria.' The bell, which is 
rung three times a day, morning, noon, 
and evening, was instituted in 1316, by 
John XXII. It was Louis XI. who (1472) 
commanded it to be rung daily at noon. 

Louis IX., in 1472, commanded all his subjects 
to repeat the ' Salutatio Angelica ' every noon, at 
the suuud of a bell. The Complino is about three 



29 



ANGLE SEA 



ANNALS 



hoiirs aft^T the Vespers, •which are said at sxmset, 
say 6 o clock p.m. 

Anglesaa Leg {The). Aii artificial 
leg like tliat made for the Marquis of 
Anglesea, 

r>r. Biy's ^^ is an improvement oa the Anglesea 
leg. 

Pronounce An'-gle-see. 

Anglo-Israel Identity Society 

{The^. A religious sect wliicli holds that 
the inhabit:viits of Great Britain are none 
other than the lost teu tribes of the House 
of Israel. Some of the reasons assigned 
are these : (1) The children of Israel \rere 
to inhabit islands north-west of Palestine ; 
(2| they were to speak a language not 
Semitic ; (8) they were to j)ossess colonies 
in all parts of the earth (Isa. liv. 3) ; (4) 
Israel was to have a nation from her, 
but independent of her (Ameriea) ; (5) 
Israel was to be under a monarchy ; ((5) 
Israel was to be unconquerable, but to 
be a great conqueror ; (7) Israel was to 
be a sabbath-keeping people; (8) Israel 
was to be a prolific race ; (9) Israel was to 
send missionaries to the end of the earth 
(Isa. xliii. 21). 

Anglo-Israelism (19th cent., last 
quarter!. The hy^iothesis that the English 
are the descendants of the lost tribes. 
See above. 

Anglo-Saxon {Profesfiorship of), 
in the University of Cambridge, 1878. 
Founded by the Rev. Joseph Bosworth, 
D.D., of Trinity College, and called the 
Ebrington and Bosworth Professorship 
of Anglo-Saxon. Stipend not less than 
500Z. a year. 

Anne Mar.ciret Elliot, married twice, first 
Colonel Ebrington, tind then Dr. Bosworth. 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (TJi^). 
Said to have been begun at the instance 
of Kitig Alfred. It begins with Ca?sar's 
invasion, and ends with the accession of 
Henry U. (115-k). 

An'grias {The). The Mahratta pirates. 
Conaji Angria and his brothers began 
their piratical exploits in 1670. Angria 
was taken prisoner by the English in 1756, 
when his piratical state was overthrown. 

An'inia Mundi, called by Plato, 
' Psuche tou kosmou.' Plato compared 
tlie great world to a human being (or the 
little world). As man is vitalised by the 
livmg soul within hi -i, so the world itself 
is vitalised by its living soul, without 
which it would be a mere corjjus ttwr- 



tiium. The sun would give neither light 
nor heat, the vegetable world would yield 
neither leaves nor seed, the animal world 
would consist of dead bodies only. The 
sun would not glow, the trees would not 
blossom, the air would not circulate, the 
rivers would not run into the sea, the sea 
would not evaporate, and the seasons 
would have no succession. 

Stidil (1660-17O-1) called this * Psuchg ' 
' Anima Mundi,' by which he meaiit that 
it is not God who vivifies and preserves 
aU things in being, but a vital principle 
which dwells in the universe, as the soul 
dwells in man. This anitnn mundi is 
not material, but co-exists with all objects 
and quickens them : 

Warms in the sun. refreshes in the breeie, 
Glo-ws in the stArs. and blossoms in the trees. 
Lives through all life, extends through all extent, 
Spreads undivided, operates unspent.— Poiw. 

An'iniism, Animists. The system 
which explains the phenomena of life 
and disease by the action of so\x\{anim<i), 
and rejects the solution of these pheno- 
mena as purely physical. Van Helmont 
may be called the chief advocate of 
animism, and the system was taken up 
by George Ernest Stahl in the 18th cent. 
Those who believe in animism are called 
' Animists.' See Rom. i. 20. 

The difference between Stahl's doctrine 
and Spinoza's is this. Stahl taught the 
existence of an independent and all- 
pervading ' anima ' ; but Spinoza taught 
the identity of phenomena and deity. 
Pope expresses Stahl's idea in the weU- 
known lines — 
Great in the earth, as in the ethereal Irame, &c 

St-e above. 

Annals. Registers kept in Rome 
from the commencement of the state 
down to the time of Publius Mucins ; 
they were made by the Pontifex IMaxi- 
mus, and were called ' Annales Maximi.' 
Livy freely used them in his history. 

Annals are bare records of events. History is 
tracing out the motives and consequences of theso 
events. 

Annals of Tacitus (The). Said 
to be a forgery by Poggio Bracciolini, 
a leiU'ned scholar of Tuscany (1381-1459), 
author of ' Historia Florentina ' (printed 
1715), and ' De Varietate Fortunse ' 
(printed 1723). The tale is that he was 
paid 500 gold sequins (about 250/.) by 
Cosmo de' Medici for his MS. ; the 
original is still shown in the library of 
Florence. It was published in 1463, 



ANNAPOLIS 



ANNUAL 



29 



when Johannes de Spire produced ' the 
last six books, which he affirmed he had 
copied carefully from the original in 
St. Mark's, Venice ; ' but this original 
was only Bracciolini's forgery. The first 
six books did not appear till 1514 (i.e. 46 
years after the last six). See ' Literary 
Forgeries,' &c. 

The reply to this is that Poggio Brac- 
ciolini was a professional dealer in MSS. 
and purchased them if possible, or ob- 
tained permission to make transcripts. 
The sixteen books of Annals in MS. are 
not Poggio's original work, but merely a 
transcri])t of the original lent him to 
copy. The manifest reply is, first, that 
Poggio was not a mere tradesman, but 
apostolic secretary to Boniface IX. and 
seven succeeding popes (1412-1452). He 
attended the Council of Constance (1414- 
1415), most certainly not as a tradesman. 
He resided with Cardinal Beaufort in 
1417 ; was chancellor of the republic of 
Florence in 1452, and was the author of 
two important works at least. "Where is 
the original from which Poggio made his 
copy ? And can any reference to the 
'Annals ' be shown before the 16th cent. ? 

The Annals consist of Books I., II., 
III., IV., half of v., VI., . . . XI., XII., 
XIII., XIV., XV., and part of XVI. 

No -writer has mentioned the name of the 'Annals 
of Tacitus ' before 1J38. vhen Beatus Rhenanus so 
speaks of the book, and may be said to have given 
jt its name. See 'Tacitus and Bracciolini,' pub- 
lished by Diprose & Bateman, Lincoln's Inn Fields. 

Annap'olis, in Maryland (U.S. 
America). So named in compliment to 
Anne (16G9), afterwards Queen of Eng- 
land, when it was constituted the seat of 
local government. 

An'nates (2 syl.), or 'first fruits.' 
In ecclesiastical law means the value of 
a spiritual living for a whole year. From 
12G0 to the time of the Reformation, the 
pope claimed the first fruits ; but by the 
20 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1534) they were, in 
England, annexed to the crown, and hy 
2 Anne c. 11 the revenue thus arising 
was vested in trustees for a perpetual 
fund to augment poor livings. This fund 
is called ' Queen Anne's Bounty.' An- 
nates were first calculated according to a 
rate made under Innocent IV. in 1253. 
This rate was augmented by Nicholas III. 
in 1292. The Council of Pisa pronounced 
them simoniacal in 1435, but Alexander 
VT., in 1500, doubled the rate. 



It appe.ars that these 'Annates' -were not 
actually the whole produce of a living for a year, 
but a sort of property tax paid by the new incum- 
bent on presenfcation. 

Anne (1 syl.), Queen of England 
(1C64, 1702-1714), sister of Mary (wife of 
William III.), and younger daughter of 
James II. Married Prince George of 
Denmark. She had thirteen children, 
only one of whom lived to the age of 11. 
The rest died in infancy. 

Her style : Anne, D.G. of Great 
Britain, France, and Ireland, Queen, 
Defender of the Faith, &c. 

Anne of Bohemia was the wife of Richard fl. ; 
Anne of Cloves was one of the wives of Henry VIII.; 
Anne of Denmark was the wife of James I. of 
England. 

Anne, ' the Word.* Arme Lee 
(1736-1784), the apostle of the Shakers, 
by whom she was called ' Mother,' that 
is, ' the true Mother of all living in the 
new creation,' and ' the Morning Star of 
the second coming of Christ.' She was 
born in Toad Lane, Manchester, and her 
father was John Lee, a blacksmith. She 
married Abraham Standley, also a black- 
smith, joined the Shakers, and migrated 
to New York in 1774. 

Annde Terrible (i'), 1870. When 
Paris was besieged by the Prussians from 
19 Sept. to 28 Jan., 1871. 

Annius of Viterbo. Nannius, or 
' Giovanni Nanni,' a Dominican (1432- 
1502), a literary impostor. His work, 
entitled ' Antiquitates Varige,' professes 
to contain selections from Berosus, 
Manetho, Megasthenes, Archilocus, Myr- 
siles, Fabius Pictor, Sempronius, Cato, 
&c., but are, for the most part, mere 
fabrications. See * Literary Forgeries.' 

Anno'nae Praefectus. An officer 
api^ointed by Augustus to superintend 
the corn-market (ancient Rome). 

Annual Indemnity Act {The), 
1689. A clumsy makeshift for the repeal 
of the Corporation and Test Acts, where- 
by Dissenters were admitted into office 
in defiance of these acts, and were legally 
indemnified for violating them. An Act 
passed in every session of Parliament to 
indemnify those who neglected to take 
the sacrament before entering parliament 
or accepting some civil oftice. 

By 22 Vict. c. 15, an Act of Indemnity 
secures from punishment or damage all 
those who have neglected to take the 
necessary oaths of office, &c. 



80 



ANNUAL 



ANTHKOPOMORPHITES 



Annual Mass, ' Missa AnnuilHs,' 
The mass which is said daily throughout 
the year. 

Annual Register {The). Com- 
menced by Kobert Dodsley for the year 
1758-9, appeared in June 1759. The 
* Kegister ' is pubHshed once a year, and 
contains a brief abstract of every event 
of historical interest, during the preced- 
ing twelve months. Also notices of new 
books and other miscellaneous matter. 
The work still goes on. 

Edmund Burke assisted Dodsley in preparing 
his Ecgisters. 

The New Annual Register, edited by Dr. Blorgan, 
was started 1781 and came to a close in 18-2o. 

The Edinbuigh AiiinuU Iteiiistrr, written by Sir 
W. Scott and afterwards by Southey, commenced 
1808 and closed 1827. 

Annuneia'da, 1460. A society 
founded at Rome by Cardinal John 
Turrecremata for the marriage of poor 
young women. It now provides, every 
Lady-day, 60 Rom. crowns, a dress of 
white serge, and a florin for slippers to 
above 400 persons for marriage portions. 

Annun'ciades (4 syl.). The name 
of several religious orders instituted in 
honour of the Annunciation. 

I. 1362, called 'The Annunciades of 
Savoy,' created by Amadeus VI., count 
of Savoy. This was a military order. 

II. 1500, an order instituted at Bourges 
by Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis 
XI., in honour of the ten virtues of the 
Virgin Mary. 

III. 1604, ' The Celestial Annunciades,' 
instituted by Maria Vittoria Fornari. 
They dress in a blue mantle and are 
therefore called ' The Blue Sisters.' 

The Annunciades of Jeanne de Valois wear a 
grey gown, a scarlet scapular, a blue simar, and a 
white mantle, to prefigure penitence, the passion 
of Christ, heaven, and virginity. 

Annunciation {The), 25 March, 
our Ladyday. Commemorates the an- 
nouncement of the angel to Mary that 
she was to be the mother of the Messiah 
(Luke i. 26-38). 

In the Roman Catholic Church the 
Annunciation, or ' Festum Campanarum, 
is the Monday next after Easter Monday. 

The ' Annunciatio Dominica ' (or) 'Beatee Virginis 
Marias ' was instituted (Viil. By the Tv/elfth Council 
of Toulouse it. was transferred to Dec. 18; but in 691 
it was restored to March 25. See ' Order of the An- 
nunciation.' 

Annus Deliberandi, in Scotch 
law, is the interval allowed to the heir 
from the death of a proprietor of here- 



ditary property to make up his mind 
whether he will accept the succession 
with its incumbrances or not. The time 
is now reduced to six months. 

Annus Mirab'ilis, a.d. 1666. The 
year of the gi-sat fire of London, and of 
the successes of our arms over the Dutch. 
So called by Dryden, who has a poem on 
the subject. 

Anomalis'tic Year. The inter- 
val between two successive times of the 
earth being at the least distance from 
the sun. It consists of 865 days, 6 hours, 
13 minutes, 45 seconds, and is 25 minutes 
less than a mean tropical year. 

Anomoeans, 357. A branch of the 

Arian heretics, who maintained that the 
essence of the Son is not like tke essence 
of God the Father (Greek anomoios, un- 
like). 

They rejected the dogma called ' Homoiousian, 
i.e. that the nature of Christ was like that of God 
the Father. The ' heresy ' was condemned by the 
Council of Ancyra in 358, and some subsequent 
councils. 

Antal'cidas {Peace of), e.g. 887. A 
peace betvreen Persia and the different 
states of Greece, arranged by Antalcidas 
(or Antalkidas), the Lacedtemonian, after 
the suicidal contest called the Corinthean 
war {q.v). 

It ran thus : ' King Artaxerxes thinks it just that 
the cities in Asia and the islands of Clazomenae and 
Cyprus should belong to him. He also thinks it 
just that all the other Grecian cities should be left 
independent, except Lcmiios, Imbros, and Scyros, 
which are to belong to Athens, as of old. If any 
state refuses to accept these terms, I, King Art-i- 
xerxes will make war thereon, both by sea and land. 

Antelu'can. The ' before daylight ' 
service held by early Christians to avoid 
observation (Latin, ante lucem, before 
daylight). 

Anthropol'atrge, or * Worshippers 
of Man,' so the Apollina'rians called the 
' orthodox ' Christians, because they wor- 
shipped Christ, who, they maintained, was 
' a perfect man of a reasonable soul, and 
human flesh subsisting ' (Greek, aiithro- 
pos, latreia, man-worship). 

Antliropom.or'pliisni,in theology, 
means that God is formed like man, or 
rather that God is man's ideal, as every 
man forms his own god. One man forms 
him revengeful, another all merciful, a 
third love, and so on, according to each 
man's notion what a god ought to be. 

Anthropomor'phites (5 syl.), 4th 
cent. Egyptian monks who maintained 



ANTI-ADDBESSERS 



ANTI-POPES 



83 



that God has the human form, and is of 
the same substance as man, because he 
made man m his own Hkeness. 

Anti-Addressers, 1759. Those 
Irish Catholics who disapproved of the 
• address,' and therefore seceded from the 
Catholic Association. See ' Addressers. ' 

Anti-Birminghams, 1680, Oppo- 
nents of the Birminohams (q.v.), or Exclu- 
sionists. They were the friends of James, 
duke of York, and favourers of ' the right 
divine ' and succession of James. 

Anti-Burghers, 1747. Those Scotch 
Presbyterians who refused to take the 
required oath ' that they heartily and en- 
tirely concurred in the religion as by law 
established.' Those who accepted the 
oath were called Burghers. 

Anti-Corn-Law League (The), 
20 March, 1839. An association against 
the corn-laws was formed in London in 
1836 ; the Manchester Anti-Corn-law As- 
sociation was formed 24 Sept., 1838 ; the 
League with Cobden at the head was 
formed in 1839 ; dissolved 2 July, 1846. 
The corn-laws existing prior to the repeal 
consisted of a sliding-scale. When, for 
example, corn was selling at C2s. a quarter, 
a duty of 24s. 8i^. a quarter was imposed on 
imported com ; for every shilling less than 
62.S'. a quarter an extra shilling was added 
to imported corn ; but when corn exceed- 
ed that price the duty rapidly increased, 
till it reached 73s., when a minimum tax 
of Is. was imposed. This minimum tax 
of Is. a quarter is still paid to defray the 
expenses of registration. 

Anti-Corn-law "Wafers. Sheets 
of mottoes (40 for Is.) advocating free- 
trade in corn. These mottoes are either 
original or mere extracts ; some aimed at 
wit, some at smartness, some were politi- 
cal truisms, and some were satirical. 
During the Anti-Corn-law agitation these 
* wafers ' had a large sale. 

Anti-Gallican Society {The), 
1757. 'To i^romote British manufactures 
extend the commerce of England, and 
discourage the introduction of French 
modes and the importation of French 
commodities.' The headquarters of the 
society were at Lebeck's Head, Strand. 
St. George's Day (23 April) was the day 
of their anniversary feast. 

It was at its best in 1771. 



Anti-League League (T/ie), 1844. 

A league formed to counteract the Anti- 
Corn-law League, on the supposition that 
the higher the price of corn, the higher 
the rate of wages. Chartists were anti- 
leaguers. 

Sir Robert Peel said experience proved that 
the high price of corn was not accompanied by a 
high rate of wagis. and that wages did not vary 
with the price oi corn (1845). 

Anti-Pasdo-baptists, 1607, now 
called Baptists. Certain dissenters who 
object to infant or pcedo baptism, and 
maintain that no one should be baptized 
without expressing a personal wish to 
undergo the ceremony, and without a 
personal confession of faith. They per- 
form the rite by total immersion. (Greek 
anti pais baptisma, against child bap- 
tism.) 

Anti-Popes. Popes elected in'oppo- 
sition to the pope of Rome. 

1. NoVATiANUS, elected in opposition to Corne- 
lius, A.D. 2iil. 

2. Felix II., elected on the banisliment of Liber- 
ius, A.D. 355. 

8. TJRSiANUS or Ursinus, elected in opposition to 
Damasus, A.D. 3C6. 

4. E ULALIUS, elected in opposition to Boniface I., 
A.D. 418. 

6. Laurentids, appointed by Festus in opposi- 
tion to Symmachus, A.D. 408. 

6. DioscoRUS, consecrated in opposition to Boni- 
face II., A.D. 530. 

7. ViGiLius, appointed by Belisarius on the exile 
of Silverius, A.D. r>m. 

8. 9. Peter and Xheodorus, in the pontificateol 
John v., A.D. 086. 

10. 11. PASCHALandTHEODORUS, elected in oppo- 
sition to Sergius, A.D. G87. 

12. l.S. 14. TIIEOPUYLACTUS, CONSTANTINUS, and 

Philip, elected at the death of Paul I., a.d. 767- 
768. 

Constantinus was deposed by Pope Stephen III., 
shut up in a monastery, and his eyes put out, 
Aug. 6, 7C8. 

15. ZiziMUS.elected in opposition to Eugenius U., 
A.D. 824 

10. ANASTASius, who Contested the election of 
Benedict III., A.D. 855. 

17. Sergius, elected in opposition to Formosus, 

A.D. 891. 

18. Boniface VI., chosen to succeed Formosus, 
A.D. 8!iG. died a fortnight afterwards. 

19. Chkistophorus, who deposed and imprison- 
ed Leo v., A.D. 905. 

20. Leo VIII.. elected to succeed John XII., 
A.D. 964, deposed 965. 

21. Boniface VII., elected on the death of Bene- 
dict VI., A.D. 974, deposed 975. 

22. Gregory, who unseated Benedict VIII., A.D. 
101'2, deposed by Kaiser Henry II., A.D. 1014. 

23. Silvester III., elected to succeed Benedict 
IX. on liis banishment. A.D. 1044. Benedict sold the 
pontificate to Jolm, 1044. 

24. Benedict X., who opposed Stephen IX., a.d 
1058. 

25. Honorius, appointed by the diet of Basel in 
opposition to Alexander II., A.D. 1061, deposed by 
the council of Osbor, 1002. 

20. Clement III., elected at Brlxen in opposition 
to Gregory VII., A.D. 1080. Clement was set up by 
Kaiser Henry IV. 

27. ALBERT, appointed to succeed Clement 
taken prisoner by the partisans of Paschal I L, 
A.l>. UOO. 



82 



ANTI-EEMONSTEANTS 



ANTINOMIANS 



2f». Theodoeic, appointed to Bucceed Albert, 
A.D. 1100. 

2vt. Maginufe, appointed to succeed Theodoric, 
A.l>. 1106. 

SO. Gregory VIII., elected in opposition to 
Oelasius II., A.D. 1118. Gregory was set up by 
Kaiser Hfinry V. 

31. Calixtus, elected during the pontificate of 
Honorius II., A.D. 1124-1180. 

32. Anacletus, elected by a majority of the con- 
clave i-n opposition to Innocent II., A.D. ll:!0. 

3.S. Victor IV., chosen to succeed Anacletus, A.D. 
ll;«, abdicated. 

34. Victor (also cnlled Victor IV.), elected in 
opposition to Alexander III., A.D. 1159. 

3o. Paschal III., elected to succeed Victor, A.D. 
11G4. 

3G. Callistds III., elected to succeed Paschal. 
A.D. 1168. Abjures his schism, 1178. 

37. INNOCENT III., choGcn in the place of Callis- 
tus, A.D. 1178. Taken prisoner by Pope Alexander, 
1180, and died soon afterwards. 

38. Nicholas v., chosen by Louis of Bavaria in 
opposition to John XXII., A.D. 1328. Renounced 
his schism, 1330. 

The Great Schism of the West, 1378-1429. "U'hen 
there was a pope at Eome, and anotlier at Avignon, 
and sometimes three or four popes. 

Presuming the French popes to be anti-popes in 
this schism, we have — 

39. Clement VII., the French pope in opposition 
to Urban VI., A.D. 1378. 

40. Benedict XIII., -who succeeded Clement, 
A.D. 1394. 

41. Alexander v., elected by the Council of Pisa, 
•which took upon itself to depose the two existing 
popes, and to elect a third, A.D. 1254. 

There were now three popes, viz. Gregory XII. 
at Home, Benedict XIU. at Avignon, and Alexan- 
der V. 

42. John XXII., who succeeded Alexander, A.D. 
1410. Was deposed by tlie Council of Constance lil7, 
and Martin V. elected. 

There were now four popes : Gregory XII., Bene- 
dict XIII., John XXllI., and Martin V. 

43. Clement VIII., succeeded Benedict XIII., 
A.D. 1424. Abdicates 1429, and thus the schism 
ends. 

Gregory XTI. died 1417, John XXIII. died 1419, 
Benedict XIII. died 1424, Clement VIII. abdicated 
1429. Martin V. was left sole pope. 

44. Felix v., elected in opposition to Eugenius TV. 
by the Council of Basel, A.D. 1439 ; abdicated 1449. 
Undoubtedly an excellent choice, accepted by 
England. France, Germany, Spain and Lorabardy. 
Only Italy (bar Lombardy) and Venice refused to 
acknowledge him. 

Anti-Remonstrants, or 'Gomar- 
ists,' 1611. Ultra-Calvinists and follow- 
ers of Frans Gomar, of Bruges (1563- 
1641), who arbitrarily laid down the 
dogmas of absolute predestination and 
reprobation in answer to the ' Remon- 
strance ' of the Arniinians presented to 
the states of Holland in 1610. 

The word is also applied to the Jansenists (q.v.) ; 
end tlieir opponents (the Jesuits) were termed Re- 
monstrants. 

Anti-Tobacconists iThe),18i8. In 
Italy. The Austrians had the monopoly 
of tobacco in Italy, and the Liberals re- 
solved to leave off smoking, so that a 
cigar became the sign of loyalty, and non- 
smoking of disaffection. The Austrians 
resented the anti-tobacco movement ; and 
in order to put a stop to it, supplied their 



Italian troops with cigars, and ordered 
them to smoke them ostentatiously in the 
streets. This insult was resented by the 
Italians. On 17 Blarch the Milanese 
rose in revolt and expelled the Austrians. 
Venice next rose and did the same. 
Sicily expelled King Ferdinand II., and 
elected in his stead Charles Albert 
(Albert Amadeus I.). At last Garibaldi 
appeared and liberated Italy, making it 
a united and independent kingdom. 

Anti-Tory Association (The), 
IFoi. Established in Ireland by Daniel 
O'Connell to opx^ose the new Tory ad- 
ministration under the leadership of Sir 
Eobert Peel. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Anti-Trinita'rians. Tliose who 
reject the doctrine of the Trinity on 
p]i ilosophical grounds. 

Those who reject it on theoJogical 
grounds are called Arians, Socinians, or 
Unitarians ; Mohammedans are Anti- 
Trinitarians. 

Anti-Union Society [The), 1830. 
A new name for the Repeal Association 
[q.v.], when that association was pro- 
claimed. Both had the same object 
viz. the repeal of the Union effected in 
1801, or the amalgamation of the Irish 
and British Parliaments. See 'Irish 
Associations.' 

Antid'ico-Mariani'tae (4th cent.), 
i.e. 'Detractors of Mary,' as the Apolii- 
narians and Eunomians were called, who 
denied the perpetual virginity of Mary ; 
in other words, believed that Mary had 
other children besides Jesus, who was 
her 'firstborn' (Matt. i. 25). The 
brethren of Jesus mentioned in the 
gospels they considered to be the other 
children of Mary (see Matt. xiii. 55, 56; 
Mark vi. 3 ; Matt. xii. 46 ; Gal. i. 10). 

In English ' Antidicomarianites,' pronounce 
Antid'-i-co Ma'-ri-an-ites (Greek, avrCdLKoq, Uafita,^ 
(adversary [of] Mary). 

Antino'mians, 1585. A sect 
founded by John Agricola, who main- 
tained that Christ abolished the entire law 
for believers. They furthermore affirmed 
that good works do not further salvation, 
which is wholly of grace. ' Not of works, 
lest any man should boast.' ' If (salva- 
tion) is by grace, then it is no more of 
works, otherwise grace is no more grace. 
But if it be of works, then is it no more 
grace, otherwise work is no more work ' 



ANTIPHONAEIUM 



ANTONINE'S 



83 



(Rom. xi. 6) ; (Greek, anti, nomos, opposed 
to the law, i.e. of works.) 

The system is called ' Antinomianism.'. 

The Antinomians taught that the 
chosen were at liberty to help them- 
selves to such a share of this world's 
goods as their necessities required ; and 
that however they might sin in their 
outward man, in the inner man they 
sinned not. (Strj'-pe, Cranmer, p. 178.) 
This is a gross perversion of Antino- 
mianism. 

N.B. In New England, Antinomians, 
in the 17th cent., denied the ' moral law 
to be the rule of Christ ' (John Harvard, 
1628). 

The Antinomians contended that all things were 
free and allowable to the saints without sin. — 
HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. vol. ii. p. 262. 

Antiphona'rium. An Antiph't>- 
nary, or book containing the Antiph'onies 
throughout the year. Such as the 
' Greater Antiphonies of O ' ; the ' Roga- 
tional Antiphonies ' ; the ' Alleluyatic 
Antiphonies ' ; the ' Antiphona ad in- 
troitum ' ; the ' Antiphon® Invitatorise ' ; 
the ' Antiphona de Podio ' ; the ' Proces- 
sional Antiphonies ' &c. By the Con- 
stitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey, at 
Merton (1305), every parish church was 
ordered to have ono. 

The ' Antiphonies ' are the fifteen prayers be- 
ginning with the letter O (' Horee Beatissimae Vir- 
ginis Mari£B '). The ' Antiphona de Podio' is the 
' Salve Regina ' made by Ademarus, bishop of Po- 
dium, i.e. Pay. The ' Antiphona ad introitum ' was 
Bung in introitu Mi.is<e. The ' InvitatorisB ' were 
sung on Sunday nights. 

Antiplion'eti. An image of Christ 
crucified set up near the pulpit. Du 
Cange quotes (vol. i. p. 27G, col. 2) the 
follov/ing words : 

Visus est sibi in occiduo graduum,qui ad sacram 
sedem ducunt, ascensu stare, ubi prajter divinam 
Domini imaginem quam Antiphoneti appellant, 
ipsius etiam Niconis effigies expressa est.— 
Marten, 10, 6, Avipliss. Collect, col. 830. 

Antiquaries ( The Society of). For 
the cultivation and understanding of 
the antiquities of the chief countries of 
Europe and America. It was started in 
1572 by Archbishop Parker and Sir 
Robert Cotton ; but James I. dissolved 
this society in 1601 ; and it was recon- 
structed in 1717. 

The London Society was chartered in 1572. 

The Scotch Society was founded in 1780. 

The Royal Irish Society was chartered in 17ft(>. 

The French Society was founded, as the Aca- 
demic Celtique in 1805; but in 1814 it changed its 
name into the Sociele des Antiquaires de France. 



The American Antiquarian Society was incor- 
porated in 1812 by the legislature of Massachusetts. 

Antiquitates Varise, 1498. A 
literary forgery by Annius of Viterbo 
(Nannius, Giovanni Nanni), a Domi- 
nican. His 17 volumes profess to be 
selections from Berosius, Manetho, 
JMegasthenes, Archilocus, Myrsiles, 
Fabius Pictor, Sempronius, Cato, &c., 
but the selections are not genuine. 

Anto'nian Laws (The). The laws 
of Mark Antony, the Roman consul. 

1. To change the name of the month 
Qiiint'ilis into Julius (July). 

2. To abolish the perpetual dictator- 
ship. 

3. To repeal the Judiciary Julian 
Law, commanding that the judices 
should be chosen from the senators a.nd 
equites only, and not from the trihuni 
cerarii. 

The vanity of Augustus in making Sextllis 
(August) the same length as Qitintilis (July), de- 
ranged the useful system that the even months, 2, 
4, U, 8, 10, 12, had thirty days each, and the odd 
numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, had thirty-one days each. 

Antonine Column (The). A 
column, like* that in the Place Vendome 
(2 syl.), Paris. It was erected by the 
Roman senate in honour of Marcus 
Aurelius Antoninus, to commemorate 
his victories over the Marcomanni and 
other Germanic tribes. On the shaft is 
represented spirally the victories of the 
emperor, and an inscription was cut on 
the pedestal. Sixtus V. had the bad 
taste to substitute a gilt statue of Paul, 
holding a Latin cross, for that of Marcus 
Aurelius; and to substitute a new in- 
scription. So that now the Apostle Paul 
surmounts a huge column commemorat- 
ing victories over Germanic tribes ; and 
the new inscription is absolutely ludi- 
crous. It stands on the Piazza Colonna 
in Rome. 

Antonine's Itinerary. Extending 
over the whole Roman empire, embrac- 
ing all the main roads in Italy and the 
provinces, with the respective distances. 
Attached is a maritime itinerary of the 
distances from port to port. The 
distances of this itinerary were surveyed 
by command of Julius Caesar. Augustus 
and Antony, B.C. 44, 30, 24 ; and a.d. 
19 ; and the entire book was corrected 
and extended between 285-305. 

The Peutingerian Table (a.v.) and the Jerusalem 
Itinerary are also valuable for ancient geography. 

D 



84 



ANTONY'S 



APOLOGISTS 



Antony's Fire (St.). A pestilence 
also called feu sacre and mal des 
ardents, especially destructive in France 
and Germany between 994 and 1089. 
It appeared in England in the years 1011 
and 1012. Hugues Capet, founder of 
the Capetian dynasty, died of this terrible 
plague. See ' Feu Sacre,' ' Plague,' &c. 

Called St. Antony's Fire, because Urban IV. in 
1089 founded an order of St. Antony to take ch&rge 
of those afflicted with this disorder. Never in 
the history of man was such a disastrous centi-J-y 
as that which began at the close of the tenWi. 
All Europe looked for the end of the world, which 
contributed not a little to the calamities which 
followed in battalions. 

Antwerp. Fabulously derived from 
hand-werpen (hand-throwing) ; hence 
the arms of the city are two hands 
thrown into the Scheldt by the hero 
Brabo. Much more likely it is an V 
werf (the city) on the wharf. 

Anzia'ni [The), or seniors in 
Florentine history before 1282. They 
were twelve in number, two for each 
scstiere of the city. These seniors acted 
in concert with a foreign Podesta, and a 
captain of the people charged with mili- 
tary authority. See ' Ancients.' 

Ape (1 syl.;. The assumed signature 
of the famous caricaturist, who drew 
so many of our living notabilities. He 
was Signor Carlo Pellegrini, who died 
1889. 

Apega. "Wife of Nabis, tyrant of 
Sparta. He invented an infernal machine 
which he called after his wife, ' Apega.' 
It was a box exactly resembling his wife 
in her royal apparel, but inside it was 
full of spikes whi(;h wounded the victim 
enclosed in almost every part of the 
body. The ' Iron Virgin ' was a similar 
instrument of torture employed by the 
Inquisition. It represented a woman of 
Bavaria, and the spikes were so arranged 
as to i^ierce the least vital parts in order 
to prolong the sufferings of the victim 
inclosed. (Apega, 3 syl.) 

Apelles of Europe (T/ie). Antonio 
Allegri da Correggio (1494-1534). 

Apelles of his age {The). Sam. 
Cooper is so called in his epitaph in 
Old St. Pancras Church (1609-1672). 

Apex. In the Fenian organisation 
is the president of the head centres. 
See ' Bees.' 



Apocryphal Scriptures, of the 

New Testament. From Eusebius : — 
The Acts of Paul. 
Pastor of Hermas. 
The Revelation of Peter. 
The Epistle of Barnabas. 
The Institutions of the Apostles. 
The Gospel according to the Hebrews. 
The Gospel of Peter. 
The Gospel of Thomas ; Acts of ditto. 
A Gospel of Matthew. 
Acts of the Apostles by Andrew. 
Acts of the Apostles by Jolin. 

Doubtful. 

The Revelation of John. 

The Epistle of James. 

The Epistle of Jude. 

The Second Epistle of Peter. 
. The Second and Third Epistle of John- 
Eusebius, Book III. chap. 25. See ' Old 
Testament.' 

Other books not mentioned by Ease- 
bius. The Gnostic Scriptures were : 

The Prophecies of Cain. 

The "Writings of Pachur. 

The Psalms by Valentmus and Bar- 
desanes. 

The Gnostic Hymns by Marcus. 

The Books of Adam, of Enoch, of 
Moseh, of Elijah, of Isajah, and many 
others. 

Sundry writings by Barkor, Armagil, 
Barbelon, Balsamum, Lensiboras, &c.— 
Hier, Ad Theod. iii. 6, &c. 

ApoUina'rians, 4th cent. Fol- 
lowers of Apollinilris or Apollinarius, 
bishop of Laodicea, who denied that 
Christ had a human soul, and affirmed 
that the Logos or divine nature supplied 
the place of the reasonable soul. Con- 
demned in the Council of Alexandria, 
A.D. 362, and again by the council at 
Rome in 375. In 378 ApoUinaris was 
deposed. 

Apologists. Those ' Fathers ' who 
wrote ' Apologies,' or treatises in defence 
of the rites, doctrines, and moral conduct 
of Christians in the first three centuries. 

Apollinaris (Claudius), 2nd cent., 
bishop of Hierapolis, was a Christian 
apologist. 

Justin Martyr, 103-167. "Wrote two 
* Apologies,' both in Latin ; one he ad- 
dressed to Antoninus Pius, in 150 ; and 
the other to the Senate, in 164. He says 
that the Christian religion tends to good 



APOLOGY 



I — ^j:^ — a — '*f?,()t ^ 



85 



morals and submission to rulers ; shows 
that Christ fulfilled prophecy; and ex- 
plains Christian rites and doctrines. 

Mel'ito, bishop of Sardis. Addressed 
his ' Apology for Christians ' to Marcus 
Aurelius in 170. 

Obigen, 185-254. "Wrote 'An Apology 
for Christianity,' against Celsus. He 
became a Gnostic. 

Quadra'tus, bishop of Athens. Pre- 
sented his 'Apology ' to Hadrian in 12G. 

Tatian, born in Syria (flo. 170). Wrote 
his 'Apology ' about 160. Afterwards he 
was accused of heresy, for forbidding the 
use of wine even in the sacrament of the 
Eucharist. He was a Gnostic. 

Theoph'ilus of Antioch, 120-190. 
Wrote 'An Apology for the Christian 
Religion,' in three laooks. 

Tertullian, lGO-240. Shows in his 
' Apology ' that faith and patience were 
manifested by Christians in persecu- 
tion. 

Many others wrote in defence of Christianity, 
but not ' Apologies.' For example : 

Arnobius (flo. 296). Wrote a ' Disputation against 
the Gentiles,' in seven books, 

Athenag'oras (flo. 117). Wrote a defence of 
Christians against the charges of atheism, incest, 
infanticide, and other abominations. 

Cyprian, 200-250. "Wrote on the ' Absurdity of 
Idolatry.' 

Jerome, 345-420. Refuted the objection that no 
distinguished person had embraced Christianity. 

MiNUCIUS Felix (flo. 250). Wrote a dialogue en- 
. titled 'Octavius,' in which the speakers represent 
several objections against Christianity, but are 
compelled to acknowledge their errors. 

Oro'sius (flo. 415). In his ' History of the Word ' 
he refutes the accusation that plagues, famine, 
earthquakes, &c., were judgments of God to 
show his displeasure against Christians. 

Besides these, Cyril of Alexander wrote a reply 
to Julian the apostate; and Theodoret, in 
twelve sermons shows the superiority of the 
prophets and apostles to the Greek philosophers. 

liACTANTIDS (250-325), wrote' Divine Institutions,' 
in seven books; Augustine (354-430; wrote ' On the 
City of God.' 

Eusebius (270-aSfii, though no Apologist, wrote 
an ' Ecclesiastical History,' in ten books, which 
served the same end. 

In modern times. 

GROTIUS (1583-1645) defended Christianity In his 
•De Veritate Religionis Christianas,' 1(;86. 

Lardner (Nathaniel), 16H4-17G8, did the same in 
his ' Credibility of the Gospel History,' 1727-1755. 

Butler, bishop of Durham, (1692-1752), in his 
'Analogy of Religion,' 17:10. 

Paley (1743-1805), in his 'Evidences of Christi- 
anity,' 1794. 

Watson, bishop of Llandafl (1737-1816), in his 
'Apology for Christianity,' 1776. 

•.• Still more recently we have Neander, Tho- 
luck, and Beinhard (among Protestantsi ; with 
Pascal, Bergier, Mayr, and Chateaubriand among 
Catholics. 

The branch of theology which deals with the 
defence of Cliristianity is called ' Apologetics.' 

Apology ofMelanehthon (The). 
That is, his Apology or defence of the 
Augsburg Confession (q.v.), one of the I 



tiibri SymhoUci Ecclesice EvangeliccB 
of the Lutherans, 

Apostle of Beaiivais {The). St. 
Lucian, who died 290. His day is January 
8. Also patron saint. 

Apostle of Brazil {The). Jose de 
Anchieta, 1533-1597. 

It must be distinctly understood there is a great 
dilference between a patron saint and an apostle. 
The former protects and is generally chosen by 
the people. The latter converts. Occasion-j.lly 
an apostle is subsequently chosen by a people as 
their patron saint. 

Apostle of England {The). Hugh 
Latimer, bishop of Worcester, 1472-1555. 
Burnt at the stake in Mary's reign. See 
' Apostle of the English.' 

It was Hugh Latimer who said to Ridley wliile 
being chained to the stake : ' Be of good comfort, 
Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this 
day light such a candle in England, as I trust by 
God's grace shall never be put out.' 

St. George is patron saint of England, and St. 
Paul of London. 

Apostle of France {The). St. 
Denys, i.e. Dionysius the Areopagite, 
burnt to death a.d, 95, Also patron saint 
of France. 

Apostle of Hungary {The). St. 
Stephen (I.), King of Hungary (979, 997- 
1088). 

Apostle of Infidelity {The). 

Voltaire (1694-1778). 

Apostle of Liberty (TAe). Thomas 
Jefferson, third president of the U.S. 
America (1743-1820). 

Apostle of Massacre (T^e). Jean 

P. Marat called himself so (1744-1793). 

Apostle of Presbytery {The). 
John Knox (1505-1572). 

Apostle of Temperance {The). 

Father (Theobald) Blath'ew, a friar of 
Cork, who began his temperance move- 
ment in Ireland m 1837, and met with 
wonderful success. The movement was 
in full force during O'Connell's repeal 
agitation and even during the potato 
famine (1790-1856). 

Apostle of Virginia {The). Rev. 
A. Whittaker, 17th cent. 

Apostle of the Abyssinians 

{The). St. Frumentius, who died 300. 
His day is 27 Oct. Also patron saint of 
Abyssinia. 

Apostle of the Allemanian 
Nations {The). St. Gall or Gallus, an 
Irishman. 

©2 



38 



APOSTLE 



APOSTLES 



Apostle of the Alps (T7ie). Felix 

Neff (1798-1829). 

Apostle of the Ardennes {The). 
St. Hubert (656-730). His days are 
80 May and 3 Nov. 

Apostle of the Armenians [The). 

Gregory of Armenia (256-331). Also the 
patron saint of Armenia. His day is 
80 Sept. 

Apostle of the English {The). 
St. Gregory the Great is so called by 
the Venerable Bede (514-604). 

Apostle of the English People 

{The). St. Augustiae, who died 007. See 
' Apostle of England.' 

St. George is the patron saint of England. 

Apostle of the French {The 
Great). St. Eemi (439-535). His day 
is 1 Oct. The patron saint of France is 
St. Denys. 

The patron saint of Paris is Ste. Genevieve. 

Apostle of the Frisians {The?j. 

St. Wildrod or Willibrod (657-738). His 
day is 7 Nov. Also the patron saint of 
Friesland. 

Apostle of the G-anls {The). St. 

Denys martjored in 272. His day is 9 Oct. 
St. Irenseus is sometimes so called (130- 
200). His day is 11 Nov. See 'Apostle 
of France.' 

The patron saint of laul is St. Martin. 

Apostle of the G-entiles {The). 
St. Paul, who died a.d. 66. His days are 
29 June and 25 Jan. 

Apostle of the Germans {The). 

St. Boniface, an English Benedictine 
monk, whose name was Winfrith or 
Winfrid, born at Kirton or Crediton, in 
Devonshire, then part of Wessex, in 680. 
He was archbishop of Germany in 731, 
metropolitan at Metz in 742, and was 
slain 5 June, 755, aged 75. St. Martin 
is the patron saint of Germany. 

Gregory II. consecrated him bishop of the New 
German claurches, in 725, and changed his name 
to Boniface (or Well-doer). 

Apostle of the G-oths {The). 
Ulfilas, their first bishop (348-388). He 
translated the Bible into the Gothic 
tongue, and one copy of the four gospels 
(if not more) is still extant. 

Apostle of the Highlanders 

[The). St. Colomb (521-597). His day 



is 9 June. Also the patron saint of the 
Highlands. 

Apostle of the Hungarians 

{The). St. Anastasius (954-1044). 

St. Louis is the patron saint of Hungary ; and 
also St. Mary of Aquisgranum (Aix-la-Chapelle). 

Apostle of the Indians {The). 

Bartolome de Las Casas (1474-1560), 
Also the Eev. John Eliot (1603-1690). 

Apostle of the Indies {The). St. 
Francis Xavier (1500-1552). His day is 
3 Dec. 

Apostle of the Irich {The). St. 
Patrick (372-493). His day is 17 IMarch. 

Apostle of the Lowlands {The). 

Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury 
(741-758.) 

Apostle of the TQ'etherlands 

{The). St. Amandus (594-667). He was 
bishop of Maestricht. Also the patron 
saint. 

Apostle of the 'Nqmv Jerusalem 

{The). Emanuel Swedenborg (1688- 
1772). 

Apostle of the K'orth {The). St. 
Ansgar (801-864). Also Bernard Gilpin 
(1517-1583). 

Apostle of the Peak {The). Wil- 
liam Bagshawe, of Ford Hall, a noncon- 
formist in the reign of Charles II. (17 Jan., 
1627-8—2 April, 1702). 

Apostle of the Scottish Ke- 
formers {The). John Knox (1505- 

1572). 

St. Andrew Is the patron saint of Scotland. His 
day is 80 Nov. It is said that his remains were 
brought by Regulus to Fifeshire, A.D. 8G8. 

Apostle of the Slavi, or Slaves 
{The). St. Cyril, who died 868. His day 
is 14 Feb. 

Apostles {The 14). According to 
Gospel history or Church tradition — 

1. Andrew of Bethsaida, a fisherman, 
brother of Simon Peter, and son of Jona 
(bar-Jona). Bound to a cross like the 
letter X, called a St. Andrew's cross, by 
order of .^Eggeus, proconsul of Achaia 
(1st cent.). His day is 30 Nov. His 
symbol in paintings is a St. Andrew's 
cross. His scene of labour was Scythia, 
according to tradition. 

2. Bartholomew of Galilee, a fisher- 
man ; supposed to be Nathaniel Bar- 
Tholemy. Flayed alive in Armenia, 



APOSTLES 



APOSTLES 



37 



A."D. 71. His day is 24 Aug. His symbol 
is a knife. His scene of labour was 
India, according to tradition. 

3. James I. (the Greater), of Betlisaida, 
a fisherman, brother of John, and son of 
Zebedee and Salome. Beheaded at 
Jerusalem by Herod Agrippa, a.d. 43. 
His day is 24 July. Kis symbol is a 
pilgrim's staff and a gourd bottle. 

4. James II. (the Less), surnamed 
• The Just,' supposed to have been a 
Jewish ecclesiastic. Brother of Simeon 
and Jude, called ' brothers of the Lord.* 
Son of Cleoiias (or Alphajus) and Mary. 
Thrown from a pinnacle of the temple, 
and then beaten or stoned to death, a.d. 
65. His day is 1 May. (See ' Philip.') 
His sjinbol is a fuller's club. 

Said to be the first bishop of Jerusalem, and 
Bucceeded in 67 by his brotlier, Simoon or Simon. 

5. John (the beloved disciple, an 
Evangelist) of Betlisaida, a fisherman, 
brother of James I., and son of Zebedee 
and Salome. The two brothers were 
called Boanerges. John was the youngest 
of the apostles, and died at an extreme 
old age at Ej^jhesus between a.d. 91 and 
100. His day is 27 Dec. His symbol is 
a bowl with a winged serpent flying out 
of it. He wore a priest's petalon. 

6. Judas Iscabiot, i.e. of the tribe of 
Issachar. Place of birth, parentage, and 
vocation unknown. Hanged himself 
A.D. 64. 

7. Jude, Judas not Iscariot, surnamed 
Thaddteus, of Nazareth. Brother of 
James II., and son of Clsopas (or Alphteus 
and Mary), a 'brother of the Lord.' 
Occupation unknown. Shot to death by 
arrows in Armenia or Persia, a.d. 80. 
His day is 28 Oct. His symbol is a club. 

8. Matthew, or Levi, of Galilee, a 
Roman revenue officer at Gennesareth. 
One of the four Evangelists. Slain by a 
Bword in Ethiopia (1st cent.). His day 
is 27 Sept. His symbol is a hatchet. 

9. Matthias, elected by lot to the 
college, in place of Judas Iscariot. 
Nothing known of him. Said to have 
been first stoned and then beheaded in 
Colchis (1st cent.). His day is 24 Feb, 
His symbol is a battle-axe. 

10. Paul, or Saul, of Tarsus. Probably 
designed to be a Jewish scribe. Brother 
of Rufus (Rom. xvi. 13), and son of Simon 
of Gyrene, who helped to carry the cross 
(Mark xv. 21). Beheaded at Rome, 
A..D. 66. His days are 29 June (death), 



and 25 Jan. (conversion). His symbol is 
a sword. 

11. Peter [Simon), or Cephas, of 
Betlisaida, a fisherman, brother of An- 
drew, and son of Jona (Bar-Jona). 
Crucified at Rome with his head down- 
wards, a.d, 66. His day is 29 June. His 
symbol is two keys. 

Called by Catholics ' the Prince of the Apostles.' 

12. Philip, of Bethsaida, probably a 
fisherman. Parentage unknown. Hanged 
against a pillar at Hierapolis, a citv of 
Phrygia, a.d. 80, His day is 1 May, 
(See ' James II.') His symbol is a long 
staff with a cross at the end. 

13. Simon or Simeon (Zealotes), pro- 
bably a fisherman of Nazareth. Brother 
of James II. and Jude, and son of Cleo- 
pas (or Alphajus) and Mary. Crucified 
in Persia, a.d. 107, at the age of 120. The 
oldest and last of the Apostles. His day 
is 18 Feb, His symbol is a saw. 

Said to have succeeded his brother James in 67, 
as bishop of Jerusalem. 

14. Thomas (surnamed Didymus), of 
Galilee, Probably a fisherman. Paren- 
tage unknown. He was run through 
the body with a spear at Coromandel 
(1st cent.). His day is 21 Dec. His 
symbol is a spear. His scene of labour 
was Parthia, according to tradition. 

The Apostolic daj-s are : Jan. 25, Feb. 18 and 24, 
May 1 (two apostles), June 29 itwo apostles), July 
2-1. Aug. 24, Sept. 27, Oct. 28, Nov. 30, Dec. 21 and 27. 
None in either March or April, the busy season 
of Lent and Easter, but two are placed in the 
following months of May and June. 

Of the two non-apostolic Evangelists 
nothing is known. Probably Luke 
(Lucius) was a Roman by birth, and it is 
supposed he was a physician and an 
artist. Tradition says he was hanged in 
Greece on an olive-tree, in the 1st cent. 

Mark is supposed to be John Mark, 
the companion of Paul. Tradition says 
that, being dragged tliro»gh the streets 
of Alexandria, he was hurled from a high 
rock into the sea. 

Apostles' Creed [The), or ' Symbol 
of the Apostles.' This creed is so called 
because each of the twelve clauses is 
attributed to one of the apostles. Thus : 

1. Peter : I believe in God the Father Almighty, 
Maker of heaven and earth. 

2. John : [And] in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our 
Lord. 

3. .Tames fSon.) : WTio was conceived of the Holy 
Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary. 

4. Andrew : Suffered under Pontius Pilate ; wag 
crucified, dead, and buried. (' Dead ' not in the 
Oriental Creed.)^ ' Was. dead :=was deaded. 



APOSTOLIC 



APOSTOLIC 



5. Philip: He descended into hell. (From the 
Creed of Aquil<»iaJ 

6. THOMAS; Thi^ third day He rose again from 
the dead. iSt. Augustine.) 

7. James i Jun.) ; He ascended into heaven, and 
Bitteth on the right hand of God the Father Al- 
mighty. 

8. Matthew; From thence He shall come to 
judge the quick and the dead. 

9. Nathaniel : I believe in the Holy Ghost. 

10. Simon : The Holy Catholic Church, the Com- 
munion of Saints. (Added 6th cent.) 

11. Matthias : The forgiveness of sins. 

12. JUDE : The resurrection of the body, and the 
life everlasting. (Last part belongs to the 3rd 
cent, the first part to the 4th cent.) 

These twelve articles, we are told, were 
suggested b^ the Apostles in a grotto 
of Mount Olivet, before their final separa- 
tion, and the Apostles were anciently 
delineated each holding a banderole, on 
which was inscribed the words of the 
symbol attributed to him. 

Apostolic Bishops [The). The 
bishops of the Apostolic Churches {q.v.). 
In 1046 the Council of Reime declared 
that the bishop of Rome is the sole apos- 
tolic primate of the Universal Church, 
and hence such terms as apostolic see, 
apostolic nuncio, apostolic notary, apos- 
tolic brief, apostolic vicar, &c. meaning 
papal nuncio, notary, &c. 

Apostolic Blessing {The). The 
blessing of the pope of Rome, as successor 
of St. Peter. 

Apostolic Brethren, or ' Aposto- 
lici '(1260-1368). A Christian sect founded 
by Girolamc Segarelli, a weaver of 
Parma, who went about in the dress of 
an apostle, preached repentance, free 
society, and a return to apostolic man- 
ners. From 1290 his adherents began to 
denounce infant baptism, the dogma of 
purgatory, invocation of saints, praj'ers 
for the dead, and the corrupt lives of the 
clergy. In iSOO G-irolamo Segarelli, the 
founder, and many of his followers were 
brought to the#take. 

Dolcino then became the head of the 
society and drew together many thou- 
sands of followers, but in 1305 a crusade 
was preached against him, and being 
captured, he was burnt alive. The 
brotherhood lingered on till 1368. and 
gi-adually died out. Dante refers to 
Dolcino in the ' Inferno,' xxviii. 55. 

Volumus quod nullus clericuS: nulla secularis 
persona, intuitu religionie eorum^ ac incolito 
habitu, eos de cffitero recipiat, aut eis alimcaita 
ministret.— Cou7icU of Jerusalem, 1287. 

Apostolic Chamber (The). A 
council entrusted with the care oi the 



revenues of the see of Rome. Equal to 
papal chamber or board. 

Apostolic Churches (The). 
Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and 
Rome ; sometimes Corinth and Ephesus 
are also included. These churches are 
supposed to have been founded by the 
Apostles themselves. 

Apostolic Constitutions (The), 
or ' Apostolic Canons.' A collection of 
ecclesiastical laws attributed to St. 
Clement, a disciple of St. Peter, but 
proved to be not earlier than the 8rd 
cent. Indeed the Quini-Sext {q.v.) 
council, held at Constantinople in 690, 
pronounced the collection to be apo- 
cryphal. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Apostolic Fathers {The). The im- 
mediate fellow-labourers of the apostles, 
born in the first century. They were: 
(1) Barnabas, who died a.d. 61 ; (2) Clement 
of Rome, 30-100 ; (3) Ignatius, who died 
115; (4) Polycarp, 80-169. They were 
succeeded by the Primitive Fathers 
{q.v.) 

Papias of HierapSlis, and Hermas, author of the 
' Shepherd, are sometimes ranked amongst the 
apostolic fathers. Papias died 109, Polycarp in 1(57, 
and Hermas in the 1st cent. It is doubtful 
■whether Hermas is a proper name at all. 

Apostolic Kings {The). Pope 
Sylvester II., in 1000, granted to Stejihen 
of Hungary and his successors the right 
of so styling themselves. The reigning 
king is ad(lressed as Your Apostolic 
Majesty, and referred to as H.A.M. In 1758 
Clement XIII. conferred the title of 
H.A.M. on Maria Theresa, as queen of 
Hungary, and the emperor of Austria, as 
king of Hungary, continues the same style. 

Apostolic Letter or Brief {An). 
A papal letter or brief. 

Apostolic Months {The). The six 
following months : January, March, May, 
July, September, and November. That 
is, every alternate month beginning with 
January. It was on these months that 
the pope (according to the Vienna Con- 
cordat of 1448) took possession of the va- 
cant benefices in Germany, &c. 

Apostolic Party {The), 1819-1830. 
In Spanish history. Fanatical Catholics 
who were also absolutists. Their leaders 
were priests and their troops were smug- 
glers and robbers. They ultimately 
merged into the Catholic party. 



APOSTOLIC 



APPAETEMENTS 



89 



Apostolic See {The). The see of 
Rome, said to have been founded by the 
apostle Peter. 

Apostolic Succession {The). The 
supx^osed succession of the priesthood in 
an unbroken Hne from the Apostles, by 
means of ordination and laying on of hands. 

Apostolic Vicar {The), or 'Vicar 
Apostolic' The cardinal who represents 
the pojje in extraordinary missions. 

Apostolical Canons, 'Canones 
AiJostolici.' Two" collections of ecclesiasti- 
cal rules and formularies attributed to Cle- 
ment of Rome (1st cent.). This, however, 
has been entirely disproved, and probably 
they were first drafted in the 2nd and 3rd 
cents., and the main portion is assigned 
to a period close upon the great council 
at Nice (a.d. 325). The first allusion 
to these canons is in the Council of Con- 
stantinople, A.D. 394. The whole number 
is 85, of which 50 are regarded with re- 
spect by the Western Church, but all are 
accepted by the Greek Church. See 
'Apostolic Constitutions.' 

The first fifty were translated from the Greek 
Into Latin, in the 5th cent., by Dionysius the 
Younger. References being made in these canons 
to Eusebius Ciiij-SSS), Athanasius (296-373), and 
Epiplianius i310-403;, suffice to prove that parts at 
least of these canons cannot have been earlier than 
the 4th cent. (See ' Literary Forgeries.') 

Apostolical Constitutions 

{The). In eight books, in which the Apo- 
stles are introduced as sjpeakers. They are 
supposed to date from the -ith cent., but 
certainly much is of later date. They 
enjoin the duty of assembling twice a day 
for public praye 3 and psalmody ; the ob- 
servance of fasts and festivals ; the obli- 
gation of the Jewish Sabbath and the 
Christian Sunday ; the duty of reverenc- 
ing bishops as God's anointed ones and 
of inferior clergy as Christian magistrates. 
Epiphanius (367-403) speaks of these 
books, and, though not genuine, they are 
useful in showing the religious tone and 
feeling of the period. See ' Apostolical 
Canons.' 

The hrst six books ccnto-in rules for a Christian 
life ; Book VII. is an abridgment of the preceding 
six books, and Book VIII. relates to priests and 
their duties. 

Apostolical Junta {The), 26 Sep., 
1825. Formed by Ferdinand VII. of Spain 
for the purpose of assisting the ministry. 

Apostolicals {The). Members of 
the Apostolical Junta {q.v.). 



Apostol'iei, or * Apostolic'ians,' or 
' Apotac'tici.' Heretics mentioned by 
Papias, who died a.d. 169. They pro- 
fessed to follow the Apostles in having all 
things in common, and renounced riches 
and marriage. See ' Apostolic Brethren.' 

Epiphanius' (810-403) says these vagabonds made 
use of the Apocryphal Acts of St. Andiew and 
St. Thomas. 

Apostolicians. The Waldenses, or 
Vaudois, were so called in the 12th cent.; 
so were the Apostolic Brethren {q.v.) of 
the loth and 14th cents. See also ' Apo- 
stolici.' 

Apostollcum {The), 7 Jan., 1765. 
A bull granted by Pope Clement XIII. 
at the solicitation of the Jesuits, confirm- 
ing their institution. It was suppressed 
11 Feb., 1765, by a Parlement of Paris. 

The publication was forbidden in Portugal in 
1765. 

Apostoo'lians, or * Apostoo'lists,' 

1664. A branch of Baptists in Holland, 
founded by Samuel Apostool (1638-1700). 
They split from the Mennonites, and 
were Calvinistic in their views of absolute 
predestination. 

Apotac'tici, or Apotac'titae. The 
same as the Apostol'iei {q.v.). 

Apothe'ker {The). The Fourteen 
Saintly Helpers {q.v.). 

Similar to the 'rfwoi A Ifxikakai of the Greeks, and 
the l)ii Averrunci of the Komans. 

Apparel. To give apparel was, in 
Ireland, a symbol of lordship. Thus 
our John, as lord of Ireland, being ap- 
plied to by Crovderg for help against the 
O'Conors, gave the required aid, and sent 
a quantity of scarlet cloth to be presented 
to the king of Ireland and the provincial 
chiefs, who acknowledged the English 
supremacy. It was, in fact, a livery. 

O Donnell applied for apparel (1541), a request 
which the Deputy, not understanding the political 
meaning, thought very strange, seeing that when 
he made it he wore a coat of crimson velvet with 
twenty or thirty pair of aglets, under a double 
cloak of rich crimson satin corded with black vel- 
vet, and a bonnet of equal splendour.— OCuNOB, 
History of tlie Irish People, p. 1:^3. 

Appartements. Receptions held 
thrice a week by Louis XIV. at Versailles. 
An ' Appartement ' was an assembly of 
all the court in the grand saloon from seven 
till ten, when the king sat down to table. 
There was first music, then billiards, 
cards, dominoes, chess, and dancing, 
A guest was at liberty to order of thid 
attendants anything he wished for. 



40 



APPEAL 



APPLE-STALL 



Appeal (An). An accusation by a I 

private subject against another for some | 
heinous crime, demanding punishment on | 
account of some specified injury suffered, | 
rather than for the offence against the j 
public. In 1886 the members of the 
commission appointed to regulate the 
affairs of the nation and the king's house- 
hold (Rich. II.) appealed of high treason 
the Archbishop of York, the Duke of Ire- 
land, the Earl of Suffolk, Sir Robert 
Tresilian, and Sir Nicholas Brembre, for 
disputing their authority. The appeal 
was sent to the king, who was obliged to 
give way, and the accused fled, but only 
Sir Nicholas Brembre and Tresilian were 
captured and executed. The object of 
the appellants was really to depose the 
king, and take the crown into their own 
custody. 

Appeal [Court of). The Judicial 
Committee of the Privy Council was con- 
stituted a Court of Appeal by 3, 4 Will. 
IV. c. 41 (1833), and by 14, 15 Vict. c. 83 
(1851). 

Appeal (Bight of). ' Provocatio ad 
populum ' in Roman law. This right 
was secured to all Roman citizens by the 
Valerian Law B.C. 509, but was abohshed 
by the ' Twelve Tables ' (q.v.), B.C. 451. 
It was restored by the Valerian- Horatian 
Law B.C. 449, and confirmed by several 
subsequent laws. 

Appeal to Caesar (J). 'Appello 
Coesarem.' Eiy the law of Porclus Tjneca, 
de ccvpite et tergo cioiiini, no Roman 
citizen could be jjut to death or scourged. 
His appeal was to a trial before the 
Centuries (B.C. 256); but in the empire, 
Ceesar represented the Centuries. It 
was somewhat like our habeas corpus, 
which ensures a fair trial. 

Appeals (The Statute of). 24 & 
25 Hen. VIIL, 1532, 1533, forbidding all 
appeal to Rome ; all x^rocesses of the 
Court of Rome in England ; and abolish- 
ing entirely the judicial jurisdiction of 
the papacy in any affair connected with 
an English subject. 

Appel eomine d'abus (L'). This 
right was recognised in 1329. It was an 
appeal to the civil powers against the 
abuses of ecclesiastical superiors, whether 
in contravention of the constitutions or 
the corcordats ol the couxatry. 



Appellants, 1717. Those who ap- 
pealed, or rather wished to appeal, to. a 
general council against the bull called 
U)iige)utus, issued by Pope Clement XL 
in 1718, against the ' Moral Reflexions ' 
of Quesnel. This book favoured tho 
Jansenists and condemned the Jesuits. 
The bull condemns it in globo — that is, 
as a whole — without particularising any 
stated parts, doctrines, or dogmas, as 
objectionable. The archbishop of Paris, 
and the bishops of Mirepoix, Se'nez, 
Montpellier, and Boulogne wished to 
refer the matter to a general council, 
but Louis XIV., in his usual over- 
bearing manner, insisted that the bull 
should be accepted unconditionally. 
The controversy was kept alive till 1730, 
when the bull was registered by the 
Paris parlement, and the heat of the 
opponents cooled down ; but even to this 
hour there are some appellants who dis- 
approve of the bull. 

Ap'pian Way (The), b.c. 302. A 
road between Rome and Capua begun 
by Api^ius Claudius Cascus, during his 
consulship. The oldest and most famous 
of all the Roman roads. 

Called the Queen of lloarts (Regina Viarum). 

Apple-pie Causes. Causes in 
which judgment is beyond the possibility 
of dispute. Lord Eldon used to say, 'I 
have often wished that all my causes 
were apple-pic causes.' He referred to 
a complaint made to him when he was 
resident fellow of University College. 
Some of the undergraduates complained 
to him that the cook had sent to table 
an apple-pie that could not be eaten. 
Lord Eldon ordered the cook to bring 
the- pie before him, but the cook re- 
turning informed him that the pie was 
eaten ; whereupon Lord Eldon gave 
judgment for the defendant. ' You com- 
plain,' said he to the undergraduates, 
' that the pie could not be eaten, but the 
pie has been eaten, and therefore could 
be eaten.' 

Apple-stall Legislation, 1851. 
The eviction of Ann Hicks from Hyde 
Park by the First Commissioner of 
Woods and Forests. In 1843 Ann Hicks 
had a little apple-stall in the Park. She 
obtained permission to erect a wooden 
stand in which to lock up her commo- 
dities. The wood was repaired by brick, 
then raised live feet high with a roof and 



APPOSITION 



AEABIAN 



41 



chimney, then surrounded with hurdles 
which every few weeks encroached more 
and more upon the Park, and grew into 
a little garden. The Duke of Wellington, 
as Ranger of the Park, had to employ 
the Crown solicitors ; and the commis- 
sioners had to pay Ann Hicks a sum of 
money by way of compensation before 
she could be got rid of. 

Apposition Day. Midsummer- 
day is so called at St. Paul's School, 
founded by Dean Colet in 1509. It was 
designed for 153 boys, being the number 
of fishes caught by the disciples, as re- 
lated in the fourth gospel, and dedicated 
to the boy Jesus, who at twelve years of 
age ' apposed ' the doctors in the Temple. 

Apprenticeship {Statute of), 
15G2-3 (5 Eliz. c. 4). Provided that no 
person should exercise any trade in 
England who had not served a seven 
years' apprenticeship. Abolished in 1814, 
except in the legal profession, in which 
clerks must be ' articled ' before they 
can practise for themselves. See ' Arti.' 

Appropriation ClaTise [The], 
1838. A part of the ' Act for altering 
and amending the laws relating to the 
Temporalities of the Church in Ireland.* 
The temporalities of the Irish bishoprics 
were, by this clause, vested in ecclesi- 
tical commissioners for the provision of 
divine service, the payment of church 
rates, the rejoairs of churches, and other 
similar purposes. 

The statute abolished ten bishoprics, and united 
thorn to the ten remaining ones. It abolished 
those of Dromore, Kaphoe, Ciogher, Elphin, Killala 
and Achonry. Clonfert and Kilmacduagh, Kildare, 
Ossory, Waterford, and Lismore, Cork and Ross. 

Aprfes nous le deluge. 'Let the 
flood come, for aught I care, when we are 
gone ' was the scandalous exclamation 
of Madame de Pompadour, the Court 
favourite of Louis XV. Louis himself 
said to the Due de Choiseul, when urged 
to attend to business, ' Bah, duke ! the 
crazy old machine will hold out my time ; 
and my successors must look after them- 
selves.' 

Aqua Tofa'na, * Acqua Tofan'ica,' 
1709. A liquid poison concocted by 
Tofana of Palermo, and called by her 
' Manna of St. Nicholas of Bari,' and 
said to be a liquid which oozed from the 
tomb of that saint. Four or five drops 
were fatal. Tofana confessed to tlae 



murder of 600 victims. Thought to have 
been a solution of arsenic. 

In the IGth and 17th cents. Spa.ra and her assis 
tant. Gratiana, used a similar poison to kill young 
husbands when their wives wished to be widows. 
In 1()59 the number of young widows in Italy ex- 
cited the attention of Pope Alexander VII., and 
suspicion was excited against a society of young 
wives presided over by Spara, an old woman. 
Five were executed. 

Aquse et Ignis Interdictio, i.e. 

banishment. 

It is somewhat remarkable that the Eoman 
symbol of marriage was 'Fire and Water,' not, 
perhaps, because man and wife in old Rome led 
a cat and dog life, but simply because fire and 
water are two essentials of ' married life,' or 
'home.' Bachelors could partake of the Ignis et 
Aqua of other men. 

Aquarians. A very early section 
of Christians who celebrated communion 
with water instead of wine. St. Cyj)rian 
speaks of them with condemnation ; but 
it is said that they drank water to prevent 
detection by their breath. 

Aquitaine, Aquita'nia. One of 

the four great regions of ancient Gaul, 
including all the south-west part lying 
between the PjTenees, the Gulf of Gas- 
cony, and the river Garonne. 

Henry II. called himself ' dux Normannorum et 
Aquitandrum.' 

Richard I.. John, and Henry III. called them- 
selves ' dux Normannice et AquitanioB.' 

Edward I., II., III., dropped the former and 
called themselves ' dux AquitanioB.' 

Between Edward III. and George III. Frnncicf 
was substituted for ' Aquitaniae ' and rex for dux. 

Arabella {The Lady)— that is, 
Arabella Stuart, 1575-1G15. Cousin of 
James I. 

She wag the daughter of Charles 
Stuart, earl of Lennox ; and Charles 
was younger brother 'of Henry Darnley, 
who married Mary Queen of Scots. 
Hence, James I. and the Lady Arabella 
were the children of two brothers. 

Mary Queen of Scots claimed the 
throne of England as the grand-niece of 
Henry VIII. and Queen Margaret. But 
Charles Lennox married the niece of 
Queen Margaret, and consequently was 
one degree nearer to that queen than 
Mary was. Besides, the Countess of 
Lennox was a native Englishwoman. 
The name of the countess was Margaret, 
and, as Sir Walter Scott observes, if 
brought to a court of law, English 
lawyers would probably have decided 
against Mary Queen of Scots and her 
son James. 

Arabian Literature in Spain 
(The Golden age of), 9C1-97G. When 



42 



ARABIAN 



ARCHIBALD 



Al Hakem II. was king of Cordova. Al 
Hakem II. founded schools, endowed 
colleges, invited over learned men of all 
countries, and formed at Cordova an 
immense public library. 

Arabian Odyssey {T7ie). Mr. 
Hole, in his remarks on the ' Contes 
Arabes ' (' Arabian Nights '), considers 
' Sinbad the Sailor ' as the Arabian 
Odyssey. 

The ' Arabian Nights Entertainments ' are the 
' Contes Arabes ' of Antoine Galland, a French 
orientalist, who travelled under the patronage ol 
Colbert. They were published in Paris in 12 vols. 
(1704-1717). 

Arabic {Professorship of). In the 
University of Cambridge, 1G32 ; founded 
by Sir Thomas Adams, Bart., and en- 
dowed with a stipend of 40Z. a year. 
The present stipend is 540Z. 

Arabic versions of the Bible. 

I. The Old Testament, a.d. 925, trans- 
lated by Rabbi Saadia Gaon Haphitomi. 
II. The Pentateuch, translated in 1486, 
by Harites ibn Sina. 

Ar'biter Elegantia'rum. Petro- 
nius was the director-in-chief of the 
pleasures and amusements of Nero. 
Beau Nash was the ' arbiter elegantia- 
rum ' of Bath (1704, &c.). 

Arbitrary Appropriation (TTz-e), 

12th cent. The permission to pay tithes 
wherever a person thought proper. 
Innocent III., by a decretal epistle, 
abolished this liberty, and enjoined that 
every man must pay his tithe to his own 
parish church. 

Arbor Day. A day set apart in 
Canada and the United States for plant- 
ing trees. Thus — 

The 2nd Wednesday in April 1874 
was Arbor Day in Nebraska, when 
twelve million trees were planted in that 
state alone. 

The 15th of April, 1876, was Arbor Day 
in Michigan. 

The 3rd Tuesday in May 1876 was 
Arbor Day in Minnesota, when 1,342,886 
trees were planted in that State. 

The 27th of April, 1882, was Arbor Day 
in Ohio. 

The first Friday in May 1887 was Arbor 
Day in Canada. 

The first Friday in May should be set apart by 
the trustees of every rural school and incorpo- 
rated village (in Canada) for the purpose of plant- 
ing shady trees, making flower-beds, and other- 
wise improving and beautifying the school- 
grounds.— £ci«cctWort DcpariviciU of Untario. 



Area'na. The secret operations of 
alchemists, the chief of which was the 
'Philosopher's Stone.' 

The Double Arcane, or Arcanum, the 
sulphate of potash. 

The Coral Arcane, or Arcanum, the 
deutoxide of red mercury, prepared by 
nitric acid. 

The Jovial Arcane, or Arcanum of 
Jupiter, a mixture- of the deutoxide of 
tin and nitrate of mercury. 

Archangels [The Seven). 

Chamuel, represented as bearing a cap and 
staff. 

GabrieIi, the messenger of God ; represented as 
floating through the air, with his hands crossed 
over his breast. Also with royal robes, bearing a 
lily in his hand. 

Michael, represented in complete armour, 
bearing a sword. Sometimes he is represented 
with eyes bandaged, and bearing a sword and pair 
of scales, in allusion to his being the angel of the 
Judgment. 

Raphael is represented as a pilgrim with staff 
and gourd ; or a traveller carrj'ing Vifish {Tohit). 

Uriel is represented carrying a parchment 
scroll, to signify his being the interpreter of pro- 
phecies. 

Zadkiel bears the sacrificial knife which he 
took from Abraham, when the patriarch was 
about to slay his son. 

ZOPHIEL bears a flaming sword. 

Archdeacon's Court [The). To 
hear ecclesiastical causes, subject to an 
appeal to the bishop, 24 Hen. VIII, c. 12. 

Archd and Duum'virat. The 

vital principle and the soul. Terms 
used by Van Helmont of Brussels (1577- 
1644) to express the dual nature of man. 
By arche he meant the vital principle 
penetrating the entire body, which prin- 
ciple performs all the functions of nutri- 
tion and digestion. ' Duumvirat ' with 
him meant the intellectual principle or 
soul. He called it duum-vi-rat because 
it resides in the ' two organs ' called 
t7i[scera] and ratfa], that is the bowela 
and the spleen. See ' Natura Naturans,' 
' Anima Mundi,' and ' Pre-established 
Harmony.' 

He did not place the soul in the brain, because 
he said the brain has no blood ; but as the diges- 
tive organs are so intimately wrapped up with 
the intellectuality of man, he placed the soul 
there. 

Archestratid.es, b.c. 577. The 
Archons of Athens. 

Pronounce Ar-kes-trat'-i deez. 

Archibald Bell-the-cat. Archi- 
bald Douglas, earl of Angus (died 1514). 

An armed conclave was held in Lauder church 
(on the subject of ridding the kingdom of the up- 
start Cochrane, who had risen from the station of 
a mason to become the earl of Mar). Lord Gray 



A.ECHIMANDEITE 



ABISTIDES 



43 



reminded them of the fable of the mice which 
laid a project for preventing the ravages of the 
cat by tying a bell round her neck. ' An excellent 
project indeed,' said one of tlie conclave, ' but 
who would undertake to bell the cat ? ' ' That 
will I,' exclaimed Douglas, carl of Angus; and 
ever after he was called Archibald Bell-the-cat. — 
Sir \V. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xx. 

Archimandrite. A father pro- 
vincial of the Greek Church. The su- 
periors of convents are Mandrites (2 syl.) 
or Hegumeui. 

Pronounce Ar'-ki-man'-drite. 

Arehon'tics. ' Archon'tici ' or Val- 
entinians, a section of the Gnostic 
school founded by Valentlnus in the 
2nd cent. So called because they 
taught that ' munduni universum a Deo 
conditum opus esse apxoi'TOiv.' They 
denied the resurrection of the body, the 
divine institution of the sacraments, and 
maintained that the incorporeal could 
not communicate with the corporeal, or 
that a spirit god could reveal anything 
to a material substance like man. 

Arctic Highlands (The). That 
part of the American continent which 
lies between Hudson's Bay and the 
mouth of the Mackenzie. The general 
route of the explorers of a north-west 
passage, such as Franklin, Eichardson, 
Back, Dease, Simpson, Eae, &c. 

Areop'agites {The), (5 syl.). An 
Athenian covirt of judicature, which was 
held on the Mars Hill (in Greek, Ares 
Pagos), All wilful murders came under 
the cognisance of this court. The num- 
ber of members varied ; but on a column 
in the citadel of Athens, erected to 
Eufus Festus, the number is stated to 
have then been 300. 

Argen'teus Codex {The), or 
•Silver Book,' The MS. of Ulphilas's 
Moeso-gothic translation of the gospels, 
discovered in the abbey of Werden, and 
taken to Prague in 1597. It was cap- 
tured at Prague in 1648, and presented 
to Christina of Sweden ; subsequently, 
it was presented to the University of 
Upsala in 1(562. It contains a large part 
of the four gospels and is written on 
vellum, the letters being silver, and the 
mitials gold. (Ar-gen'-te-us, 4 syl.) 

Ar'gentine Republic {The), 1816. 
Thirteen confederated provinces of Eio 
de la Plata, South America. 



Argyll. God bless the Duke of 
Argijll ! The Duke of Argyll set up 
rubbing-posts for cattle in the Highlands 
of Scotland. When the tenders of cattle 
used these posts for their own delecta- 
tion, suffering from what they call yuke, 
they gratefully ejaculated, ' God bless 
the Duke of Argyll ! ' 

Pronounce Ar-glle. 

A'ria Cat'tiva Mala'ria. So the 

Italians call the emanations of the 
Pontine marshes, which produce fevers. 
The aria cattiva reaches even to the lower 
parts of Eome. 

A'rian Controversy {The), 4th 
cent. In the time of Constantino the 
Arians were very numerous. They 
withdrew from the Trinitarians, built 
their own churches, and ordained their 
own bishops. The General Council of 
Nice, A.D. 325, condemned the Arians as 
heretics. 

A'rianism, a.d, 812. The religious 
tenets of Arius of Alexandria (270-336), 
who disavowed the dogma of the Trinity, 
and denied that Christ, the Word, is co- 
equal and consubstantial with God the 
Father. In fact, he maintained that 
Christ is not God at all, but was a 
human being, born of human parents. 

The religious views of Arius were condemned in 
the First General Council held at Nice in 3-25. 
Arius said : If God is one, all wise, all powerful, 
and everywhere present, it is a contradiction of 
terms to suppose a second possessed of the same 
attributes. The party-word of the Arians was 
homoiousios not hovioousios. That of the Athana- 
sians was homoousins not ho7)wiousios (honio-oii:'ios 
■=■ idontical in nature ; hovwi-ousioa = similar [but 
not identical] in substance). 

Arios'to of the l^Torth {The). Sir 
Walter Scott (1771-1832). 

Aristar'chos and Zoilos. Critics. 
Aristarchos (b.c. 160-88) of Samothrace 
revised Homer with such severity that 
his name is proverbial for a caustic 
critic. Zoilos of Amphipolis also criti- 
cised Homer with equal severity and was 
called ' Homeromastix.' 

Aristides {The British). Andrew 
Marvell (1620-1678), poet, satirist, and 
politician. He was the last paid M.P. 
for Kingston-upon-Hull. 

Pronounce Ar'-risti'-deea. 
In 1673 the Lord Treasurer Danby paid a visit to 
Andrew Marvell in his humble lodging ; and, at 
parting, slipped into his hand a cheque for lOOOt. 
MarveU bade the Treasurer wait a moment, and 
said to the serving boy, 'Jack, child, what had I 
for dinner yesterday 1 ' ' L»on t you remember. 



u 



ARISTIDES 



ARMAGNAC3 



Sir ? It was a shoulder of mutton ? ' ' Aye, true ! I 
remember. And what am 1 to have today ? ' ' The 
blade-bone broilod.' 'So, my lord, you see my 
dinner is provided. I thanli you, but there is the 
piece' of paper you gave me. My services belong 
to my constituents.'— C. Thomson, Autobiography, 
p. 87. 

Aristi'des {The English). John 
Pym, the republican (1584-16i3). See 
above. 

He sought no advantage to himself, he derived 

nothing from his exertions or his prominent posi- 
tion, but the satisfaction of seeing his country 
saved by his labours. He derived no influence 
from wealth or rank, for he liad none of either ; 
his whole prestige was intellectual and moral 
worth. He wore himself out for the public good, 
and died as poor as he commenced, the only grant 
which he received from the state being an honour- 
able burial in Westminster Abbey.— HowiTT, Hist. 
0/ Engl., ' Charles I.,' chap. iv. p. 242. 

Aristides {The French). _ M. Gr^vy, 
the third president of the third republic 
of France, from 1879 to 1884. 

Aristopli'anes (5 syl.). Samuel 
Foote (1722-1777) is called the Enghsh 
or Modern Aristophanes. 

Aristophanes of his age {The). 

J. Baptiste Poquelin de Moliere, the 
French dramatist (1622-1673). 

Aristophanes of the devolu- 
tion {The). Camille Desmoulins (1762- 
1794). See above. 

Aristotelian Categories {The). 

The ten Aristotelian categories are : (1) 
substance; (2) quantity; (3) quality; 
(4) relation; (5) action ; (6) passivity; 
(7) position in space ; (8) position in 
time ; (9) situation ; (10) possession. 

Aristote'lianism. The system of 
Aristotle's logic and metaphysics applied 
to the Christian system in the middle 
ages. This substitution of reason for 
faith, and logical inferences for what are 
. called ' inspired truths,' gave birth to the 
Scholastics. The tendency of Platonism 
was to enthusiasm and mysticism, that 
of tlie Aristotelians to subtlety and 
logical minuteness. Platonists tended 
to fanaticism, Aristotelians affected dis- 
putation. Thomas Aquinas was an Aris- 
totelian, Duns Scotus a Platonist. 

Aristotle of China. Tehuhe (3 
Bvl.)) who died a.d. 1200, also called ' the 
Prince of Science.' 

Aristotle of Christianity. 

Thomas Aquinas, who tried to reduce 
the doctrines and dogmas of Christianity 
to syllogistic formulee (1224-1274). 



Aristotle of the nineteenth 

century (T7ie). George Cuvier (1769- 
1832), the great French naturalist. 

Ark of the Covenant {The). 
Exod. XXV. A chest of shittim wood, 
the lid of which was of pure gold. It 
contained at one time the two stone 
tables of the law, a pot of manna, Aaron's 
rod, and the book of the law. The lid 
was the ' Mercy Seat.' It was taken to 
Babylon and lost sight of. 

' Shittim wood,' probably cedar. 

Arkan'sas (U.S. of America). So 
called in 1819 from its chief river. The 
inhabitants of this state are nicknamed 
' Toothpicks.' 

The rivers are the Mississippi, the Arkansas, the 
Red Biver, the White River, and the St. FranQois. 
The Arkansas is a magnificent river, navigable 
for 1,980 miles, area reckoned 178,000 square miles. 

Arm of Iron {The). Baldwin, who 
married Judith, widow of Ethelbald. 
Judith, when she married Ethelbald, 
was a widow, having been previously 
married to his father, Ethelwulf. 

Baldwin I., Bras de Fer, count of Flanders, 

died 877. 

Arma'da {The), or * The Invincible 
Armada,' as the Spaniards vaimtinf(ly 
named it, 29 July to 7 Aug., 1588. The 
Armada consisted of 130 vessels, four oi 
which were gigantic galleys, and the whole 
carried 2,500 cannons. Against this was 
opiDosed 50 English vessels no bigger 
than yachts, and 30 queen's ships, the 
biggest of which was smaller than the 
least of the Spanish ships. The Armada 
was so roughly handled that it tried to 
retreat round the Orkneys, but a storm 
scattered the ships and dashed them to 
pieces against the Irish cliffs. What 
escaped were 50 of the 130 ships, and 
10,000 of the 30,000 men— a miserable 
wreck. The medal struck to com- 
memorate this mighty overthrow had for 
its legend, ' He sent out his arrows and 
He scattered them ' (Ps. xviii. 14). 

Armagnacs {Les), 1407-1497. In 
French history. The faction headed by 
Bernard VII., comte d'Armagnac, during 
the insanity of Charles VI. The other 
faction was that of the Burgundians led 
by Jean Sans-peur, duke of Burgundy. 
The object of each was to get possession 
of the king, and thus obtain mastery of 
France under the title of regent. The 
original Armagnac faction was called 



ARMATOLES 



ARMS 



4ij 



the Orleanists, from Charles, duke of 
OrleaPiS, who married the daughter of the 
Count of Arinagnac and was assassmated 
in 1407 by the Duke of Burgundy. On 
the death of the Duke of Orleans the 
Count of Armagnac put himself at the 
head of the Orleanist party, entered 
Paris at the head of an army in 1413, 
and was named Constable by the Queen 
Isabella. He made himself odious by 
his exactions, and broke with the queen, 
who fled to the court of Burgundy in 
1418. The Burgundians now entered 
Paris and drove out the Armagnacs. 
The count fled, was discovered, and 
assassinated with many of his adherents. 
The race died out with Charles I., 
brother of Jean IV., in 1497. 

Pronounce Ar-ma'-nyak. 

Armatoles (3 syl.), or ' Armatoli.' 
A Thessalian militia instituted at the 
beginning of the 16th cent, by Selim I. 
to oppose the incursions of the Klephtes. 
In the insurrection of 1821 the Armatoles 
and Klephtes united against Turkey. 
Botzaris was the most illustrious leader of 
the Armatoles. 

Armed K"8utrality {The), 1780. 
Against Great Britain, which insisted on 
the right of search during the American 
war, to be assured that neutral vessels 
were not carrying to America articles 
reckoned contraband of war. Catharine 
of Russia resisted this claim, and was 
joined by other European states on the 
principle that ' free bottoms make free 
goods.' Denmark and Sweden joined 
Russia in August ; the States-General on 
24 Dec; Prussia on 8 May, 1781; the 
Kaiser, 9 Oct. 

The treaty between Russia, Denmark, and 
Sweden was ratified IG Dec., 1600. 

Armde de Condd (-L'). 1789. An 
army collected on the banks of the Rhine 
by Louis Joseph, prince de Conde, to 
resist the Revolution. It was distin- 
guished for its valour at Wissemburg, 
Haguenau, and Bentheim ; but in 1800 
the prince took refuge in England. He 
returned to Paris at the restoration, and 
died at Chantilly in 1818. 

Arine'nianEra(T^e). Commenced 
7 July, 552. Superseded by the Julian 
era in 1330. 

Arme'nian Liturgy (T7ie). Dates 
from the time of Gregory the Illuminator 
(257-331), who introduced Christianity 



into Armenia. It is based on the Liturgy 
of St. Chrysostom. 

Arme'nians {The), Christians of 
Armenia, and the purest of the disciples 
of Eutyches (3 syl.). They still maintain 
that the manhood of Christ is of a divine 
and incorruptible substance. The Jaco- 
bites say the Armenian Christ is a mere 
phantom ; and the Armenians retort by 
saying the Christ of the Jacobites is a 
God with all the infirmities of the flesh, 
and even with the infirmities of nutrition 
and digestion. They are pretty numerous 
in Russia, Austria, and Turkey. See 
'Arminians.' 

The Armenians believe that the Holy Ghost 
proceeds from the Father only. See ' Filioque.' 

Armin'ianisni, 1603. The religious 
tenets of Dr. James Ai'minius, a Latinised 
form of Harmennsen or Hermannsen, a 
native of Holland (1560-1609). The 
following five points are the most salient : 
(1) God wills that all should be saved, 
and His predestination is only the effect 
of His foreknowledge; (2) Christ died 
for all, and God will bestow eternal life 
on all who repent and believe on Christ ; 
(3) Man is of himself incapable of true 
faith, and hence the necessity of being 
born again by the Holy Ghost; (4) All 
good works are to be attributed to the 
Holy Ghost, but that Holy Ghost forces 
no one against his own inclination; (5) 
God gives to the true believer the means 
of continuing in grace. Condemned by 
the Synod of Dort in 1618. 

At the present day, Arminians reject all 'creeds ;' 
advocate the right of private judgment in tlie 
interpretation of Scripture ; virtually reject the 
dogma of original sin ; look on the sacranaents as 
religious ceremonies ; dwell on preaching more 
than on churchism ; and are anti-Calvinists. 

Armin'ians. Anti-Calvinists in 
the five points. See above. 

Arms of Bourges {The). An 
ass on an arm-chair. The tradition is 
this : Asinius, a Roman governor of 
Bourges in the time of Ceesar, being too 
ill to stand, was carried in an arm-chair 
to animate his troops ; and gained a signal 
victory. Be this as it may, the arms are 
a never-failing source of jests; and to 
honour one with the arms of Bourges ia 
like giving Dr. Pangloss the degree of 
A double S. 

Pronounce Bourjh. 

Arms of the English sove- 
reigns {The). 



4G 



ARMY 



ARMY 



William I. and II. Gules, 2 liors (Iros pardh) 
passant garda,nt Or. And for Matilda of Flanders, 
gyronny of 8 ; in the nombril point a plain shield 
gules. 

Heney I. and Matilda of Scotland. England as 
before, and Scotland. 

Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne. Gules, 8 
Bagittaries Or, 3 torteaux. 

Henry II. England as before ; and for Eleanor 
of Aquitaine, gules, 1 lion passant gardant. His 
cognisances were a crescent beneath a star, an 
escarbuncle of 8 rays, and the broom-plani or 
genista for his name Planta-genet. 

RiCHAKD I. 3 lions passant gp.rdant for England ; 
and for Berengaria of Navarre, a cross botonne 
Ai'g. Motto : Dicu et man droit. 

Henry III. England ; and for Eleanor of Pro- 
vence, paly of 8, Or and Gules. 

Edward I. England ; and for Eleanor of Castile, 
a label of 3 or 5 q. With Margaret of France, 
England and semee de lys. 

Edward II. The same with his father, but with 
2 small castles on the side of his throne to show 
his descent through his mother, from Castile. 

Edward III. England, within a border of France 
(i.e. Az. semee-le-lys, placed on his throne, between 
2 fleurs-de-lys, to show his descent from France). 
He first quartered the arms of France in 1368. His 
cognisances were the sun issuing from the clouds, 
the stump of a tree sprouting. 

Richard II. France and England quarterly, 
•with a label of 3 points, the middle point charged 
with the cross of St. George. He was the first to 
bear supporters, which were 2 angels. 

Henry IV. France and England quarterly, 6 
fleurs-de-lys, and the supporters of Richard II. 

Henry V. and VI. France and England quar- 
terly, the 5 fleur-de-lys reduced to 3, in imitation 
of Charles VI. of France. Supporters, the black 
bull of Clare and white lion of Mortimer. Crest, 
the fleur-de-lys of France, and the lion of England 
conjoined. Likewise with 2 lions' supporters, and 
arms within the garter. 

Edward IV. V. France and England. Suppor- 
ters, a lion and a white hart. 

Richard III., France and England, between 2 
boars, or a bvill on the right and a boar on the 
left. 

Henry VII. France and England, surrounded 
■with a garter, and ensigned with a large crown. 
Crest, the portcullis, from the mother of the 
family of Beaufort. Supporters, a red dragon, 
from CadwallPder; and on the left a greyhound 
Arg. collared Gules, from the Somersets. Badges, 
the white and red rose per pale. 

Henry VIII. France and England. Supporters, 
a red dragon and greyhound (in the early part of 
his reign), afterwards a lion of England and a red 
dragon sinister. For Katharine of Aragon, im- 
paling Castile and Leon, and Aragon and Sicily. 

EDWARD VI. France and England. Supporters, 
a lion and a griffin. 

Mary. A lozenge, 1 and 4 France, 2 England, 3 
Spain. Supporters, an eagle dexter, and a lion 
rampant gardant sinister. 

Elizabeth. France and England, ensigned 
•with imperial crowns. Supporters, a lion dexter 
crowned, and a red dragon sinister. 

James I. France, England, Scotland, and Ire- 
land, differently blazoned. Supporters, lion and 
unicorn. 

•.• George III. omitted France, and it has been 
omitted ever since. 



Army Book 48. The orderly 
corporars ledger, a monthly account- 
book, each i)age of which is headed 
Covii^any Daily Messing Account. It 
contains an exact account of the articles 
and price of every eatable served to the 
company, in four columns. (1) The 
article (as tea, sugar, oatmeal, &c.) ; (2) 



the quantity ; (3) the rate charged ; and 
(4) the sum totalised. 

Army Plea {The). See under 
' Plea.' 

Army of England {The), 1797. A 
French army raised by the Directory 
and placed under the command of 
Bonaparte (Napoleon), for the subjuga- 
tion and plunder of England. After 
visiting Etaples, Ambleteuse, Boulogne, 
Calais, Dunkirk, Fumes, Newport, 
Ostend, and Walcheren, Bonaparte satis- 
fied himself that the attempt must be 
abandoned. 

Again, 1803, when Bonaparte was first 
consul, he assembled a fine army on the 
heights above Boulogne, called the ' army 
of England,' and there continually ex- 
ercised it, under the inspection of Soult, 
Ney, Davoust, and Victor ; but hearing 
that England was one vast camp, he 
abandoned his projected invasion in 
despair. 

Army of God and the Church 

{The), 1215. The barons and their re- 
tainers who took up arms against King 
John when he refused, at Oxford, to sign 
Magna Charta. 

Pandulph told the king that the primate of the 
kingdom ought to excommunicate the barons for 
daring to present the charter; but Stephen Langton 
replied, he ought rather to excommunicate the 
foreign mercenaries who overran the kingdom, 
and indeed would do so, unless the king ordered 
their instant dismissal. 

Army of Reserve (T/ie), 1804. A 

contingent to the regular army enforced 
on every parish by William Pitt. The 
men were called out for five years' service, 
but were not compelled to quit the United 
Kingdom. The reserve were attached 
to the regulars as second battalions. 

Army of Viscounts {The), 1568. 
An army of Huguenots which overran 
Gascony, Quercy, and Languedoc. So 
called because it had for leaders Viscount 
Montelar, Viscount Bruniquel, Viscomifc 
Caumont, and Viscount Rapin. 

Viscounts pronounce Vi'counts. 

Army of the Cross {The), and 
* Soldiers of the Cross,' the crusaders. 
Every man wore a cross cut in red cloth 
either on his shoulder or on his breast. 
First crusade was 1096 (Eufus reigned 
in England at the time). 

Army of the Indus {The), 1839. 
An army under the command of Sir 



AKNALDISTS 



AEREST 



47 



John Keane, raised to restore Shah 
Shuja to the throne of Afghanistan, from 
which he had been driven by Dost 
Mohammed, chief of Cabul. The army 
consisted of a British force amounting to 
2S,000 men, G,000 Sikhs of the Punjab, 
and 5,000 troops raised by the Shah 
Shuja. The shah was restored and 
crowned 8 May ; Ghazni was taken 2 
July; JeUalabad 30 July; Dost Mo- 
hammed fled to Bokhara, and Sir John 
Keane entered Cabul 7 Aug., 1839. 

Arnaldists. A branch of the Wal- 
denses ; so called from Arnaldo of 
Brescia (1100-1155). This Arnaldo was 
a disciple of Abelard, but on his return 
to Italy became a monk, and introduced 
numerous reforms, to bring back his 
followers to primitive times. He was 
condemned by Innocent II, and the 
Lateran Council in 1139, after which he 
withdrew to Switzerland. Wishing to 
increase his following, he went to Rome 
in 1144, but was driven out by Lucius II. 
and Eugenius III. He was seized by 
Barbarossa and put to death. See 
' V/aldenses.' 

Pronounce Ar-nol'dists. 

Ar'naoot. An Albanian Mohamme- 
dan. A pasha's bodyguard should be 
composed of Arnaoots. 

Arnold's Historical Essay. Ox- 
ford University. Value 421. annually. 
Founded, by subscription, in honour of 
Dr. Arnold, Regius Professor of Modern 
History (Head-Master of Rugby), 1850. 

Arpad {House of). The Hungarian 
dynasty which succeeded on the death of 
St. Stephen. The crown remained in the 
dynasty for three centuries. It began with 
Andrew, duke of Arpad, who reigned 
104f)-1061. The last of the Arpads was 
Andrew III. (1290-1301). This was a 
most hei'oic dynasty, still fondly remem- 
bered by the Hungarians. Andrew II,, a 
very worthless king, like our King John, 
reluctantly granted the Bulla Aurea, or 
Magna Charta of Hungary. 

Ladislaus I. (1077-1095) was the greatest of the 
Arpad kings. He was canonised. Bela III, (1173- 
1196) was an excellent king. 

Arquebuses of Saneerre [The), 
1573. Slings. When Saneerre was be- 
sieged by the French Catholics, the in- 
habitants, who had no firearms, defended 
themselves with simple slings. The town 



endured a long famine, and the siege is 
compared to tliat of Jerusalem by Titus 
and Vespasian. 

Arrabbia'ti (T/ip), i.e. ' the Enraged.' 
The party of the Medici opposed to that 
of Savonarola, called the Piagnoni (or 
the Weepers). The Arrabbiati wanted 
to see an oligarchy, not a tyranny in 
Florence. 

Arraigns (r^<? Clerk of). The official 
who reads the indictment, and calls on the 
prisoner to plead. 

The calling of a prisoner by his name to the bar 
of a law court to answer to the charge laid against 
him in the indictment is called ' .\rraigument.' 
Pronounce Ar -rains'. 

Arrest of Judgment. A plea made 
by an unsuccessful defendant, after ver- 
dict, to arrest judgment in consequence 
of some error which vitiates the proceed 
ing. By 15, 16 Vict, c. 76 (1852), omitted 
facts and other ' faults ' may now be cor- 
rected. 

Arrest of the Five Members. 

I. By Charles I. 4 Jan., 1642. Charles I., 
supposing he had evidence of treason 
against five members of parliament, im- 
parted to him by James Graham, earl of 
Montrose, i)roceeded to the House with a 
band of armed attendants to arrest the 
members and strike terror into the rest 
of the House, A measure like this de- 
pends wholly on its success. Cromwell 
succeeded when he turned out the mem- 
bers and locked the doors upon them ; but 
the five members that Charles sought, 
having an inkling of what was about to 
happen, kept away, and Charles cut a 
most ridiculous figure, a blusterer utterly 
foiled and made a fool of. 

The five members were Hampden, Haslerlg, 
Hollis, Pym, and Strode. 

II. By Louis XVI., May 1789. Louis 
was urged by the Parlement de Paris to 
convene a States-Geneial in order to solve 
the national deadlock in the ministry of 
Brienne. He agreed to do so, but a few 
days afterwards refused to do anything of 
the sort; and, entering the Assembly, 
insisted on its registering two royal edicts, 
one of which was for a succession of 
Government loans. Epremenil, Sebas- 
tian de Cabre, Fre'teau and Monsabert 
demanded the calling of the States-Gen- 
eral ; and Louis, rising, left the assembly 
commanding the edicts to be registered 
without another word. Freteau and 



43 



ARRESTMENT 



ARTICLES 



Cabrewere arrested by lettres de cachet, 
and tlie parlement was dissolved, but it 
would not submit to be stamped out thus. 
When the parlement met, an officer was 
sent to arrest Epremenil and Monsabert, 
and the king called a lit de justice ; but 
the parlement denounced the conduct of 
the king and the arrest of its members as 
unconstitutional, and refused to recog- 
nise the royal edicts ; no one subscribed 
to the loans. 

The 5th member was the Due d" Orleans. He was 
not actually arrested, but banished from Paris, 
and commanded to confine himself to his chateau 
of Villars Cotterets. 

Arrestment for founding 
jurisdiction, in Scotch law. By this 
law a foreigner (or one out of the juris- 
diction of the Scotch courts) may, if he 
has any sort of property in Scotland, be 
sued in the Scotch tribunals on a warrant 
called ' Ad fundandam jurisdictionem.' 

Arrdt d'Union {L% 13 May, 1648. 
Henri IV. ,of France created an impost 
called paillette, whereby members of the 
parlement, by paying an annual cess, could 
transmit their offices to their heirs. 
Mazarin, acting for Louis XIV. in his 
minority, ratified this privilege to the 
four chief courts, viz. the Parlement, 
the Chambre des Comptes, the Cour des 
aides, and the Grand Conseil, but with 
this proviso, that the last three compa- 
nies ' perdraient quatre annees de leura 
gages.' The parlement refused to re- 
cognise this distinction, and insisted that 
all the four bodies should be treated alike. 
This ' stand,' called Varret d'tmion, 
insisted that no one should be admitted 
to any office in the state without the 
consent of the widow and heirs of the 
previous deceased officer. It furthermore 
enacted that all the four companies should 
stick together ' malgre la defense qui leur 
en fut faite, et au mepris d'un arret du 
conseil du roi qui cassait I'edit d'union.' 
Mazarin arrested the president Blanc- 
menil and a councillor named Broussel. 
This led to a riot, and Mazarin was obliged 
to release his prisoners. This was the 
beginning of the Fronde War (q.v.). 

Arrondissement (4 syl.). A division 
of a French department presided over 
by a sub-prefect, 

Ars Sacra. Chemistry was so called 
in Alexandria, because only priests could 
study it or practise it. 



Ar'saeides, or ArsacTdae (The), ■ 
B.C. 250-A.D. 226. The Parthian dynasty 
of Persia, founded by Arsaces, the Greek 
spelling of Ashk, a tributary chief who 
induced the Parthians to revolt from the 
Seleucidse, B.C. 250. The first stock 
gave 20 kings, who ruled over Persia for 
476 years ; the second line, called the 
Ashk-anians, gave 11 kings, and ruled 
221 years. Capital Ctesiphon. See ' Sas- 
sanides.' 

Pronounce Ar'-sas-sides, Ar-sas'-idee. 

Art Unions. Institutions to 
promote a patronage and sale of fine art 
productions. The Art Union of Munich 
v/as established in 1823 ; that of Diissel- 
dorf in 1829; in Edinburgh in 1834; in 
London 1837. 

Arti, or Arts. Every burgher of 
Florence must belong to one of the twenty- 
one arts, just as, before the reform, every 
freeman or voter of England was obliged 
to rank as a tradesman. It was not neces- 
sary to follow the trade, but it was indis- 
pensable to ' matriculate ' as a tradesman 
in order to take up your freedom. 

The 7 higher arts were : (1) judges' and 
notaries, (2) calimala or manufacturers, 
(3) exchangers, (4) wool-staplers, (5) silk 
mercers, (6) physicians and apothecaries, 
and (7) furriers. 

The 14 loiver arts were : (8) butchers, 
(9) shoemakers, (10) blacksmiths, (11) 
drapers and clothcsmen, (12) masons and 
stonecutters, (13) vintners, (14) inn- 
keepers, (15) oilmen, pork-butchers and 
rope-makers, (16) hosiers, (17) armourers, 
(18) locksmiths, (19) saddlers, (20) carpen- 
penters, and (21) bakers. 

Each art had its guild. All other 
trades must unite with some one of these 
arts, or were not ranked as burghers or 
freemen. 

Articles in Theology. See under. 

Three articles; three test articles; foicr articles; 
five articles; six articles; srven articles; nine 
articles (under 'Lambeth Articles'); ten articles; 
eteeert articles ; ((oetee articles ; thirty-nine Articles; 
forty-two articles. Also nine articles of the Evange- 
lical Alliance. 

Articles of Confederation and 
perpetual Union {The Thirteen), 

1777. 

1. The States to be called the United 
States, instead of the United Colonies, as 
heretofore. 

2. Each state to retain its sovereignty 
and independence. 



AETICLES 



ARTIST 



49 



8. All the states to league together for 
mxitual defence. 

4. The free inhabitants of any one 
Btate to enjoy the immunities and privi- 
leges of free citizens in every other state. 

5. Traitors or great delinquents fleeing 
from a state to be delivered up to the 
state wl'.ere the ofience was committed. 

6. Laws and judicial proceedings of 
each state to be respected by all. 

7. Delegates from each state elected to 
meet in congress the first Monday in 
November. 

8. No state to have less than two or 
more than seven delegates. 

9. Each state to maintain its own dele- 
gates. 

10. Each state to have only one vote 
in congress. 

11. Freedom of speech to be allowed to 
all delegates, and freedom from arrest, 
except for treason and felony. 

12. No state to enter into war or make 
peace without consent of Congress. 

13. In times of peace no ships of war 
or military force to be kept in any state 
without consent of Congress. 

Articles of Henry {The), or Pacta 
Conventa, 1573. Articles agreed to by 
Henry de Valois on his election to the 
throne of Poland. 

1. That the king should not elect his successor ; 
2. should not declare war -without the sanction of 
the Diet ; 3. should not appoint ambassadors to 
foreign courts ; 4. should not impose any tax ; 
6. should be governed by a privy council of 16 (4 
bishops, 4 palatines, and 8 castellans); 6. should 
confer no dignity or office on any foreigner ; 7. 
should neither marry nor divorce a wife without 
consent of the Diet, &c. 

Articles of Reform. (T/^e). Ireland, 
1340. By these articles Edward III. 
threatened to take the lands and posses- 
sions of the Anglo-Irish into his own 
hands, if the great landholders. were not 
more attentive to their duties. In two 
centuries the English lords in Ireland 
had grown enormously rich, and showed 
symptoms of a very rebellious spirit. It 
had become the fashion among them to 
assume the dress, cut of the hair, and man- 
ners, as well as the names of the Irish. 

Articles of Schmalkarden or 

Smalkald [The], 1537. The articles of 
defence adopted in the city of Schmal- 
kalden by the Protestants under the 
direction of Martin Luther. 

Articles of Torgau {The), 1530. 
3 



The 17 articles drawn up by Luther at the 
request of the Elector of Saxony, show- 
ing the points of difference between the 
Beformer and tlie Church of Rome. The 
document was presented to the Elector 
at Torgau, whence the name. 

Torgau, pronounce Tor'-gow. 

Articles of "War. Government 

regulations relating (1) to the army, (2) to 
the na\'y, and (3) to the marine forces. 

Articles of the Peace. The 

terms required from a defendant, when a 
person swears iu court that he is in fear 
of damage or personal injury from the 
defendant. The terms set forth what 
security the defendant shall give that he 
will keep the peace, and to what length 
of time the terms extend. 

Articlemen, 1648. Those restorable 
Irishmen who were promised pardon and 
restoration by the articles of the peace 
made between the Duke of Ormonde on 
behalf of the king (Charles 11.), and con- 
federate Catholics. The Act of Explana- 
tion shut the door of hope on more than 
6,000 of the restorable Irish. 

There were four classes of restorable Irish, viz. 
Innocents, Articlemen, Ensignmen, and the King's 
Nominees (q.v.). 

Artic'uli Cle'ri, 1313. An Act for 

the purpose of maintaining in England 
certain prerogatives of the Church against 
the temporal power. 

Artillery Company (TAeBb?io%r- 
ahle), 1537. The oldest Volunteer corps 
in Great Britain, being established in 
the reign of Henry VIII. In the Gordon 
riots (1780) it successfully defended the 
Bank of England against the rioters. 
The members are elected by ballot on a 
recommendation of five members, and 
pay an annual subscription of two 
guineas, but the uniforms are expensive : 
of the cavalry, 29 Z. 9s. ; of the artillery, 
18Z. 14s. &d. ; of the infantry, 14Z. 17s. 6cZ. 

It consists of one squadron of light cavalry, an 
artillery division, six companies of infantry, and 
a veteran company. The Prince of Wales is 
captain-general and colonel of the company. 

Artist of the Revolution {The). 
J. L. David (1748-1825), founder of the 
Statuesque School. His best piece is 
the ' Oath of the Horatii,' and his most 
popular piece is ' Nax^oleon crossing the 
Alps.' Napoleon is represented as 
prancing on a fiery white charger, with 
fluttering shawl, and in a very theatrical 



50 



AETISTS 



ASCETICS 



attitude. Historically, he rode a patient 
mule, was buttoned to the chin in a large 
grey coat, and toiled through the deep 
Bnow doggedly. 

Artists and Smiths {Patron 
saint of). St. Eloi (5S8-659), master of 
the mint in the reign of Clotaire II. 

Artizo'e. The Fatale Marmor of 
the Persians, mentioned by Pliny. Ela- 
gabalus was a similar black conical stone 
representing the sun, and worshipped at 

Emesa. 

Similar palladia were the Black Stone of the 
Seids : it is a huge mass of very rich grey silver 
ore of one of the Indic^n tribes of South Ainerica, 
which was removed from place to place, as the 
tribe fled from before the Spanish invaders. The 
Caaba of the Mussulmans, which Mahomet re- 
moved to Mecca, was another 7'''/'i^' Mtirmor; so 
probably was the idol of Diana at Ephesus, which 
"fell from heaven.' We have also the Lia Fail of 
Ireland; the Tanist Stone; the pillar of Shechem 
(2 Kings xi. 14j ; and so on. 

Artoty'rita9 or Bread and Cheese 
Christians. So called from their using 
bread and cheese in the Eucharist. 
(Greek, artos, bread ; turos, cheese.) 

Ar'undel Marbles (The). *Mar'- 

mora Arundellia'na ' or ' Marmora Ox- 
onien'sia,' preserved in the University of 
Oxford, and often called the Oxford 
marbles, the most valuable of which 
is the ' Parian Chronicle ' {q.v.). These 
gems of Grecian art were collected 
by Mr. (Sir William) Petty, who was 
commissioned by the Earl of Arundel to 
collect antiquities in Greece. Brought 
to England a.d. 1610 ; presented to the 
University of Oxford by his son Henry 
Howard, in 1667. 

The entire collection originally contained 37 
Btatues, 128 busts, and 250 inscribed marbles, 
besides altars, sarcophagi, fragments and 
gems ; but part was sold in 1678. The Pomfreb 
marbles were given to Oxford in 1755. 

Arval Brothers (College of the). 
' Fratres Arvales,' priests of Rome who 
went in procession through the fields, 
and prayed for the increase of corn. 
{Var?-o.) 

The little or private Arribarvalia were celebrated 
by a single family for the welfare of all belonging 
to it, as the great college of the Arval brothers 
. . . cfflciated in the interest of the whole state. — 
Pater, Mariiis the Epicurean, chap. i. 

A'ryan Languages (The). The 
different languages of the Aryan Na- 
tions iq.v.), which have all one common 
source, and bear a strong family like- 
ness. ' They count with the same 
numerals, call individual speakers by 



the same pronouns, address parents and 
relatives by the same titles, call the 
different parts of the body by the same 
names, decline their nouns on the same 
system, compare their adjectives in the 
same way, conjugate their verbs alike, 
and form derivatives by the same 
suffixes.' 

A'ryan Nations (The). The Per- 
sians, Hindus, and all Europeans ex- 
cept the Basques, Turks, Hungarians, 
and Finns. See ' Semitic ' and ' Tu- 
ranian.' 

Eastern branch : the Persians and Hindiis, 
which include Zend, Armenia.n, Kurdish, and 
Afghan ; Sanskrit, Hindi, Hindustani ; Gipsy ; 
Pali, and the dialects of Ceylon. 

Western branch (First Swarm), the Celtic. It 
settled in Greece; and spread into Italy, Spain, 
France, and the British Isles; (Second Swarm), 
the Teutonic, colonised Germany, and spread 
into Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and England ; 
(Third Swarm), the Slavonic, settled in Bohemia, 
Poland, and Russia. 

Pali is the sacred language of the Buddhists ; 
Sanskrit is the sacred language of the Hindus ; 
Zend is the sacred language of the Persians. All 
now dead languages. 

As = a God. The twelve Asse or ^sir 
of Scandinavian mythology are Odin, 
Thor, Baldur, Niord, Freyr, Tyr, Bragi, 
Heimdal, Wedar, Wali, Uller, and 
Forseti. 

The chief goddesses are Frigga, Freyja, Idunna, 
Eira, and Saga. 

The twelve divine Asse.— Ehic G. Geijer, Hist. 
of SiCtxU'.n, p. 5. 

Asca'nian House {The). One of 

the most ancient families of Germany, 
so called from the castle of Ascania in 
Aschersleben. It reigned over the prin- 
cipality of Anhalt in the 11th cent., and 
gave the sovereigns of Brandenburg (1143— 
1320) and of Saxony. The dukes of the 
Ascanians of Saxony formed two 
branches, viz. Saxe-Wittenberg, extinct 
in 1422, and Saxe-Lauenburg, extinct in 
1689. 

Ascension Day, or' Holy Thursday.* 
A religious festival held on the 40th 
day after Easter to commemorate the 
Ascension of Jesus Christ. 

Beating the bounds (of parishes^, called ?,)1 
Scotland 'riding the marches,' used to be, and 
still is in some places, observed on this day. 

Ascetics {The), 3rd cent. Persons 
who devoted themselves to a solitary 
and contemplative life, following the 
system of the Essenes and Therapeutse 
{q.v.) among the Jews. They practised 
great austerities for the mortifying of 
the flesh, withdrew the mind frora 



ASCITES 



ASIA 



51 



worldly objects, and tried to lose them- 
selves in God. They haunted the deserts 
of EgjT^t and Syria, and gave rise to 
monachism. 

Asci'tes (3 syl.). From the Greek 
aa-Ko?^ a bladder, meaning ' inflated like a 
bladder.' Christian heretics who ' utrem 
inflatum et oj)ertum solebant circumferre, 
tanquam ipsi essentevangeliciutresnovi, 
vino novo repleti ' (Acts ii. 13). Augustine 
mentions them in his book of ' Heresies ' 
(62). 

Ascodrog'itae, or * Ascodrog'ili.' 
Christian heretics of Galatia, 'qui 
utrem inflatum ponunt et cooperiunt in 
sua ecclesia, et circumeunt eum insani- 
entes potibus, non intelligentes quod ait 
Salvator ' — ' New wine must be jaut into 
new bladders.' — Du Cange, i. p. 408. 

Ash Wednesday. First day of 
Lent, when at one time penitents ap- 
peared before their bishop or priest with 
naked feet and clad in sackcloth ready 
to submit to penance. The pessimi 
were first sprinkled with ashes of the 
palms burnt on the Palm Sunday of the 
preceding year, and were then driven 
out of the church door by the clergy, 
who cried after them ' In the sweat of 
thy brow shalt thou eat bread ! ' The 
less offensive were signed on the forehead 
with the sign of the cross, and the 
priest or bishop said, ' Memento, homo, 
quia pulvis es, et in pulverem reverte- 
ris ' ! Said to have been introduced by 
Gregory the Great (590-60i), sanctioned 
by the Council of Benevento in 1091. 

Ashari [The). An Arabian sect 
which held that God, being the cause of 
everything, is the author of all human 
actions ; but men, being free, acquire 
merit or incur guilt according as they 
obey or disobey the precepts of religion, 
Averroes, the Arabian philosopher of 
Cordova, (1149-1198), adopted the creed 
of the Ashari sect. 

Ashbourne's Act {Lord), 1885. A 
government loan of five millions sterling 
set apart to be lent to Irish farmers, at 
the rate of 3^ per cent., to enable them 
to buy their farms of their landlords. 
In 1888 a second five millions was voted 
by parliament for the same purpose. 

No landlord would, of course, join the Land 
Tieague, and therefore the best plan of quie.ting 



Ireland is to multiply the freeholders, all of 
whom have a stake in the peace and prosperity 
of the island. Napoleon introduced government 
loans of very small value per share to induce the 
poorer classes of France to become holders, with 
the same view. Applicants for a small number of 
shares were first awarded their shares, and those 
who applied for the largest number were de- 
ferred to the last. Thousands of persons slept all 
night in the Piazza of the Rue Eivoli that they 
might be early applicants. I myself saw the 
thick crowd there long after midnight. 

Ashbur'ton Treaty {The), 9 Aug. 
1842. In 1842, Lord Ashburton was 
appointed special ambassador to the 
United States of North America, to settle 
the north-west boundary question, and 
other dis])utes which then threatened to 
involve tlie two countries in war. In 
August he concluded the famous Treaty 
of Washington, commonly called the Ash- 
burton Treaty, by which the Oregon 
question was settled, and the frontier 
line between the state of Maine and 
Canada was definitely agreed to. By 
the 8th and 9th articles, provisions 
were made for putting an end to the 
African slave trade ; and the 10th 
article provides for the mutual extradi- 
tion of suspected criminals. 

Ashmo'lean Museum {The). In 
the University of Oxford (1683) ; be- 
queathed to the university by Elias 
Ashmole (2 syl.). It is used to hold the 
collection of natural and artificial 
curiosities, and to aid in the study of 
chemistry and natural science. 

This collection properly belonged to certain 
persons of the namo of Tradescant, and is mora 
correctly called the ' Tradescant Collection.' 

Asia. From the Greek dcri?, mud. The 
first part known to the Greeks was that 
watered by the river Cayster, where some 
Ionian colonists settled. Hence, Asia, 
.means ' the land of mud,' and it is some- 
what noteworthy that Paris used to be 
called Lutetia, which means the same 
thing. The mythological derivation of 
the word from Asia, daughter of Oceanus 
and Tithys, is only a poetical way of 
stating the fact that the river Cayster, 
like any other river, is a daughter of 
the sea. 

Asia. (Acts of the Apostles xvi. 6 ; 
compare xix. 22, 26, 27, &c.) Here Paul, 
who was in Phrygia or Galatia, speaks of 
going into Asia. To understand this 
it must be known that, after the battle 
of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, Eumenes, 
king of Pergamus, was rewarded by the 
£2 



52 



ASKIIANIANS 



ASSEMBLES 



addition of Lydia and some other dis- 
tricts ; and when the kingdom of Per- 
gamus became a Roman province, it 
was dignified by the title of Asia, but 
Galatia was still ruled by native chiefs, 
and formed no part of ' Asia,' in the sense 
alluded to. Hence Paul might leave 
Galatia and go to the Roman province of 
Asia, still travelling in Asia Minor. 

Askha'nians {The). So the Per- 
sians call the ArsacidfB (5. v.), but there 
are no points of agreement. The 
Arsacidse give thirty kings, the Askha- 
nians only seven. The Arsacidas con- 
tinued 476 years, the Askhanians only 
132. The Askhanians derived their 
name from Ask or Ashk, the father of 
Arduan, the founder ; the Arsacidas de- 
rived their name from Arsaces, their 
founder. 

Some tell us that the Askhanian was the second 
house of the Arsacidians, and that it gave eleven 
kings, who ruled 221 years. 

Asmonae'ans (T7ie). So the Macca- 
bees, rulers of the Jews, were called, 
because Mattathias. who first headed the 
revolt against Antiochus Epiphanes, was 
great-grandson of Asmonseos, a wealthy 
Jewish priest (Josephus, 'Antiquities,' 
book xii. chap, viii.) See ' Maccabees.' 

Aspasiaof France (r;^e). Ninon 
de I'Enclos (1615-1705). 

Ass {The Procession of the), 14 Jan. 
A mediseval religious procession, in com- 
memoration of the Flight into Egypt. 

Thus described by Ducange: 'A beautiful girl 
being selected, was mounted on an ass, richly 
decorated. An infant child was nursed on her 
lap, and the procession was formed by the clergy 
and laity, from the highest to the lowest, who 
walked from the cathedral to the parish church 
of St. Stephen. On reaching the west door, the 
ass, bearing the girl and infant, was led to the 
gospel side of the altar, and high mass was begun ; 
but, instead of " Amen, ' both clergy and congrega- 
tion cried " Hehaw," imitating the braying of an 
ass. The Introit, Kyrie Eleison, the Gloria in 
Excelsis, the Credo. &c., were all concluded with 
" He-haw." At the close of the mass, the officiating 
priest, turning to the people, said, " Ite missa est," 
''He-haw, he-haw, he-haw," three times." 

Probably this was the festival of Vesta adapted 
to Christian history. An ass, by its braying, 
Baved Vesta from brutal violence, and ' the corona- 
tion of the ass ' formed a ceremony in the festival 
of that goddess. 

Ass of Mesopota'mia {The). 
Merwan II., the 14th and last of the 
Ommiade califs (688, 744-756). The 
surname (' Al Himar ') was a compli- 
ment, due to his temperance and strength. 

Mesopotamia was noted for a breed of asses 
which never fled from an enemy. See Homer, 
X C57, where Ajax is compared to an ass. The 



poet says the Trojans beat Ajax with darts and 
arrows as boys beat an ass feeding in a meadow. 
Doubtless a compliment is intended, for, like the 
Mesopotamian ass, Ajax would not show his back 
to the foe. 

Assassination Plot {The), 1696. 

A conspiracy to assassinate William III., 
near Richmond, on his return from the 
chase. The chief conspirator was the Earl 
of Aylesbury. It was discovered 15 Feb., 
the day before that fixed for its execution. 
On 27 Feb., 1696, an association was 
formed for his defence. 

In May 1G95 a plot was formed against him, 
which also proved abortive. 

Assassins. A military and religious 
order of Persia formed in the 11th cent. 
They belonged to the Shiite sect of 
Mohammedans. Abdallah formed a party 
of these assassins into a secret society, 
ostensibly to maintain the claims of the 
Fatimide califs to universal dominion, 
and to extirpate the Sunnites (2 syl.) ; 
but it was Hassan ben Sabah, called the 
' Sheik of the Mountain,' who made the 
name a na.me of terror. He died in 1124, 
after a ' reign ' of 35 years ; and in 1256 
the sect was stamped out by Hulagu. 

The Syrian branch continued some 
fourteen years longer. It was this 
branch which murdered the Marquis of 
Montferrat in 1192 ; Louis of Bavaria in 
1213 ; the Khan of Tartary in 1254 ; and 
frequently put the life of Saladin in 
danger. They were ultimately conquered 
by Bibars, sultan of Egypt. 

It is supposed that the word Assassin is a cor- 
ruption of Hashialihn (eaters of Hashish, the hemp 
plant), a powerful intoxicant. 

Assemblde des trois 6tats {L'). 

The legislative assembly of Louis le Gros 
(1108-1137), in which the commons were 
allowed to take part with the noblesse 
and the clergy. They were not again 
convened till 1302, in the reign of Philippe 
IV"., when the assembly was called ' Les 
Etats Gene'raux.' 

Pronounce As-sahm'-blay day trwors'-a-tah'. 

Assemblde Legislative, 1 Oct., 
1791-21 Sept., 1792. The National Legis- 
lative Assembly of France consisting of 
745 members, not one of the previous 
house, called the Constituent Assembly, 
being eligible ; hence such men as Robes- 
pierre, Petion, and Danton were ex- 
cluded. It consisted wholly of men 
unknown, but of red republican principles 
— low attorneys, club orators, newspaper 
writers, and mere adventurers. The 



ASSEMBLEE 



ASSESSORS 



53 



special function of this assembly was to 
conform the laws to the new constitution. 
On 21 Sept., 1792, the Legislative 
Assembly gave place to the National 
Convention. Burke said there were 
*400 lawyers and 300 of no condition 
whatever.' 

Pronounce As-sahmTblay Led'-jis-lah'tif. 

Assemblee Rationale {L'). 1, 17 
June, 178l)-30 Sept., 1791. The National 
Assembly of France. The clergy and 
nobles having refused to sit in the same 
chamber with the commonalty, the 
deputies of the tiers etat withdrew, con- 
stituted themselves into a deliberative 
body, and assumed the name of the 
National Assembly. On the jeu de 
pauine (20 June), they swore not to 
separate till they had given France a 
new constitution, and from that day the 
house was called ' L'Assemblde Consti- 
tuante.' Having prepared the constitu- 
tion, they dissolved themselves, and gave 
place to the 'Assemblee Legislative,' 
whose function was to conform the laws 
to the new constitution. On 21 Sept., 
1792, the Legislative Assembly gave 
place to the National Convention. 

II. 4 May, 1848, of 900 members. 
The most democratic form of government 
ever devised. Every Frenchman who 
was of age was an elector, and every 
Frenchman after the age of 25 was 
eligible to become a deputy. There was 
only one assembly. See above. 

Pronounce As-sahm'-blay Nas-ce-o-nahl. 

Assemblies of the Wilderness 

{The), 18th cent. French history. The 
assemblies of the restored Protestants 
of France. Held in open day when 
possible; but when dangerous, in some 
wild retreat or rocky nook. Summonses 
were issued only a few hours beforehand, 
and unarmed sentinels were placed on 
the heights to give notice of the approach 
of soldiers. 

Assembly [The Act of). Enacts 
that no persons, professing to believe in 
Jesus Christ, shall be molested in respect 
to their religion, or in the free exercise 
thereof, or be comj)elled to the belief 
and exercise of any other religion against 
their consent. 

Assembly of Divines [The), or 
'Westminster Assembly,' 1043. Con- 
voked by the Long Parliament in Hen. 
Vll.'schapel, Westminster, to reconstruct 



the Church of England. Episcopacy 
was abolished, and Presbyterianism sub- 
stituted in its place. Above 3,000 of the 
clergy refused to submit, were ejected 
from their benefices, and pensioned off 
with a fifth part of their clerical incomes. 
In 1G44, ten of the assembly and thir- 
teen presbyters were told off to ordain 
ministers to these vacancies. The As- 
sembly was dissolved in 1049. It was 
this assembly which put forth the 
* Assembly's Larger and Shorter Cate- 
chisms ' for the use of the people. This 
assembly was a spiritual court, with 
jurisdiction over all affairs pertaining 
to religion or morals. 

Assembly of Notables [The), 
An assembly of the princes of the blood, 
and the chief nobility, magistrates, and 
clergy, convened occasionally in times of 
trouble to consult with the king on 
matters of state. Every member of the 
assembly was named and invited by 
the king. It jDossessed no legislative or 
executive functions. Assembled for the 
first time in 13G9, under the summons of 
Charles V. of France. 

They were again convoked" in 1470, and met at 
Tours. Again in 1526, and met at Cognac Again 
in 15G0, and met at Fontainebleau. Again in 16G1, 
and met at St. Germain. Again in 1566, and mot 
at Moulins. Again in 1596, and met at Rouen. 
Again in 1626, and met at Paris ; but the two best 
Ivnown were those convened at Versailles 22 Feb., 
1787, and 12 Dec. 1788. 

Assent {Royal) to bills which have 
passed the House of Commons and 
House of Lords is given, either personally 
in the House of Lords or by letters 
patent. After the title of the bill has 
been read by the clerk of the crown, the 
clerk of the parliament says (if it is a 
bill of supply) ' Le roi ' (or ' La reyne ' ) 
' remercie ses bons sujets, accepte leur 
bienveillence, et ainsi le vault.' If a 
public bill, not of supply, he says ' Le 
roi (la reyne) le veult.' If &,private^\\\ 
he says ' Soit fait comme il est desire.' 

If the royal assent is withheld, the 
announcement is made by the words 
' Le roi s'avisera,' but the last instance 
of such a refusal was by William III. in 
1693. 

One would think it is time for the monarchs of 
England to speak English, and not old French. 

Assessors [The). Since the Muni- 
cipal Corporations Act of ' 1835, two 
officers chosen by the burgesses to assist 
the mayor in revising the burgess lists. 



51 



ASSIDIANS 



ASSIZE 



Assid'ians, or 'Cliasidim.' A set 
of zealous defenders of the unity of 
God, against the attempts of Antiochus 
Epiphanes and his successors to force 
the Jews into idolatry. Mattathias 
headed the Chasidim for four years, 
afterwards Judas Maccabaeus assumed 
the chief command. 

' Chasidim ' means pietists. 

Assien'to. A Spanish treaty con- 
ferring on some foreign nation a monopoly 
in the negro slave-trade. In 1713 the 
exclusive right of importing negroes to 
Spanish America was transferred from 
France to England, and was made over 
by government to the South Sea Com- 
pany for thirty years. In 1748 the 
English company relinquished its right 
(which had still four years to run) on the 
payment of 100,000Z., and the concession 
of certain commercial advantages. 

The Spanish name of this treaty is ' El Asiento 
de los Negros.' 

Assien'to Company [of England], 
1713. I. Under the Treaty of Utrecht. 
This English company had the monopoly 
or exclusive privilege of supplying the 
Spanish West Indies and the South 
American colonies with slaves. The 
queen (Anne) had one-fourth of the pro- 
fits of this traffic in human blood. 
Abolished (1807) by 47 Geo. III. c, 36. 
The word means *a treaty,' and is 
applied to a compact between Spain and 
some foreign nation. 

II. [of France], 1702. The French 
Guinea Company took the name of the 
* Assiento Company,' when Philip V. of 
Spain granted them the exclusive right 
of importing 4,800 negroes of both sexes 
annually for ten years to the continent 
and islands of Spanish America. 

Assignats, 9 Sept., 1790, recalled 18 
July, 1796. French government notes. 
The .National Assembly confiscated all 
the church lands, but being unable to 
sell them, kept them as national property, 
and issued paper money to the amount 
of 400,000,000 livres, making the church 
lands security for the repayment. These 
assignats were negotiable like our bank 
notes, and were generally for 100 francs 
(4Z.) each, though some were as low as 
5 francs. In June 1798, this paper money 
was worth only one-third of its nominal 
value; and in March 1796, an English 
sovereign would have bought 7,200 francs 



worth of assignats. They were then 
bought in by the French government at 
the rate of one franc in specie for 30 
francs in paper. 

It is said that the entire amount of assignats 
issued represented 45,578,000,000 francs, t.c. 

1,823,000,000(. sterling. 

Pronounce As'-sin-yahs'. 

Assistors {The Coimcil of). The 
same as the ' Council of Adjutators' {q.v.). 

Assize of Arms, 1181. The substi- 
tution of the old military obligation of 
every freeman to serve in defence of the 
realm in lieu of feudal retainers. By this 
law, everyknight was forced to arm himself 
with coat of mail, shield, and lance ; every 
freeJiolder with lance and hauberk ; every 
hurgess and poorer freeman with lance 
and iron helmet. This universal military 
levy was wholly at the disposal of the king 
for purposes of military defence. 

Assize of Battle. Trial by combat. 

Assize of Bread {The), 1214. A 

public price set upon bread according to 
its weight, from the reign of John to that 
of George IV., 1S24. 

Assize of Clarendon {The), 11G6. 
A law in the reign of Henry II. which 
revived the old English system of mutual 
security or frank pledge to provide for the 
good order of the realm. By this law no 
stranger could remain in any place more 
than one night, without giving sureties 
for his good conduct ; and twelve men in 
every hundred, with four from each town- 
ship, were sworn to report known crimi- 
nals or evildoers within their district, that 
they might be brought to trial by ordeal. 
This is the foundation of our ' grand 
jury ' system. 

Assize of Jerusalem ( The). ' Les 
Assises de Jerusalem,' 1099: A body of 
laws promulgated by Godfrey, the ' De- 
fender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre.' 
Gibbon calls it ' a precious monument of 
feudatory jurisprudence.' 

Assize of TTorthampton {The), 
1176. An expansion of the Assize of 
Clarendon, By this assize Henry II. 
divided the kingdom into six districts or 
circuits, to each of which he assigned 
three itinerant judges. Appeals from the 
judges might be made to the king him- 
self in council. This is the basis of our 



ASSOCIATE 



ASTROLOGERS 



65 



Privy Council, and the equitable juris- 
diction of our lord cliancellor. 

Associate Presbytery (The), 
1733. Those who separated from the 
establishment in Scotland under Eben- 
ezer Erskine assumed this name, but they 
were generally called Seceders. 

Associated Patriots {The), 1821. 
The Car])oriari of France. After the July 
Revolution, 1830, the society assumed 
the name of the ' Charbonnerie De'mo- 
cratique.' 

Associated Synod {The), or 'Asso- 
ciate Synod,' 1740. Separatists from the 
General Assembly of Scotland, led by the 
Rev. Ebenezer Erskine and his brother 
Ralph. They objected to the law of the 
assembly made in 1732, ' that if a patron 
neglected to fill up a vacancy within six 
months, the elders should select a candi- 
date, subject to the veto of the presby- 
tery. Erskine insisted that the appoint- 
ment of ministers belonged to the people, 
and that heritors and elders had no right 
to interfere. Now merged in the United 
Presbyterian Church. 

Association Bill {The), 1829. A 
bill to suppress the Catholic Association 
of Ireland preparatory to the introduc- 
tion of a bill for Catholic emancipa- 
tion.' 

Association for Discounte- 
nancing Vice {The), 1800. In Ireland. 
The masters and mistresses were to be 
Protestants, and the reading of Scriptures 
was part of the daily curriculum. Tlie 
chui'ch catechism was taught, and no 
other religious catechism was allowed. 

Association of Russian 

Knights {The). A secret Russian 
society formed in the reign of Czar Alex- 
ander I. Its object was to put an end to 
the abuses of the interior administration 
of the empire. Being informed that the 
Czar intended to restore Poland, the so- 
ciety resolved to assassinate him. On 
mature reflection the scheme was aban- 
doned, and the society was reorganised as 
' the Union of Public Good.' 

Association of the 'North {The), 
otherwise called the ' Association of 
St. Petersburg.' A secret society organ- 
ised in 1823. It consisted of believers 
and adherents, the former being the 
founders from whom three presidents 



were elected, and the latter members ad- 
mitted by the believers. The object was 
Ultimately to convert Russia into a re- 
public, but this was to be done gradually, 
and for the nonce the czar was to be re- 
duced to a monarch with similar powers 
to the American president. The Emperor 
Alexander I. was to be assassinated, and 
all the rest of the royal family deported 
or exiled. The assassination was fixed 
for the beginning of 1826, but the czar 
died 30 Nov., 1825. 

Assumption Day, 15 Aug. Insti- 
tuted in the 7 th cent. 

Assumption of the Virgin 
Mary {The), 7th cent. The dogma that 
the soul and body of the Virgin Mary was 
carried up to heaven by Christ and his 
angels. 

Titian's picture of the Assumption, in Venice, is 
one of the finest pictures ever painted by man. 

Assyrian Canon {The), b.c. 909- 
640. Discovered and published by Raw- 
linson in 1862. 

Asto'ria (Oregon, U.S. America). So 
called, in 1811, from Mr. Astor, merchant 
of New York, who founded here a fur- 
trading station. The adventure of this 
merchant forms the subject of Washing- 
ton Irving's ' Astoria.' 

Astral Body {The),or linga sharira, 
the third principle. A semblance of the 
human form, fully inhabited by its higher 
principles. It can migrate to any dis- 
tance from the physical body. The 
Scotch ' double ' is a sort of linga 
sharira. 

Astral Spirits. The supposed 
spirits which pervade the stars, each star 
having its own spirit, (or soul). Paracel- 
sus taught that every human being had 
an astral spirit ; hence the influence of a 
person's particular star on his life. 

Astrologers. The most noted are : 
Tommaso Pisano, father of the cele- 
brated Christina Pisano (*-1380) ; 
Johann Miiller Regiomontanus, German 
(1436-1476); Johann Stoffler, German 
(1452-1531); Cardan (1501-1576); Nos- 
tradamus (1503-1566) ; Count Cosmo 
Ruggieri, astronomer to Catharine di 
Meclici (16th cent.) ; Philip and Matthieu 
Laensberg (17th cent.). The chief astro- 
nomers between Ptolemy and Kepler 
believed in astrology. 



66 



ASTRONOMY 



ATTABEGS 



The rule of the triplicities, as recommended by 
Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Diodes and Avicenna. 
Or I will begin ab hora. qiKcstiimis, as Haly, Blassa- 
hala, Ganwehis, and Guido Bonatus have recom- 
mended. 

"Will you place . . . the vernacular name of Isaac 
Newton in opposition to . . . Dariot, Bonatus, 
Ptolemy, Hnly, Eztler, Dicterlck, Naibob, Harturt, 
Zael, Taustettor, Agrippa, Duretus, Maginus, 
Origen, and Argol V— Sir W. SCOTT, Guy Mannering, 
chap. iii. 

Astronomy and Experimental 
Philosophy {Professorship of). In 
the University of Cambridge, 1704 ; 
founded by Dr. Plume, archdeacon of 
Eochester. Stipend 800^. a year, ex- 
clusive of fees. The professor is called 
the Plumian Professor. See ' Sheep- 
shanks Exhibition.' 

At'abeks {The), i.e. 'Father of the 
Princes,' 11th and 12th cent. A title 
assumed by certain emirs, governors of 
provinces, who, under the Seljuks, 
usurped supreme power. The chief 
were : (1) The Atabeks of Irak, founded 
by Omad Eddin Zenghi. This dynasty 
lasted from 1127 to 1218. (2) The Ata- 
beks or Attabegs of Farsistan, who ruled 
over Persia (1148-1264), and were driven 
out by Hulagou ; (3) the Atabeks of Ader- 
bai'djan (1169-1225) ; (4) the Atabeks of 
Laristan, the last of whom, named Eok- 
neddin, died 1339. See ' Attabegs.' 

Ateliers ISTationaux, 1848. Na- 
tional workshops for unemployed opera- 
tives. The works were generally useless, 
badly done, and dearly paid for. In 
Paris they proved an utter failure ; and 
similar attempts in England and Ireland 
have always been fruitful sources of dis- 
content and rebellion. 

Pronounce At-tel'-e-a Nas'-se-o-no'. 

Atella'nas, 'Fab'ulse Atella'nfe,' or 
' Ludi Osci.' First introduced into Rome 
from Atella in Campania. Called ' Ludi 
Osci ' because the two chief characters 
(Macchus and Bucco) spoke Oscan and 
represented Oscan characters. They 
were, like our after-pieces, extravagant 
and droU. 

Athana'sian Creed (r7?-e), between 
426 and 430. Probably composed in 
France by Hilary, bishop of Aries. It 
was originally composed in Latin, but 
our version is from a Greek trar_slation. 

It was originally called 'the Catholic Faith,' 
but in C40 it was called 'the Athanasian Creed,' 
not meaning the creed composed by Athanasiiis, 
but the creed which sets forth the views of Atha- 
nasius, the great opponent of Arius. It was 
received in Italy, 700; in the churches of France 



In G70 ; in Germany about 7^7 ; in England about 
800, and in Home not before 930 or 1014. 

Athana'sians. Those who, like 
Athanasius (296-373), believe there are 
three persons (the Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost) in the one undivided Godhead ; 
that all the three are co-equal and 
eternal, ' none afore or after other,' and 
that the Holy Ghost proceeded from ilie 
Father and the Son. 

The Athanasian Creed was not composed by 
Athanasius, but expresses his opinions respecting 
the Trin.*»y. It wa8_not received in the Latin 
Church till 9:^0 or lOliJ and was never sanctioned 
by any council. 

Athenasum. I. Founded in Rome 
by Hadrian A.r). 103. 

II. The London weekly jouraial esta- 
blished in January 1828. 

III. The club so called in Pall Mali, 
founded in 1824. 

Athenian Confederacy {The)^ 

B.C. 431. It contained Thessaly and 
Acarnania (in northern Greece), Corcvra, 
Zacynthus, and Naupactus. Their allies 
were Chios and Lesbos, with all the 
other islands of the ^gean Sea, except 
Melos and Thera, together with the Greek 
cities on the coast of Asia and Thrace. 

Athenian Moses {The). Plato 
(B.C. 428-347), the Greek philosopher, is 
so called by Numenius. 

Athens of India {The). Benares 
(2 syl.), 460 miles from Calcutta, the seat 
of Brahminical learning. 

Atlantic Cable {The). A cable 
between Valentia in Ireland and Heart's 
Content in Newfoundland, successfully 
laid in 1866. Many laid since. 

Atlantic Telegraphs. Tolegraphio 
cables used for sending telegraphic 
messages across the Atlantic. In com- 
munication with all the telegraphs of the 
two worlds. 

At'omic Theory (T7i^). The 'laws 
of combining proportion,' discovered by 
Dalton and expressed in four laws : 
(1) that of constant proportions ; (2) that 
of reciprocal proportions; (3) that of 
multiple proportions ; and (4) that of 
compound proportions. 

At'tabegs {The). /See ' Attabeks.' 

Attabcg is from ' Atta,' a master or tutor, and 
'Beg,' or 'Boy,' a lord, a kind of 'mayor of tlia 
palace.' 



ATTACOTTI 



ATUA 



57 



Attacot'ti, or ' Attecots.' The Irish 
of prehistoric times who paid tribute to 
the Seoti. The word is a Latinised form 
of an Irish word meaning tribute-paj'ers. 
The insurgent peasantry who assas- 
sinated Frederick the Just of Ireland 
were Attacots, and the word is applied • 
to disturbers of the peace even in North 
Britain. 

Attaeot 'tic Rebellion (T/ie). A 

prehistoric rebellion of the Attacotti or 
tributaries of Ireland against the Scoti, 
who were * massacred,' and a native prince 
set over the island ; succeeded by his 
son, Moran. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Attacot'tic ^Wars {The). The two 
plebeian rebellions {q-V.). 

The chief movers of those two rebellions known 
by the name of the Attacottic Wars.— T. MooKK, 
History of Ireland, vii. 151. 

At'talie "Wealth. Unexpected or 
unlooked for wealth. B.C. 133, Attains, 
the rich king of Pergamos, made the 
Romans his heirs. Queen Victoria has 
been enriched by ' Attalic wealth.' 

Atterbury's Pad. Lord Coningsby 
was so called. In the debate on the 
Occasional Conformity and Schism Bill 
in 1718, Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, 
opposed the bill, and said, * I prophesied 
last winter the bill would be brought 
forward, and I am sorry to find my words 
have come true.' Lord Coningsby inso- 
lently retorted : ' The right reverend 
speaker has set himself forth as a pro- 
phet ; but, for my part, I know no prophet 
to liken him to, unless to that famous 
proj)het Balaam, who was rej^roved by 
his own ass.' To this the bishop replied : 
' I am well content to be compared to 
the prophet Balaam, but I am sure I 
have been reproved by nobody but his 
lordship.' 

Attic Moses {The). Plato (b.c. 
428-347). 

Attic Orators {The Ten), i. ^s- 
chines (b.c. 398-31-1) ; ii. Andocides 
(467-391); iii. Antiphon (died 411); 
iv. Demosthenes (385-322) ; v. Dinarchos 
(361-293); vi. Hj^erides (396-322); vii. 
Isffios (flo. 420-348) ; viii. Isocrates (436- 
338) ; ix. Lycurgos, not the lawgiver 
(396-323) ; x. Lysias (458-378). 

AtticLlS {The Christian). Reginald 
Heber bishop of Calcuua (1783-1826). 



Attieus {The English). Joseph 
Addison (1672-1719). 

Who but must laugh, if such a man there be f 
Who would not smile if Attieus were he ? 

Pope, Frokvjue to the Satires. 

Attieus {The Irish). George 
Faulkner, printer and author (1700-1 775). 
So called by Lord Chesterfield. 

Attieus of Midlothian {The). 
The Right Honourable W. E. Gladstone 
(1809- ), so called for his ' Midlothian 
speeches,' which obtained for him the 
premiership in 1880. 

At'tila le petit. Thiers, the French 

historian (1797-1877). 

He was also nicknamed ' Tamerlan k lunettes ' ; 
' Came'li on ; ' General Bonne ' ; and ' Le Hoi des 
Versailleux." 

Attorney-General {The). A 
ministerial officer of the crown at an 
annual stipend of 7000Z. He is appointed 
by letters-patent, and stands in relation 
to the sovereign as any other attorney 
does to his employer. His duties are to 
conduct prosecutions for such grave 
offences as tend to disturb the state ; to 
advise the heads of other ministerial 
departments on legal points ; to conduct 
all suits relating to the public revenue 
or charitable endowments in which the 
crown has a right to interfere; and, in 
short, to act in all things as the legal 
adviser of the sovereign. 

The stipend of the Solicitor-General is6,0C0f.; 
but both these law'j-ers are paid extra fees for 
'contentious business,' according to the usual 
professional scale. 

Attorney-G-eneral of the Lan- 
tern {Procureur general de la Lan- 
terne). Camille Desmoulins (1762-1794), 
one of the chief instigators of the French 
Revolution, when those obnoxious to the 
mob were hanged on the street lamp-ropes. 
Pronounce At- ur'-ney. f 

Attroupement (3 syl.). A political 
or party meeting in the public streets or 
squares, like those in Trafalgar Square, 
London, in 1887-1888. By the French 
law, till April 1831, they were declared 
unlawful, and if persisted in, after due 
notice, the military dispersed them. 
Those apprehended might be imprisoned 
for two years, at the discretion of the 
magistrates. 

At'ua (plu. Ahias). The Elohim of 
the Tongans, including (1) the original 
gods ; (2j the souls of nobles ; (3j the 
souls of metabooles or vassals, which 



58 



AUBAINE 



AUGSBUEG 



appear as ghosts to relatives; (4) the 
souls of attendants and serfs ; (5) the 
Atua-pow, the mischievous gods ; and 
(6) the Mooi, or god which supports the 
earth. (Mariner, vol. ii. p. 127.) 

Aubaine (2 syl.). The right of 
French kings to the property of every 
foreigner who died in France without 
being naturalised. Abolished by the 
National Assembly in 1790; re-estab- 
lished by Napoleon in 1804 ; and finally 
annulled on 14 July, 1819. 

Auehterar'der Case {The), 1834- 
1843. The great test case of the cele- 
brated ' Voluntary Controversy ' {q.v.) 
of Scotland. The question was this : 
Is the congregation to give a ' Call ' or 
invitation to its pastor, or has the Kirk a 
right to appoint any minister it thinks 
proper? A vacancy occurred in the 
parish of Auchterarder, containing 3,000 
souls. In a congregation of 300, only 
two persons signed ' the Call,' and the 
kirk pronounced it insufficient. The 
House of Lords was appealed to, and 
confirmed the decision of the kirk, but 
when the kirk selected a minister, the 
court of sessions interfered. The kirk 
commanded the presbytery to proceed 
with the presentation, and it did so, but 
was summoned at the bar of the civil 
courts, and the candidate was prohibited 
from preaching in the church. This 
controversy went on till 18 May, 1843, 
when 470 clergymen withdrew from the 
General Assembly, and constituted 
themselves into 'The Free Church of 
Scotland.' 

During the controversy various other eases 
occurred, as those of Dunkeld, Lethendy, Strath- 
bogie, &c. 

Audaeism, 838. The heresy of 
Audseus or Udo of Mesopotamia, who 
insisted that God had a human form. 
At that early period he accused the 
clergy of worldliness and impurity of 
morals. Udo died a.d. 370. 

Audi'ans, or ' Audseans.' Same as 
Quartodecimans {q.v.). 

The same capital punishment ■was inflicted on 
the Audians or Quartodecimans who should dare 
to perpetrate the atrocious crime of celebrating 
on an improper day the febtival of Easter.— 
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, &c., chap, xxvii. 

Audit Ale. Extra strong ale, sup- 
posed to be provided for an audit feast, 
when the college accounts are audited. 



It is, however, sold at the butteries of 
Cambridge University at any time. 

Audley Street, London. So 
named from Mr. Hugh Audley, a barrister 
of the Inner Temple, who bought the 
ground thereabouts for building pur- 
poses. He began with 200Z., and at 
death, in 1662, left a property worth 
400,000Z. 

Aughton Pudding Feast. Held 

every twenty-one years at Aughton, near 
Ormskirk, in Lancashire. About a 
century ago a firm of wand weavers con- 
structed for their trade an immense 
oblong boiler, which was inaugurated by 
cooking therein a large plum-pudding of 
a ton weight (20 feet long and 6 feet 
thick). In 1886 (16 June) the pudding 
weighed 1,000 lbs., and was provided by 
public subscription. 

Augsburg {Diet of). See under 
' Diet.' 

Augsburg (Trmi;?/ of), 22 Sept., 1555. 
Also called the ' Religious Peace of Augs- 
burg, in which full liberty of worship 
was confirmed. Lutherans and Catholics 
were declared alike eligible to all offices 
of state, and to seats in the imperial diets. 
Every ruler was allowed to sanction what 
form of religion he chose in his own pro- 
vince, but all were to tolerate those who 
held different views. 

Augsburg Confession (r/je). The 

statement of the doctrines of Luther and 
his disciples, handed in to Charles V.,who 
had convoked a diet at Augsburg to re- 
ceive it, 8 April, 1530. The first part 
contained 21 articles of faith and doctrine ; 
and the second part contained 7 articles 
on disputed points: as (1) on the two 
kinds of the eucharistic sacrament ; (2) 
on the marriage of priests ; (3) on the 
mass ; (4) on confession ; (5) on distinc- 
tions of meat ; (6) on conventual vows ; 
and (7) on the authority of bishops. 

The ' confession ' is no longer an exponent ol the 
theological views of German Protestants. 

Augsburg Interim (T/te). The 
provisionary settlement of the points in 
dispute between the Lutherans and 
Roman Catholics, till they could be finally 
settled by a general council. The Augs- 
burg Interim was held at Augsburg in 
1548, by order of Charles V. A compro- 
mise was agreed to, but in 1552 it was 
declared to be unsatisfactory, and another 



AUGUST 



AUGUSTAN 



69 



compromise was made at Leipsic, called 
the ' Leipsic Interim.' 

August, 31 days. This month oxii^ht 
to be 30 days. Thus: Ma.Ych 31, A2)ril '60, 
May 31, Ju?ie 30, July 31, Avgust 30, &c. ; 
but when the Latin month Sextllis was 
named August, in honour of Augustus 
(as the month QuintTlishad been changed 
to July in honour of Julius), court flattery 
could not allow the Augustan month to 
be shorter than the Julian month, so the 
short month was shifted to Sept., and the 
symmetry of tlie Calendar was destroj'ed. 
September was the birth-month of Augus- 
tus, but August (Sextilis) was his lucky 
month. Tlius he held his triumph for his 
Illyrian, Actium, and Alexandrian vic- 
tories in Aug. B.C. 29, and was made 
emperor the same month. He died 
19 Aug., 14 B.C. 

Au<5USt 1. The anniversary of the 
accession of the house of Hanover. 

August 4 (1789). When the Na- 
tional Assembly of France, in one sitting, 
abolished all privileges formulated in 19 
articles, and presented their measure to 
the king. It included : — 

The abolition of all serfdom, seignorial 
dues, and seignorial jurisdictions. 

The suppression of exclusive rights of 
hunting, shooting, keeping warrens, dove- 
cotes, &c. 

The abolition of tithes, sales of offices, 
and monopolies. 

The equalisation of taxes. 

The eligibility of every citizen to any 
civil or military office. 

The suppression of all privileges granted 
to towns or provinces. 

Such an amount of legislation in one night is 
wholly unparalleled. 

August 10 (1792). 'La sanglante 
journe'e du 10 aout,' called by Legendre 
•the glorious 10th of August.' The 
Tuileries were stormed by the Paris mob. 
Mandat, commander of the National 
Guard, was assassinated by the mob. 
Danton, Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and 
Collet d'Herbois usurped the municipal 
functions, dubbing themselves ' Les Com- 
missaires de la Commune.' The Swiss 
guard was assassinated by the Paris mob. 
The king (Louis XVI.), the queen (Marie 
Antoinette), and her three children, were 
saved alive, for a time, by the National 
Assembly. They were sent to the Temple. 
The National Convention was formed, 



consisting of Servan, (minister of war; 
Roland (of the interior) ; Claviere, (of 
finance) ; Monge (of marine) ; Lebrun (of 
foreign affairs) ; and Danton (of justice). 
Santerre was made commander of the 
National Guard, in place of Mandat, and 
an ' E xtraord inary Tribune' was appointed 
to examine into the offences of the Bloody 
Tenth of August. 

August 15. French history. The 
birthday of Napoleon I., and while the 
empire lasted considered a national holi- 
day. It was on 15 Aug., 1806, that he 
was surnamed ' The Great ' ; that he re- 
pealed the republican calendar ; that he 
appointed the cathedral of St. Denis the 
place of sepulchre for the emperors of the 
French ; that he converted the Pantheon 
into the church of Ste.-Genevieve ; that he 
created his brother Joseph king of the 
Two Sicilies ; his brother Louis king of 
Holland ; his brother-in-law Murat grand 
duke of Cleves and Berg; gave his step- 
son Beauharnais in marriage to a Bava- 
rian princess ; and bestowed imperial fiefs 
on his great ministers and generals ; that 
he united fourteen princes of the south 
and west of Germany into the ' Confed- 
eration of the Rhine ' ; and appointed the 
day a national festival for ever. Napo- 
leon III. used to keep it magnificently. 

Neither of the two emperors was buried in the 
cathedral of St. Denis. Both died in exile. 

Augusta. The 2nd Roman Legion, 
A.D. 50. The Romans made the ' civitas 
Trinobantum ' a station for this legion, 
and called the station Augusta. Tacitus 
in his Annals calls it Londinum. Now 
din is Keltic for town, and LoJt, if the o 
is also corrupt for y or i, would be lyn or 
lljm, which means in Keltic a pool or 
body of water, so that Llyn-din means 
the water-town, or town on the pool. 

Liver-pool seoms to give colour to this etymo- 
los<v (another plausible suggestion is Lion, cheer- 
ful or gay). 

August ales Sodales, about a.d. 17. 
An order of priests instituted by Tiber- 
ius. 

Pronounce Aug-us-tay'-leez So-day'-leez. 

Augustan Age of China (TJte). 
The reign of Tae-tsong, son of Kao-tsou, 
founder of the 13th Imperial dynasty. 
Tae-tsong is called the Solomon of China 
(62G-650). 

Augustan Age of England (T/ie). 
The reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714) 
also called the Silver Age, the Golden 



60 



AUGUSTAN 



AULIC 



Age being the reign of Elizabeth. By far 
the foremost name is that of Sirlsaac New- 
ton, and of commanders, John Churchill 
(duke of Marlborough). The poets were 
Congreve, Garth, Gay, Parnell, Philips, 
Pope, Prior, Eowe, and Swift. The other 
authors were Addison, Barnes, George 
Bull, Anthony Collins, Jeremy Collier, 
Roger Cotes, Defoe, Dodwell, Flamsteed, 
George Hickes, Dr. John Jeffery, John 
Norris, Ray, South, Steele, &c. Wren, 
Archibald Pitcairn, and Sir Cloudesley 
Shovel also lived in this reign. Except 
Pope and Gay, the poets have no high 
standing, and of the miscellaneous class, 
Addison and Defoe are the best known. 

Augustan Age of France {The). 

The middle period of the reign of 
Louis XIV., while Colbert was his chief 
minister (1619-1G83). 

Augustan Age of Germany 

(The). The 19th century. 

Augustan Age of Hindiistan 

(The). The reign of Vikramaditya, sur- 
named Sv^kari (or foe of the Sakas), B.C. 56. 

It is an anachronism to speak of an Augustan 
ago before the reign of Augustus. 

Augustan Age of Persia (The). 
That of Artaxerxes (b.c. 4G4-425), about 
which time historians, philosophers, poets, 
painters and sculptors of peculiar merit 
flourished. 

Augustan Age of Portugal 

{The). The reign of Dom Affonso Henri- 
quez (1094, 1137-1185). In this reign 
Brazil was occui:)ied ; the African coast 
was explored; the sea-route to India was 
traversed ; Camoens flourished, &c. 

Augustan Era {The). Began 14 
Feb., B.C. 27. 

Augustine {The Bule of St.) — in- 
cluded : absolute obedience ; personal 
poverty ; universal charity, and perfect 
chastity, both of mind and body. 

The order first appeared in England about 1105. 

Augustine . {The second St.). 
Hugues de St. Victor, who died 1140. 

Marcus Aurollus (121-180) is called the ' Augustine 
of philosophy.' 

Augus'tiies (3 syl.), or 'Augus- 
iinians,' 1257. I. Some thirty monastic 
fraternities were so called, not because 
they were founded by St. Augustine, but 
because Pope Alexander IV. imposed 



on them the rule of St. Augustine (13th 
cent.). 

II. An order of nuns w^hich claimed 
descent from a convent founded by St. 
Augustine at Hippo, of which his sister 
was abbess. Till 1G32 they wore a black 
habit, but it was then changed to a 
violet. Their special office was the 
charge of hospitals and the sick. 

Augustin'ian Canons. Those 
who lived under the rule {kanu/i) of St. 
Augustine. Their dress was a long 
black cassock, having a white rochet 
over it, covered with a black cloak and 
hood. See ' Austin Friars.' 

Augusti'nus, 1640. A work by 

Cornelius Jansen (1586-163S), just com- 
pleted before he died, and which proved 
the occasion of a religious controversy 
the most important in its doctrinal, 
social, and political aspects since the 
Reformation. Its object was to show 
that the teaching of St. Augustine waa 
in direct opposition to that of the Jesuits 
on the subjects of grace, frey will, pre- 
destination, and pelagianism. It was 
inhibited by the Jesuits in 1641. In 
1642 Pope Urban VIII. condemned it, 
in his bull ' De Eminenti ' ; Alexander 
VII. condemned it 1656 ; but the scholars 
and divines of Port Royal defended it. 

In France, the members of Port Iloyal (q.v.) were 
Janscnists ; those of the Sorbonne (q.v.) were 
bitterly opposed to the 'Augustinus,' and issued 
seven allegations to prove it to be heretical. These 
seven allegations were reduced to five. 

Augustus and Csesar. For above 
1,000 years, from Vespasian to Alexius 
Comnenus, ' Augustus ' was the title 
given to the sons and brothers of the 
reigning monarch, and ' Ctesar ' was the 
next in rank. The imperial wife, mother, 
sisters, and daughters were ' Augusta.' 
Only the emperor could assume the 
purple or red buskin. The buskins of a 
' Ctesar ' were green. 

In the reign of Diocletian the two viceroys of 
lUyricum and Gaul were entitled ' Cajsar,' and 
the two emperors of Rome and Constantinople 
were each 'Augustus,' A.D. 29-2; but this arrange- 
ment soon lapsed aiter the death of that emperor. 
The Roman senate gave Octavius the title of 
' Augustus.' 

Auletes. Ptolemy X. of Egypt waa 
so called for his skill in playing on the 
flute (B.C. 65-51.) 

Pronounce Au-le'-tec-z. 

Au'lic Council. The supreme 
tribunal of the German empire. . It con- 
sisted of a president, a vice-chancellor) 



AUEEA 



AUSTRO 



Gl 



and eighteen councillors. This council 
always followed the court, and was hence 
the aulic or court tribunal (Latin, aula., 
the court or palace). It was instituted 
in 1501 by Kaiser Maximilian, and was 
suppressed in 1806, when the empire was 
reconstructed ; but there are still ' aulic 
councillors ' in Austria. 

Au'rea Bulla, or Golden Bull of 
Hungary. The Magna Charta of that 
kingdom, granted in 1222 by Andrew II., 
just seven years after King John signed 
the Magna Charta of England. By 
article 31 it was xjrovided that, if a king 
violated any of the principles of the 
Golden Bull, his subjects might depose 
him, or take up arms against him with- 
out being guilty of treason. This article 
was cancelled in 1705 by Josej)h I. Like 
John, Andrew was a bad king ; and, like 
Jolui, he neither observed lids Aurea 
Bulla nor intended so to do. 

Auro'ra {Missa de). The second 
mass on Christmas Day, the first being 
the Missa de node, or midnight mass, 
and the third high mass. See ' Mass.' 

Sir Walter Scott says, ' On Christmas Eve the 
mass was sung.' and he has been accused of an 
oversight, inasmuch as no mass is ever said or 
Bung al nighttime. But Cassianus ('Instit.' book 
ii. c. 13) says, ' Quare post missam nocturnam 
dormire non oporteat.' Again, 'Missa de E.x- 
ceptato ' is defined by Du Cange as the mass ' qviiB 
die vigiliam Natalis Domini prtecedente cantatur, 
ande eadem Prtrparatio ad Vfspcram Natalis Domini 
vocatur in Missali Gothico.' Cassianus says 
again (c. 7) : ' Missa Canonica celebrata usque ad 
lucem post vigilias extondunt.' However, the 
'Missa de nocte.' we are told, was only tci/MH be- 
fore midnight ; the ' sacrifice ' must be in the 
morning after the clock has struck 12. 

Austin Friars, or 'Begging Her- 
mits,' or ' Hermits of St. Augustine.' 
Were not founded by St. Augustine, but 
had the rule of St. Augustine imposed 
on them by Innocent IV. in the middle 
of the 13th cent. In 1250 Pope Alex- 
ander IV. placed them under a superior 
called a ' general.' In 1570 Friar Thomas, 
a Jesuit, introduced a still more austere 
rule, forbidding his disciples to wear 
shoes, whence they were called ' The Bare- 
footed Friars.' 

Austria {House o/,, 1438-1745. 
Has given Germany fourteen kaisers, 
from Albert II. to Karl VII. 

Sc-netimes the house of Hohenstaufen is called 
the house of Austria, and sometimes the prejseut 
reigning emperors are also called the house of 
Austria, but ought to be called the nouse of 
Austria-Lorraine. 



Austria-Lorraine (House of). 
The present reigning family of Austria. 
This house began in 1745 with Franz or 
Francis I., who married Maria Theresa. 

Austrian Hye'na [The). Julius 
Jakob von Haynau, an Austrian general 
(1786-1853), noted for his ruthless 
cruelty towards the Hungarians, and his 
alleged flogging of women. In 1850 he 
visited the brewery of Messrs. Barclay 
& Perkins, when he was assaulted by 
the draymen, and barely escaped with 
his life. Subsequently, he received 
similar discourtesy in Belgium and 
France. Called also ' the Austrian 
butcher.' 

Austrian Lip (The). A protruding 
under- jaw, with a heavy lip disinclined 
to shut close. It came from Cimburgis, 
a Polish princess, who married Kaiser 
Friedrich III., and displayed itself in 
their son, Maximilian (I.) Hence also 
called the ' Cimburgis Under-lip.' 

A somewhat similar peculiarity occurs in the 
family of Sir Gideon Murray, of Elibank. He 
had taken prisoner a young gentleman named 
Scott, whom he was about to hang, but his wife 
induced him to commute the sentence into mar- 
riage with their daughter Meg, of ' muckle mouCh." 
Bleg made a good wife, but the muckle mouth 
descended to their posterity for many generations. 

Austrian War (The), 1859. To 
rescue Italy from the hands of Austria. 
The belligerents were France and Sar- 
dinia against Austria. France won the 
battles of Magenta and Solferino, and 
then made peace with Austria. Garibaldi 
continued the contest to a successful 
issue. 

Rome was not added to the new kingdom of 
Italy till the autumn of 1^70. Venetia was ceded 
to Italy in 1866, as the fruits of the Austro-Prussiaa 
war. 

Austro-German Treat/ of 
Alliance (The), 7 Oct., 1879. Between 
the Emperor of Austria and the Emperor 
of Germany. They agree, if either state 
IS attacked by Russia, both shall unite 
their full strength to repel it. If 
either state is attacked by any nation 
except Russia, the other shall observe 
a friendly neutrality. If Russia assists 
any other state in an attack upon either 
Austria or Germany, the two allies shall 
consider the attack as made by Russia. 
Signed at Vienna. 

In 1887 Italy joined the alliance. 

Austro-Kungarian Empire 

(The), 14 Nov., 18G8. The kaiser-king 
of Germany had to abandon hia title of 



62 



AUSTRO 



AVERROISTS 



Emperor of the "West, or of th© Holy 
Roman Emipire, in 1806, and was entitled 
' Emperor of Austria,' till 18G8, when 
he styled himself 'Emperor of Austria 
and King of Hungary and Bohemia,' 
his dominion being styled the 'Austro- 
Hungarian Empire.' 

Austro-Prussian "War (The), 
1866. Called the Seven Weeks' war. 
Won by Prussia. The chief victories 
were the battles of Custozza, Langen- 
salza, Sadowa, and Olmutz. By this vic- 
tory Prussia became the chief power of 
Germany, and Austria was entirely ex- 
cluded therefrom. Total cost of the war 
66,000,000^. sterling. Total loss of hfe 
50,000. 

Authentic "Doctor {The). Gregory 

of Rimini (' Gregorius Ariminensis '), 
general of the Augustine order at Mont- 
pellier, died 1358. He wrote two books 
of ' Sentences.' 

Pierre de Lombard, who died 1160, was the great 
• Magister Sententiarum." 

Authorised Version (The), 1611. 
Means the English translation of the 
Bible, authorised to be read in churches 
by James I. Fifty-four men were ap- 
pointed by the king to bring out this 
version, but seven died or retired from 
the task. This version is often called 
' King James's Bible,' or the ' King's 
Bible.' See ' Bible.' 

The Psalms in the Common Prayer Book are 
those in the Bishops Bible, and bo were the. 
epistles and gospels till IGUI. 

The Authoxised Version was based on Tyndale's 
translation (q.v.), which passed tlirough three 
stages: (1) the publication of the Great Bible 
(1539-1541), in the reign of Henry VIII. ; (-2) the 
publication of the Bishops' Bible (15(58-1572), in the 
reign of Elizabeth ; (3) the publication of the 
King's Bible, in lull, in the reign of James 1. Re- 
Tised 1870-1684, in the reign of Victoria (published 
1885). 

Auto da Fd (plu. 'Autos da Fe'). 
An act of faith. In the Catholic Church 
a day was held by the Spanish Inquisition 
to examine into the faith of a supposed 
heretic. If innocent, the accused was 
absolved ; if guilty, he was handed over to 
the secular power to be put to death, 
generally by burning at the stake. The 
sentence of the court and the session 
also are both called ' Autos da f e.' 

Burning of heretics symbolised hell fire, to which 
heretics were consigned by the Church. 

In Portugal it was customary to erect 
a vast theatre capable of holding 3,000 
spectators, and the accused were brought 



forward one by one to hear judgment. 
Those who were brought in their own 
clothes paid a fine and were discharged ; 
those who wore a ' Sambenito ' — that 
is, a straight yellow coat without sleeves, 
charged with a St. Andrew's cross — had 
to forfeit all their effects, but their lives 
were spared ; those who had their ' Sam- 
benito ' decorated with red serge patches 
resembling flames, without a cross, were 
discharged, but warned, if ever they re- 
lapsed, they would be delivered to the 
flames ; those, lastly, who had the ' Sam- 
benito ' decorated with flames and devils 
were condemned to die. The place of 
execution in Portugal is called ' Roussi.' 

Pronounce Awe'-to-dah-fay'. 

Auxiliary "War {The), b.c. 214-200. 

Between the Romans and the last Philip 
of Macedon. The Romans were the 
victors. 

Avaricious Tyrant. Mauritius, 

emperor of the East (582-602). This was 
a mere pun. Mauritius refused to pay 
Chagan, king of the Avfiri, four oboli a 
head for the prisoners taken by him in 
war, in 587. This refusal not only fixed 
on him the ill name, but also lost him 
his crown and empire. 

Avengers {The). A Fenian society 
organised by Burton, of which he was 
himself the ' supreme head.' It consists 
of the most desperate of the Irish faction, 
bound by oath to murder any one the 
society wishes to be removed. Burton 
was condemned to penal servitude for 
life in May 1885. See ' Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

Aver'roism. The doctrines of 
Averroes, the Arabian philosopher, that 
the soul is not an individual possession, 
but i)art of a Universal Intellect diffused 
through the whole world. A sort of pan- 
theism. See ' Averroists.' 

Aver'roistS. Of Seville, Cordova, 
and Fez. Disciples of Averroes, the 
Arabian philosopher and expositor of 
Aristotle (1119-1225). He taught the 
doctrine of evolution, or that every 
existing form has been developed from 
some previous one ; that each individual 
is a part or limb of the great mundane 
whole, and that this mundane whole is 
animated by a General Intelligence or 
' Auima Muudi,' and ultimately all 
existences will be reabsorbed in deity. 



AVIGNON 



BABINGTON 



G3 



Of course he denied what we call * the 
human soul,' for the ' Anima Mundi ' was 
general and not particular, Thomas 
Aquinas combated this doctrine, which 
was condemned by the University of 
Paris in 1240, and by the Lateran Council 
in 1512. The Averroists were opposed 
to the Alexandrists (q-v.). 

Avignon Captivity (The), 1309- 
1376. When the popes resided at Avignon 
in France, instead of at Home. 

Avignon, pronounce Av'-vin-y6ng'. 

Avignon Obedience, in the great 
Western schism, means obedience to 
the Avignon pope. As obedience to 
the pope of Kome is called ' Koman Obe- 
dience.' See above. 

Avocat-gdn^ral (!»')• A magistrate 
attached to the ministry of France, and 
charged to defend the law and public 
order. 

Pronounce AV-vo-kah' djen'-e-rahl 

Avocats au Conseil d'Etat et 

a la Cour de Cassation. Ministerial 
officers charged to follow the procedure 
and plead for clients before the Conseil 
d'Etat and la Cour de Cassation {q.v.). 
These two courts since 10 Sept., 1817, 
have been united. Such an ' avocat ' 
must be 25 years of age, and must have 
been in the profession at least two years. 
The number is limited to sixty. 

Pronounce Av'-vo-kah' o con-say'-e da-tah'. 

Avvogado'ri (The), 1178. Three 
Venetian magistrates whose duty it was to 
watch over the public interests. In the 
courts of justice they acted as checks 
upon the administration of the law, 
and were also public accusers. In the 
councils they superintended the debates, 
and without the presence of one of the 
Avvogadori no act of any session was 
valid. The police was under their care ; 
the public disbursements passed through 
their hands ; they were the guardians of 
the public registers. (Singular, ' Avvoga- 
dore,' 5 syl.) 

Ayerst Hall, in Cambridge Uni- 
versity. Named after the Eev. W. 
Ayerst, the first principal, 1884. 

The chief object of this foundation ie to reduce 
the expense of a college education. 

Aylesbury Men {The), 1704. Mr. 
Ashby, a burgess of Aylesbury, and five 



other Aylesbury men who insisted that 
they had a right to vote for their own 
member, because they were freeholders. 
The House of Commons gave it against 
the claimants, and the House of Lords 
reversed the judgment. When the Ayles- 
bury men commenced actions against 
the constables of their town, they were 
committed to Newgate for contempt of 
the House. The queen (Anne), to cut the 
knot, dissolved the parliament, the men 
were then set at liberty, and the matter 
dropped. 

Ayoubites (3 syl.). Descendants of 
Ayoub, a Turkish dynasty which reigned 
in Egypt and Syria from 1171 to 1254. 
It was founded by Saladin, son of Ayoub, 
and was overthrown by the Mamelukes. 

Azores (2 syl.). Martin Behem, in 
1448, gave this name to these western 
islands, because he found them full of 
hawks {azor, Spanish, a goshawk). 

Aztecs. The dominant tribe of 
ancient Mexico. Their kingdom was 
founded in 1325. Allied with the Toltecs, 
they extended their kingdom of Tenoch- 
titlan (Mexico) to the Gulf of Mexico and 
the Atlantic. They were at their best in 
the 15th and 16th cents., when the Spa- 
niards arrived. The supreme god of the 
Aztecs was TaotI, and the protector of 
their nation was Huitzilopochtli. 

Az'ymites (3 syl.). Those who cele- 
brated the communion with unleavened 
bread. 

There was a tribe or province under the Saracens 
so called. Thus Robert the monk, in his ' History 
of .Jerusalem,' book vi., speaks of ' Persoe et Medi, 
Arabes et Turci, AzymitlB eC Saraceni, Curti et 
Publicani, et diversarum natiouum alii multi.' 

Babel {Tablet of the Tower of), 
1876. Discovered by Mr. George Smith. 
A tile of burnt clay impressed while 
soft with an inscription. It is much 
broken, and only four columns of writing 
out of six remain. The translation runs 
thus : — 

... of Babylon He hastens to the submission, 
Small and great He confounded the mound. 
Their walls all the day thoy founded. 
For their destruction in the night 
He did not leave a remainder. 
In His anger, secret counsel He poured out 
... to confound their speech He set His face. 
He gave the command— He made strange their 

counsel. 
They weep hot tears for Babil. . . . 
Bitterly they weep. . . 

Babington's Conspiracy, 1585. 
To murder Elizabeth, and having libe- 



64 



BABISM 



BACHAKDIANS 



rated IMary to place her on the throne 
instead. Pius V. excommunicated 
Elizabeth, and authorised all true Catho- 
lics to compass her death. Three 
priests — GiSord, Gilbert Gifford, and 
Hodgson — associated with Savage, under- 
took the assassination of the queen. 
Another priest, Ballard, afterwards 
joined the conspiracy; then Anthony 
Babington, a young man of fortune, with 
ten others (Windsor, Salisbury, Tilney, 
Tichbourne, Gage, Travers, Barnwell, 
Charnock, Dun, and Jones) ; last of all a 
man named Polly, who was, in fact, one 
of Walsingham's spies, who made his 
employer acquainted with all the pro- 
ceedings. At the fulness of time all 
were ajiprehended and executed, except 
Salisbury, who escaped abroad (20 Sept., 
158G). 

Ba'bism, 1843. A new religion 
founded in Persia by Mirza Ali Mo- 
ha,mmed, a young man who professed 
to be the real successor of Ali, the 
prophet of Iran. He told the people 
that he was the bdb (the door) through 
which all must go who enter into para- 
dise. His followers are called Bdhis. 
He condemned polygamy ; disaxDproved 
of the seclusion and veiling of women ; 
allowed believers to mix with un- 
believers ; and advocated a republican 
form of government. The royal troops 
were sent against the Babis, thousands 
were put to death, and Mirza Ali, with 
his ' apostles,' were publicly executed. 
However, Mirza Yahya, a youth of sixteen, 
was chosen successor, and the religion of 
the Bab still continues. 

It is not a little remarkable that Jesus Christ 
says of himself, 'I am the bab or door. By me if 
any man enter in, he shall be saved ' (John x.). 

Babouvism. Socialism, or the 
spoliation of land from landowners to 
distribute to those who had none ; agra- 
rian equalisation. So called from its 
author, Edouard Fleury Bcxbeuf, who 
perished on the scaffold in 1797. The 
socialistic system of this Frenchman 
bears an extraordinary likeness to the 
platform of the Irish Land League 
(1881, &c.). 

Baby Jumper {The). Bob Munton, 
who was entrusted by the Cambridge 
undergraduates with their business at 
Newmarket races (18th and 19th cent.). 



Babylon. Old Cairo was so called, as 
well as the city on the Euphrates. Thus 
we read of the fourth crusade, ' Babylon 
was proclaiined to be the destmation of 
the armament ' (Villehardouin). 

Babylonian Captivity {The). 

Lasted seventy years, from B.C. 588, 
when Jerusalem was taken by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and the people of the king- 
dom of Judah were deported to Babylon. 
On the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, 
B.C. 5o8, the captives had permission to 
return. Only a few of them returned 
with Zerubbabel in 5.36, but a second 
migration was made B.C. 458, under the 
command of Ezra ; and a third, B.C. 445, 
under Nehemiah. 

The ten tribes never returned, and they have 
been identified with the Kurds, the Afghans, the 
Nestorians, the North American Indians, the 
Angles, and many others. 

Babylonica doetrina. Astrology 
in which the Chaldoeans were especially 
skilled. 

Ne Bahylonios tentaris nutneros 
means, do not pry into futurity by astro- 
logical calculations — do not consult 
fortune-tellers. 

Bae'chiadae. The kings of Corinth, 
so called from Bacchis, who, B.C. 931, 
succeeded his father Prumnides, and 
ruled with firmness and equity. His 
descendants continued to reign in 
Corinth till B.C. 779, when the govern- 
ment of the Prytanes was established. 

Bachardians. Pantheists, so called 
from one Bachardus, of whom Hermann 
says, ' Hujus Brunonis tempore, quidam 
fuit (Deo et hominibus detestabilis) 
Bachardus nomine, speciem gerens 
magnae sanctitatis, sed plenus malitia 
homo ' (' Chron. Comit. Schawenburg,' 
p. 20). This must be taken for what it 
is worth, but most likely the word ia 
simply a corruption of Beghardians, 
Pantheists on the borders of the Rhine 
in the 12th cent., condemned by the 
Council of Vienne in 1311, and so called 
from the German hegehren (to beg), 
their fundamental law being that 
' necessaria mendicarent, quo facilius 
possint sua deliria divulgare.' These 
begging friars were also called * Fratres 
Conversi, hoc est, fratres non habentes 
domicilia ' (' Annales Colmarienses,' year 
1302). The Turlupins and German 



BACK-STAFF 



BAHARITES 



65 



Mystics of the 14th cent, were offshoots 
of the Bachards. 

Back-staiT {A). An instrument 
invented, in 1590, by Captain John 
Davis, and used for taking the sun's 
altitude at sea, before the invention of 
the quadrant and sextant. In using it, 
the observer turned his back to the sun. 

Bacon of the Hhyming Crew 

[The). John Dryden (1631-1701); so 
called by Landor. 

Badge. 

Of England, a white and red rose en- 
signed with the royal crown. (The 
crown ensigned with the initial of the 
sovereign.) 

Of Scotland, a thistle ensigned with a 
royal crown. 

Of Ireland, either a golden harp or a 
sprig of trefoil, ensigned with the royal 
crown. 

Of Wales, a dragon passant, wings 
elevated, gules, on a mount vert. 

Of Ulster, the ' bloody hand.' 

Of France, the fleur de lis. 

The white hart was the badge of Richard 11. ; the 
silver swan of the house of Lancaster ; the bear 
and ragged staff ot the earl of Warwick, and so on. 

Badger State (The). The State of 
Wisconsin, in North America. The 
natives are [^Visconsin] badgers, 

Badingueux. The party of the 
French emperor Napoleon III. The 
empress's party was called ' Monti- 
joyeux ' and ' Montijocrisses.' 

Badinguet was the name of the mason in whose 
clothes Louis Napoleon made his escape from 
Ham ; and the empress was the second daughter 
of the count of Montijo of Spain. One of the 
nicknames of the emperor was 'Badinguet.' 
See ' Napoleon III.' 

Bagarre {Day of the), 13-16 June, 
1790. A scuffle at Nismes, which lasted 
four days, between the Protestants and 
Catholics. It was political under the 
guise of religion. As many as 13i 
persons lost their lives in this senseless 
squabble. 

Bagaudae [The), a.d, 287. Rebels in 
Gaul, consisting chiefly of Roman citi- 
zens. They rose in insurrection in 287, 
but were suppressed by Maximian. 
From tlie reign of Gallienus to that of 
Diocletian the peasant class of Gaul was 
especially wretched, and, like the peasant 
class of France, tliey turned on their 



oppressors. Their numbers were sn 
formidable that town after town opened 
its gates to the rebels; but, as in the 
Jacquerie, their hostility was mainly 
directed against the upper classes. For 
a time the bagaudas tyrannised without 
control, but their power was soon 
crushed when the Roman legions were 
brought against them. 

BagaudsB.a^u/eiJetv, quodesti-rtz/ari apud Suidam. 
Boxhornius ab Hebrajo no./tiedim (rebelles\ Alta- 
serra sic dictos cnnset Bagiudas (quasi silvicolas) 
a voce iiau, qute G illis silcrni sonat. A baiiad. queb 
vox Armoricis furmam sonat, et hominum collec- 
tionem.— IJU Ca.nue. 

Bagdad' {Peace of), Oct, 1727, Be- 
tween the sultan, Ahmed III., and the 
shah, Meer Aschraf. War was renewed 
in 1730. 

Bagford Ballads {The). Sixty-four 
folio vols, deposited among the Harleian 
MSS., in the British Museum, collected 
by John Bagford, a shoemaker, book- 
seller, and i^rinter, of Great Turnstile, 
Holborn (1650-1716). 

Bagimont's Roll, 1512. See 

' Bajimont's Roll.' 

Bagnes (l syl.). French convict 
prisons. In 1748 the galleys as a punish- 
ment were abolished, and convicts were 
employed in hard labour on public worlvs, 
and lodged in bagnes. The Constituent 
Assembly of 1791 called this public labour 
travaux publics, but in the Code Napo- 
leon it is called travaux forces. 

Bagnigge "Wells. The bagnios or 
baths established in 1708, in opposition 
to the cold baths of Mr. Baiues. See 
' Cold Bath Fields.' 

Bagnolenses, or Bagnolen- 
sians. A branch of the Waldeuses, so 
named from Bagnols, a town in France, 
where they sprang up. 

Baliar'ites (3 syl,). The first of the 
Mameluke dynasty in Egypt. These 
Mamelukes were Egj^ptian slaves, Malel' 
Saleli bought 1,000, trained them to the 
use of arms, and placed them in a fortress 
on the seacoast (called in Arabic bahar'). 
They succeeded in usurping" the sovereign 
power, and Noureddin-Ali in 1254 called 
himself Sultan of Egypt. In 13(82 the 
Baharite Mamelukes were succeeded by 
the Borgites or Bordjites. 

BaharitcB in 3 syl. Borgites in i syl. 

F 



06 



BAILIES 



BALIA 



Bailies in Scotland correspond to 
aldermen in English corporations, and 
provost corresponds to our mayor. The 
Scotch Municipal Eeform Bill was passed 
18 Aug., 1840, and rendered this office 
unnecessary. 

Bailiwick (A). A district within 
which the sheriff's bailiffs may execute 
their office. A sheriff is the king's or 
queen's bailiff. The corresponding 
French word is hailliage. 

Bairak-tar {i.e. standard bearer). 
The title of the Grand Vizier Mustapha 
(1755-1808). 

Bairam (2 syl.). A Moslem festival 
in the month Shawall or Chaval, and 
following the Ramadan [q.v.) or great 
fast of four weeks' duration. The Grreat 
Bairam is the time when all true Mus- 
sulmiins are supposed to make a pil- 
grimage to Mecca at least once in their 
life. The feast of Bairam lasts four days, 
but it is preceded by a lesser Bairam of 
three days' duration, which begins on the 
first of Chaval, and puts an end to the 
fast. As the Turkish calendar consists 
of 12 lunar months, it follows that the 
months Ramadan and Chaval, in the 
course of 83 years, have run through all 
the seasons of the yea"i*. 

The Great Bai'ram, or ' festival of the sacrifices,' 
commemorates the ofiering of Abraham on Mount 
Woiiah. 

Bajimont's Roll, 1512. The Valor 
Beneficiorum,' drawn up by the clergy 
in council at Edinburgh, and giving the 
valuation on which the ecclesiastical 
benefices of Scotland were taxed from the 
close of the 13th cent, to the Reformation, 
Bo-called from an Italian, Baiamund or 
Bajimont de Vinci, sent in 1276 from 
Rome to make the valuation, and collect 
the tithes for an expedition to the Holy 
Land. 

Balaam's Ass Sunday. The 

second Sunday after Easter, when the 
story of Balaam is read in the lesson for 
the day See ' Sundays.' 

Balafre {Le), that is, the scarred one. 
So Henri, due de Guise was called, after 
receiving at Dornians (1575) a frightful 
swoi'd-cut on the face (1550-1588). 

Ludovic Lesly, an old archer in the Scotch Guard 
lit Plessis les Tours, one of the castle palaces of 
Louis IX., is called Lc lialafic in ' Quentin Dur- 
ward.' Probably Sir Walter Scott had some 
authority for the appellation. 



Balance of Power {The). That 

limitation of the European states which 
forbids any one of the nations having such 
a preponderance as to endanger the in- 
dependence of the others. In the 18th 
and first half of the lyth cent, it was a 
European principle, but is now utterly 
exploded. 

Balance of Trade {The). The dif 
ference between the aggregate amf)unt of 
the exports and imports of a nation ; or 
the difference of purchase and sale be- 
tAveen any two nations. This calculation 
no longer exists, as it leads to false con- 
clusions. 

B alb lis (the stammerer). The most 
renowned was Lucius Cornelius Balbus 
of Gades, in Spain, who served under 
Pompey the Great against Scrtorius. 
Pompey took him to Rome, B.C. 71, and 
he gained the esteem of Julius Csesar. 
Cicero defended him in an oration still 
extant. In the civil war Balbus accepted 
the management of Cassar's affairs during 
the frequent absences of the great dicta- 
tor, and to this Balbus the 8th book of 
the ' Commentaries ' is dedicated. After 
the death of Cassar Balbus served the 
consulship, B.C. 40. 

Balfour Studentship. For original 
research in biology and animal morpho- 
logy, in the University of Cambridge. 
Value 200Z. a year, tenable for three years. 
Candidates need not be members of the 
university. Founded from the memorial 
fund of Francis Maitland Balfour, fellow 
of Trinity, 1883. 

Balia. A temporary delegation of 
sovereignty to a number of dictators. 
They named the magistrates and banished 
suspected individuals, in the republics of 
Italy. Italian, balia, power. 

A balia was appointed (in Florence), for ten years 
to exclude all theAlbizi from magistracy . . . and 
this was repeated six times in twenty-one years. 
— IIallam, Miiidle Ages, vol. i. p. 540. 

When the signory has talien its place to address 
the assembly the piazza is guarded by armed men, 
and then the people are aslied if they wish to give 
balia (dictatorial power) to the citizen named. — 
SifMONDS, lienaissance in Italy. 

Balia {The Council of). The council 
which discussed and carried into effect 
every important measure of Florence 
during the Medici administration. They 
f ppointed eight men for criminal business, 
t lid this committee was called the ' Otto 
di guardia e balia.' 



BALIOL 



BAN 



67 



In Venice was a similar council con- 
vened originally only on great emergen- 
cies, but in the time of Lorenzo di Medici, 
the Balia was made permanent, and be- 
came the legislative, administrative, and 
judicial power of the republic. 

' Magistratus novem civium apud 
Senenses, qui rebus bellicis praefecti 
Bunt.' — Du Cange. 

Baliol. See ' Balliol.' 

Ball Money. Blackmail levied on 
the newly married to prevent their being 
mobbed on leaving church. Called ' ball- 
money,' because it was given ostensibly to 
buy a foot-ball for the village green, but 
probably it rarely got further than the 
nearest public-house. 

Ball put off {A). Andrew Marvell 
says, in his Satires, ' A silly fellow's death 
puts oft" the ball.' The allusion is to the 
death of the beadle of the ward, attacked, 
1672, by the Duke of Monmouth, young 
Monk (Duke of Albemarle), and eight 
others, in a drunken brawl. Charles II. 
pardoned the ruffians, but deferred the 
ball which was to have taken place at 
Whitehall the same night. 

Balliol [John). Joint claimant with 
Kobert Bruce of the throne of Scotland, 
at the death of Alexander III. He was 
great-grandson of David, but in the 
elder line. Robert Bruce was grandson, 
but in the younger line. Edward I. 
decided the claim in favour of Balliol. 

Malcolm IV. had two sons, William I. and 
David. 

From William I. descended Alexander II. (his 
Bon>, and Ale.xandeb III. (liis son), when issue 
failed. 

Then comes David, who had three daughters, 
viz. Margaret, Isa.bella, and Adama. 

]M:irgarot s daughter, Devergilda, married John 
Balliol, and had a son called John Balliol tthe 
claimuntl. 

Isabella married Eobert Bruce, and had a son 
called Icobert Linice (the claimant). 

Balliol College, 12G3. Founded 
by John Balliol of Barnard Castle, 
Durham, father of John Balliol, king of 
Scotland. The head of the college is 
called the Master. 

Ballot {Voting by). "Was first publicly 
adopted in England in the election of 
the school boards in 1870. In 1872 an 
act was passed by which ballot was 
applied to parliamentary and municipal 
elections in the United Kingdom. 

In France the ballot is used in the election of 
members of the Chamber of Deputies, and not 



unfrequently in the deliberations of the legisla- 
tive chambers. 

In the United States of America and in the 
Australian colonics almost all public elections are 
conducted by ballot. 

Baltadji. The 400 halberdiers who 
attend on the royal princes and princesses 
of Constantinople. Their colonel is 
called the ' Kizlar-agasi.' The name 
means hatchet-bearers. 

Baltimore, in Maryland, U.S. 
America. So called, in 1634, from Lord 
Baltimore, who led a colony to settle 
there. 

Bambi'no. A representation of the 
infant Christ in swaddling clothes, sur- 
rounded by a halo and watched over by 
angels. The 'Santissimo Bambino ' in 
the church of the Ara CcbH, at Rome, is 
carved in wood from Mount Olivet, and 
the likeness is attributed to Luke the 
evangelist. The festival of the Bambino 
occurs in the Epiphany. 

Bampton Lectures (Oxford Uni- 

versity), 1779. The highest distinction 
the university can bestow. The lecturer 
must be an M.A. of Oxford or Cambridge, 
and is chosen annually on the fourth 
Tuesday in Easter term by the heads of 
colleges, but no one can hold the appoint- 
ment tvv'ice. Founded by the Rev. John 
Bampton, of Trinity College, Oxford, 
who left 120Z. a year for eight lectures, 
preached in Great St. Mary's on eight 
consecutive Sunday mornings between 
Lent term and Trinity term, on the fol- 
lowing subjects : (1) Confutation of 
heresies ; (2) The divine authority of the 
Holy Scriptures ; (3) The authority of the 
Fathers; (4) The divinity of the Holy 
Ghost, and (6) The Articles of the 
Established Church as explained by the 
Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. Thirty 
copies of the sermons are printed within 
two months of their delivery. The en- 
dowment is 200Z. for the eight printed 
sermons. 

The Cambridge Hnlsean Lectures are 
of a similar character to the Oxford 
Bampton Lectures. 

Ban. An Illyrican word, hojan^lovd, 
about equal to the German margraf. 
Croatia is still a banat. There were at 
one time several others, as Dalmatia, 
Slavonia, Bosnia, Wallacliia, Bulgaria, 
Servia, &c. In tho reign of Maria 
Theresa, a ban was the third dignitary of 
F 2 



C3 



BAN 



BANDE 



the Hungarian kingdom, but on the 
erection of the vassal lands into crown 
lands in 1849, the banat of Hungary- 
ceased. Some say Slavonic Pan ^ lord. 

Jellachich, the Ban of Croatia, resolved to hold 
a Sclavonic diet at Agram on 5 June (1848;.— 
HowiTT, Hist of Engl, (year 164;), p. 56). 

Ban (A), in French history, is a call 
to arms, and the ' banlieu ' was the 
district encompassed by the call or pro- 
clamation. 

Ban and Arriere-ban. Eegulated 
in France by Louis le Gros, 1124, and 
last levied in 1672. The ' ban ' was a sum- 
mons of the king to his immediate 
vassals, calling them to his banner ; the 
' arriere-ban ' was the summons of the 
suzerain to his tenants. Sometimes the 
levy itself was called the ' ban ' or 
' arriere-ban.' See ' Bouillet ' sub voce. 

'Ban of the Empire. ' To be put 
under the ban of the empire,' in German 
history, means to be cut oft' from society, 
and deprived of rank, title, privileges, 
and property. 

Banat (A). The district under a 
ban. The ban of Croatia is the third of 
the Hungarian barons. See ' Ban.' 

Banbury Saint(^4). An overstrained 
puritan. Mr. S. R. Gardiner calls Ban- 
bury the ' most puritan of all puritan 
towns.' It is a tradition that cats who 
caught mice on Sunday in Banbury were 
hanged on Monday. 

To Banbury came I, O profane one I 

Where I saw a puritane one 
Hanging of his cat on Monday 
For killing of a mouse en Sunday. 

Vrunkeri, liarnaby. 

Banbury Story (A). An idle silly 
story. A correspondent in ' Notes and 
Queries ' (21 May, 1887, p. 404), derives 
the phrase from one William Morrell, 
, who lived at Banbury, noted for the 
wonderful tales which he told of his 
travels. He was a professor of chirur- 
gery, and was looked on by the country 
people as a prodigy. {See G ardner, ' His- 
tory and Gazetteer of Oxfordshire,' 
p. 432.) 

Banco [Sittings «'n). Now means the 
sittings of judges during term-time, when 
the several judges sit in their respective 
courts; but formerly it meant those 
judges who held their court at West- 
minster, in contradistinction to judges of 



the curia or aula regis, who followed 
the king. See ' Days in banc' 

Banco. The standard money in 
which a bank keeps its accounts, as dis- 
tinguished from the current coin of the 
locality. Thus the Hamburg bank keeps 
its account in an hypothetical' coin having 
no representative in the current coinage. 

Band of Hope, 1855. Children 
under working age — that is, about 14 — 
who have agreed to abstain from all 
intoxicating drinks. Started by the Rev. 
Jabez Tunnicliffe, of Leeds. First pre- 
sident of the union was Canon Morse, 
who was succeeded by Lord Ebury, and 
then by Samuel Morley, M.P. Stephen 
Shirley was one of the most active 
leaders, but Mr. Tmmicliife suggested 
the name. 

Band of the Heroine [The), a.d. 
618. A band raised by Lee-chee, daughter 
of Lee-chee-min, who sold all her jewels 
to jDay for a band of soldiers to assist 
her father in deposing Yang-tee, the 
emperor of China. The emperor was 
deposed, and the conqueror, after a short 
interval of a few months, founded the 
thirteenth imperial dynasty, called that 
of Tang, the Augustan age of China. 

Band-room Methodists, or ' The 

United Free Gospel Churches,' 180G. 
So called because they met originally in 
the Band-room at Manchester. They 
do not pay their ministers. They admit 
persons who are not members into their 
society, and ignore class-meetings. 

Bandage [The), with which Christ 
was blindfolded by the soldiers, accord- 
ing to Mark xiv. 65, was given (we are 
told) by Charlemagne to St. Namphasus, 
who built the abbey of Marsillac (in 
France), where he deposited it. It is 
now kept in a little country church called 
St. Julian of Lunegarde. It is a linen 
bandage stained in places with blood. 
See ' Crucifixion, Relics of the.' 

Asservatur in ecclesia S. Julian! de Lunegarde 
(cujus prsesentatio ad abbatem Marciliacensem 
pertinst) tenue velum ex lino ^Egyptio; idemqua 
illud esse dicunt quo Christi faciem milites ob- 
duxere, dum per ludibrium colaphis csederetur. 
Est et in eadem ecclesia frustum arundinis ei 
in signum regni affectati pro scoptro traditse.— 
DOMINICY, De Sudario Capitis Christi, p. 47. 

Bande iN'oire. A society of specit- 
lators which, after the French Revolution, 
bought up the chateaux, the abbeys, 



BANDIT 



BANTINGISM 



CO 



the monuments of art, not to preserve 
them, but to sell them as ' raw material.' 
These Vandals would pull down a fine 
building merely to sell the material, or 
a work of art as so much gold, silver, or 
marble. Hence ' Bande Noire ' means 
Vandals who would sell a Colossus of 
Rhodes merely as so much bronze, or 
Doomsday Book as so much parchment. 
See ' Black Band.' 

Bandit. In Italian bandito, plural 
handiti, means an outlaw or banished 
man ; what we call banditti the Italians 
call briganti (brigands). 

Bandoleer {A). A leather belt 
formerly slung by musketeers over the 
left shoulder, and to which were sus- 
pended twelve little cases, each contain- 
ing sufiEicient powder for a charge. 

Bangorian controversy {The). 

Whether or not the reigning monarch 
can consistently be called the ' head of 
the Church.' The question was raised 
by Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, who 
preached (31 March, 1717) before the 
king (George I.) on the text ' My kingdom 
is not of this world,' meaning to prove 
that the kingdom of Christ is spiritual, 
not temporal. This brought on a long 
pajier war, but had the happy result of 
severing convocation from the govern- 
ment, for it has never since been called 
together by the sovereign, and has now 
no legal authority whatever. Hoadly's 
chief opponents were Dr. Sharpe and 
William Law. 

Dr. Hoadly denied that episcopacy is a divine 
institution, and also denied the existence of a 
visible Church. He greatly objected to Articles 
XVIII. and XIX. : and denied wholly the divine 
right of liings. His opinions tended to republican- 
ism, disestablislunent, and the equality of all 
Christian creeds. 

Bank Holidays. In 1871 an Act 
of Parliament (34, 35 Vict. c. 17) was 
passed providing that Easter Monday, 
Whit Monday, the first Monday in 
August, and the day after Christmas 
Day, shall be bank holidays, and that 
bills due on such days shall be payable 
the day following. 

The sovereign has power to appoint any other 
day as a banls holiday. 

Bank Restriction Act {The)^ 7 
Geo. IV. c. 6 (1827). The prohibition of 
banknotes under 5Z. The issue of 
small notes was restricted 5 April, 182(5, 
but the Act of prohibition was deferred 
tUl the following year. 



Bannatyne Club {The), 1823. 
Instituted by Sir W. Scott in Edinburgh 
for printing rare works illustrative of 
Scotch history, topography, poetry, and 
miscellaneous literature in a uniform 
size and style. Only 100 copies of each 
work were published, one for each 
member who j^aid 5Z. a year. The club 
was dissolved in 1859. 

The club was called after George Bannatyne. 
by whose industry much of the Scotch poetry 0/ 
the 15th and IGth cents, had been preserved. 

Banner {A). In feudal times was 
the square flag of a knight banneret, 
made by cutting off the point of the 
pennon of a simple knight. 

Now any flag carried on a pole may be called a 
banner ; but the royal national flag is more 
strictly called the Royal Standard; a bishop's 
banner is called a gonfalon (one is called an ori. 
flamme) ; a ship's flag is a union-jack, an ensign, 
and the long strip of bunting is a pennon. For 
telegraphic uses three flags are used, viz. s, square 
flag ; a pennant or triangular flag ; and a flag 
with two points like a <, called a burgee. 

A KhiU> flag indicates a truce or a desire to come 
to terms for a truce ; a red flag means defiance ; a 
hlai-k flag indicates a pirate's vessel ; and a yellow 
flag a ship in quarantine. See ' Labarum.' 

Banner-bearer of the Church 

{The). Louis the Great of Hungary 
was so styled by the pope (13-42-1382). 

Banner of St. Ambrose {The). 
The sacred oriflanmie of Milan. When 
taken to a battle-field, it was drawn 
thither in a red car, by red bullocks 
harnessed with red trappings. 

Banneret. A higher grade of 
knighthood conferred by the king for 
some heroic deed performed in the field. 
So called because the knight's pennon 
was then exchanged for a banneret, by 
rending off the ]3oints and making it 
square. The first banneret was made 
by Edward I. and the last by Charles I., 
in 16i2. 

George III., at the naval review, Portsmouth, 
in 1773, conferred the title on Admiral Pye and 
some other officers. 

Banns. A proclamation or public 
notification, as ' banns of rnarriage,' first 
enjoined by the fourth Council of the 
Lateran, 1215. 

Bantingism, 1862. The system 
adopted by Mr. William Banting to 
reduce obesity. His system was to 
abstain from fat-producing foods, such 
as bread, sugar, fat, oil, and butter. 

Breahfaxt : tea or coffee without milk or sugar ; 
beef, mutton, kidneys, boiled fish, eggs, biscuit, 
dry toast, brown bread. 

Dinmr (at 1 o'clock) : fish, any meat but pork. 



70 



baphobiEt 



BARBAKOSSA 



greens, dry toast, game, poultry, sherry, claret, 
but no port or champagne. 

rf/7( at 5 o'clock): fruit, rusk, tea without milk 
or sugar. 

Supper (8.30) : fish, meat (not pork), claret. 

Bap'homet. A small image used by 
tlie Knights Templars in their religious 
services. It had two heads, one of a 
man, and the other of a woman. It held 
the key of life, and was surrounded with 
the sun, moon, and stars. The Gnostics 
and Manichfeans made use of a similar 
image. It is compounded of two Greek 
words, haplie rtietes (wisdom from bap- 
tism), meaning the wisdom which those 
initiated by baptism possess. 

Baptiste [Jean). A generic name 
of French Canadians, like John Bull for 
an Englishman, Sawney (Alexander) for a 
Scotchma,n, TaiTy (David) a Welshman, 
Michael a German, brother Jonathan a 
native of the United States of North 
America, &c. 

Baptists, Protestant dissenters 
who baptize by immersion, and only 
those of an adult age, who have made a 
satisfactory personal confession of faith. 
They are independent in church disci- 
pline, like the Congregationalists. Bap- 
tists are divided into General Baptists 
and Particular Baptists [q.v.). 

There are Baptists, Baptized Believers, Cal- 
vinistic Baptists, General Baptists, General 
Baptist New Connection, Old Baptists, Open 
Baptists, Particular Baptists, Presbyterian Bap- 
tists, the Scotch Baptists, the Seventh-day Bap- 
tists, the Strict Baptists, the Union Baptists, the 
Unitarian Baptists, &c. See ' Apostoolians.' 

Bar {The Confederation of), 29 
Feb., 17G8. A confederation of Polish 
•patriots,' organised by Pulawski, Krasin- 
ski, and others, who protested in this 
city against the intermixture of the 
Muscovites in the government of Poland. 
In 1767 the dissidents of Poland had 
organised themselves into the Con- 
federation of Radom (q.v.), which called 
on Russia for aid. Russia gladly re- 
sponded, and this led to the partition of 
Poland in 1772. See ' Dissidents.' 

France took the side of the Confederates of Bar, 
and Turl<ey joined them when the War of Inde- 
pendence began. As a rule, the Confederates of Bar 
•were Catholics and tlie Confederates of Eadom 
were of the Greek Church, Calvinists, Arians, and 
other anti-Catholics. 

Bar of Dower (A). Forfeiture of 
the dower which a widow would other- 
wise be entitled to receive out of the 
lands and tenements of her deceased 



husband. Elopement would be such a 
bar, so would treason in the husband, by 
which his property is confiscated to the 
crown. 

Bar of Michael Angelo {The). 
The ridge of bone which forms the base 
of the forehead, and along which the 
eyebrows are traced, is called the bar, 
which in Michael Angelo was well 
developed. This is said to indicate 
great mental power. 

Barattiero (plural ' barattieri '). 
See under ' Bianchi.' Dante, the poet, 
who sided with the Bianchi, was con- 
demned by the Neri {q.v.) to be burnt 
alive as a ' barattiero ' in 1302. 

Dante made his escape and quitted his Guelf 
connections after this, and composed his immortal 
' Commedia ' (' Hell,' 'Purgatory,' and ' Paradise'). 

Barbadoes Leg {A). A disease in 
the leg indigenous to Barbadoes ; the 
limb becomes tumid, hard, and mis- 
shapen. It is similar to the elephanti- 
asis of the Arabs. 

Barbarians. All the world except 
the Greeks themselves were so called in 
the time of Homer. The human race 
was by the early Greeks divided into 
Hellenes and Barbaroi; the ancient 
Jews divided mankind into Jews and 
Gentiles. 

I am a debtor both to the Greeks and to the 
Barbarians.— Rom. i. 14. See also 1 Cor. xiv. 11. 

II. The Romans ranked as Barbarians 
all people except themselves and the 
Greeks ; but after the fall of the Roman 
empire, the Teutonic races which over- 
ran Europe were called Barbarians. 

In modern speech, the word means persons of 
a low civilisation. 

Barbarossa = Rufus or Red Beard. 
So Friedrich I., kaiser of Germany, 
was called by the Italians (1121, 1152- 
1190). 

Aroodje (2 syl.), or Harudj, and Khair 
Eddin, two brothers, natives of Mity- 
lene, who turned Turkish corsairs, and 
were the terror of the Mediterranean in 
the first half of the 16th cent., were so 
called. These two brothers made them- 
selves masters of Algeria and Tunis. 
Karl V. defeated them, restored Tunis 
to the dey, and set free 20,000 Christian 
captives in 1535. 



BARBER 



BARDESANISTS 



71 



Barber Poet {The). Jacques 
Jasmin (1798-18G-1) of Gascony, a barber 
by trade. 

Barber-surgeons. The Company 
of Barber-surgeons was incorporated in 
England by charter of Edward IV. in 
1461. It was united with the Company 
of Surgeons by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 
(1540) ; but in 1745, by 18 Geo. II. c. 15, 
the two were made separate corpora- 
tions. 

For 'Barber's Pole,' see 'Diet, of Phrase and 
Fable,' p. 65. 

Barbers. Pierre la Brosse, the 
barber of St. Louis, was made chief 
minister of Philippe le Hardi ; Olivier le 
Dain, barber of Louis XI., was the 
confidant of that king. Figaro, the bar- 
ber of Seville, in Beaumarchais' comedy 
(' Le Barbier de Seville '), is the type of 
barber-surgeons. 

Barberini Vase {The). So the 
Poiiiland vase was called before it re- 
ceived its present name in honour of the 
Duchess of Portland. It was for two 
centuries the principal ornament of the 
Barberini palace. 

Barbes. Vaudois ministers. The 
word is sjaionymous with ' uncle,' and is 
now no longer used except as a term of 
endearment to old men. A minister 
since 1630 has been addressed as mon- 
sieur le pasteur. 

Barclay's Janissaries, 1696. Sir 
George Barclay was at the head of a 
conspiracy for the assassination of 
William III., and was aided by twenty 
picked men from the court of St. 
Germain. Others were subsequently 
added one by one. These were called 
his Janissaries. The idea being that 
they would help Sir George to the 
' George and Garter,' by subverting the 
throne. (Macaulay, ' Hist, of Eng.,' chap, 
xxi.) 

Janissaries were the infantry of the Turkish 
empire, 25,000 of which were massacred hi 1825 
by Sultan Mahmood. The word means 'new 
troops.' 

Barclayans {The). A religious 
sect founded by the Rev. John Barclay 
of Perthshire (1734-1798). Also called 
Bere'ans {q.v). 

Bar Cochba (Son of the Star). 
The title given to Slmneon, who gave 
himself out to be the star spoken of by 



Balaam. 'There shall come a star out 
of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of 
Israel,' &c. He opposed Hadrian, and 
A.D. 132 made himself master of Jeru- 
salem. The Romans were driven back 
in all directions, and Bar Cochba occu- 
pied fifty fortified places and 985 villages 
At length Julius Severus was sent to 
Pcilcstine, and, a.d. 135, we are told that 
580,000 Jews perished, and Bar Cochba 
was among the slain. 

No dependence can be placed on nnmbers, 
especially in Jewish history. Tens are made 
hundreds, either from the spirit of exaggeration 
or from carelessness. 

Bard of all time. Shakespeare 
(1564-1616). 

Bard of Avon {The). Shakespeare, 
born and buried at Stratford-upon-Avon 
(1564-1616). 

Bard of Ayrshire {The). Robert 
Burns, a native of Ayrshire (1759-1796). 

Bard of Hope {The). Thomas 
Campbell, author of 'The Pleasures of 
Hope ' (1777-1844). 

Bard of Memory (T/je). Samuel 
Rogers, author of 'The Pleasures of 
Memory ' (1762-1855). 

Bard of Olney {The). William 
Cowper, who lived for many years at 
Olney, in Buckinghamshire (1731-1800). 

Bard of Prose {The). Boccaccio, 
author of the ' Decameron ' (1313-1375). 

Bard of Rydal Mount {The). 
William Wordsworth, who lived at 
Rydal Mount. Also called the ' Poet of 
the Excursion,' from his principal poem 
(1770-1850). 

Bard of Twickenham i^The). 
Alexander Pope, who lived at Twicken- 
ham (1088-1744). 

Bard of Woodstock {The). 
Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400). 

Bard of the Imagination. 

Mark Akenside, author of ' The Pleasures 
of the Imagination ' (1721-1770). 

Bardesa'nists {The), 2nd cent. 
Followers of Bardesanes (3 syl.), a Syrian 
heresiarch of the Valentinian or Platonic 
school. He also denied the doctrine of 
the resurrection 

BardesanistEB, inter alia exsecranda mysteria, 
Christum cceleste corpus babuisse oonflrm&ut, ueo 



72 



BAEEBONE 



BAENABITES 



adsumpsisse camera de Virt^ne, sed per earn, 
qtiasi aquam per fistulam iransiisse deliberant. 
Gloss, ' Sangerm." 

Earebone Parliament {The). 
From 14 July to 22 Dec, 1G53, convened 
by Cromwell after the dismissal of the 
Rump {q.v.) ; so called from one Barbon, 
a leather-seller of Fleet Street, a name 
corrupted into Barebone, and seized on 
as a nickname for this parliament, 
Cromwell named eight officers and four 
civilians as his council of state, and this 
council chose 156, or (some say) 140 men 
for the parliament ; six being for Wales, 
six for Ireland, and five for Scotland. 
Their first act was to elect eight of their 
number ' to seek the Lord in prayer,' and 
their wish was to substitute the law of 
Moses for the law of the land. This 
parliament or convention, however, was 
called together chiefly to pave the way to 
a parliament on a really national basis. 
It named a new council of state, and 
then the Speaker placed the abdication 
of the convention in Cromwell's hands. 
See ' Parliaments.' 

The Barebone Parliament projected the aboli- 
tion of the Court of Chancery ; the introduction of 
civil marriages ; the abolition of tithes, and lay 
patronage; and parliamentary reform. Cromwell 
was afraid of these measures, and the dissolution 
of the convention was determined on. 

Bare-feet {Fieds-nus), 1563. French 
Catholics incited by monks and priests to 
put down the Huguenots. These bands 
consisted of persons of no calling, vaga- 
bonds and beggars, armed with reaping 
hooka, laiives and pikes. In their attacks 
they respected neither law, modesty, nor 
pity. 

The Pieds-nus fell upon the Gal vinists bysurprise, 
massacred men, outraged women, demolished 
houses, tore down the vines, rooted up the trees, 
and desolated whole districts.— FELICE, History of 
the Protestants of France, viii. 

Barefooted Carmelites (TJie), 
1540. Reformed Carmelites, founded by 
St. Theresa, and approved by Gregory 
XIII. in 1580. 

Barefooted Friars (The), 1570. A 
branch of the Austin Friars or Begging 
Hermits, ' reformed ' by Friar Thomas, a 
Jesuit, who forbade his disciples to wear 
shoes. 

Barefooted Monks, or Feuillants. 

Reformed Cistercians during the 16th 
cent., contemporary with the Reforma- 
tion. The author of this reform was 
Jean de la Barriere. 



Barlaam, died 1348. Censured by 
the Council of Constantinople 1341. He 
drew uponhimself the odium theologicum 
of the monks of Mount Athos by denyiiig 
that the light seen on Llount Tabor was 
the ' light of Godj'i.e. the uncreated essence 
of the Deity, or, as Milton calls it, the 
' bright effluence of bright essence in- 
create.' The monks of Mount Athos 
were the strenuous supporters of the 
divine essence of that light. 

Barlaamites. Those who entertain 
the same views as Barlaam resi;)ecting the 
light seen on the mount of transfigura- 
tion. See * Palamites.' 

Barlettare. Qtii nescit harlettare 
nescit prcedicare. Fra Gabriele de Bar- 
letta, a preacher of the Dominican order in 
the 15th cent. (flo. 1450), enjoyedat Naples 
an immense popularity. His sermons 
were a mixture of pathos and burlesque, 
and have passed tlirough thirty editions. 
No one can lay claim to be a pulpit 
orator who cannot preach like Barletta. 

Barn-burners {The). Ultra-Radi- 
cals or Nihilists. As the Dutchman burnt 
down his barn to rid himself of the rats, 
so these Nihilists would pull down the 
state about their ears in order to get rid 
of abuses. 

Barnabas {The Gospel of). An apo- 
cryphal book containing 222 chapters. 
It is held in honour by Mohammedans 
because it is supposed to refer to Moham- 
med when it speaks of a ' messenger of 
God who will perfect the dispensation of 
Jesus.' There is an Arabic version, a 
Spanish version, and an Italian one. 
The last is supposed to have been written 
in 1450. 

There is also an epistle ascribed to Barnabas, 
partly doctrinal and partly practical. It is a pious 
work, but there is no sufficient reason to sui^pose 
it was composed by the companion of Paul the 
Apostle. Dr. Lardner supposes it to date from 71 
or 72, whereas the Gospel of St. Barnabas is not 
earlier than 1211. (See p. 85, col. 2.) 

Barnabites (3 syl.), 1530. An order 
of monks which sprang up in Milan. So 
called because .the church of St. Barnabas 
in that city was granted them to preach 
in. Their special duties were to attend 
the sick and instruct the young. In 
France and Austria their speciaf duty 
was to convert Protestants. 



BAENES 



BAERICaDES 



73 



Barnes Scholarship (Thomas). 
For classics and mathematics. Value 601. 
a year, tenable for four years. Founded in 
the University of Cambridge for under- 
graduates in their first year by Thomas 
Barnes of Pembroke College, 1844. See 
* Bell scholarship.' 

Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. 

Godfrey of Bouillon, in Belgium, com- 
mander-in-chief of the first crusade (1096- 
1099), when the city of Jerusalem was 
taken. The victorious army would have 
created him 'king of Jerusalem,' but 
Godfrey refused ' to wear a crown of gold 
where his Master wore only a crown of 
thorns.' 

Baron Slumber. John Wodehouse, 
earl of Kimberley (born 1826- ). 

When secretary of state for the colonies 
he greatly objected to the delivery of 
official telegrams at night-time, for fear 
they should disturb his night's rest. 

Barones majores we now call 

peers. In the time of John they were 
summoned to parliament by the king. 
The Barones Tninores were summoned 
by the county sheriffs, and called ' knights 
of the shires ; ' they sat in a different house. 
All Barones majores were called to the 
king's council, but only a few of the Ba- 
rones minores, who were very numerous. 

Barones, 3 syl. ; majores, 3 syl. ; minores, 3 syl. 

Barons [The 24), 1258, &c. By this 
is meant the 24 barons who, in the reign 
of Henry III. of England, endeavoured 
to convert the kingdom into an oligarchy. 
They virtually set aside the king and 
placed the supreme power in the hands of 
twelve advisers. It was these barons that 
first called knights of the shires to assist 
in reforming abuses, and the parliament 
called by them at Oxford is called the 
Mad Parliament (q-V.), because their 
measures were so anti-aristocratical and 
anti-despotic. 

Barons. Barons are either greater 
or lesser. Barones majores being peers, 
the Barones minores being gentry pos- 
sessed of lands erected into a barony, 
sometimes called Free Barons. See Sir 
Robert Douglas, ' The Baronage of Scot- 
land.' 

Barons (War of the). An insurrec- 
tion of the barons against Henry III. It 
broke out in 12G2 and terminated in 1265, 
4 



when Simon de Montfort was killed in 
the battle of Evesham. 

Sometimes the uprising of the barons, ^215-1210, 
to compel King John to sign Magna Ciiarta, is 
spoken of as the Barons' War, or War of the 
Barons, likewise. 

Barons of the Exchequer (T^e). 

Anciently the three puisne judges of the 
exchequer. There were besides a lord- 
treasurer and a chancellor. The court 
now consists of five judges, viz. the chief 
baron and four barons of the exchequer. 

Puisne pronounce pu-ne. ^^rench puis-ni. 

Baronet. Primus Baronetorum 
Anglice. Sir Nicholas Bacon, of Red- 
grave, in Suffolk, whose successors are 
styled so still. 

Baronet. See under ' Knight Baro- 
net.' 

Baronial Days. Days when the 
barons sat to hear the complaints of their 
vassals. 

Barracoon [A). A depot on the 
coast of Africa for newly-captured slaves, 
where they were stowed till they were 
carried off in the slave- vessels. 

Barrel-Mirabeau. Boniface Ei- 
quetti, viscount de Mirabeau (1754-1792), 
was so called from his huge bulk and 
the quantity of liquor he consumed. 

Barren Periods. Plato says there 
are periods when inferior things are 
made partakers of extraordinary virtues, 
and celestial virtues show themselves in 
earthly things; and there are periods 
when no such virtues shine forth in 
them. The former he calls Fertile 
periods, the latter Barren periods. 
Miracles belong to the fertile periods, 
but when magical operations ceased, 
came a barren period. 

Barricades {Day of the), * Joum^e 
des barricades,' 12 May, 1588, when the 
Parisians barricaded the city against the 
Swiss Guards sent by Henri III. to put 
down the populace, who were clamour- 
ous to place Henri of Guise on the 
throne. 

(ii.) 5 Aug., 1648, when the populace 
barricaded the streets of Paris, because 
their favourites Blancmesnil, Charton, 
and Broussel, * conseillers au parlement,' 
had been arrested. 

(iii.) July 1830. July 27, 28, 29, called 
La Grande Semaine, when Charles ^ 
was driven from the throne. 



74 



BAERIEE 



BARTHOLOMEW'S 



(iv.) Feb. 1848. Feb. 22, 23, 24, -when 
Louis Philippe was driven from the 
throne. 

(v.) June 1848. June 23, 24, 25, when 
the national workshops were closed. 

(vi.) 2 Dec, 1851. The coup d'etat, 
when Louis Napoleon became emperor. 

A barricade is a barrique filled with sand, &c. 

Barrier [Treaty of the), 15 Nov., 
1715. Between the Kaiser, the King of 
Great Britian (George I.), and the States- 
General of the United Provinces. It 
was signed at Antwerp. 

Barrier Act {The), 8 Jan., 1697. 
An Act of the General Assembly of the 
Church of Scotland, intended as a barrier 
against innovations, and a hindrance to 
hasty legislation. It provides that no 
change shall be made in the laws of the 
Scotch Church without being first 
approved by a majority of the pres- 
byteries. After having obtained this 
approval, even then the General Assembly 
had the power of veto. 

Barrier Treaty [The), 1709. (i.) 
Propounded by Lord Townshend to 
De Torcy, the French plenipotentiary 
on behalf of the Dutch. The Dutch 
were to receive from France as a bai-rier 
to their states Furnes, Fort Kenock, 
Menin, Saverage, Ypres, Warneton, 
Comines, "Wervick, Lille, Conde, Tournay, 
and Maubeuge. The French were also 
to deliver back all the towns, cities, and 
fortresses which they had taken in the 
Netherlands. In 1712 the Tory govern- 
ment disallowed this treaty as injurious 
to British trade. 

(ii.) 5 Nov., 1713. Between the Dutch 
and the king of France, shortly before 
the peace of Utrecht ; by which treaty, 
the Dutch reserved the right of holding 
garrisons in certain fortresses of the 
Spanish Netherlands. 

Barriers {Battle of the), 80 March, 
1814. Between Napoleon and the 
armies of the allied sovereigns, fought 
under the walls or barriers of Paris. 
The French army was defeated, and 
Napoleon abdicated. 

Barristers first acted as advocates 
about 1600. The rules for admission to 
the bar were adopted by all the Inns of 
Court in 17G2 ; the new rules were agreed 
to in 1B52. 



By the new rules a student Is compelled to attend 
two of the five courses of lectures delivered at the 
halls of the Inns of Court, during one whole year, 
which is divided into three educational terms. 
He may, however, avoid attendance on these 
lectures by passing an examination in law, 

Bartenstein, in Wurtemberg {Con- 
vention of), 26 April, 1807. Between 
Alexander I., czar of Russia, and the 
King of Prussia. 

Barth^lerai {The). The slaughter 
of the Huguenots on the eve of St. 
Bartholomew, and some days after. 

[Sully] escaped the Barthiilemi, and had a com- 
mand in the battles of Coutras, Arques, and Ivri. 
— Peince, Parallel Hist., vol. ii., p. 164. 

Barth^lemite order {The), 1640. 
An order of clerical students living in 
common, and founded by Barthelemy 
Holzanter. 

Bartholomew's Day {St.), 24 
Aug., 1572. When the massacre of the 
French Huguenots began, at the instiga- 
tion of Charles IX. and his mother. It 
is said that as many as 80,000 Protestants 
were murdered in France in this terrible 
persecution. 

Some estimate the entire massacre as high as 
70,000 persons. Felipe II. of Spain warmly ap- 
proved of it, and Pope Gregory XIII. went in 
solemn state to the church of St. Louis to hear a 
grand Tf Deum as a public thanksgiving: he also 
had a medal struck to commemorate the event, 
and proclaimed the year a year of jubilee. 

Bartholomew Fair, 24 Aug. (old 
style). Henry I., in 1133, gi'anted the 
charter of this fair to Rayer or Rahere, 
a monk. Like all other fairs, it was con- 
nected with the church, and miracle- 
plays, mysteries, and moralities were 
performed. In 1445 four persons were 
appointed by the Court of Aldermen as 
keepers of the fair. In 16G1 the fair 
lasted fourteen days. In 1691 the fair 
was limited to three days. In 1840 the 
fair was removed to Islington ; and in 
1855 it was discontinued. 

Bartholomew's Hospital {St.). 

Smithfield, London, originally part of 
the Priory of St. Bartholomew. It was 
founded in 1123 by Rahere, the first 
prior (originally minstrel to Henry I.), 
who had, in 1102, founded the priory. 
After the dissolution of the monasteries 
the hospital was, in 1544, refounded for 
100 beds. 

A medical school was added In 16G2, and the 
hospital was rebuilt by subscription in 1729, It 
novv contains o )0 beds, and souie 7iJ,00i> patients 
are relieved there every year. 



BAKTHOLOMEW 



BASILICA 



75 



Bartholomew Slaughter of 
Ottoman History (The), 1513. The 
Sultan Selim began his reign by a general 
massacre of all the Schiites in Europe 
and Asia. 40,000 were slain, and 30,000 
sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. 

Bartholoraists or ' Bartholomites,' 
1640. Partisans of Pope Urban VI., 
whose name was BartholomcBUS Prig- 
nani, or Bartholomew of Prignano, in 
Naples. Many of the cardinals pro- 
tested against his election (in 1378), out 
of dislike to his severity ; and these dis- 
sentients elected Robert of Geneva, who 
went to Avignon, under the name and 
title of Clement VI. This was the com- 
mencement of the ' Grand Schism of the 
West.' Urban was recognised by Eng- 
land, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, and 
Sicily; but Clement was acknowledged 
by France, Spain, and Naples. Urljan 
contracted the intervals of the jubilees 
to 33 years, and established the fete of 
the Visitation of the Virgin. He died 
1389. The religious order so called was 
instituted in 1640. 

Bartole, or Bartolus. See under 
* Coryphaeus,' &c. 

Bas-Chevaliers. Knights bache- 
lors, or knights holding military fees by 
a base tenure. Superior knights were 
termed bannerets. 

Base Court {The). The outer court 
of a feudal mansion, containing the 
stable-yard and accommodations for 
servants. 

Base-!Sm.pire {The). The Roman 
empire in its decadence, from Constan- 
tine ; and the Eastern empire after 
Theodosius. 

Basel {Council of). See under 
' Council.' 

Basel {Treaty of), 1795. Between 
the French Republic, Prussia, and Spain. 
By this treaty Prussia Avithdrew from 
the coalition against France, and gave 
up to the republic her possessions 
beyond the Rhine. Spain gave up to 
the republic St. Domingo. 

Basel. Basle, or Bale. In the vicinity Is a marble 
monviment to commemorate the battle of St. 
Jacob s, in 1444, when l.GOO Swiss kept a French 
army (twenty times their number) in check for 
ten hours. All the Swiss except tea were killed. 

Basel Compact, 1431. Between 
Siegmund and the Hussites. Siegmund 



consented to allow the laity the use of 
the cup in the Eucharist. Procop, 
leader after Zisca, insisted also that the 
' Bible and nothing but the Bible should 
have any authority in religious doctrines, 
rites, and sacraments.' The insurgent 
Bohemians then split into two parties; 
the Calixtines or Chalice-men {q.v.\ 
accepted the treaty, but the Taborites 
(3 syl.) stood out till both the Procops 
were dead, when peace was made. See 
* Taborites,' and ' Hussite War.' 

Basil {Monks of), 358. Founded by 
St. Basil, bishop of Caesarea, who retired 
into Pontus, where he founded a monas- 
tery, and gave written rules for its re- 
gulation, the first ever enacted in the 
Christian Church. These rules were 
afterwards adopted by St. Benedict. 
The monks call themselves of the ' Order 
of St. Basil.' See ' Basilians.' 

The monks of St. Basil in Spain (suppressed In 
1835 ) followed the Greek ritual; those of Italy follow 
the Litin ritual. Numerous in Russia, but never 
Introduced into England. 

Basil83on or Basilica. A Greek 
adaptation of the Pandects, Code, and 
Institutes of Justinian, in 60 books. It 
was begun 877 by Basilius I., called the 
Macedonian, continued by his son Leo VI., 
called the Philosopher, to 900, and revised 
by Leo's son, Constantiuus Porphyro- 
genitus, in 945. 

Basilian Race {The). That is the 
race of Basil, emperor of the East. He 
was born of poor parents, but on the 
murder of Michael III. in 867 seized the 
throne, and his reign was both wise and 
equitable. He enforced the strict ad- 
ministration of justice; corrected abuses, 
and began the famous compilation of 
laws called after him ' Basilics ' or Basil- 
ica. He was killed by a stag when hunt- 
ing, A.D. 886, and was succeeded by his 
son Basil II. 

The Byzantine empire, since the accession of the 
Basilian race, had reposed in peace and dignity— 
Gibbon, chap. lii. 

Basilians (^7^e). Of Pljnnouthand 
Beaconsfield, England, of France and 
Canada, are a congregation of priests 
founded at St. Basil (Vivarrais), France, 
in 1800. They are not connected with 
the old order of St. Basil. 

Basil'ica or ' Basil'ika.' A Greek code, 
commenced a.d. 876, by the Emperor 
Basilios I., and completed by his son Leo 
VI., the philosopher. It was revised by 



76 



BASILICA 



BASTILLE 



order of Constaiitine VII. in 945. This 
code contains tlie Institutes, the Code, 
the Digest or Pandect, the Novellae, and 
the Imperial Constitutions, in 60 books, 
subdivided under titles. 

The Basilica does not contain all that the Corpus 
Juris contains, but at the same time it contains 
Bome things which are not included in the Justin- 
ian body of laws. 

Basilica. Originally the court (stoa) 
in which the basTleus (3 syl.) of Athens 
administered justice. In Rome the 
Basilica was not only a court of justice, 
it was also a market place and an ex- 
change. In B.C. 182, Marcus Fortius 
Cato erected a basilica at Rome, and 
later on the basilica was a synonym of 
forum. Many of the churches in Italy 
are called basilicas, and so are large 
structures erected over tombs, as the 
basilica of Edward the Confessor in 
Westminster Abbey. See ' Basilason.' 

Basilica Aurea. 'The Golden 
Basilica,' that of the Lateran, in Rome, 
called Constantiana from its builder, 
and ' Golden ' from its superb structure 
and ornaments. 

• Basilicon Doron.' A work com- 
posed by James I. of Great Britain, for 
the edification of his son, on the principles 
of government, describing the duties of 
a young prince, and the principles by 
which he should rule. 

Basili'des (4 syl.). A famous Gnostic 
of Egyjjt in the 2nd cent. He taught 
the existence of two prmciples, one good 
or light, and the other evil or darkness. 
The good principle has seven teons, called 
mind, the word, the understanding, power, 
excellencies, princes, and angels, forming 
the ' blessed Ugdoad,' or combination of 
eight. From these asons sprang other 
aeons, making the total of 365, the mystic 
number of the Gnostics (or Basileides). 

It is thought that the Gospel of St. John bears a 
resemblance to ' Basil'idism,' ch. i. In the begin- 
ning was the Word . . . and the Light shineth in 
darkness . . . and the Word was made flesh, &c. 

Basilid'ians, the followers of Basil- 
ides, an Alexandrian Gnostic, numerous 
in Egypt, Syria, Italy, and Gaul (2nd 
8rd and 4th cents.). They denied the 
doctrine of the atonement; believed iu 
the transmigration of souls; looked on 
Jesus as a mere human being, on whom 
at baptism the aeon Nous (intelligence) 
descended. They affirm that it was not 
Jesus who was crucified, but Simon of 
Cyrene, who bore his cross. 



Basket Processions. The pro- 
cession of the basket was the chief -cere- 
mony of the 4th day of the Eleusinian 
mysteries. The basket was placed on an 
open chariot and followed by a long train 
of Athenian women, each one of whora 
also carried a basket. The procession 
commemorated the rape of Proserpine, 
and the baskets represented the basket 
which the maiden was filling with flowers 
when Pluto carried her off to the infernal 
regions to be his wife. 

Basoche {Les clercs de la), that is, 
Clerks of the Palace. When the kings 
of France lived in the Palais de Justice, 
the judges, the barristers, the proctors, 
and all persons connected with these 
officials, were called Clercs de la Basoche. 
The president was called Le Boi de la 
Basoche. Basoche (2 syl.) is a French 
corruption of the Latin word basilica (a 
royal palace). 

Basocians [The). The lawyers con- 
nected with the Palais de Justice, who 
formed themselves, in the 15th cent., into 
a theatrical company, to act satires on 
living characters and passing events. 
Francois I. was obliged to withdraw their 
licence in 1540. 

This interdict only applied to Paris, for we read 
of the Basochian farces of Bordeaux for several 
years after. 

Bastard eign^. An eldest son, bom 
before wedlock, whose parents subse- 
quently married each other and had other 
children. 

Bastard of Orleans {The). Jean, 
comte de Longueville and of Dunois 
(1392-1470), natural son of Louis, due 
d'Orleans and Marie d'Enghien. 

Bastards. * La guerre des Batards,' 
1324, between certain seigneurs of 
Gascony and Charles IV. (Le Bel) of 
France. So called ' parce que les Gas- 
cons avaient pour chefs des batards de la 
noblesse.' 

Bastille. The French prison ; was 
founded in 1369 by Hugues d'Aubriot ; 
four tours were added in 1383 ; the fosse 
and outer wall La 1634. It was destroyed 
by the Paris mob 14 July, 1789. 

The 14th of July and the 20th of June (the Jeu de 
paurru', q.v.), were the two great holidays in the 
Revolution. 

The Bastille was besieged and taken three times : 
viz. in 1418 by the Burgundians ; in 1594 by Henri 
IV. ; and on 14 July, 1789, liy the Parisians, from 
which day the great Kevolutiou is generally dated. 



BATAVIA 



BATTERSEA 



77 



Only seven prisoners were found -within it. Tiie 
site of tlie prison is marked by a column in tlie 
Place de la Bastille. One soldier and eigiity-three 
Insurgents fell on this memorable day. 

The priso7ier confined in the Bastille 
for 35 years at the instigation of Madame 
de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV., 
was H. Mazers de Latude, He was 24 
years old at his incarceration, and his 
offence was giving Madame de Pompadour 
a false report of a plot against her life. 
He was liberated in 1784 and died in 
1805. His ' Memoirs ' are very interesting. 
The only prisoner who escaped from the 
Bastille was D'AligTe. 

The governor, when the Bastille was 
destroyed by the mob in 1789, was Jpurdan 
Delaunay, who fell into the hands of the 
mob and was hanged on a lamp-rope. 

There were only seven prisoners found in the 
Bastille when it was stormed ; one was Tavernier, 
who had been confined ten years in the Isle St. 
Marguerite, and thirty in tlie Bastille. He was 
more than ninety years of age and an idiot. One 
of the governors named St. Florentin used to boast 
that he had received more than 50,000 lettres de 
cachet. 

Batavia, the modern Holland. The 
country of the Batavi, who settled in the 
island formed by the river Rhine and 
the Waal, called by the Romans Insula 
Batavorum. 

Batavi or Batavi. 

Batavian Republic [The). Pro- 
claimed 16 May, 1795 ; raised to the 'king- 
dom of Holland ' under Louis, brother of 
Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1806 ; Belgium 
and Holland united to form the kingdom 
of the Netherlands under William I. in 
March 1815 ; Belgium separated from 
Holland 183.0, and Prince Leopold of 
Saxe-Coburg was elected king of Belgium 
by the National Congress 4 June, 1831. 

Bath, in Somersetshire. The Hu'ddta 
Tlierma (hot waters) of Ptolemy; the 
AqucB Soils of Antoninus ; the Caer- 
Baden of King Bladud and Geoffrey of 
Monmouth ; the Caer-Ennant (city of 
ointment and of healing) of a subsequent 
period ; the Ack-nian-chester (the sick- 
man's city) of the Saxon. 

Ensample of his wondrous faculty, 
Behold the boiling baths at Cairbadon, 
Which seethe with secret fire eternally. 
Spensee, Faery Queen, bk. ii., cant x. stanza 26. 

Batll {Knights of the). An English 
order instituted by Richard II., but i*e- 
instituted in 1399 by Henry IV., and again 
in 1725 by George I. There are 26 
knights. The ribbon is red, to which is 
attached a medal having tliree crowns, 



with the legend 'Tria juncta in tmo.' 
So called because the knights were re- 
quired to bathe before inauguration. 
G.C.B. = Gra»(Z Cross of the Bath; 
K.C.'B. = Knight Commander of the 
Bath ; and C.B. = Companion of the 
Bath. 

Bath Shillings. Silver tokens 
coined at Bath in 1811-1812, and issued 
for 4s. 2s. and Is. by C. Culverhouse, 
J. Orchard, and J, Phipps. 

Baths and Spa«. Good for 

Amcmia. «chwalbach, St. Moritz, Harrogate. 

A rticular rheumatism and gout. Aix-les-Bains. 

Asthma. Mont Dore. 

A tonic gout. Boyat. 

Biliar!/ obstructions. Carlsbad. 

Calculous disorders. Vichy, ContrexevlUe. 

Diabetes. Neuenahr, Carlsbad. 

Gouty -catarrhal dyspepsia. Homburg, Kissingen. 

Obesity. Marienbad. 

Plethoric gout. Carlsbad. 

Scrofulous glandular affections. Kreuznach. 

Skin diseases. Aix-la-chapelle, Cannstadt, Bour- 
bonne-les-bains, Uriage. 

Throat affections. Cauterets, Eaux Bonnes. 

Bath and Buxton. To soften the skin, and give 
it tone. 

Harrogate and Droitwich, brine baths for 
anaemia. 

Baths and "Washhouses {Public), 
1846, were established by Act 9, 10 Vict., 
c. 74. 

Baton blane {Le). A marshal's baton, 
in France, is covered with violet-coloured 
velvet spangled with gold, so that a white 
baton means no honour at all, or nothing 
whatever. Hence the phrase : ' La gar- 
nison est sortie de la place, le baton blane 
a la main,' means the garrison went 
forth without either arms or baggage. 
And ' II est sorti de son emploi, le baton 
blane a la main,' means he left his place 
without a penny in his pocket or bundle 
of clothes at his back; with only his 
walking-stick in his hand. 

Bats {Parliament of), 1426. During 
the regency of Henry VI., in conse- 
quence of the brawls between the Duke 
of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort, the 
citizens were forbidden to carry arms ; so 
when parliament assembled the members 
of the House of Commons came armed 
with bats and clubs. See ' Parliaments.' 

Battersea Training College, 

1840. Instituted by (Sir) J. P. Kay 
Shuttleworth in conjunction with Mr. 
Tuffnell, for training teachers, especially 
those intended for our ' national ' or 
parish schools. 



78 



BATTIAD 



BATTLE 



Battiad {The), 1750. A lampoon on 
Dr. Battie, said to be the composition of 
Dr. Schomberg, Moses Mendez, and Paul 
Whitehead. Dr. Battie took a very 
active part in the College of Physicians 
against Dr. Schomberg. It is somewhat 
remarkable that Dr. Battie's father-in-law 
is pilloried by Pope in the ' Dunciad.' 

Battle Scholarship, for Classics. 
Value between 30Z. and 35Z. a year, ten- 
able for seven years. Founded in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge by William Battie, 
M.D., of King's College, 1747. See 
' Kegius Professor of Greek.' 

Battle. The last battle in which a 
king of England has been allowed to 
appear in person on the field was the 
battle of Dettingen (1743), against the 
French on behalf of Maria Theresa of 
Austria. The English were led by 
George II. and Lord Stair. The latter 
was most incompetent, but George II., by 
courage and dash, rescued the army from 
most imminent peril, and repelled the 
French at the hazard of his life. 

For battles named from the localities in which 
they are fought, see Appendix, ' Battles.' 

Battle [Trial by), or 'Wager of 
Battel.' The last waged in the Court of 
Common Pleas, Westminster, was in 1571; 
the last waged in the Court of Chivalry 
was in 1631 ; and the last waged in the 
Court of Durham was in 1638. Abolished 
by 59 Geo. III. c. 46. 

So late as 1818 this procedtire was decided by the 
Court of King's Bench to be a legal mode of trial. 

Battle Abbey, Sussex. Founded by 
William I. in 1067 in commemoration of 
his victory, 14 Oct., 1066. The high altar 
marks the spot where the standard of 
Harold was fixed. The town is called 
Battle, but was previously known as 
St. Mary-in-the-Wood. The ruin which 
now remains was the front entrance of 
the abbey. The abbey is now the pro- 
perty of the Duke of Cleveland. 

It was consecrated 11 Feb., 1094, and its first 
Inmates were Benedictine monks from Normandy. 

Telham Hill is where the Norman standard was 
raised. Locally called Teliman Hill. 

The Anglo-Saxon camp stood on the rising 
ground (called Senlac) occupied by the abbey. 

Battle Field, in Shropshire. So 
called in commemoration of the decisive 
victory of Henry IV. over Henry Percy, 
sumamed Hotspur, in 1403, 

Battle of Belahoe {The), 1538. 
This was no battle, but simply a spoiling 



of the spoiler. The two chieftains 
O'Neill and O'Donnel, having made a 
predatory inroad into Meath, were return- 
ing with their spoil when Lord Leonard 
overtook them at the Ford of Belahoe. 
After a feeble resistance the two Irish- 
men fled, leaving their spoil in the hands 
of the Englishman (Lord Leonard). 

Battle of Bonny muir {The), 2 
April, 1820. A jocose phrase to express 
a brush which some men of Glasgow 
had with the military. The fact was 
this : the Radicals of Glasgow called a 
monster meeting for Sunday, 2 April, 
1820, in the interest of parliamentary 
reform, but hearing that great prepara- 
tions had been made to prevent a dis- 
turbance, the meeting was abandoned. 
Some fifty or sixty men, however, started 
on the projected expedition of destroying 
the Carron Ironworks, but were dispersed 
at Bonnymuir by the military. Nineteen 
were arrested and three imprisoned for a 
few days, but the whole affair was con- 
sidered to be a storm in a teacup. 

Battle of ITations {The). The 
terrible three days' conflict at Leipzig in 
Oct. 1813 between Napoleon and the 
allies. Its issue was the defeat of the 
French, and the deliverance of Germany. 
It is called ' the Battle of Nations,' not 
only from the number engaged, but also 
because it was the champion battle of 
the nations of Europe. See below ' Battle 
of the Nations.' 

The nations engaged were the French, Austrians, 
Prussians, and llusaians. 

Battle of ^Wartberg {The). The 
annual contest of the Minnesingers for 
the prize offered by Hermann, margraf 
of Wartberg, near Gotha, in Germany, 
in the 12th cent. 

Battle of the Barriers. See 

' Barriers,' &c. 

Battle of the Bastards. See 

* Bastards,' &c. 

Battle of the Blues {The). The 
annual University boat-race on the 
Thames, from Putney to Mortlake, the 
Saturday before Holy Week. Called 
the Blues because both crews wear blue, 
the Cambridge crew light blue, and the 
Oxford crew dark blue. 

In 1840, 1841, 1842, the race was from Westmlnbtei 
Bridge to Putney. In 18i6 and 18.' C, it was from 
Mortlake to Putney. 



BATTLE 



BATTLE 



79 



Battle of the British Soldiers 

{The). The battle of Inkerman, 5 Nov., 
1854. 

Battle of the Butchers and 

Carpenters (T/ie), 1413. Paris. The 
Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of 
Orleans led two factions during the 
idiocy of Charles VI. The Duke of 
Burgundy armed the butchers and the 
faction adopted as their badge a white 
hood. The Orleanists or Armagnacs 
armed the carpenters, and this faction 
adopted for badge a white scarf. In 1413 
a regular conflict took place between 
fchem, on the Place de Greve, Paris, and 
the carpenters succeeded in driving the 
butchers out of Paris. The Duke of 
Burgundy tied to Flanders, and the 
Duke of Orleans entered Paris in triumph. 

Battle of the Diamond. The 

engagement between the Roman Catholics 
and Orangemen of Ireland in Sept. 1795. 
So called from Diamond, County Antrim, 
where it was fought. 

Battle of the 5th of November 

(The), 1854. The famous battle of 
Inkerman, in which the Russians in far 
greater force were defeated by the allied 
English and French armies. This battle 
is often compared with that of Agincourt 
by Henry V. 

The Russians had failed to raise the siege by 
the battle of the 5t,h of November.— HoWiTT, 
History of England (year 185-1, p. 2(33j. 

Battle of the Forty (The). A 
battle between twenty Frenchmen and 
twenty Italian cavaliers. A painting of 
this battle is in Hampton Court. It 
belonged to William III., and was painted 
by Peter Snayers or Esaias Vandervelde 
(1593-1670). 

Battle of the Giants (The), 18 
Sept., 1515. The battle of Marignano, 
in which the allied French and Venetian 
armies under Francois I. and D'Alviano 
defeated the allied Italian and Swiss 
army. The carnage was very gi'eat, 
12,000 of the conquered and 4,000 of the 
conquering army were left on the field. 
Trivulzio, who had been present in 
eighteen pitched battles, called them all 
child's play compared with this ' combat 
of the giants.' (Guicciardini, book xii. 
%'ol, iii. p. 167.) 

Battle of the Herrings (The), 12 
Ft b., 1429. In which Sir John Fastolfe 



defeated the French general Dunois, 
near Rouvray. Called in French 'La 
journe'e des harengs.' Sir John con- 
ducted the convoy of herrings in triumph 
to the English camp before Orleans. Sir 
John had 1,600 men-at-arms and archers, 
with some hundred carts of provisions 
(bread, wine, and salt herrings, for it 
was Lent), for the besieging force. Dunois 
came against him with 6,000 Scots and 
French. Sir John placed the carts be- 
tween the attacking force and the 
attacked, and placed his archers between 
the carts. Six hundred Scots lay dead 
on the field, and the French fled. So 
the English besieging force was both 
strengthened and victualled. 

Battle of the Kings and Na- 
tions (T/^e). Leipzig, 1813. See 'Battle 
of Nations,' and ' Battle of the Nations.' 

Battle of the Moat (The). A 
skirmish before Medina, between Ma- 
homet and Abu Sofian, chief of the 
Koreishites. So called because Mahomet 
had a moat dug before the city to keep 
off the invaders ; and in this moat much 
of the fighting took place. 

Battle of the Nations (The), a.d. 
625 ; also called ' the Battle of the Moat ' 
or Ditch, The third great battle of 
Mahomet, in which he defeated Abu 
Sofian and the Koreishites. See above, 
'Battle of Nations,' 

The other two great battles were those of Bedr 
and Ohud, both in G23. 

Battle of the Peoples {The 
grand). The battle of Leipzig, 16 and 
18 Oct., 1813. The ' peoples ' were the 
Austrians, Russians, Prussians, and 
Swedes, allied against the French under 
Napoleon. The allies numbered 240,000 
men, the French 160,000. In the heat of 
the battle seventeen German battalions 
^10,000 men), in alliance with the French, 
deserted, and the French were utterly 
defeated. They lost above 40,000 men, 
and the allies about the same number. 

Battle of the Bocks {The), 1814. 
The battle of Falkenstein, when the 
French mountaineers hurled rocks on 
the Germans and Cossacks who sought 
to dislodge them. Rows of fifteen or 
twenty men were overthrown by a single 
rock, and the besiegers fled in disorder 
to escape certain death. 



80 



BATTLE 



BATTLES 



This was a repetition of the battle of Morgarten 
(15 Nov., 1315), won by the Swiss mountaineers 
over the Austrians. 

Battle of the Spurs {The). I. 
A battle fought at Courtray in 1302, 
between the French and the Flemish. 
The Flemish were led by John, count of 
Namur and William de Juliers. The 
French were defeated. It is called the 
battle of the spurs because as many as 
4,000 gilt spurs, worn by French knights, 
were picked up on the field after the fight 
was done. 

II. 'Journee des esperons,' 16 Aug., 
1513. Also called the battle of Guine- 
gate. Between the French and English. 
The French pretended to give way to 
decoy the English cavah'y; but by so 
doing they spread a p: ni 3, and the whole 
French army fled in a stampede without 
striking a blow. When the French 
officers, taken captive, were brought 
before Henry VIII., he jocosely compli- 
mented them on the speed of their men, 
and the Frenchmen entering into the jest, 
declared with a laugh that the only 
weapon they used was the spur. ' Well,' 
said the bluff Henry, ' then we will call 
it the Battle of Spurs,' and so it has 
ever been designated. /See' Guinegate.' 

Battle of tlie Standard (The), 

22 Aug., 1138, or battle of Northallerton, 
in Yorkshire. David I., king of Scotland, 
was defeated by Stephen. The standard 
consisted of the consecrated banners of 
St. Cuthbert of Durham, St. Peter of 
York, St. Jolin of Beverley, and St. 
Wilfrid of Bipon, fixed to a mast, and 
mounted on a four-wheeled carriage, 
wheeled into the centre of the field ; and 
on the top of the mast was a pyx con- 
taining a consecrated host. It was lent 
to Stephen by Thurstan, archbishop of 
York. The field of the battle was Cuton 
or Cutton Moor, near Northallerton, and 
the Scotch, being defeated, fled in con- 
fusion to Carlisle. 

David I. came in defence of Maud, the ' lady of 
England' (q.v.), and was joined by Archbishop 
Thurstan. 

Battle of the Thirty (The), 27 

March, 1351. The French general 
Beaumanoir, and the English general 
Bemborough, agreed to settle a dispute 
of territory by the combat of thirty 
knights on each side. At first the 
English were successful, but Bemborough 
being slain, the struggle was renewed, 



and the French won the fight. It is 
still said in France, when speaking of a 
hard contest, it was as desperate as le 
combat des Trente. The battle was 
fought at the Midway Oak, between the 
castles of Josselin and Ploermel, in 
France. 

Battle of the Three Emperors 

[The), or the battle of Austerlitz, 2 Dec, 
1805, when Napoleon defeated the 
united armies of Austria and Russia, 
commanded by their respective emperors. 
The three emperors were Napoleon 
emperor of the French, Francis emperor 
of Austria, and Alexander emperor of 
Russia. The result of the victory was 
the Peace of Presburg. 

Battle of the Three Hundred, 

B.C. 547. The Lacedaemonians and 
Argives each laid claim to Cynuria, and 
agreed to submit the decision to 300 
champions chosen from each side. So 
fierce was the contest that only one Spar- 
tan and two Argives survived. The two 
Argives, supposing all the Spartans to 
have been slain, hastened home with the 
news of victory ; but it was shown that 
one Spartan survived, and a general 
battle ensued, in which the Spartans 
proved the conquerors. 

Battle of the West {The great). 
The battle between King Arthur and 
Mordred. It was in this battle that the 
king received his death wound. (How 
far this is historic cannot be decided. 
And doubt rests both on the time and 
place of the battle.) 

Battle which lasted a week 

{The), A.D. 732. The battle of Tours 
between Charles Martel, leader of the 
Franks, and Abdalrahman, the Moslem, 
general of Spain. The Saracen army 
was 400,000 strong, but Abdalrahman 
was slain, and his army was overthrown 
with great slaughter after a whole week's 
fighting. No other battle in all history- 
lasted so long. 

Battles {The fifteen decisive), 
according to Professor Creasy : 

1. Mamthoii (B.C. 490), in which the 
Greeks, under MiltiadOs, defeated Darius, 
the Persian, and turned the tide of 
Asiatic invasion. 

2. Syraciise (b.c. 413), in which the 
Atlienian power was broken, and the 



BAUEEN 



BAYAOT)OTniIANS 



81 



extension of Greek domination was 
prevented. 

3. Arbela (b.C. 331), by which Alex- 
ander overthrew Darius, and introduced 
European habits into Asia. 

4. Metaurus (b.c. 207), in which the 
Eomans defeated Hannibal, and Car- 
thage was brought to ruin. 

5. Armin'uis (a.d. 9), in which the 
Gauls overthrew the Eomans under 
Varus, and established their indepen- 
dence. 

6. Chalons (a.d. 451), in which Attila, 
'the Scourge of God,' was defeated by 
Abtius, and Europe saved from utter 
devastation. 

7. Tours (a.d. 732), in which Charles 
Martel overthrew the Saracens, and 
broke from Europe the Mohammedan 
yoke. 

8. Hastings (a.d. 1066), by which 
William of Normandy beccime possessed 
of the English crown. 

9. Orleans (a.d. 1429), by which 
Jeanne d'Arc raised the siege of the 
city, and secured the independence of 
France. 

10. Armada {The), A.D. 1588, which 
crushed the hopes of Spain and of the 
papacy in England. 

11. Blenheim (a.d. 1704), in which 
Marlborough, by the defeat of Tallard, 
broke the ambitious schemes of Louis 
XIV. 

12. Pultotva (a.d. 1709), in which 
Charles XII. of Swc^den was defeated by 
Peter the Great of Eussia, and the 
stability of the Muscovite empire was 
established. 

13. Saratoga (a.d. 1777), in which 
General Gates defeated Burgoyne, and 
virtually decided the fate of the American 
Eevolution. 

14. Valmy (a.d. 1792), in which the 
allied armies under the Duke of Bruns- 
wick were defeated by the French 
revolutionists, and the . Eevolution was 
suffered to go on. 

15. Wate7-loo (a.d. 1815), in which 
Wellington defeated Napoleon, and 
rescued Europe from French domina- 
tion. 

Several of these might be changed for far more 
Important battles, as, for example, that which 
giiijied the independence of Switzerland, that 
wliicli destroyed the independence of Poland, 
&c., &.C. 

Bauern Krieg. The peasants' war 
ol Germany at the time of the Reforma- 



tion, similar to the Jacquerie of France 
and Wat Tyler's rebellion in the reign 
of Eichard II. 

Bavaria {House of). Furnished 
Germany with two kaisers, Ludwig V. 
(1314-3347), and Eobert (1400-1410). 

Baxter's Maxim. 'In necessary 
things unity, in doubtful things liherty, 
in all things charity.' Tliough attributed 
to Baxter, he was not the original author 
of the maxim. 

Baxterians. Those who adopt the 
religious svstem of Eichard Baxter (1615- 
1691). With the Calvinists they believe 
in election, but with Arminians they 
reject the doctrine of reprobation. 

Their religious system is (1) that, 
although Christ died in a special sense 
for the elect, yet He atoned for all, and, 
therefore, if a man is not saved, it is his 
own fault. 

(2) They reject the dogma of repro- 
bation. 

(3) They maintain that it is possible 
for saints to fall away from saving grace. 

Dr. Watts and Dr. Doddridge were Baxterians. 
Baxter was the author of the ' Saints' Everlasting 
Rest,' and of the ' Call to the Unconverted.' 

Bay State {The), Massachusetts, 
which before the Federal constitution 
was called the colony of Massachusetts 
Bay. 
When first the pilgrims landed on the Bay State's 

iron shore.— Lowell. 

Bayaderes. The trained dancing 
girls of India, which are divided into 
Devddassi (devoted to the service of the 
temples), and the Nautchis. The former 
dwell within the inclosure of the temple, 
and never leave it without a permit from 
the high priest ; tlie latter are not 
attached to the temples, but take part 
in grand processions. The Deva'dassi 
prepare garlands for the idols, dance 
before them, sing sacred songs, and take 
part in all processions; the Nautch girls 
go about the country and perform for 
pay. 

Pronoiince bahy-a-dairs' (3 syl.). 

B^yandourians {The), or 'the 
Bayandouree.' The Turkoman dynasty 
generally called the White Sheep. 
Bayandour was the founder of the line, 
but Ussum Kassan (the Tall) founded 
the dynasty, which was driven out by 
Ismail I. in 1499. 

G 



82 



BAYARD 



BEATIFICATION 



Bayard {The British). Sir Philip 
Sidney (1554-1584). 

The Chevalier de Bayard (1475-15S4) was called 
Le Bon Chevalier, sans peur et sans reproche. He 
took part in the 'Battle of the Spurs,' 16 Aug., 
1513, where he was taken prisoner, but was re- 
stored to liberty by Henry VIII. without ransom. 

Bayard of India (The). General 
Sir James Outram (1802-18G3). In the 
Indian Mutiny he was sent to supersede 
General Havelock, but by rare chivalry 
he allowed Sir Henry Havelock to retain 
command. 

Bayard of Poland (The). Prince 
Joseph Poniatowski (1763-1814). 

Bayard of the Netherlands 

{The). Louis of Nassau, brother of 
William of Orange (founder of the Dutch 
republic). 

Bayeux Tapestry {The). Dis- 
covered in the cathedral of Bayeux in 
1728; removed to Paris by order of 
Napoleon I. in 1803; restored to the 
town hall of Bayeux in 1804 ; and 
copied by C. A. Stothard in 1816. Sup- 
posed to be the work of Matilda (wife 
of "William the Conqueror) and her 
maidens. It is a picture in worsted 
needle-work of the history of England 
from the mission of Harold to William, 
duke of Normandy, to the conquest of 
England by William, whereby he became 
king of England. It is now preserved 
in a glass case in the library of the town 
of Bayeux. It was originally one piece 
of cloth 227 feet long and 20 feet wide ; 
containing 623 figures of men, 137 of 
birds, 49 of trees, 37 of buildings, and 
41 of ships. 

The Bayeux tapestry and Domesday Book are 
invaluable documents of the period. 

Bayonne {The Secret League of), 
1567. A Catholic league between France 
and Spain, to compel France, Spain, 
and Flanders to abandon Protestantism. 
Here, in 1572, Catherine de' Medici and 
the Duke of Alva planned together the 
massacre of the French Huguenots. Mary, 
queen of Scots, joined the league in the 
year of her marriage with Henry Darnley. 

Bayonne {The Treaty of), 5 May, 
1808. When Carlos IV. of Spain resigned 
his crown to Napoleon I. 

Bayou State {The). Bayou means 
a creek. The State of Mississippi, which 
abounds in creeks, is so called. 



Bear Flag War {The), 1847. In 
California, between General Fremont 
and the Mexicans, who tried to prevent 
the Americans from settling in California. 
The Mexicans were soon driven back, 
and the independence of California was 
secured. 

Bear State {The). The State of 
Arkansas, the forests of which are in- 
fested by bears. 

Beards. 

The Arabians dyed their beards red, because 
Mahomet hated black hair. 

Assyrians &nd Africans appear in sculpture and 
paintings with long beards. 

Britons, according to Caesar, shaved all but the 
upper lip. The Anglo Saxons and Danes wore 
forlied beards. The Normans wore clean shaved. 
Edward III. is represented on his tomb at West- 
minster with a long beard. In the reign of Eliza- 
beth beards were cut into fantastic shapes. In 
the reign of James I. each profession wore a 
differently shaped beard. In the reign of Charles 
I. a small pointed beard was the mode. In the 
reign of Charles II. only whiskers and moustaches 
were worn. The modern fashion of wearing 
beards was introduced in the Crimean War, 1854, 
but the habit had been creeping in ten years 
before. Even the clergy no longer considered it 
needful to follow the fashion of Catholic priests. 

In the reign of Elizabeth it was ordered that 
'no fellow of Lincoln's Inn shall wear a beard 
above a fortnight's growth.' 

Egyptians apparently wore beards only in 
mourning ; in some statues we find that they had 
beards enclosed in a beard-case. 

France. Beards were worn till the reign of 
Louis XIII., who was beardless, and the custom 
changed. In the reign of Napoleon III. the French 
shaved off their whiskers, and shaved the chin, 
only leaving a knot of hair, called an imperial. 
The moustache was worn long, pointed, andwaxed. 

Grecian Iterocs are represented with short curled 
beards. The philosophers are for the most part 
represented with long beards. Alexander made his 
soldiers shave that the enemy might not lay hold 
of their beards. 

Jeirs. In Leviticus xix. 27 the lawgiver says, 
' Thou shalt not mar the corners of thy beard.' 
Beards were always worn by the Jews. 

Lombards, or Longobards, wore long beards. 

Parthians. The kings had bushy beards. 

Persians entwined their beards with gold thread. 

Romans, according to Pliny, began to shave 
A.D.C. 454. Seipio Africanus introduced daily 
shaving. The first fourteen emperors shaved, but 
Hadrian retained his beard. 

Spain. Beards were worn till the accession ol 
Felipe V., who, being beardless, like Louis XIII., 
set the fashion of clean chins. 

Bearnaise(ie). Henri IV. of France, 
so called from ' Le Be'arn,' his native pro- 
vince (1553, 1589-1610). 

Beatification,— Canonisation. 

In imitation of heathen apotheosis. 
When persons are heatified, their picture 
or image is allowed to be placed in some 
particular church, where spiritual com- 
munion may be held with them in prayer. 
When persons are canonised iYieiv image 
or picture may be placed in all churches, 
that the whole body of Christians may 
hold conununion with them. Instead of 



BEAUCLERK 



BEES 



image or picture, the names of the beati 
or canonised saints are inscribed in 
missals or service books. 

Beauclerk, ' Good Scholar.' Henry I. 
of England (10(38, 1100-1135). 

Beau Sabreur {Le). General 
Murat, marshal of France, and after- 
wards king of Naples (1771-1815). 

Beauts (La dame de). Agnes Sorel 
(1409-I450)was so called from the C/w^eat* 
de Beaut e, on the banks of the Marne. 
This chateau was given to her by 
Charles VII. 

Beauty of Holiness [The). Jeremy 
Taylor was so called from the extra- 
ordinary beauty of his person and his 
great piety. He died 1667, aged 54. 

Becket, in his flight from North- 
ampton, Nov. 1164, assumed the garb of 
a monk, and called himself ' Dereman.' 

His murderers were four Imights, viz. 
Richard Brito,Hugh de Morville, William 
de Tracy, and Reginald Fitzurse who 
struck the first blow. He was assassi- 
nated in Canterbury Cathedral, 29 Dec, 
1170. In 1538, Henry VIII. put forth a 
proclamation that Becket was killed in a 
riot of his own provoking ; and as he was 
a rebel and traitor, his name should be 
erased from all religious books and 
calendars. 

Becket's Day was Tuesday. He 
was born on Tuesday, baptized on Tues- 
day, took flight from Northampton on 
Tuesday, withdrpw from the realm to 
take refuge in France on Tuesday, had 
his vision of martyrdom at Pontigny on 
Tuesday, returned to England on Tues- 
day, was assassinated on Tuesday, and his 
body was removed from the crypt of the 
cathedral to the shrine on Tuesday, The 
new church was consecrated to him by 
Cardinal Manning on Tuesday (13 April, 
1875). 

Beckmanites {The), 1875. A reli- 
gious sect, the followers of BIrs. Dora 
Beckman of Alpena, Michigan, who died 
1883. Mrs. Beckman claimed to be a 
' second Christ,' and gave out that Christ, 
in her person incarnate, ' is the bride of 
the Church.' In 1888 a Beckmanite of 
Chicago claimed to be the wife of Christ. 
Their midnight meetings were so dis- 
orderly, that an appeal was made to the 
legislature to forbid them. 



Bed of Justice, 'Lit de justice.' 
The seat occupied by the king of France 
in a parlement when he enforced an edict 
not acceptable to the house. As the 
parlement derived its authority from the 
crown, when the king was present the 
power of the parlement was in abeyance. 
The last ' lit de justice ' was held by 
Louis XVI. at Versailles, in Sept. 1787. 

Bede {The Venerable). An English 
monk and historian of the 8th cent. 
There is a tradition that a monk, writing 
his epitaph, fell asleep without com- 
pleting the verse, and when he woke 
discovered the word ' venerabilis ' sup- 
plied by some unknown hand. The whole 
line then ran thus : — - 

Hac sunt in fossa Bsedse [venerabilis] ossa. 

Bedells' {Esquire). In the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. Two officers elected 
by the senate to carry silver maces on 
all public solemnities. They precede the 
chancellor or his deputy in processions ; 
receive from him all graces, and deliver 
them officially to the proctors; they 
summon members of the senate to the 
chancellor's court ; arrange all public 
processions, and on all such occasions 
carry their maces or staffs of office. 

Bedlam. A corruption of Bethlehem, 
formerly a hospital founded by Simon 
Fitz-Mary in Bishopsgate Street Without, 
in 1246, as ' a privy of canons, with 
brethren and sisters.' When the religious 
houses were suppressed by Henry VIII. 
the corporation converted it into a lunatic 
asylum for six lunatics, but in 1641, the 
funds being insufficient, partially conva- 
lescent patients were turned out to beg, 
and wore a badge. These were the ' Bed- 
lam Beggars,' generally called ' Tom-o'- 
Bedlams.' In 1675 the old building was 
taken down and a new one was erected 
in Moorfields. In 1814 this building was 
also pulled down, and a new hospital 
built in St. George's Fields. 

Bedouins of Paris {The). The 
Red Republicans and roughs who 
thronged the streets in every insurrection 
and revolution. 

Bees (The). Candidates for 'danger- 
ous work ' in the Fenian lodges. Every 
seven bees is responsible to a ' centre ' ; 
each set of seven centres is responsible 
to the district centre ; each set of seven 
district centres is responsible to the ' head 
g2 



84 



BEES 



BEGIN 



centre,' with whom alone these district 
centres are allowed to communicate ; 
and, lastly, the head centres communicate 
with the ' Apex ' {q.v.). 

A circle, centre, and bee are Fenian officers, not 
boards. They correspond to captain, lieutenant, 
and sergeant. Each bee has ten members under 
his jurisdiction. 

Bees' College (St.), Cumberland, 
1816. Founded by Bishop Law. 

Befa'na. A kind of Santa Klaus, 
who visits children on Twelfth Night to 
put presents in a stocking hung at their 
bed. Befana, it is said, was an old 
woman busy cleaning her house when 
the Magi passed by, but she said she 
would look out for them on their return. 
As they went home another way, she is 
looking out for them still, but entertains 
a great fondness for young children. 
The word is a corruption of ' Epiphania ' 
(Epiphany). 
Begards. See ' Beghards.' 
Begeaux (Les). In the reign of 
Charles VI. of France. Bands of free- 
booters, consisting of Burgundians and 
their butchers, predatory forces from 
Artois, discharged German, Lombard, and 
Savoyard mercenaries, with other disor- 
derly persons, who laid waste the country 
round Paris and ravaged France at will. 
These brigands were still more demoral- 
ised than the Free Companies in the time 
of the Black Prince. 

The two most noted ot their leaders were Jean 
de Poix and De Sobre. 

Beggars {The), 1566. Those Cal- 
vinists of Holland who leagued together 
to resist the Inquisition in their country. 
The term arose thus : Three hundred of 
the chief men of the Netherlands, all 
Calvinists, were deputed to demand of 
Margaret of Austria, the governor, the 
removal of the Inquisition. When Mar- 
garet inquired of the Comte de Barley- 
mont, her counsellor, about the deputa- 
tion he told her they were only a ' set of 
beggars ' (' Ce ne sont que des gueux '). 
This reply got wind, and the party as- 
sumed the title of 'Beggars' as their 
distinctive badge, and from that time 
dressed as beggars, substituting a fox's 
tail for a feather, and a wooden platter 
instead of a brooch. Their place of 
rendezvous was a house called the Cock, 
out of whose mouth proceeded the words 
' Vivent les gueux par tout le nionde 1 ' 



It is said that the count ' spat upon them, called 
them beg.?ars, and dismissed them contemptu- 
ously.' ' GeuB ' is stiir a Dutch by-word for ' Pro- 
testant.' 

Beggars of the Sea (The), or 'Les 
gueux de mer,' 1566. Those Hollanders 
who placed themselves under Count 
Horn, in the Zuyder Zee, to resist the Spa- 
nish invaders. See below. 

Beggars of the Wood (The), or 
' Les gueux des bois,' 1566. Those Hol- 
landers who lurked in the woods, and 
resisted on land the Spanish invaders. 
See ' Beggars.' 

Begging Friars. The second Coun- 
cil of Lyons reduced them to these four 
orders : Franciscans or Grey Friars, 
Dominicans or Black Friars, Augustines 
(Black Friars), and Carmelites or White 
Friars. 

Begging Licences. Licences 
granted to the poor Venetian nobles to 
beg. These beggars • were called ' I 
Vergognosi ' {q.v.). 

Beghards {The). ^ 'Beghardi,' or 
* Begehardi,' 1065 ; ' qui vulgariter Bege- 
hardi quoad vivos, et Beginse quoad 
feminas nominantur ' (Conradus de 
Monte, ' de Erroribus Begehardorum '). 
Also called ' Tertiaries ' (the third 
order). See ' Beguins.' 

Secta quaedam pestifera illorum qui Beguinl 
vulgariter appellantur, qui se Fratres x^aupcres de 
tertio Ordine S. Francisci communiter nomina- 
bant, ex quibus plures fuerunt tanquam hseretici 
condemnati et combusti.— Beknakd GuiDO, Life 
of John XXII. 

Beghinae, or ' Belgian Beguins.' Very 
numerous in Belgium in the 12th and 
13th cent. John XXII. (7 Kal. 
Martii, anno 3) calls them ' Sorores de 
Pcenitentia.' It is said that their 
founder was Begha (Papini Landensia 
filia, S. Gertrudis Nivellensis sorore) ; but 
this cannot be relied on. 

In Alemannia mulierum continentium, qussee 
Beguinas volunt appellari, multitudo surroxit 
innumerabilis, adeo ut solam Coloniam mille vel 
plures inhabitarent.— Matthew Paris (year 1251). 

Begihards {The). ' Begihardi,' 

preaching friars, 1302. 

Fuerunt conversi seu Begihardi, hoc est, f ratrca 
non habentes domlcilia. — Annates Colmarienses 
(year 1302). 

Begin "with Vesta. Before the 
guests of a Greek banquet began to eat, 
an oblation was always offered to Vesta, 
the tutelary goddess of hospitality. 



BEGTASHI 



BELL-EOCK 



85 



Begtashi. A religious order in the 
Ottoman Empire, instituted in the 14th 
cent., by Hadji Begtash. The members 
have secret signs and passwords, like 
freemasons, to which they bear many 
resemblances. 

B^guins, of Flanders, 1207. Followers 
of Lambert le Begue, of Liege. They 
believed men capable of perfection, and 
of obtaining so clear a view of God as 
to become freed from the obedience of 
any human laws, civil or ecclesiastical, 
Tliey are now orthodox. 

They were called Bizochi in Italy ; Begums in 
France ; and Beghards in Germany. 

Begums. Women of high rank in 
the East Indies. The charge of Warren 
Hastings, brought by Sheridan in his 
famous speech of five hours' length, 
referred to his treatment of the mother 
and grandmother of Asoff-ul-Dowlah, 
nabob of Oude. These ladies were very 
rich and kept a splendid court. Asoff- 
ul-Dowlah forced large sums of money 
from them, and the begums appealed for 
protection to Warren Hastings, governor- 
general of Lidia (1778). Hastings com- 
manded the nabob to abstain from 
further extortions, but Hastings resolved 
to get the begums' money for conducting 
the war in Madras. His plan was this : 
He supplied the nabob with a brigade of 
British soldiers to keep down his own 
people, and ran up so heavy a claim that 
the nabob could not pay it. Hastings 
told him to extort the money from the 
begums. The nabob trumped up a 
charge against the begums that they 
were concerned in stirring up the insur- 
rection at Benares, 115 miles from their 
residence, and marched against them. 
The ladies resisted, and were taken 
prisoners, but had concealed their 
treasures (3,000,000Z. sterHng). The two 
chief ministers were seized and put in 
irons, and the two ladies were placed in 
rigorous confinement. As the money 
was not produced, torture was applied, 
and 500,000/,. was produced. More 
severe torture forced from the ladies, 
another 50O,000Z. The begums and their 
two ministers were released, and were 
told that they ' owed this favour to the 
governor-general.' See ' Sheridan's 
Begums Speech.' 

Begu?n is the fern, of Beg, or Bey. 

Belimenists. Disciples of the 
German mystic Jacob Bolim or Boehm 



(1575-1G24). He taught that all things 
consist in Yes and No. The Yes is pure 
power, life, deity ; the No is the reply to 
the Yes, and indispensable to the revela- 
tion of the truth. The present controversy 
respecting the absolute and relative is 
an offshoot of Behmenism (1890). 

Behring. A strait, sea, bay, and 
island named after Captain Vitus Bering, 
a Dane in the service of Peter the Great. 
He discovered the strait ha 1728. Cap- 
tain Bering died in 1741 in the island 
which bears his name. 

Belgian Lion {Order of the), 29 
Sep., 1815. Instituted by William I., king 
of the Netherlands, The decoration is a 
white enamelled cross surmounted with 
the royal crown, in a blue 'ring' with 
the letter W and a circle of laurels ; on 
the reverse, the royal arms with the 
legend ' Virtus Nobilitas.' The ribbon 
is blue, edged with orange. 

Belgic Confession {The), 1559. 
One of the chief confessions of faith of 
the continental Calvinistic or Reformed 
churches. See ' Confessions.' 

Belgica. That part of ancient Gaul 
which lay between the Seine and the Rhine. 

Believers. So those were called 
who believed in the divine visitation of 
Joanna Southcott, prophetess of Exeter 
(1750-1814). 

Believers in Christ {The). A sect, 
whose special doctrine is that their 
prayers alone can influence the decrees 
of divine providence. 

Bell, Book, and Candle. In the 
ceremony of the gi'eater excommunica- 
tion by the Catholic Church, since the 
8th cent., after reading the sentence a 
bell is rung, the book closed, and a 
candle extinguished; and from that 
moment the person excommunicated is 
excluded from the communion of saints, 
divine worship, and the sacraments. 

Bell-rock. A reef of old red sand- 
stone, 2,000 feet long, once a fruitful 
source of shipwreck. The abbot of Ar- 
broath (John Gedy, 14th cent.) placed on 
the reef a bell fixed on a beam of wood, 
and the beam being agitated by the 
sea, kept the bell incessantly ringing. 
Southey, in a ballad on the subject, says 
that Sir Ralph the Rover wantonly cut 
the bell from the buoy, and on his home- 
ward voyage was wrecked on the reef. 



BELL 



BELZUNCE 



Bell Scholarships. For classics 
and mathematics. Two annually for un- 
dergraduates, worth about 5l. a year each. 
tenable for four years. Founded in the 
University of Cambridge by the Rev. 
William Bell, D.D., fellow of Magdalene 
College, 1810. See ' Barnes Scholar- 
ship.' 

Bell the Cat. See p. 42. 

Belle Alliance {La). The name 
of a farm some thirteen miles from 
Brussels ; ever memorable for being the 
position occupied by the centre of the 
French infantry in the battle of Water- 
loo (18 June, 1815). Napoleon himself 
was in the vicinity of this farm, but 
Wellington was at Mont St. Jean, two 
miles further north. Between these two 
spots was La Haye Sainte, where were 
posted the French tirailleurs. 

The Prussians call the battle of Waterloo the 
'Battle of la Belle Alliance,' and the French call 
it the ' Battle of Mont Saint-Jean.' 

Belle Bretonne (La). The Prin- 
cess Eleanor, also called the Pearl of 
Brittany, daughter of Geoffrey, duke of 
Brittany, grand-daughter of Henry II., 
and niece of King John. She woiild 
have been heir-presumptive if her 
brother Arthur had succeeded Richard 
Coeur de Lion, but from the time of 
Arthur's death she had to endure a life- 
long imprisonment at the hands of Jolm. 

Belle Cord 'ere (La). Louise Labe 
(1526-1506), a French poetess, who 
married Eddemond Perrin, a wealthy 
ropemaker. 

Belle Corisande (La). Diane, 
comtesse de Guiche et de Grammont 
(1554-1620). 

Belle G-abrielle {La). Daughter 
of Antoine d'Estrees, grandmasj^er of 
artillery, and governor of the Ile-de- 
France. She was the mistress of Henri 
IV. of France, and died from eating 
an orange (1505-1599). Also called ' La 
Belle Jardiniere.* 

Belle Parricide (La). Beatrice 
Cenci, executed 1599. 

Belle et vertueuse Huguenotte 

{La). Rachel de Rouvigny, the mother 
of Rachel, who first married Francis, 
lord Vaughan, and afterwards Lord 
William Russell. She received the 
name of Wriothesley from Thomas 



Wriothesley, the mother of her first 
husband (an heiress). 

Ballot Straits. In the Arctic 
ocean ; so named from Mons. Joseph 
Rene Bellot, who perished in the Arctic 
regions, while searching for Sir John 
Franklin (1826-1853). 

Bellum Episcopale, 1640. The 
convocation which met this year made 
canons, and gave subsidies to carry on 
the war against the Scots. 

Beloved Merchant (The). 
Michael de la Pole was so called by 
Edward III. This De la Pole in the 
next reign was created earl of Suffolk. 

Belted Will. Lord William 
Howard, who died in 1640. His belt 
used to be shown at Naworth. He was 
second son of Thomas Howard, fourth 
duke of Norfolk (beheaded in 1572). 
In right of his wife he succeeded to 
Naworth Castle, in Cumberland, and 
was the ancestor of the present earls of 
Carlisle. In 1603 'Belted Will' was 
restored in blood, by Act of Parliament ; 
he died and was buried at Greystock. 

Beltein, or 'Beltane.' A festival 
observed in Ireland and in some parts 
of Scotland. Sometimes fires are kindled 
on hills ; and sometimes the young 
muster on some green spot, feast on a 
dish of eggs and milk, and go through 
various ceremonies. The Irish Beltein 
is held on 21 June, the Scotch hold 
theirs on May-day (old style). The 
Romans held the festival of Cybele on 
May-day ; and Gregory ch mged the day 
in order to change ' Cybele and all the 
gods ' into ' St. Mary and all the saints.' 

Beltane means Baal's fire, and probably the 
festival is a relic of heathen times. See ' Hallow 
Eve Fires.' 

Belvedere (3 syl.) means a corridor 
or look-out which commands a fine view 
(Italian ' bel vedere,' beautiful view). 
The most famous is that of the Vatican, 
built by Bramante, but the word is 
associated with a statue called the Apollo 
Belvedere, i.e. the Apollo of the (Vatican) 
belvedere or corridor, discovered at Cape 
d'Anzo (Antium), in the 16th cent. It 
was taken from Rome to France in 1797 
by Napoleon, but restored after the battle 
of Waterloo, in 1815. 

Belzunce, bishop of Marseilles. 
Immortalised by his attention to the sick 



BENCH 



BENEFIT 



87 



and dying in the plague of Marseilles in 
1720. It was introduced by Captain 
Cliataud, who brought over a Turk in- 
fected, and entered Marseilles 25 May. 
Above 40,000 persons within the walls of 
the city, and 10,000 in the suburbs, died 
between 25 May, 1720, and 20 Aug., 1721, 
when the plague ceased. See ' Plagues &c.' 

So when Contagion, with mephitic breath, 
And withered Famine, urged the work of death, 
Marseilles good bishop, London's generous mayor, 
With food and faith, with medicine and with 

prayer, 
Raised the weak head, and stayed the parting 

sigh, 

Or with new life relumed the swimming eye. 

Darwin, Locrs of the Plants, ii. 43;^, &c. 

N.B. The mayor was Sir John Lawrence, and 

the plague referred to was the Great Plague of 

London. There s many a statue to a lesser man. 

Bench. A seat of justice. There are 
two benches : the Crown Bench, called 
the Queen's or King's Bench; and the 
Common Bench, called the Court of 
Common Pleas. The former takes cog- 
nisance of crown or crmiinal offences ; 
while the Common Bench or Court of 
Common Pleas has jurisdiction in civil 
matters only. 

There Is a plea side even in the Queen's Bench, 
but there is no criminal side in the Common 
Pleas. 

Bench. Warrant {A). A warrant 
signed by a superior judge or two jus- 
tices of the peace, during the assizes, to 
apprehend a defendant against whom a 
bill of indictment has been found. 

Benedictines {The), a.d. 528. 
Founded by St. Benedict, who drew up 
the ' rule ' of his order in 529. They 
wear loose black gowns with large wide 
sleeves, and cowl ending in a point as 
a head covering. They perform their 
devotions seven times a day. Every 
monk of the order has two gowns, a 
table-book, a knife, a needle, and a 
handkerchief. The Benedictines are 
great agriculturists, and at one time 
supplied Europe with corn. The order 
was introduced into England by St. 
Augustine, archbishop of Canterbury, 
about GOO. 

The rule implied obedience to the superior, 
avoiding laughter, holding no private property, 
living sparingly, exercising hospitality, and above 
all great industry. They were the most gentle- 
manly and most literary of the monkish orders. 

Benedictines [Father of the 
English). St. Dunstan, archbishop of 
Canterbury (925, 959-988), who enforced 
the Benedictine rule, and became the 
first abbot of that order ua England. 



Benefice {A). A church living. 
Estates distributed in fief by sovereigns 
of France and Germany among their 
favourite nobles were termed heneficia. 
Similarl)', the temporalities of bishops 
are held by the bounty of the sovereign, 
and the temporalities of rectors and 
vicars are (or at one time were) held of 
the bishops. 

Benefices. In England and Wales, 
11,728. Of these, 9,669 are in the 
province of Canterbury, and 2,059 in the 
province of York. The number of 
parishes is 14,610. The entire number 
of incumbents in England and Wales is 
11,029. 

The number of churches and episcopal 
chapels is 11,825, but of officiating 
ministers, 12,382. 

The income of the archbishop of 
Canterbury is 15,0C0Z. a year; of the 
archbishop of York, 10,000L ; of the 
bishop of London, 10,000Z. ; of Durham, 
8,000Z. ; of Winchester, 7,000/.; of Ely, 
5,500Z. ; of St. Asaph and Bangor, 5,200Z. ; 
of Worcester, 5,000/.; of all the other- 
bishops between 5,000/. and 4,000/. 

Benefit of Clergy, or ' Privilegium 
clericale.' The origin of this privilege 
is not clear, but it was based on the 
text, ' Touch not mine anointed, and do 
my prophets no harm ' (Ps. cv. 15). The 
privilege related to ecclesiastical places 
and persons. Places consecrated to 
religious offices were exempted from 
arrests, and hence became sanctuaries ; 
and the . clergy themselves were e.x:empt 
from criminal processes in the civil 
courts. By 3 Edw. I. a.d. 1274, we find 
the privilege had extended to all laymen 
who could read, and such a criminal could 
not be put to death, but was branded on 
the brawn of the left hand. In 1691 
the privilege was extended to women. 
By 4 Hen. VII. c. 13, a.d. 1489, it was 
enacted that no person should be allowed 
to avail himself of the benefit more than 
once. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 s. 6, a.d. 
1827, the benefit was abolished. 
It never at any time extended to high treason. 

Benefit of Inventory {The). In 
Scotch law. A legal privilege whereby 
an heir secures himself against unlimited 
liability for his predecessor, by giving up 
within the year an inventory of hi.s 
heritage. The heir is then liable only to 
the extent of this inventory. The law 



88 



BENEFIZIATI 



BERKELEYISM 



was virtually abolished by 10, 11 Vict. 
c. 47, ss. 23, 25. 

Benefiziati [The). See ' Eighty.' 

Benevolences. In English history. 
Were ' gratuities ' or forced gifts exacted 
by a king, the loyalty of the giver 
being measured by the amount of the 
gift. These exactions, in violation of 
Magna Charta, had been made by Henry 
III. and Richard II.— Edward IV., in 
1473, after the death of Henry VI., called 
on his subjects to replenish his purse by 
their benevolences. They were declared 
illegal by 1 Rich. III. c. 2 (1484); but 
were again exacted by Henry VII., 
Henry VIII., and James I. By the Bill 
of Rights (1 Will. & Mary st. 2, c. 2, 
1689) they were again declared to be 
illegal. In the Petition of Rights (3 
Car. I.) one of the articles is this, that 
* No man shall be compelled to yield any 
gift, loan, benevolence, or tax, without 
conamon consent of the Act of Parlia- 
ment.' 

Bengalee' Era {The). Began a.d. 
593. 

Bennet College, Cambridge, 1352. 
Founded by the benevolence of two 
guilds, that of Corpus Christi and that 
of the Blessed Virgin Mary ; Henry, 
duke of Lancaster, also assisted the 
endowment. It is now almost always 
called Corpus Christi College or C.C.C.C. 

Eentham {Jeremy), 1748-1832. It 

was Bentham who said the principle of 

government should be ' the greatest 

happiness to the greatest nmnber.' 

It was Priestley who taught Bentham this 
political axiom. 

Benthamist Doctrine {The). 
' The greatest happiness of the greatest 
number.' 

Beothuks {The). Aborigines of 
Newfoundland, now numbered with the 
great awk and dodo. They were Red 
Indians, who daubed their skin, canoes, 
garments, weapons, and almost every- 
thing they possessed with red ochre and 
grease. The word is said to mean ' men.' 

So the Apaches, Dakotahs, and many other 
Indian tribal names signify 'the peoi)le.'— Lady 
Blake, Nini'tentth Ccvlurii, Dec. 1868, p. 905. 

Dakotah signifies 'allied.' 

Bephania. See ' Befana.' 

Hodiernasolemnitas . . . tribus vocabulis deco- 
ratur : (1) Epiphania, (2) Theophania, (8) Beth- 
phania ... a beth quod est ' domus,' et phanos 



'apparitio,' quia revolutis XXX et uno anno ad 
nuptias fuit invitatus (Jesus).— Barelbta, Sermon 
on the Epiphany. 

Berbers. A general name for the 
tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions 
of Barbary and the northern portions of 
the Great Desert. 

In Algeria they are termed 'Kabyles' (2 syl.); 
in Morocco they are called ' Shellooh ' ; in the Atlas 
range, ' Amazirgh ' or ' Timzirght.' 

Bere'ans {The). A Christian sect 
founded by the Rev. John Barclay of 
Perthshire (1734-1798). They derive 
their name from the Bereans who ' re- 
ceived the Word of Truth with all readi- 
ness of mind, and searched the Scriptures 
daily ' (Acts xvii. 1). They are for the 
most part Calvinistic in doctrine, but 
believe that the knowledge of God, even 
of his existence, is a pure matter of revela- 
tion ; that the Psalms refer wholly to 
Christ, and not to David at all ; and that 
assurance is the outcome of faith. 

They are called Barclayans from their foundei. 

Berengarians, 11th cent. Fol- 
lowers of Berenger, or Berengarius, of 
Tours (1000-1088), who emphatically 
denied the corporal presence in the 
Eucharist. Leo IX. procured the con- 
demnation of Berenger's doctrine by the 
Council of Rome in 1049 and the Council 
of Vercelli in 1050. In 1079 Berenger 
declared his belief in transubstantiation, 
and was much honoured by Gregory VII. 

Bergen, in Norway {Treahj of com- 
vierce), 1217. Between England and 
Norway, noteworthy as being the first 
treaty made by England with any foreign 
power. The English-Scotch traders 
were, however, soon displaced by the 
merchants of the Hanse towns, who 
continued to maintain their monopoly 
till 1560, when it was broken up by 
Frederick II. of Demnark. 

Berkeleyism. Idealism as taught 
by Bishop George Berkeley. To under- 
stand this it must be borne in mind that 
an abstract idea is the idea of an abstract 
noun, as goodness, solidity, &c. apart 
from any object. Berkeley, abandoning 
this theory, maintained . that all that 
is known is the idea ; thus, all that we 
know of a tree is our idea of a tree. He 
does not say there is no such thing as a 
tree, but only that our knoivledge of such 
an object is our idea or conception of a 
tree. 



BERLIN 



BESIEGER 



89 



Dr. Johnson kicked a stone and asked if that 
Btone were only an ideal one. It is a sorry thing 
that a man like Johnson should have been so 
foolish. What did Johnson know of a stone beyond 
his idea of it ? The kick may have given him a 
more accurate idea of its hardness, but still, all 
he knew of it was limited to his conception or idea 
of a stone. 

Berlin {Peace of), 28 June, 1742, 
which closed the first Silesian war, 
between Maria Theresa of Austria and 
Friedrich II., the Great, of Prussia. By 
this treaty Silesia was given up to 
Prussia. 

Berlin Decree (The), 21 Nov., 1806. 
Issued by Napoleon for the ruin of Great 
Britain : — 

1. The British Isles were declared in a 
state of blockade. 

2. All commerce and correspondence 
with Great Britain were forbidden. 

3. Every Englisliman found on the 
Continent was declared a prisoner of war. 

4. All British goods and merchandise 
were to be considered lawful prize. 

5. All vessels coming from England or 
an English colony were to be refused 
admission into any continental harbour. 

Bermudas (The). So named from 
Bermudez, a Spaniard, who first sighted 
these islands in 1527. They are also 
called ' Sommers Isles,' from Sir George 
Sommers, an Englishman, who was ship- 
wrecked here in 1609. Sir George's ship- 
wreck was the mimediate reason why 
these islands were colonised from Vir- 
ginia, which, at the time (1611), was 
itself only four years old. 

Probably the 'Bermoothes' ol Shakespeare 
(' Tempest," i. 2) is Bermudas. 

Bernadotte (The House of). The 
present reigning family in Sweden and 
Norway. Carl XIII. died childless, and 
concurred with the states in choosing 
Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, 
as his successor. Bernadotte proved 
true to his adopted country by refusing 
to enforce Napoleon's ' Continental Sys- 
tem ' on Sweden. 

The Continental System was to ' boycott ' Great 
BritMin, and ruin its foreign trade. Bernadotte 
rei;|ned as Cirl XIV., but his name was JeanBap- 
tisteJules Bernadotte. He died in lft44, and was 
succeeded by his son, Oscar I., who died in 1872, 
and was succeeded by his son, Oscar II. 

Bernard {The Great St.).^ The 
hospice on this famous mountain pass 
was founded in 962, by Bernard de 
IMenthon, a Savoysien nobleman, for 
the benefit of pilgrims. 



Bernardiani. Franciscans of the 
Strict Observance, so called from St. 
Bernardin of Sienne, of the same order 
(1380-1444). 

Bernardines, 1115. Cistercians 
reformed by St. Bernard of Clairvaux 
(1091-1153). Called White Monks from 
the colour of their habit. 

Also a congregation of women of the same order, 
who consecrated themselves to the education of 
girls. The chief establishments were those of the 
Port-Royal, and another in the faubourg St.- 
Antoine. 

Bernese {The). Henri IV. of 
France. Before he was king of France 
he was called the Bernese or Bearnese 
king. He was king of Navarre, sovereign 
prince of Beam, and first peer and prince 
of France. 

Bernesqiie Poetry, 'Poesia Ber- 
nesca.' Burlesque poetry, so called from 
Francesco Berni of Tuscany (1490-1536). 

Bersaerker {The). The bodyguards 
of Danish jarls and kings, noted for their 
dauntless daring. These military 
fanatics were probably so called from 
' ber ' (bare), ' scerker ' (garment), because 
they wore no armour in battle. Ogier 
the Dane, one of Charlemagne's paladins, 
was a Bersseiker. 

Berserkir rage means a frenzy of passion wholly 
beyond control. The rage of the French in the 
first devolution was Berserkir rage. 

Bertram {Dr. Charles JuUvs). A 
literary impostor. He was professor of 
English at Copenhagen, and professed to 
have discovered, in 1747, the 'De Situ 
Britannios ' of Richardus Corinensis 
(Richard of Cirencester), in the library 
of Copenhagen. In 1758 he published it 
with two other treatises, calling the whole 
' The Three Writers on the Ancient 
History of the British Nations ' (' Scrip- 
tores Tres '). His forgery was exposed 
by J. E. Mayor, in his preface to ' Richardi 
de Cirencestria Speculum Historiale.' 
See ' Literary Forgeries,' A •. 

The 'Scriptores Tres' were Bichardus Corinenslg 
(of Cirencester), 'Gildas Badnious (of Bath), and 
Nennius Bancliorensis (of Bangor). 

Besllters. A Jewish sect, a branch 
of the ancient Chasidim, which take their 
stand on the Kabbala, but remain 
(ostensibly at least) within the province 
of rabbinical Judaism (Baal Shem Tob). 

Besieger {The). Demetrius Polior- 
cetes, king of idacedonia. 



90 



BESS 



BIBLE 



Bess of Hardwick. Elizabeth, 
countess of Shrewsbury, to whose charge, 
in 1572, Mary Queen of Scots was com- 
mitted. She built a former mansion of 
Chatsworth, the present Hardwick Hall, 
and founded, by her three marriages, the 
wealth and dignity of the Cavendish 
family. The countess treated Mary with 
great harshness and rigour, being exces- 
sively jealous of the earl, her husband. 

Bethlehem Hospital. Granted 
to London for lunatics in 1547. The word 
is generally called Bedlam (q.v.), and its 
lunatic inmates Bedlamites. In 1814 a 
new building was erected south of the 
Thames. 

Bethlehem Massacre (A). A 

murder or massacre of young children. 
Of course, the allusion is to the massacre 
of the Innocents by Herod. 

These ruthless scoundrels would not scruple 
committing a second Bethlehem massacre. — Sir W. 
Scott, Guy Mannering, chap, xxxix. 

Bethlemites (3 syl.), 1257. A sect 
of monks, of whom Matthew of Paris 
writes : ' Concessa est mansio Fratribus 
B thleemitis in Cantabrigia . . . quorum 
habitus similis est habitui Prasdicatorum. 
Signatur autem capa eorum in pectore 
quadam stella rubra 5 radiis crinita, in 
cujus medio qusedam rotunditas est aerei 
coioris propter stellam, quae apparuit in 
Bethleem nato Domino.' 

Beza's Codex. A Greek MS. of 
the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, 
with a corresponding Latin text on every 
opposite page. It was presented by 
Theodore Beza to the University of Cam- 
bridge in 1581, and is sometimes called 
the ' Codex Cantabrigiensis.' It is a thick 
quarto, written on vellum in uncial letters. 
Supposed to be of the 5th or 6th cent. 

Blanchi (TAe). L 1294. Apolitical 
faction in Pistoia, similar to the Cenchi 
of Florence; favourers of the Ghibellines. 
The Bianchi were opposed to the Neri or 
faction of the Guelfs. The names Bianchi 
and Neri belonged to two powerful 
families. Bianchi = * white ' ; Neri,' black.' 

Dante, the poet, though of the house of Donati, 
joined the Bianchi faction, had his house pulled 
down over his ears, and was actually condemned, 
'col falso pretesto d'aver egli commes=o barat- 
terie, cioe estorsioni di denaro e vendite di offici 
pubblicl.' Dante says of baraiteria (Inferno, xxi. 
41):— 

' Ogni uom v'e barattier, fuor che Bonturo ; 
Del no, per li denar, vi si fa ita.' 

11. or ' White Penitents,' 1399. Fana- 
tics who dressed in white, and wandered 



about Italy crying out * Misericord ia,' 
with their faces covered and bent towards 
the ground. A great crucifix was borne 
before them. Their constant song was 
' Stabat Mater dolorosa.' The march 
continued for three months at a time, and 
those who refused to join the procession 
were accounted heretics. 

They appeared in France, but Henri IV. forbade 
any one, ' uzider pain of forfeiting all his goods, to 
receive the new sect In white clothes, pretending 
to great sanctity ' (Rot. Pari. vol. iii. p. 428). This 
was because their hiding up their faces gave great 
opportunity to the commission of all sorts of 
crimes. 

Biandrate (3 syl.). Commander of 
the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. 

Biaronne {L'ambassade de). The 
three tailors of Tooley Street, see ' Diet, 
of Phrase and Fable,' p. 875. Biaronne 
is a small town in Spain, the chief trade 
of which is in honey. The embassy re- 
ferred to consisted of ' trois cents chevaux 
et une mule,' i.e. trois sans chevaux et une 
femme. Oudin, ' Curiosites FranQaises.* 

Bible. See. 

Authorised Version Manx Bible 

]>iblia Pauperum Matthew Parl^er's Biblo 

Bililia Sacra llatthew's Bible 

Bishops' Bible Mazarinian Bible 

Breeclies Bible Peace-maker's Bible 

Bug Bible Printers' Biblo 

Codex Polyglot Bible 

Coverdale's Bible Psalmorum Codex 

Cranmer's Bilile Rhemish Bible 

Cromwell Bible Revised Version 

Devil's Bible Sacy's Bible 

Dotted Bible Silver Bible 

Douay Bible Smallest Bible 

Genevan Bible Tyndale's Bible 

Golden Bible Treacle Bible 

Great Bible Vinegar Bible 

Idle Bible Whig Bible 
King James's version Wicked Bible 

Leda Bible Wychf's Bible 

Bible. The name given by Chryso- 
stom to the scriptures in the 4th cent. 
Divided into chapters in the 13th cent, 
either by Cardinal Hugo or by Stephen 
Langton (archbishop of Canterbury). 
The first English bible divided into 
verses was published at Geneva in 3500. 
The oldest MSS. of the New Testament 
are in uncial characters, and are sup- 
posed to belong to the 6th cent. The 
oldest modern MSS. (in cursive characters) 
date from the 10th cent. The most 
valuable MSS. are : 

1. The Codex Alexandrinus in the 
British Museum. See ' Alexandrian 
Codex.' 

2. The Codex Vaticanus in the Vati- 
can at Rome. Considered the oldest. 

3. The Codex E;phrcBVii, in the Imperial 
Library at Paris. 



BIBLE 



bic£:tke 



91 



4. The Codex Cantabrigiensis, or 
* Codex Bezse,' given by Beza to the 
University. 

Bible Christians, 1815. Fol- 
lowers of Mr, Bryan, a local preacher, 
who separated from the Methodist con- 
nection, and introduced a more popular 
element in his scheme of church govern- 
ment. These Methodists are great ad- 
vocates of open-air preaching, and receive 
the Lord's Supper sitting. 

Bible Clerks in Oxford University. 
Students on the foundation received at 
reduced fees. These foundations belong 
to five of the colleges : All Souls, Exeter, 
Lincoln, St. John's, and Worcester ; and 
to one Hall, viz. that of St. Mary. See 
' Clerks,' ' Sizars,' ' Servitors.' 

At Oriel College, Oxford, there are five 
bible clerks not on the foundation. At 
one time they had to read the bible lessons 
at chapel. 

Bible Moths. A nickname given 
to revivalists, subsequently called Metho- 
dists. 

Bible Orchard. A piece of ground 
bought for 50/., the legacy of Dr. Kobert 
Wilde, who died in Aug. 1G78, and desired 
that the interest accruing therefrom 
should be expended in the purchase of six 
bibles not exceeding the price of 7s. Q>d. 
each. The bibles were to be raffled for on 
the communion table of the parish church 
of St. Ives, Hunts, every year by six boys 
and six girls of the town. The practice 
of throwing dice on the communion-table 
has been discontinued, and now the raffle 
takes place on a table placed on the 
chancel steps. 

Bible Prohibited. Innocent III. 
in 1199 prohibited the private possession 
and reading of the bible. Similar pro- 
hibitions were repeated at Toulouse in 
1229 ; at Beziers in 1233 ; at the sjTiod 
of Oxford in 1383. 

The synod of Tarragona, in 1234, de- 
nounced as a heretic anyone who, having 
a translation of the bible, refused to sur- 
render it to be burned within the space 
of eight days. 

The bible is placed among the books 
forbidden in the ' Index Librorum Pro- 
hibitorum.' 

Bible Society {The), founded in 
1780. All bible societies v>rere condemned 



by the bull of Pius VII., 29 June, 1817 
and again by Leo XII. in 1824. TIia 
society of Biblical Archasology was insti- 
tuted in London, in 1871. The object of the 
Bible Society is the diffusion of the bible 
without note, comment, expurgation, or 
addition to the text. 

The A merican Bible Society, founded at New York 
in 1817. 

The British and Foreign Bible Society, founded 
in London in 1802, issues annually 1^ million copies 
of the bible. 

The Edinburgh Bible Society, 1860. Also a Bible 
Society at Glasgow. 

The French Bible Society, founded in London, 
179:2. 

The Hibernian Bible Society, 1806. 

The Naval and Military Bible Society. 1781. The 
first ship in which bibles were distributed by this 
society was the ill-fated' Royal George," which 
went down at Spithead, 29 Aug., 1782. 

The Prussian Bible Society, founded at Berlin in 
1814. 

The Russian Bible Society, founded at St. Peters- 
burg by Dr. Paterson, in 1813. 

Biblia Pauperum. The leading 
events of ' human salvation through 
Christ ' in pictures with text in Latin, 
This picture-book bible and the ' Mirror 
of Salvation ' were immensely popular in 
the 13th cent. The pictures were copied 
by artists and sculptors, and were text- 
books wntli the Franciscans, Carthusians, 
and others. See ' Bibles.' 

Biblia Sacra Latina (about 1455). 
A folio bible, printed in double columns, 
the initial letter of each chapter being 
' illuminated ' by hand with a pen in 
colours and gold. Unhai)]Dily the book 
bears no date. The first book printed 
with moveable metal types by John 
Giitenberg and Fust. See ' Psalmorum 
Codex.' 

Not to be confounded with Biblia Latina, which 
bears the date 1462. 

Bicetre. The grand hospice in the 
department of the Seine on the road to 
Fontainebleau. This hospice derives its 
name from John, bishop of Winchester, 
who built and fortified a castle on the 
spot in 1204. There is no w in French, 
so the letter is supplied by ou, v or b, and 
cetre (the French form of ' cester '). 
Hence Winchester becomes Vincetre or 
Bincetre, softened into Bicetre. In 1632 
the castle was converted by Louis XIII. 
into a liospital for military invalids, and 
was so used till the Hotel defe Invalidea 
superseded it. It is now used for incur- 
able lunatics, strangers, and a poor-house, 
a prison for vagrants and for criminala 
condemned to the galleys, or men con. 
demned to death awaiting execution. 



92 



BIELA 



BILLETS 



Biela Comet. Discoveredml826by 
William, baron von Biela, astronomer ; 
discovered at Josephstadt, in Bohemia. 
It separated into two in Dec. 1845. 

Bien fortund {Le), i.e. the Lucky, so 
Philippe VI. was called. The reason is 
this : when Charles died in 1328, his 
cousin Philippe de Valois was chosen 
regent, because the royal widow was ex- 
pected to give birth to a posthumous 
child. The child proved to be a girl, 
which by the Salic law was disqualified, 
and so the regent by ' good luck ' became 
the king (1293, 1328-1350). 

Bi gi {The). The friends of the Medici 
in Florence opposed to Savonarola. 

Bill. * The bill, the whole bill, and 
nothing but the bill,' 1831. The cry 
arose on the motion of General Gascoyne, 
who moved, as an amendment, that the 
number of representatives lor lilngland 
and Wales should not be dimniished. 
The amendment was carried by a majority 
of eight, the bill was abandoned, and the 
parliament dissolved. 

Bill Chamber. A department of 
the Court of Session in Scotland in which 
one of the judges officiates at all times, 
during session and vacation. The 
youngest judge is lord ordinary on the 
bills during session ; and the duty is 
performed during vacation by the other 
judges, with the exception of the two 
presidents. 

Bill of Adventure [A). A writing 
to sig-nify that the goods shipped by a 
merchant in his name are the property 
of another, whose adventure it is; but 
the shipping merchant undertakes to 
account to the adventurer for what the 
goods produce. 

Bill of Attainder [A). A bill in 
Parliament, introduced for penally en- 
acting the attaint and punislunent of a 
person or of persons who have criminally 
offended against the state and public 
peace. 

Bill of Complaint [A), or ' bill in 
Chancery.' The formal statement in 
writing by which a plaintiff in the Court 
of Chancery seeks equitable redress or 
relief. 

Bill of Costs {A). An account 
stating articulately and m detail the 



charges and disbursements of an attorney 
in the conduct of his client's business. 

Bill of Exceptions [A). A state- 
ment of objections against the ruling of 
a judge in a civil cause. This is done by 
way of appeal against the judgment. 

Bill of Indemnity {The), 1660. 
All the injuries and offences against the 
crown or against individuals, arising out 
of quarrels between political parties since 
1 June, 1637, shall be and are forgiven. 
Except (1) the 51 individuals actually 
concerned in the death of the king's 
father ; (2) Vane and Lambert ; (3) Lord 
Monson, Hazlerig, and five others, as far 
as regards liberty and property ; (4) all 
judges in any high court of justice, 
together with Hutchinson, Lenthall, 
St. John, and 16 others (named), who 
shall not be eligible to hold any office, 
civil, military, or ecclesiastical. The 19 
regicides who have voluntarily sur- 
rendered, shall not be put to death 
without a special Act of Parliament, 
passed expressly for that purpose. 

Bill of Rights {The), 2 Nov., 1G89. 
By which William and Mary, being called 
to the throne, bound themselves to rule 
on the constitutional principles set forth 
m the bill, it stated that it is contrary 
to law for the king to suspend the laws, 
or interfere with them without consent 
of parliament ; tlaat it is contrary to law 
lor the king to erect commission boards, 
levy money, or impose fines without con- 
sent of parliament ; that it is contrary 
to law for the king to keep a standing 
army in times of peace without consent 
of parliament. It provided for freedom 
of speed! in parliament, disallowed ex- 
cessive bail and fines, enjoined the due 
impanelling of juries, forbade grants and 
promises of fines before conviction, and 
insisted that parliament only shall be 
empowered to amend the laws and redress 
grievances. 

Bill of Sales {The), 1660. Passed 
by the Convention Parliament {q.v.). 
This was for the restoration of all crown 
lands. Church lands were not included, 
so that many church livings remained to 
the Presbyterians, 

This must not be confounded with a 'bill of 
sale," or assignment of chattels-personal. 

Billets, 1796. Royal missives granted 
to the Vaudois to repair and enlarge 



BILLY 



BISHOPS 



9'd 



their temples, or even to remove their 
sites, provided notice was given to the 
lutendant of the province. 

Billy Blue. Lord Admiral St. Vin- 
cent (John Jervis), 1734-1S23. Admiral 
of the Blue, 1795. Called Lord St. Vin- 
cent from his victory over the combined 
French and Spanish fleets off Cape St. 
Vincent in 1795. 

Bi-metallism. The employment 
of two metals, like gold and silver, of 
fixed legal relative value. Till 1873 this 
had been the custom for nearly 200 years. 
One ounce of gold was then equal to 15^ 
ounces of silver. Up to 1873 silver was 
the standard of Germany, as it is still of 
India, China, and Japan ; but in 1873 
gold was made the sole standard of Ger- 
many, and silver became a mere article 
of commerce and circulating counter, 
which varied in value according to cir- 
cumstances. The relative value might 
be one ounce of gold worth twenty 
ounces of silver, or any other difference ; 
and those countries which pay in silver 
pay more as the relative value of silver 
declines. Bi-metallists want to restore 
the fixed relative value of these metals. 

Birdcage Walk (St. James's 
Park, London). Here Charles II. made 
an aviary. 

Birmese "War. See ' Burmese.' 

Birmingham Political Union 

{The), 1 Feb., 1830. Members paid from 
4s. to 2 guineas a year. There were 
several affiliated unions for the dissemi- 
nation of Radical principles, such as 
free trade, manhood suffrage, shorter 
parliaments, the ballot, and so on. 

Birminghamers, 1680. Opponents 
of the Court, or adherents of the Exclu- 
sion Bill — that is, a bill to exclude James 
from succeeding Charles II. The Court 
party were called Anti-Birminghamers. 
The Birmingham manufacturers had 
become notorious as coiners of base 
money, so the Tories and ' Catholics ' 
nicknamed the Exclusionists 'Birming- 
hamers,' i.e. men who preferred a base 
or usurping king to one of the real 
etamp of right divine. 

The Whigs were Birminghamers, Petitionists, 
and Exclusionists (.si-e these words). 

The Tories were Anti-Birniinghamers, Abhorrers, 
and Tantivies (see these words;. 



Biron's Conspiracy, 1602. The 
conspiracy of Charles de Gontaut, due 
de Biron, to dethrone Henri IV. This 
was a conspiracy with Spain and Savoy. 
Biron was to receive in marriage the 
daughter of the Duke of Savoy and the 
full sovereignty of Burgundy. Biron 
was betrayed and beheaded. 

Birthday. The following, among 
many others, died on the anniversary of 
their birthday. 

Alexander the Great, 24 July (B.C. 356-324). 
Antipater, died B.C. 44. 

Browne (Sir Tlwmus), 19 Nov. (1605-1682) : his 
77th birthday. 
Caracalla, 8 April (188-217). 
DIGBY (Sir Kenrlvi), 11 June (lfi03-16()5). 
Elizabeth, wife of Henry VII., 11 Feb. (1466- 



GREGORY the Great, 12 March r540-604). 
HiLARUS (M. oniius), the comedian. 
Holland (Sir Henry), born 1788. 
Plato, 21 May (B.C. 4.S0-347). 
Raphael, 6 April (1483-1.520). 
Sandford (John), died 1850. 
Shakespeare, 23 April (l.'5fi4-1616). 
Williams (John), archbishop of York, 25'March 
(1582-1650). See Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 53. 

Bishop in partibus, 1623. A vicar 
apostolic, vested with episcopal authority 
by the pope over a church in want of a 
bishop, but which, for some reason, 
cannot have one of its own. In such a 
case a bishop is consecrated to some see, 
in partibus infdelium, which had 
formeily a bishop, but has now no church. 
These bishops in partibus were created 
only during the pope's pleasure, and 
might be removed at any hour. They 
are now called titular bishops. 

Bishop of the English {The). 
Augustine (597-604). Sent over by Gre- 
gory the Great. He is called 'The 
Apostle of the English.' 

Bishops {Commitment of Twelve), 
1641. Williams, archbishop of York, 
prevailed on eleven other prelates to join 
him in a declaration stating that they 
could no longer, without danger to their 
lives, attend their duty in parliament, 
and that therefore they protested against 
the validity of any votes or resolutions 
during their absence. The Lower House 
imi)eached the twelve prelates of high 
treason for this declaration, and ten were 
committed to the Tower. The bishop of 
Lichfield and the bishop of Durham, on 
account of their great age and infirmity, 
were given in charge to the usher of tlie 
Black Rod. 



94 



BISHOPS 



BLACK 



Bishops' Bible (The), 1568-1572. 
The corrected edition of the G eat Bible 
{q.v.) in the reign of Elizabeth. Arch- 
bishop Parker engaged the bishops and 
other learned men to take each a portion 
for revision ; the different portions were 
printed with short annotations, and the 
whole called ' Parker's Bible ' or the 
' Bishops' Bible.' It was based on 
Tyndale's translation. See ' Bibles.' 

Bishops' Book (The) 1537. Or 
'The godly and pious. Institution of a 
Christian Man, &c.,' compiled by the 
bishops and dedicated to the king. 
Quoted in brief as the 'Institution.' 
See ' King's Book.' It was founded on 
the ' Ten Articles ' (q.v.), and explained 
Buch matters as the Apostles' Creed, the 
Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, 
Ave Maria, the seven sacraments, infant 
baptism, baptismal regeneration, con- 
fession, absolution, the apostolic succes- 
sion, and the real presence. Two arti- 
cles, published in 1536, were appended, 
one on Justification and the other on 
Purgatory. 

Bishop's Eye (The). So the arch- 
deacon is called in canon law. 

Bishops' War (The) 1640. The 
contest of the Scotch against the appoint- 
ment of bishoj)8 in their country, which 
Charles I. tried to force upon them. It 
terminated in the conference held at 
Repton, October 1640. 

Charles I. was urged to stand to his ground by 
Laud and the Earl of Strafiord. The Scotch had 
petitioned for triennial parliaments and freedom 
of election and debate. Strafford said the rascals 
ought to be ' whipped ' into their senses. When 
the parliament refused to vote supplies without 
redress of grievances, StrafEord told the king he 
was entitled to help himself, and he advanced to 
the North with an army. The Scots crossed the 
Tyne, occupied Newcastle, and despatched pro- 
posals of peace. Charles, to evade calling a 
parliament, summoned at York a ' Great Council 
of Peers,' but the council was obstinate, and the 
king after all was forced to call a parliament. 
Laud called these Scots 'the rascal riotous 
multitude.' 

Bissextile Year. Leap year was 
so called, because Julius Ceesar ordained 
that the 23rd Feb. should be counted 
twice on leap years ; and by the Roman 
calendar the 23rd Feb. was the sextile or 
vi. Kal. Martii, i.e. the sixth day before 
the Kalends, or 1st of March. 

Bizochii, or Fratricelli, 1189. A sect 
of Minorites condemned by Boniface 
VIII. (1294-1303), by John XXIL, and 
by Martin V. in 1418. 



Nonnulli virl pestiferi, qui vulgariter Fratri- 
celli, seuFratrea de paupere vita, aut Bizochi, 
sive Bichini, vel aUis fucatis nominibus nuncu- 
pantur.— John XXII. (year 6), Epist, Commuidum. 

Black. The colour consecrated to 
the Abbassides (3 syl.). Their turbans 
and garments were black ; and two 
black standards (called Night and 
Shadow) were borne aloft on pike-staves 
nine cubits long in the van of their army. 
The ' Black and White Factions ' were 
the factions of Abu Moslem the Abas- 
side, and Merwan 11. the Ommiade 
calif. 

The Fatimites (3 syl.) colour was green; the 
Ommiades (3 syl.) white ; the Abbasides,' black. 

Black and "White Cockade 

{The). The allied American and French 
badge in 1780. 

Washington directed all his continental troops 
to adopt the black and white cockade, as a sign of 
amity (between America and France).— HowiTT, 
Hist. ofEtigl. (Geo. III. p. 264). 

Black and White Faces. See 
under ' Wliite, &c.' 

Black and White Factions 
(The). I. Of Florence, called the Neri 
and Bianchi. Rival factions towards 
the close of the 13th cent., and for the 
first five years of the 14th. The Blacks 
were the noblesse, and the Whites the 
rich merchants. The Whites joined the 
Ghibellines. Dante was a W^hite, and 
was banished in 1302. 

II. That of the Abbassides and Om- 
miades. The colour of the Abbassides 
(3 syl.) was black, and of the Ommiades 
(3 syl.) was white. 

The colour of the Fatimites (3 syl.) was green. 

Black Act (The), 1722 (9 George L 
c. 22). Is so cfllled because it was directed 
against the Waltham deer-stealers, who 
blackened their faces for disguise, and 
under the name of ' Blacks ' appeared in 
Epping Forest. This act was repealed 
in 1827. 

It made It felony to appear with the face 
blackened or otherwise disguised in any park, 
warren, &c., for the purpose of hunting or stealing 
deer, &c. 

Black Acts. Acts of the Scottish 
parliament from the reign of the first 
James to 1587 (James VI.) were so 
called because they were printed in 
black letter. 

Black Agnes. Wife of the Earl of 
Dunbar, famous for her defence of 



BLACK 



BLACK 



95 



Dunbar Castle, when in 1337 it was 
besieged by Lord Salisbury. See ' Sow.' 

Came I early, came I late, 

I found Black Agnes at the gate. 

Sir W. SCOTT. 

Black Arro^AT {The Band of the). 
A fraternity of freebooters at the time 
of the war of the Two Roses. The 
arrows used by the band left a black 
mark on those wounded by them. 

Black Assize {The). The assize 
held at Oxford, 6 July, 1577. So called 
from the fatal pestilence which broke 
out at the time. It is said that it broke 
out in the court-house just as the judge 
was passing sentence on Richard Jencks, 
a bookbinder, who was condemned to 
lose his ears for sedition; and it was 
popularly called a divine judgment for 
the cruelty or injustice of the sentence. 

Another ' Black Assize ' was that held 
at Cambridge in the Lent term of 1521, 
when a similar putrid fever broke out. 

Black Band {The). I. A body of 
German foot-soldiers employed by Louis 
XII. in the Italian wars. So called be- 
cause they carried black ensigns after 
the death of their favourite commander. 

II. A body of Italian troops in 1526 
was also called the Black Band because 
they also carried black ensigns on the 
death of their leader, Giovanni de' 
Medici. 

III. A French regiment of Piedmont, 
who had served for a long while in Italy 
for the same reason, was called the 
Black Band in 1596, on the death of 
Comte de Brissac. See ' Black Bruns- 
wickers ' and ' Bande Noire.' 

rV. Saxo7i mercenaries in the employ 
of Denmark. The Black Band employed 
by John I., king of Denmark, to enforce 
on Sweden the 'Union of Calmar,' in 
1497, had served under the kaiser Maxi- 
milian in the wars of Flanders. 

Black Bartholome^Tv^'s Day. 

I. French history, 24 Aug., 1572. Noted 
for the great Huguenot slaughter in 
France. 

II. English history, 24 Aug., 1662. 
Wlien, by the Act of Uniformity, some 
2,000 ministers in England and Wales 
resigned their benefices, or were ejected 
from them for conscience sake. 

Who so active as he to execute the fatal edict 
<A Black St. Bartholomew's day, when so many 
huiidicdsof gospel preachers were expelled from 
buube and home, from hearth and altar, from 



church and parish.— Sir W. SCOTT, Peveril of the 
P<Mk, chap xiii. 

Black Belt {The). A part of 
Alabama where the negro population has 
always been very dense. 

Black Book {The), 1536. A book 
containing the reports of two royal 
commissioners, named Legh and Leyton; 
appointed by Thomas Cromwell, chief 
minister of Henry VIII., to visit the 
religious houses of England. About a 
third of them are charged in these 
reports with drunkenness, simony, and 
crimes perfectly revolting. In conse- 
quence of the charges all houses were 
suppressed whose income fell below 200Z. 
a year, and their revenues were con- 
fiscated to the crown. The great abbeys 
were still suffered to remain. 

Called ' Black Books ' because they hlathened the 
practices of the religious houses in England when 
Henry VIII. designed their dissolution. 

Black Book of the Exchequer 

{The). 'Liber Niger Scaccarii,' 1175 
(Henry II.). Said to have been the work 
of Gervase of Tilbury ; contains an account 
of the exchequer and its officers. It 
describes the ranks and privileges of 
those officers, their wages, perquisites, 
and jurisdiction ; with the revenues of 
the crown in money, grain, and cattle. 
Called black from their black leather 
covers. See ' White, Red, Yellow Books.' 

There are two Black Books of the Exchequer pre- 
served in the Public Record Office. The smaller 
one was bound by William Caxton the printer, and 
had at one time two stamps for the decoration of the 
leather cover. These stamps, being Caxton's, prove 
the book to have been bound by the great printer. 
—James Wheale, Book-binders and Book-binding 
(1889). 

Black Breeches. See ' Procession 
of the Black Breeches.' 

Black Broth (M^as ^a»uo?). The 
chief food of the Spartans, who dined in 
public. 

A citizen of Syb&ris said : ' He no longer -won- 
dered why the Lacedoemonians were the most 
valiant soldiers of the world ; seeing that any 
man of sound mind would rather die a thousand 
times than devour such nastiness." And Glaucos, 
the Loerensian, declared that it is unfit food for 
the meanest of the free-born. 

Black Brunswickers {The), 1806 
The 700 hussars under the command of 
Frederick William, duke of Brunswick, 
son of Charles William Frederick, duke 
of Brunswick, who made the foolish 
manifesto against the French republic, 
was driven by the republican army from 
Valmy, and mortally wounded at Auer- 



96 



BLACK 



BLACK 



stadt. His son Frederick William took 
part in the campaign of Waterloo, and was 
slain at Quatre-Bras (1815). The Duke 
Frederick William, at the death of his 
father, clothed his hussars in black, with 
lace disposed like the ribs of a skeleton. 
Their caps and helmets, moreover, bore 
in front the device of a skull and cross- 
bones, and instead of feather, long flow- 
ing black horse-hair was adopted. It 
was Charles, son of Frederick William, 
who two days after the battle of Quatre- 
Bras joined in the battle of Waterloo. 

Black Bull's Head {The). The 
sign of death. It is repeatedly men- 
tioned in Highland tradition, and seems 
to have been a Celtic custom. When 
William, son of the fifth earl of Douglas, 
and his younger brother David, were 
inveigled, in 1440, to Edinburgh Castle, 
as they sat at meat, the black bull's 
head was placed before them. The two 
boys were forthwith dragged from table 
and cruelly beheaded. 

Black Cabinet {The). • Le Cabinet 
Noir.' The secret apartment where (in 
continental countries) letters of political 
importance, or such as are supposed to 
be so, are opened by government agents. 
Some are cojpied, and the copy sent to 
the address given ; others are impounded 
and find their way to the head of the 
police. 

Black Califs {The). The Abbas- 
eides (3 syl.), whose uniform and standards 
were black. 

As subjects of the Whit/^ party, i.e. the Ommi- 
ades (3 syl.), they might lawfully invade the 
dominions of the Black Califs. — GIBBON, chap. lit. 

The standard of the Fatimites (3 syl.) is green. 

Black Camisards {The), 1703. 
Huguenots. So called in contrast to the 
White Camisards {q-v.)., who were 
Catholic auxiliaries in Montrevel's army. 

Camisard is used in two senses ; sometimes the 
Protestant insurgents of the Cevennes are so 
called. 

•.• Camisard should not be confounded with 
Camisade (an attack by night). 

Black Canons {The). The Canons 
Regular of St. Augustine were so called 
from their black cloaks. The ' Black 
Friars ' were Dominicans. See ' White 
Canons.' 

Black Captain {The). Lieutenant- 
Colonel Davidoff, an officer in the Kussian 
army m the time of the French invasion, 



was called by the invaders ' Le Capitaina 
Noir,' from the terror of his name, like 
our ' Black Prince.' 

Black Charlie. Sir Charles Napier 
(1786-1860). 

Black Clergy {The). Monks in 
Russia are so called in contradistinction 
to the white clergy, or parish priests. 

Black Code {The), of Louis XIV., 
1685. Colbert's code relating to the 
African slave-trade. 

Black Colin Campbell. General 
in the army of George III. 

Introduced by Sir W. Scott in ' Redgauntlet." 

Black Country {The). South 
Staffordshire, famous for its hardware 
manufactures and its mines of coal and 
iron. The volumes of smoke thrown off 
all day and night cover everything with 
smut and destroy vegetation, so that a 
patch of grass or green tree can scarcely 
be seen. Gardens are well nigh un- 
known, and cleanliness is almost impos- 
sible. In this vast district, Wolver- 
hampton (to the soiith-east) produces 
locks, tin, and japan wares ; Walsall (to 
the north-west) saddlers' ironmongery, 
brass, and iron wares, &c. ; West Brom- 
wich (to the south), coal and iron ; 
Bilston, Sedgley, Wednesbury, Dudley 
(chains and nails), Darlaston, &c., are 
all busy towns in the same district. 

Black Crosses, Cruces Nigrse oi 
Croix noires. The Greater Litany on St. 
Mark's Day, when the altars, crosses, 
and relics are covered as in mourning. 

Thys letanye is sayd [called] the blacke crosse ; 
for thcnne in sygne of pestylence, wepying, and 
of penaunce, they clad them [the croses, &c.] wyth 
blacke clothes.— r/ie Golden Legende (Wynkyn de 
WOEDE, 1512) 

Black Days. Varro (Book v.) says : 
* Dies postridie Kalendas, Nonas, Eidus, 
appellati atri, quod per eos dies novi 
inciperent.' 

Black Death {The), 1848-1382. 
The oriental plague which desolated Asia 
and Europe in the 14th cent. So called 
from the black spots which appeared at 
the time of death on the skin, from 
putrid decomposition. It broke out in 
China in 1333, and carried off 13,000,000 
of the inhabitants, and in the rest of 
Asia about 24,000,000. In 1349 it reached 
Norway and Sweden ; in 1351 it desolated 
Russia. It reappeared in 1360, 1373, 



I 



BLACK 



BLACK 



07 



1382; carrying off 30,000,000 Euro- 
peans. Of the 4,000,000 which formed 
tlie population of England, more than 
half were swept away. Labour was at a 
high premium, the price of food rose 
greatly, and a strike between capital and 
labour followed. 

Dr. Hecker puts down the mortality of London 
from the Black Death at 100,000; of Norwich about 
62,000 (the entire population of London at the 
time being 120.000, and of Norwich 60,000). The 
deaths at Liibcck were 90.000; at Basle 14,000; at 
Erfurt 20,000; and 200 villages were quite de- 
populated. 

Black Dick. Richard, earl Howe 
(1725-1799). The English admiral sent 
to operate against D'Estaing, in com- 
mand of the French forces on the coast 
of America, during the war of inde- 
pendence. 

Black Dog of Arden {The). 
So Piers Gaveston nicknamed Guy, earl 
of Warwick, and the earl vowed he would 
show the Gascon his teeth. He combined 
with other great barons and murdered 
the royal favourite. 

Black Douglas (The), i.e. the for- 
midable or terrible Douglas (died 1390). 

It is said that the name of this indefatigable 
chici had become so formidable that women used 
In the northern counties to still their froward 
children by threatening them with the Black 
Douglas.— Sir \V. Scott, Hist of Scotland, xi. 

Black Eagle {Knights of the), 
17 Jan., 1701. A Prussian order instituted 
by Frederick, elector of Brandenburg, 
when he was crowned king of Prussia. 
Ribbon, oraii' -e ; a Maltese cross, and 
the legend ' Cuique suum.' There are 
thirty knights besides those of the royal 
family. They are sworn to be just and 
chaste, and to protect widows and 
orphans. 

Black Flag {The). I. Betokens, a 
pirate ; a white flag, peace ; a red iiag, 
defiance ; a yellow flag that the vessel is 
in quarantine. The pirate's black flag is 
called the ' Jolly Rover.' 

A black flag is hoisted on club-houses, 
&c. to indicate vexation or annoyance at 
some political measure thought to be 
destructive or injurious to their well- 
being ; thus was it hoisted over the club- 
house of Liberty in Brussels, in Sept. 
1884. It is set up at the corner of in- 
fected streets down which the public are 
forbidden to go. Thus was it set up in 
Naples in Sept. 1884, when the cholera 
prevailed in that city. It was hoisted on 



the Hotel de Ville of Paris in 1793, as a 
symbol of distress and a ca'lto arms, when 
the city was threatened with invasion. 
It was carried in the insurrection of 
Lyons, Nov. 1831, when the silk-weavers 
rose en masse. 

II. The * national party ' in Ireland, 
during the visit of the Prince of Wales 
in 1885, displayed black flags. Black was 
the colour of the royal banners of Ireland, 
and Cassanoeus states that ' the royal 
arms of Ireland was a king enthroned in 
majesty in a field sable.' See ' Antho- 
logia Hibernica,' i. 172. 

III. A black flag was displayed by 
Tamerlane, when a besieged city refused 
to surrender, meaning that he gave over 
the city to utter destruction and spolia 
tion. 

Black Flags {The). Mussulman 
soldiers, the black banner being that of 
the prophet of Mecca and of the faith 
of Islam. In the Annamite war, 1883, 
between the Annamese and the French, 
the Black Flags were political refugees 
from border provinces, and were by far 
the bravest of the Chinese (Annamite) 
army. Their headquarters was Laokai, 
on the left bank of the river, in the angle 
formed by the confluence of Nan-si-ho 
with Songkoi. See ' Yellow Flags,' and 
' Flag of the Prophet.' 

Black is the colour of the Abbasides (3 eyl.), 
green of the Fatimites {3 syl.), and white of the 
Ommiides (3 syl.). Hence the banner of the 
kalif of Bagdad was a crescent on a black flag ; 
that of the sultan of Damascus a crescent on a 
green flag.— Gibbon, ch. lii. 

Black Flagellants {The). So called 
from their black masks. See 'Flagel- 
lants ' and ' Blancs Battus.' 

Black Friars {The). The Domini- 
cans or Preaching Friars were so called 
in England from the colour of their 
dress. They were founded in 1216, and 
first ai)i)eared in England in 1221, 

Called ' Jacobins ' in France from their establish- 
ment in the Rue de Jacques, Paris. The ' Clack 
Canons ' were the Augustines or Canons Kcgular 
of St. Augustine. There was also an order of 
Black Nuns. 

Black Friday, 6 Dec, 1745. The 
day on which the news arrived in London 
that the army of Charles Edward (the 
Young Pretender) had reached Derby 
(reign of George II.). 

il. 11 May, I8t;(3. It was announced 
the day before that the great discounting 
house of Overend, Gurney, & Co. had 

H 



98 



BLACK 



BLACK 



suspended payment. Only twelve months 
before the bank had been converted into 
a limited liability company, and half a 
million had been given for the goodwill. 
On the day of suspension the Bank of 
England raised its rate of discount to 
9%. The English Joint-Stock Bank and 
its thirty branches closed their doors. 
The next announcement was that Messrs. 
Peto and Betts, the great contractors, 
had failed, their liabilities being 
4,000,OOOZ. Then the Imperial Mercan- 
tile Credit Association, with a capital of 
5,000,000Z., and the Consolidated Dis- 
count Company, with a capital of 
1,D00,000Z., gave way. The panic was 
terrible, but it rapidly subsided, and the 
mischief was very much less than was 
apprehended. 

Black G-eorge, of Servia. Kara 
George Petrovitsch, a Servian peasant 
who, in 1804, revolted against the Porte. 
Having defeated several armies sent 
against him, in 1807 he took Belgrade, 
and formed a military government in 
Servia. In 1811, Turkey acknowledged 
him ' hospodar of Servia,' but, in 18l4, 
the Turks recovered the country, Black 
George fled to Austria, was imprisoned, 
and died. 

Black-haired Kace {The). The 
Chinese. 

He (C( mmissioner Keshen) humbly hopes that 
the Holy Uue will look down v.ith pity and com- 
passion on the black-haired race ... so that the 
people of the land nioy not be turned to ashes. — 
Kcshcn's Dispatches, 1841, to the Emperor of China. 

Black Hand [The Band of the). 
A socialist society discovered in Anda- 
lusia in 1883, and consisting of about 
50,000 members of all ranks. The con- 
federacy was divided into 190 district 
federations and 800 local sections. 

Black Hole of Calcutta {The), 
1756, A cell, 18 feet square, in which 
the Nabob Suraja Dowlah confined 146 
Englishmen cajitured by him at Calcutta. 
After a night of agony from heat, thirst, 
and want of air, only 23 survived till 
morning, and these ' were the ghastliest 
forms that ever the eye of man had seen.' 

The governor Drake had imprisoned several 
native merchants unjustly. When the subahdar 
marched against the factory with 400 or 500 men, 
Drake fled and Howell took the command of the 
English. The Indians, with muskets presented, 
drove Howell and his 145 Englishmen into the 
' Black-hole prison, situated at the end of the bar- 
racks.' Mr. Howell was one of the 23 who escaped, 
and it is from his pen that we obtain a narrative 
Ot this disastrous event. 



Black Hood House {The). The 
Non-Regent or Lower House in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge. So-called because 
its members wore black hoods. This 
house consisted of masters of arts of 
more than five years' standing and 
doctors of more than two. Graduates 
on the boards of shorter standing formed 
the Regents' or Upper House. See 
' White Hood House.' Abolished in 
1858. See ' Senate.' 

Regents mean tutors, professors, and lecturers. 
Non regents, those who had served their time and 
were exempt from these duties. Such masters of 
arts stripped oil the white linmg of their hoods. 

Black Horse {The), or ' The Blacks.' 
The 7th Dragoon Guards ; facetiously 
called, in the reign of George II., ' The 
Virgin Mary's Guard.' They are called 
the ' Blacks ' from their black facings, 
and ' horse ' because they are a cavalry 
regiment. 

Black Indulgence. A licence to 
preach without interruption, granted 
by Charles II. to those Presbyterian 
ministers who complied with certain 
specified regulations made by parlia- 
ment. This indulgence made a great 
schism, and those who availed themselves 
of it were hated with ocliuin theologi- 
cum. 

Of all the baits with which the devil has fished 
for souls in these days of blood and darkness, 
that Black Indulgence has been the most de- 
structive.— Sir W. Scott, Old ISIoitnliUj, chap. v. 

'Presbyterian!' answered Gilfillan contemptu- 
ously ; ' a wretched Erastian, or rather an 
obscure prelatist— a favourer of the Black In- 
dulgence; one of the dumb dogs that canna bite." 
—Sir W. Scott, Wavcrley, chap, xxxvi. 

Black Jagers {The). See 'Black 
Brunswickers.' 

Black John. Scottish history. 
John Home, the man who revealed the 
plot of Sir James Edmonstone to take 
James VI. prisoner and keep him so 
till he recalled the lords banished or 
disgraced for the jiart taken by them in 
the raid of Ruthven {q.v.), 1584. 

Black Knight of Lorn {The). 
Sir James Stewart, who married Joanna, 
the widow of James I. of Scotland. 

Black Legion {The), 1806. That 
of the Duke of Brunswick. After the 
death of his father at Jena, Frederick 
William put all his soldiers into mourn- 
ing. Their military caps had in front 
for device, a skull and cross-bones, and 
for gay feathers were substituted flowing 



BLACK 



BLACK 



SO 



black horse-hair. This was because 
Nai)oleon refused to allow the dying 
duke to be removed to Brunswick; so 
the son commanded that his legion 
should wear mourning till the death of 
Napoleon. However, soon after the 
battle of "Waterloo, the Brunswickers 
resumed their proper costume. 

Black Legions {The). So the Hun- 
garian troops were called in the 15th 
cent. See ' Black Troop.' 

We generally read of the Black Legion, in the 
singular number, and the Black Hussars : but 
Godkin, in his ' History of Hungary,' says, 'the 
Hussites were everywhere compelled to give way 
before the terrible attacks of the Black Legions, 
as the Hungarian troops were called ' (p. 127). 

Black List. L 1832. A list of all 
those members of the House of Commons 
who voted in favour of reform till the bill 
was thrown out by the Lords ; but it was 
known that the king (William IV.) hated 
the bill and wanted to shelve it. Several 
members shuffled and held themselves 
at bay. These 72 members constituted 
the black list, to be blackballed at the 
next election. 

II. A printed list of bankruptcies, 
liquidations by arrangement, registers 
of protested bills, decrees of absence, 
offers of composition, and other matters 
pertaining to the credit of firms and in- 
dividuals, circulated from London to 
subscribers for the information and 
guidance of men of business. 

Black Lord Clifford. John, 
ninth Lord Clifford, son of Thomas, 
Lord Clifford. Also called ' the 
Butcher ' (died 1461). 

Black Lord Herbert. Edward, 
Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1618). 

Black Mail. A payment made by 
the Highlanders in the first half of the 
l8th cent, as a compromise to bandits, 
who promised that neither the property 
nor person of -anyone who paid the 
impost should suffer injury. In 1601 
(by 43 Eliz. c. 13) the levy of black mail 
was made felony. 

Mail (Ango-Saxon mal, rent-tax), used In 
Scotland to designate every sort of periodical 
payment, and is still the term employed techni- 
cally for rent paid by a tenant to his landlord. 

Black Militia {The). The officials 
of the Jesuits. 

Black Monday. I. Easter Mon- 
day, 14 April, 1360. So called because it 



was so dark with mist and hail, so cold 
and windy, that many of the men and 
horses in the army of Edward III. 
lying before Paris perished. 
See Shakespeare, ' Merchant of Venice,' 11. 5. 

IL 27 Feb., 1865. So called in Victoria 
(Australia), from a terrible sirocco from the 
N.N.W. which produced frightful havoc 
between Sandhurst and Castlemaine. 

Black Money. Base money intro- 
duced from foreign countries. By the 
statute of York (12 Edw. II. a.d. 1318), 
it was ordered that all manner of black 
money {noir vionnoie) lately ctirrent in 
the realm shall be excluded. In 1339, a 
certain black money called turneys was 
made in Ireland, and circulated to the 
injury of the king's sterling money ; and 
in 1341 the mayor and bailiffs of Dover 
made proclamation for the better obser- 
vance of the statute of York respecting 
black money. 

Camden speaks of the prohibition of black 
money by Edward 111. (9 Edvy. III. st. 2). 

Black Parliament {The). I. In 
English history, 1529. The parliament 
held by Henry VIII. at his palace in 
Bridewell, the year of the king's 
divorce from Katharine. See ' Parlia- 
ment.' 

II. In ScofcJi history, 1320. The 
parliament which condemned to death 
Sir David de Brechin, Sir William* 
Malherbe, Sir John Logie, and Richard 
Brown, and imprisoned for life the 
Countess of Stratliearn and Sir William 
de Soulis, for a- conspiracy against 
Robert Bruce. The plan was to put 
Bruce to death and make Sir William de 
Soulis king. The Countess of Stratliearn 
betrayed the conspiracy. See 'Parlia- 
ment.' 

Black Prince {The). I. 1355. 
Edward, prince of Wales, son of Edward 
III., was first so called by the French 
just before the battle of Poitiers. He 
had won the marvellous battle of Cressy, 
had invaded Gascony, had carried terror 
through the length and breadth of 
France, and was called the very devil 
or prince of darkness. Froissart says 
' he was called black by the terror of his 
arms'; and Strutt, in his 'Antiquities,' 
gives the same reason. 

See this word in the ' Dictionary of Phrase and 
Fable,' p. 90. All the armour known of the priuco 
was gilt armour. 

b2 



100 



BLACK 



BLACK 



Black Prmee (The). I. Nicknamed 
by the French ' Pie-de-Plomb '(Waurm's 
* Recueil,' &c. vol. i. p. 236, Rolls Series), 
not a leaden pica or magpie, but a 
draught of lead, referring to cannons first 
used at the battle of Cressy, by which 
draughts of lead were poured into the 
French. Croqueter la pie in archaic 
French means to drink hugely. The 
verb pier means to drink — as 

Je vous prie que j'aye a pyer (to drink) 
Ung coup de quelque bon vin vieulx. 

Le Testamcvi di' Pathelin, p. 120. 
Sil vouloit croqueter la pie, 
J'en euse volontiers coppe, 
Poui rendre la soif destouree. 

Actes lies Apostres (1541). 

n. Fulc the Black, or ' Fulc Nerra,' 
the greatest of the Angevins. He burnt 
his wife at the stake ; waged the bitterest 
war against his son ; despatched twelve 
assassins to the murder of the minister of 
the French king ; and shocked even the 
rude barbarians of the times with his 
treason, rapine, and blood. It was the 
blackness of his deeds which procured 
him the sobriquet of ' Nerra ' (the Black). 

Black Regiment (The), 1863. A 
regiment of negroes in the Federal army, 
under the command of General Banks ; 
their prowess and courage in the storm- 
ing of Port Hudson are celebrated by 
G. H. Boker, the war poet. 

Black Rent, 1409. The tribute paid 
to Irish chieftains by the residents living 
in border counties of the Pale for peace 
and protection. It began in the reign of 
Henry IV. 

Kents paid in cattle (neat-gild), or in any other 

way except i n lawful cash are termed redditus nigri. 
Eeiits paid in lawful silver are called leddilus albi 
(white rents). 

Black Republicans. The North 
American rej)ublicans were so called by 
the pro-slavery party. These republicans 
resisted the introduction of negro slavery 
into territory where it was not already 
recognised. They morally hoisted the 
black flag of no surrender against slavery. 

Black River {The). The river Til 
or Tula, so called from the deep black 
shade of the forests thrown on the water. 

Black Rod, or, in full, * Gentleman 
Usher of the Black Rod.' An officer of 
the crown in the House of Lords, whose 
duty it is to attend on the peers during 
the session of parliament To the care 



of this officer all peers impeached for 
any crime or for contempt are first 
committed. His staff of office is a 
black rod with a golden lion in repose 
on the top. See ' Yeoman Usher.' 

Black Rood of Scotland {The). 
A piece of the ' true cross ' set in an 
ebony figure of Christ, inclosed in a 
cross of ' gold ' elaborately wrought, 
about a span long. This relic was taken 
by Margaret, the Anglo-Saxon princess, 
to Scotland, when in 1070 she married 
King Malcolm Ceanmohr. In 1291 it 
was delivered to Edward I., when it was 
found that the casket cross was only sil- 
ver gilt. Of the ' true cross ' nothing is 
known. In 1328 it was restored to 
Scotland. In 1346 King David II. in- 
vaded England and took with him the 
black rood as an amulet ; but he was 
captured by Sir Ralph de Neville (lord 
of Raby), and the relic became part of 
his prize. It was then , deposited in the 
shrine of St. Cuthbert, in Durham 
Cathedral, where it remained till the 
Reformation, when all trace of it dis- 
appeared. 

Black Saturday. 1. 10 Sept., 1547. 
When Lord Protector Somerset defeated 
the Scotch in the battle of Pinkie, near 
Musselburgh, with terrible slaughter. 

II. 4 Aug., 1621, is so called in Scot- 
land from a violent storm which occurred 
at the very time the parliament was 
sitting to enforce episcopacy on the 
people. 

Black Sheep (The), 1407-1468. 
Certain Turkomans who, under the 
leadership of Kara Yussuff, made them- 
selves masters^ of Azerbijan', Irak, Fars, 
and Kerman, but were subsequently 
driven out by the Turkomans of the 
White Sheep. Called the' Black Sheep' 
from the effigy displayed on their stan- 
dard. 

At the decay of Timur's dynasty his empire fell 
into three separate parts. Hussein Mirza, a de- 
scendant of Timur, governed Khorasan and held 
his court at Herat ; the Turkomans of the White 
Sheep held Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of 
Asia Minor ; the Black Sheep held the third part. 

Black Soldiers {The), or Sidier 
Dhu. The independent companies raised 
to keep peace and law in the Highlands. 
So called from their dark tartans ; English 
soldiers are Sidier Roy, or red soldiers, 
See ' Waverley,' chap, xviii. 



J 



BLACK 



BLACKFOOT 



101 



Black Somerset {The). Somerset 
was a negro slave brought to England 
and turned adrift because of ill-health. 
Mr. Granville Sharpe took pity on him, and 
by care I'estored him to perfect health, 
whereupon his master claimed him again. 
Mr. Sharpe resisted the claim, and it was 
brought into the law-courts, when it was 
decided that slavery could not exist in 
Great Britain, 22 June, 1772. 

Black Spring {The). That of 1771 is 
so called in Scotland. It was followed 
by a famine. 

Black Stone {The). Of the Kaaba, in 
Mecca. Said to have ' dropped from para- 
dise,' and set in the silver door. A pilgrim 
walks round the Kaaba or mosque seven 
times, and each time kisses the stone or 
lays his hand on it. We are told that the 
stone was originally white, but has been 
turned black by the sins of man. 

Black Stone !Sxamination(r7ie). 
In Glasgow University is the commence- 
ment of the ceremony of gi'aduation ; the 
conclusion being the ' act of Laureation ' 
in the college hall, or one of the city 
churches. 

Black Strangers, or ' Black Gen- 
tiles.' Danes were so called by the 
ancient Irish. They first made their 
api^earance in Ireland in the 8th cent. 
From Dublin southwards was the terri- 
tory of the Black Strangers. Dublin 
and northwards was the territory of the 
"White Strangers. 

The country south of Dublin was called Dubh- 

Gal, or territory of the Black Strangers. Called 
by the Four Masters Dubligentie (Black Gen- 
tiles). 

Black Sunday, 20 Jan., 1837. See 
' Russian Influenza.' 

Black Thursday, 6 Feb., 1851. Is 
so called in the colony of Victoria from a 
terrific bush-fire which occurred on that 
day. 

Black Troop {The), 1470. Of King 
Matthias of Hungary ; a royal bodyguard, 
and, next to the French, the earliest 
standing army in Europe. See ' Black 
Legions.' 

Black Vomit {The). So the plague 
(13-18) of Florence was called. Some 
think it is the same as the cholera mor- 
bus, or Indian cholera. Its principal 
ravages were in 173(5, 1737, 17(51, and 1782 ; 
in this last year Mexico lost 25,000 of its 



inhabitants from it. Yellow fever is so 
called in Mexico and tropical America. 

In 1348 the plague began in China, and 
spread into Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Italy, 
France, Germany, England, and Russia. 
In Russia it carried off the whole royal 
family ; in France a fourth of the inhab- 
itants ; and in Europe a third of the 
entire population. See ' Black Death.' 

Black ^Watch {The). The 42nd 
Foot, so called from their ' black ' tartan, 
i.e. a tartan of black, dark blue, and dark- 
green, called ' the Black "Watch tartan.' 
It was originally a Scotch militia, dressed 
in tartans of very dark colours. In 1725 
General Wade was their commander-in- 
chief. In 1730 they were formed into six 
companies of 100 men each, and stationed 
in different parts of the Highlands to 
enforce the ' Disarming Act,' to prevent 
political meetings, and to check depreda- 
tions. In 1739 they were formed under 
the Earl of Crawford into the famous 42nd 
regiment, and became one of the most 
distinguished of the British army. Linked 
with the old 73rd. 

Black ^Wind(T7ie). The Sherki. An 
easterly wind much dreaded in Armenia, 
and so called by the Kurds because it is 
a terrible scourge. 

Black Year {The), 1742. The driest 
year known in England, when all green 
things were dried up. 

The years 1744, 1749, 1758 were very nearly as 
dry. 

Blacks {The). The "Waltham deer- 
stealers in the reign of George I. were so 
called because they blackened their faces 
for disguise. See ' Black Acts,' ' Black 
Horse.' 

Blacks and Reds, or * I Neri * and 
' I Rossi.' The Council of Ten, in Venice, 
were called ' I Neri ' from their black 
official robes. The signory or privy 
council of the doge was called * I Rossi ' 
from their red robes of office. 

Blacks and Whites ( The), 13th cent, 
and first four years of the 14th. Rival 
factions in Italy. The Blacks were the 
aristocratic Guelfs, the Whites were the 
bourgeois and Ghibelins. Dante in 1302 
was exiled for being a White, and during 
his exile wrote his ' Divina Commedia.' 

Blackfoot. One of the disturbing 
factions of Ireland in the early part of the 



102 



BLACKSMITH 



BLEU-THONGE 



present century. The faction seems to 
have resembled the Terry Alts. See 
' Irish Associations.' 
And the Blackfoot who courted each foeman's 

approach, 
Faith, 'tis hot-foot he'd fly from the stout Father 

lioach.— Lover. 

N.B. ' Hot-foot he'd fly,' i.e. quickly. 

Blacksmith of Ant^Tverp (The). 
Quentin Matsys, first a blacksmith and 
then a great painter (1450-1529). 

Blacksmith's Apron (The). The 
standard of Kawah or G-awo, a blacksmith 
of • Ispahan, who headed a rebellion 
against Biver-asp Zohac, a merciless 
fcyTiint ; and raised Feridoun, son of Djem- 
chid, to the throne. The blacksmith's 
apron was adopted by Feridoun as the 
royal standard of Persia. Every king of 
the Djemchid dynasty (called the Pichda- 
dians or Paisdadians) added jewels to en- 
rich the apron-standard, called Deruf sh-e- 
Kawanee (standard of Kawah). (Sir Jolin 
Malcolm, ' Hist, of Persia,' vol. i. p. 13.) 

It need hardly be added that the Pishdadian 
dynasty belongs to the mythical period of Persian 
history. The apron remained the royal standard 
till A.D. 636, when in the battle of Cadesia it fell 
into the hands of the Saracens.— Gibbon, chap. 11. 

Blaekwork. That of mutes at a 
funeral. Waiters hired for this purpose 
call the employ 'blaekwork,' from the 
black clothes and cloaks worn on the 
occasion. 

Blanch Holding (A), or 'Blench 
holding.' A tenement held of a superior 
for a peppercorn or mere nominal rent. 

Blaneh-Lyon. At one time one of 
the English pursuivants-at-arms v/as so 
called. See ' Pursuivants.' 

Blanco "White of the 18th cent. 

(The). Pierre Fran^-ois le Courayer 
(1681-1776), a French divine who died in 
England, and is one of the ten foreigners 
buried in Westminster Abbey. He is so 
called by Dean Stanley. 

Blancs Battus (Les). The White 
Flagellants ; there were also the Black 
and Blue orders. Henri III. joined the 
White order, his mother Catharine de 
Medicis the Black order, and Cardinal 
d'Armagnac the Blue. They went in 
piocession bare-footed and bare-headed, 
with chaplets of death-bones at their 
girdles, and making blood spirt from 
their naked shoulders by lashing them 
with cords. The White Flagellants 
wore a whit mantle, the Black Flagel- 



lants wore a black mantle, and the Blue 
Flagellants a blue mantle. The mantle 
was thrown off when the scourging 
began. 

Blancs et Bleus (Les). The 
Blancs (Whites) were partisans of the 
Bourbons, whose emblem was a drapeau 
hlanc. The Bleus were republican 
soldiers whose uniform was blue. 

Blank Bond [A). In Scotland. A 
security in which the creditor's name is 
left blank, the bearer being at liberty to 
insert his name in the blank space and 
sue for payment. Abolished in 1696. 

Blanket Meeting {TJie), 10 

March, 1817. The muster of the 
Blanketeers [q.v.) in St. Peter's Field, 
Manchester. According to government 
estimate the number was 10,000 ; but 
this seems to be a gross exaggeration, 
and about 5,000 is thought to be the 
correct estimate. The meeting was 
broken up by the military. 

Blanketeering Expedition 

{The\, 10 March, 1817. The march of 
certain Lancashire weavers to lay their 
grievances before the Prince Regent. 
As the way was long, each man took a 
blanket to wrap round him at night, and 
a stock of provisions. At least 5,000 
met in St. Peter's Field, Manchester, but 
the military dispersed them ; soine tak- 
ing the road to Stockport. Not above 
180 reached Macclesfield, in Cheshire, 
' a most deplorable lot, without food and 
without organisation.' A score struggled 
as far as Staffordshire, and only six 
reached Ashbourne Bridge, when the 
expedition collapsed. See ' Peterloo.' 

Blanketeers (T/ie). The radical re- 
"formers of Lancashire, who mustered on 
St. Peter's Field, Manchester, with the 
intention of marching to London to lay a 
petition of grievances before the Prince 
Regent. Only six got as far as Ashbourne 
Bridge. The deviser of this expedition 
was Joseph Blitchell, draper of Liverpool. 
See above. 

Bleu-thonge, 1189. A military 
order instituted by Richard I., when 
about to lay siege to Acre. It was in 
honour of St. George, and consisted of 
twenty-six knights, the decoration being 
a blue leather garter round the left leg. 
See ' Knights of the Garter.' 



BLIND 



BLOOD 



103 



Blind Archbishop (The). Robert 
"Wauchope (pronounce Vaucop), titular 
archbishop of Armagh, was blind from 
birth. He introduced Jesuits into 
Ireland in 1541 ; was appointed arch- 
bishop by Paul III. in 1543 ; and attended 
the Council of Trent in 1547. 

Blind Qeiieral {The). Zisca, the 
Hannibal of Bohemia. He was totally 
blind (1318-1424). 

Blind Harper {The). John Parry, 

who died 1739. 

Blind Harry. A Scotch minstrel 
of the 15th cent, blind from infancy, 
minstrel in the court of James IV. His 
epic of 'Sir William Wallace' runs to 
11,801 Imes. 

Blind Inventor. Dr. James Gale, 
F.G.S. of Plymouth, inventor of non-ex- 
plosive gunpowder, &c. See ' Men of the 
Time ' (1833- ). 

Blind Jack of Knaresborough. 

Lived by laying out roads. 

Blind Mechanician {The). John 
Strong, blind from his birth (1732- 

1798). 

Blind Musician {The). John 
Stanley, musician and composer, was 
blind from birth (1713-178(3). 

Blind !N"aturalist(r7i6'). Francois 
Huber of Geneva (1750-1831). His 
' Observations on Bees ' was published in 
1790. 

Blind old Bard of Ohio's rocky- 
isle {The). Homer (lio. about b.c. 950). 

Blind Physician {The). Dr. Hugh 
James (17th cent.). 

Blind Poet {The). Luigi Grotto, an 
Italian poet, called II Cieco tVAdria 
(1541-1585). John Milton (1008-1G74). 

Blind Postmaster-general 

{The). Henry Fawcett (1833-18S4). 
An exceedingly active and efficient post- 
master-general. 

Blind Prebendary (of West- 
minster). Richard Lucas, D.D. (1048- 
1715), author of 'Practical Christianity,' 
* Inquiry into Happiness,' ' Christian 
Thoughts for every Day of the Month,' 
' Sermons,' &c. 

Blind Scholar {The). Ambrose 
Fisher (17th cent.). 



Blind Sculptor {The). Giovanni 
Gonelli, a Tuscan (1610-1004). He also 
made admirable likenesses; amongst 
others, that of Pope Urban VIII. is very 
celebrated. 

Blind Traveller {The). Lieutenant 
James Holman (1787-1857), who walked 
through Russia almost to the Chinese 
frontier. He would have continued his 
tour, but the Russian government grew 
suspicious and sent him back. 

Blockam Feast. Lynch law. 
Holinshed, in his Chronicles, referring to 
the rebellion of 1381, has this marginalia: 
'Lawyers, justices, and jurors, brought 
to blockam-feast by the rebels under 
Jack Straw and Wat Tyler.' 

Sir Robert Bealknap, the chief justice of the 
common pleas, being sent to Essex to try the 
insurgents, they denounced him as a traitor to 
the country, cut off the heads of the jurors and 
clerks of the commission, and carried them on 
poles through the neighbouring towns. 

(A block-house is a prison, a block-stick is a 
cudgel, and a blocker is a broad axe. Blockam 
seems allied to these words.) 

Blocking a Bill. Putting down 
notice of opposition to a bill before the 
House. The effect of this notice is that, 
unless the stage objected to can be 
reached before 12.30 a.m., the bill is 
blocked, as no bill objected to can be 
taken after that time. 

Blois {Treaty of),^ 1513. A treaty of 
alliance between Venice and Louis XII., 
renewed by Francois I. in 1515. 

Blood {The). It is said that when 
Longinus pierced the side of Jesus with 
a spear, about a spoonful of the blood 
was caught, and this blood was pre- 
served at Billom, in France, till the 
Revolution, when it was thrown away. 
We are told that it was brought from 
Syi'ia, in the first crusade, by two canons, 
named Durand Albanelli and Peter 
Barbasta. Several vouchers accompanied 
the vessel containing the blood, one 
dated in the reign of Tiberius, and 
another in that of Valens. A bull of 
Eugenius IV., in 1444, established a con- 
fraternity in honour of the blood. 
{Discours historique sur le sang precieux 
que Von revere dans Veglise collcgiale 
et royale de Saint-Cerneuf de la vilie de 
Billvm, en Auvcrgne, 1757.) 

*^* Some of the blood of Jesus we are 

assured is preserved at Mantua, said to 

have been preserv^ed by Longinus, the 

Roman soldier who pierced the side ; 

, but it is most improbable that he would 



104 



BLOOD 



BLOODY 



catch and preserve the blood of a despised 
Galilean. See ' Crucifixion, Relics of 
the.' 

Blood {The Court of). ' The twelve 
judges of the Tumults,' established in the 
Netherlands by the Duke of Alva, in 
1567 (Motley, 'Dutch Repubhc'). 

Blood Bath of Stockholm {The). 
Christian II. of Denmark, wishing to 
restore the Union of Calmar, was em- 
powered by the pope to treat the Swedes 
as heretics. Armed with this authority, 
Christian invaded Sweden, was victorious, 
and solemnly crowned at Stockholm. 
Under pretence of obedience to the 
pope's bull, he put to death his political 
enemies, and executed ninety-four 
bishops, senators, knights, and burgo- 
masters, amongst whom was Eric, father 
of Gustavus Vasa. This massacre, which 
occurred in Nov. 1520, is called in history 
' The blood bath of Stockholm.' 

Blood Book {The). The register of 
the Vehmgerichte {q-v.), in which was 
entered the judgments of the court, with 
the name of the crime which had called 
dov/n the sentence. 

Blood Council, Sept. 15G7, or 
' Council of Troubles ' {q.v.). 

Blood Feud. The duty of the next 
akin of a murdered man to slay the 
person who has killed him. This tit-for- 
tat law is well nigh universal in all 
nations not brought into legal civilisation. 
It is called Vendetta {q.v.) in Corsica 
and many other places. Tar by the 
Bedouins, Talio by the Twelve Tables of 
old Rome. The lex talionis is a similar 
barbarity, only the retaliation was not left 
in the hands of the next akin, but was 
administered by officers appointed by 
law. 

Blood-money. Money paid by 
press-gangs to anyone who informed 
them of a man who had deserted from 
the naval service, or who was instru- 
mental in giving up a deserter to the 
i:>ress-gang. The deserter ought to have 
been a sailor, but in a ' hot-press ' lands- 
men were often kidnapped. 'Blood- 
inoney ' now means money paid to a 
person for infoi'ming against a felon. 

Blood-wedding {The). So the 
Germans called the massacre of the 



Protestants in Paris on the night of St. 
Bartholomew's Day (German, Blat- 
hochzeit). 

Blood of Christ {The). At Hales, 
Gloucestershire ; said to have been 
brought from Jerusalem ; invisible except 
to absolved penitents; was shown in 
1538 to be the blood of a duck ntroduced 
every week into a bottle transparent on 
one side and opaque on the other. See 
' Rood of Grace,' ' Darvel Gatheren,' &c. 

Bloodless year of '82 (T/ie). That 

is 1782, when Holland acknowledged the 
independence of the United States of 
America, peace was negotiated, and the 
provisional articles were signed by Great 
Britain and America. It was not, how- 
ever, a ' bloodless year,' for in May the 
British were repulsed near Savannah, 
and in July the last action in the war 
took place near Combahee Ferry. 

And when at last he had fought us thro' 
To the bloodless year of 82. 

WiLii Cakleton, How we Kept the Bay. 

Bloody Assize {The), 1685. The 
infamous assize held by Judge Jeffreys, 
when some oOO persons were condemned 
to death, more were whipped or im- 
prisoned, and nearly 1000 were sent to 
the plantations as slaves, because they 
had joined the Monmouth rebellion. 

Bloody Bill {The). The 31 Henry 
VIII. c. 14, which denounces death by 
hanging or burning on all who denied 
the dogma of transubstantiation. The 
first of the six articles, or ' Bloody 
Statute.' 

Bloody Bonner. Edmund Bonner, 
bishop of London (1500-1569), a main 
instrument of the religious persecutions 
in the reign of Mary. 

Bloody Feast {The\ a.d. 981. The 
Romans, anxious to free themselves from 
the German yoke, formed a conspiracy 
to establish a rei^ublic. This conspiracy 
was secretly revealed to Otto II. of Ger- 
many, who went to Italy, invited the chief 
conspirators to a banquet at the Vatican, 
and when the guests were seated at 
table, Otto, rising from his chair, stamped 
his foot, and the room was instantly filled 
with armed men. The kaiser then 
deliberately unrolled a paper from which 
he read aloud the names of those con- 
cerned in the plot ; and, as each name 



BLOODY 



BLOODY 



105 



was read, the victim was dragged from 
the table and strangled. This ' bloody 
feast ' is described in Leonine verse in 
the ' Pantheon ' of Godfrey of Viterbo. 

Bloody Feast of Rouen {The), 
1356. The young dauphin, Chai'les, son 
of Jean le Bon, gave a banquet at Rouen 
to his private friends and leading nobles 
of France, to which Charles the Bad, his 
brother-in-law, was invited. While the 
guests were seated at table King Jean 
entered the banquet room with a numer- 
ous escort, and, seizing Charles, shook 
him violently, exclaiming, ' Traitor, thou 
art not worthy to sit at table with my 
son ! Guards, seize your prisoner. By 
holy Paul ! I will not eat or drink till 
his head be brought mo ! ' The dauphin 
threw himself at his father's feet, im- 
ploring him to desist, but the king, seizing 
a mace, struck one of the guests with it, 
and four others were cut down by the 
guards. Charles the Bad was shut up in 
the Tower of the Louvre, but was released 
after the battle of Poitiers, 1356. 

Bloody Ledger (The). An account 
of the burnings and spoliations of 
Henry VIII. on the coasts of Kintyre, 
Kyle, and Carrick, in 1544. We find that 
192 towns, villages, farms, towers, and 
churches were destroyed ; 10,386 head 
of cattle were driven off, 12,492 sheep, 
and l,49fi horses ; and an untold amount 
of niiscu.laneous plunder was taken. 

Bloody Statute {The). The statute 
passed in 1541, commanding all British 
subjects, under pain of death or imprison- 
ment at the king's pleasure, to subscribe- 
to the following church dogmas : (1) The 
Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist ; 
(2) The all-sufficiency of communion in 
one kind only ; (3) The unlawfulness of 
the marriage of priests ; (4) The mdis- 
soluble obligation of vows of chastity ; 
(5) The propriety of retaining private 
masses ; and (6) The obligation of auri- 
cular confession. This statute was re- 
pealed in 1549. More authentically called 
' The Statute of Six Articles.' 

Bloody Sunday, 13 Nov., 1887. 
Noted for a Socialist riot in Trafalgar 
Square, London. The Socialists resolved 
to hold a public meeting in the square, 
but Sir Charles Warren commanded the 
police to disperse the crowd. Many 
Beveie in urics were received on each 



side, and one or two fatalities occurred ; 
but it is a mere party exaggeration to 
call the day ' Bloody Sunday.' 

Bloody Sword {The). In Hungary 
a bloody sword used to be carried through 
the laud to rouse the people to arms in 
cases of great national danger. Thus 
Bela IV., in 1240, caused ' the bloody 
sword to be carried through the land 
according to ancient custom,' when 
threatened by inroads of the Mongols. 
The Scotch sent round a 'fiery cross' 
{q.v.). The Parisians ring the tocsin. 

Bloody Theatre of Eperjes 

{The), 1084-1687. A permanent scaffold 
erected in the middle of the town of 
Eperjes, in Hungary, for the torture and 
execution of Hungarians suspected of 
being hostile to the government of 
Kaiser Leopold of Germany. Thirty 
executioners, dressed in green uniform, 
were employed night and day in torturing, 
mutilating, and beheading the victims. 
Count Caraffa, a foreign general of san- 
guinary disposition, was president of the 
tribunal established at Eperjes for the 
mockery trial of the accused. It sat 
from March to the end of the year, and 
only poverty and obscurity escaped its 
persecution (Godkin, * Hist, of Hun- 
gary,' p. 234). 

Bloody Thumb. This was the 
brand of the Irish ' National League ' 
{q.v.). 

Bloody Tower {The). So called in 
the reign of Elizabeth from the tradition 
that the two young princes were mur- 
dered there. In the reign of Henry VII. 
it was called the ' Garden Tower.' 

Bloody Tribunal of Eperjes 

{The), 1634-1687. When Hungary was 
rescued from the Turks after their 
disaster before Vienna, Caraffa, a military 
commander, was appointed to reinstate 
the Hungarian owners. The first ques- 
tion Caraffa asked was whether the 
applicant was of the new faith (Luther- 
anism) ; if so, he was instantly put to 
death. This bloody tribunal was abo- 
lished by the diet which met at the 
opening of the year 1687. 

Bloody Wedding {The). The 
wedding of Henri (afterwards Henri IV. 
of France) with Marguerite (daughter of 
Catharine de' Medici). So called because 



ic: 



BLUE 



BLUE 



it was made the occasion of the wholesale 
massacre of the French Hviguenots, 
generally called ' The massacre of St. 
Bartholomew's Eve.' 

Blue. The Sikhs wear blue, even 
blue turbans ; but all other Hindus 
reckon blue unlucky. 

Blue (True). True Blue principles, 
i.e. Toryism ; but in ' Hudibras ' we read 
of * Presbyterian true blue.' 

Sir Stafford O'Brien one night, exclaimed in the 
House of Commons, 'There is no " Trua Blue" 
now. There are many Tories, but no "True 
Blues." '—Sir W. HaRcourt, 24 Oct., 1885. 

Blue and Hed Hoods {The). 
' Mi-partie bleus et rouges,' 1356, during 
the captivity of Jean le Bon, was the 
faction livery of the dauphin (afterwards 
Charles v.). In 1358, on the death of 
the provost Marcel, this faction fell 
away. See ' Blue Hoods.' 

Blue and White. The Whig 
cockade, in some counties. Hence the 
well-known song and tune ' Come wave 
your blue and white.' 

Blue and Yellow (TJie). The 
* Edinburgh Keview ' is so called from 
its cover, which is blue with a yellow 
back. 

The Blue and Yellow speaks or.t with its old 
directness.— Newpaper paragraph, Jan. 1886. 

Blue and Yellow Robes. In 

China. All the twelve sects wear blue 
robes in China; but the followers of 
Lamaism wear yellow robes, the imperial 
colour, because Lamaism was promul- 
gated by a son-in-law of the emperor. 

Yellow is also worn by Buddhist monks of the 
Bouthern countries. 

Bluebeard. So Giles, marquis of 
Laval, the French general, was called. 
It is said that he put to death seven of 
his mistresses ' to aid his incantations 
with their blood.' This debauched and 
licentious villain was at last burnt alive at 
Nantes by order of the Due de Bretagne, 
1440. (Nantes, pronounce Nahnt.) 

Blue Bellies. The Federals were 
so called by the Confederates in the 
civil war of America, from the light 
blue cloaks worn by the northern soldiers. 
See ' Greybacks.' 

Blue Blanket {The). The blue 
standard or banner of the incorporated 
trades of Ediubur^di. Vv'hen the trades- 



men thought themselves aggrieved, they 
unrolled their standard, and the peoi)le 
used to say, ' Up goes the Blue Blanket ; ' 
in other words, the tradesmen are rallying 
their forces to resist the powers which 
they think have aggrieved them. It was 
originally called ' The Banner of the 
Holy Ghost ; ' but James III. changed 
its name into ' The Standard of the 
Crafts within Burgh.' 

Blue Blood and Pigeon's 
Blood. ' Sangue bib ' and ' Sangue 
colombin.' The blue blood in Venice 
were the wealthiest of the nobility, 
termed I Signori\ the pigeon's blood 
were the poorest of the nobility, termed 
I Barnaboti, from the quarter San 
Barnabo where they resided. 

There was an intervening class sometimes called 
Morrl di Mezzo. 

*,* The Spaniards are especially proud of their 
blue blood when they can trace their pedigree to 
the Goths. 

Blue Bonnets over the Border, 

The reference is to the Covenanters in 
the year 1640, passing into England 
against Charles I. The whole of the 
infantry wore the Lowland blue bonnet. 

Blue Book {The), of America, is 
similar to the English Eed Book. It 
contains lists of all persons under 
government in the civil, military, and 
naval departments, including the law 
offices. Called blue from the blue 
wrapper. 

Blue Books. I. Parliamentary 
reports, but not statutes. All command- 
papers, all returns such as import duties, 
export duties, returns of the names of 
members of parliament, all official state- 
ments, statements of accounts, &c. in 
Great Britain, whether in a blue wrapper 
or without a wrapper, are so called. 
Thin documents have no cover, thick 
ones have a blue wrapper. Blue is the 
only colour recognised by the British 
parliament. 

The ofBcial colour in Spain is red, in Italy 

groen, in France yellow (limes jaunes),ixL Germany 
and Portugal whii e. 

N.B.— The reports sent annually to the colonial 
secretary by the governors of our colonies ara 
officially called ' blue books." 

II. The blue books quoted by Butler 
are three books, stitched in dark blue, 
wrappers, which appeared in 17b9, 1791, 
and 1792. Charles Butler wrote the 
v»-hole of the first and third, and most of 



BLUE 



BLUB 



107 



the second. They contain scandalous 
doctrines, which no Catholic woiild 
allow. Copies may be seen in the 
British Museum. 

Blue "Boy {GainsborougJi''s). Master 
Jonathan Buttall (1779) (Gainsborough 
died 1788). Buttall's father was an iron- 
monger, 31 Greek Street, Soho, and died 
1768. The 'Blue Boy' succeeded to 
the business, and ca].-ried it on till 1796, 
when he sold it to Sharpe and Coxe. 
The famous picture of the Blue Boy is 
in the Devonshire collection. 

Blue Cap (The). In England a blue 
cap with a white border m the civil wars 
was the ' cap of liberty,' or anti-royalism. 
Britannia on some coins is represented 
holding such a cap on the pomt of her 
spear. 

Blue-coat School (T/^e). A familiar 
designation of Christ's Hospital ; so 
called from the long blue coat worn by 
the boys. Founded 28 June, 1553, by 
Edward VI. (the year of his death). 

Blue Cockades, 1780. The badge 
of the Protestant association. In the 
Gordon riots everyone who wished to go 
abroad unmolested wore blue in some 
part of their dress. 

Lord George Gordon appeared in the House 
Wo:irLng a blue cockade. Colonel Herbert, on 
seeing this, declared that he would not sit and 
vote in the House while he saw a noble lord with 
the ensign of riot in his hat ; and that if his lord- 
ship would not take it out, he himself would step 
across the House and do it for him. Lord Georj-'e 
quietly took the cockade from his hat and put it 
in his pocket.— HowiTT, Hist oj EngLa)td, George 
ni., p. 249. 

Blue Flag (A). A warning of danger 
in the Roman Empire. Livy speaks of 
it in his ' Annals.' 

Blue Flagellants (T/te). So called 
from their blue mantles. See 'Flagel- 
lants,' and ' Blancs Battus.' 

Blue Friars {The), 1829-1840. A 
convivial and intellectual society of Ply- 
mouth, numbering many men of note. 
Charles Mathews, the elder, was member 
and was called ' Brother Prism.' 

Blue-gowns. King's bedesmen, or 
licensed beggars who wore blue gowns. 
Called in Scotland gaberlunzies. See 
* Thiggers and Sorners.' 

Blue Hats {The), 1356-1358. The 
Navarrese party organised by Marcel, 
provost of Paris, during the captivity 



of Jean le Bon in England. The object 
of the provost was to place Charles le 
Mauvais on the throne. See ' Blue Hoods.' 

Marcel, entering the palace without any regard 
to the dauphin, seized the two marshals and put 
them to death so close to the prince, that his 
dress was sprinkled with their blood. ' How 
now,' cried the dauphin, ' will you shed the blood 
royal of France?' 'No!' cried Marcel, and so 
saying he rudely snatched from the dauphin's 
head the embroidered hat of a pale rose colour, 
put it on his own head, and clapped his own blue 
hat on the dauphin's head. Through all the day 
the provost went about Pnris with the dauphin's 
hat.— HOWITT, History of England, vol. i., p. 395. 

Blue Hens. The natives of Delaware, 
one of the United States of North 
America. Captain Caldwell, an officer iu 
the 1st Delaware regiment in the American 
War of Independence, was very fond of 
game cocks, but maintained that no cock 
was truly game, unless its mother was a 
blue hen. As the Delaware regiment 
was truly game, they were the sons of 
blue hens. 

Blue Hoods. The party badge of 
Navarre ; red hoods, the party badge of 
Paris ; blue and red, the party badge of 
Charles [V.], when dauphin ; white hoods, 
the party badge of the Burgundians. 

Blue Laws. The code of IGOO, a 
compilation of the earliest laws and 
customs of Connecticut. It is almost 
verbally copied from the Mosaic Law. 
After the restoration of Charles II. 
' Presbyterian true blue ' became a term 
of derision applied to anything which 
smattered of Puritanism, and ' blue laws ' 
simply meant puritanical laws, or laws 
with a blue tinge. These laws inflicted 
the penalty of death for worshipping any 
god but the God of the Bible ; for speak- 
ing disrespectfully of the Bible, Christ, 
or the Holy Ghost ; for witchcraft, 
adultery, theft, false-swearing, and dis- 
obedience to parents. Said to have been 
drawn up by the Rev. Samuel Peters, but 
generally supposed to be apocryphal. 

Blue-light Federalists. Those 
Americans who befriended the English 
in 1812, by giving them blue-light signals. 

Bluemantle. One of the four pur- 
suivants of England. See ' Pursuivants.' 

Blue Monday. St. Crispin's Day. 
This is the German ' der blaue Montag.' 
Not 25 Oct., but holiday Monday, the 
day of ' blue looks.' 



103 



BLUE 



BLUES 



Elue Xloon. Once in a blue moon, 
occasionally, but very seldom. In tlie 
second week of Dec. 1883 we had green, 
purple, and blue moons : on the 7th 
green, on the 10th blue. The sunset 
clouds were also unusually brilliant and 
deep-coloured. 2 Sept., 1883, the sun at 
Trinidad was blue, and at Panama it was 
green. 

In England the winter 1883-4 was unusually mild 
and the wind south-west. 

Blue Woses. The Nova Scotians 
are so called from a potato which they 
rear in great perfection, and term ' Blue 
Noses.' 

Blue Pedigrees. Pedigrees con- 
cocted for rich nobodies by professional 
genealogists. Mr. Wray of Philadelphia 
tells us (' Notes and Queries,' 23 Jan., 1886, 
p. 74), that ' genealogical publications are 
searched for the names of families desir- 
ing information, and suitable pedigrees 
are constructed for them out of the visit- 
ations and county histories, and are 
duplicated by . . . the " blue print " pro- 



Blue Ribbon Army, or 'Blue 
Kibbonites,' or ' Blue Ribboners.' Teeto- 
tallers who bear as a badge a small piece 
of blue ribbon, to remind all who 
see it that they drink no alcoholic 
liquor. 

Blue Ribbon of the Tuvf (The). 
So Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield, called the 
Derby. To win the great Derby horse- 
race is the greatest achievement of the 
year in the estimation of the turf. 

The ' cordon bleu ' was the ribbon worn by the 
knights of the 'St. Esprit,' the highest order in 
France, as the blue garter is the highest distinc- 
tion in British knighthood. 

Blue Ring (The). This was a 
sapphire ring which Lady Scrope let 
down from the window of the queen's 
chamber to announce to her brother, 
Robert Carey (afterwards earl of Mon- 
mouth) the death of Queen Elizabeth. 
The moment he caught it he galloped off 
to Scotland as fast as possible, to be the 
first to announce the welcome news to the 
expecting James. 

Blue Sisters (The) 1604. The 
Celestial Annunciades, a religious order 
instituted by Maria Vittoria Fornari. 
So called from their blue mantles. The 



Annunciades of Jeanne de Valois wear a 
blue simar, but white mantle. 

Blue Skins. The Presbyterians 
were so called after the restoration of 
Charles II., blue meaning puritanical. 
Anything smattering of roundheadism, 
whether laws, institutions, sects, persons, 
or what not, was called in derision blue, 
that is, tinged with ' Presbyterian blue.' 

Joseph Blake, an English burglar, was called 
' Blue-si-in ' from his complexion. He was execu- 
ted in 1723. 

Blue Stocking Club {The). Esta- 
blished in London in 1780. It was a 
society of literary ladies which lasted up 
to 1840. The members were supposed to 
wear blue stockings, and two ladies 
(Montagu and Stillingfleet) are said to 
have given name to the society. Pro- 
bably it was in imitation of the ' Societa, 
della Calza ' of Venice (1400-1590). 

Similar clubs have been adopted both in Ger- 
many and France. Indeed the French ' bas-bleu ' 
is as often heard as the phrase ' bluestocking ' to 
designate a female literary pedant. 

Blue "Waiters. At one time waiters 
were dressed in blue, the badge of servi- 
tude, but the badge was discontinued in 
the reign of James I. Frequent refer- 
ence to the blue coats of servant men will 
be found in old plays. 

Blues {The). 1. 'Les Bleus,' in the 
Vendean war, were the republican 
soldiers, so called by the royalists on ac- 
count of the colour of their uniforms. 
See ' Whites.' 

11. the police, so called from being 
dressed in blue. Also called the ' Blue 
Foot-guard.' Of course the ' wit ' lies in 
the allusion to the ' Blue Guards.' 

Blues and G-reens {The). In Latin 
' Veneti et Praslni.' Charioteer factions 
at Byzantium. The Veneta factio wore 
a light blue livery; the Prasina factio 
wore a leek-green livery (Greek j>?'aso/i, a 
leek). The Emperor Justinian was a 
Blue, and the two factions became politi- 
cal. In 532 the Greens revolted, pro- 
claimed Prince Hypatius emperor in the 
circus, and waylaid Justinian in hig 
palace. Belisarius and Mundus repelled 
the rebels, but more than 30,000 persona 
fell in the sedition. Hypatius, being 
taken, was beheaded and his body 
thrown into the Bosphorus. This sedi- 
tion was called the Nika, the rallying 
word of the insurgents. 



BLUES 



BOARD 



109 



Venetus means Venice blue, the colour of the I 
coiTunon soldiers and seamen of Rome. There 
were two subordinate factions, the white and the 
red. but the white merged into the blue and the i 
red into the green. j 

Blues and the Lilacs (T^e). Two 
rival court parties in the reign of I 
Francois I. The Blues were the parti- j 
sans of Diane de Poitiers, mistress of ; 
Henri the dauphin, afterwards Henri II. ! 
The Lilacs were the partisans of Madame 
d'Etampes, mistress of the king. Both 
king and dauphin had a wife Hving at 
the time. Madame d'Etampes was nine 1 
years the younger. She died at the age ! 
of 67, her rival died at the age of 68. j 

Blues, Reds, and "Whites {The), \ 
in the first French Revolution. Balzac | 
tells us in ' Le dernier Chouan : ' ' Dans I 
ces temps de discordes, les habitans de j 
I'ouest avaient appele' tons les soldats de | 
la republique des bleus,' because their ! 
'premiers uniformes etaient bleus at 
rouges.' A Bleu, therefore, in 1793, was 
a republican, in opposition to a royalist 
or Vendean, who wore the White royal 
uniform. Dumas tells us, in his ' Vingt 
Ans apres,' that 'blue and red is the 
livery of Paris.' The French tricolour 
is the combination of republican blue, 
the city of Paris, and the Bourbon white. 

Bluff City. The city Hannibal, in , 
Missouri (North America). [ 

Bluff Harry. Henry VIII., who 
affected a bluntess of speech and manner, 
and delighted in being so called. 

Blunden. The thrice-buried Mrs. 
Blunden. Mrs. Blunden was buried at 
Basingstoke ; but some of the boys of 
the neighbouring grammar-school, hear- 
ing a noise underground, ran to tell their 
master. The coffin was disinterred, the 
body was found to be alive. Proper 
means being applied, life was fully re- 
stored, and Mrs. Blunden continued to 
live for several years. A second time 
she fell into a trance and was buried, and 
Bounds underground again attracted 
attention ; the coffin was again disinter- 
red, and it was found that the flesh had 
been gnawed from one of the hands by 
the teeth of th6 buried lady. Means 
were tried to restore life, but without 
success, and Mrs. Blunden was buried for 
the third ti ne. 

Lazarus and iiiauy otherii were Iv^ico bmied. 



Boabdil. A corruption of Bu-abdad, 
which is a contraction of Abu-Abdallah. 
This Moorish prince of Granada was 
called 'Assaghir' (small, insignificant). 
His mother Ayesha said of him, when he 
was driven out of Spain in 1492 : ' My 
son, you have cause to weep like a 
woman, who defended not your throne 
either as a monarch or a man.' It was 
probably this littleness, and not diminu- 
tive stature, which procured him the so- 
briquet of Assaghir. 

Board Schools, 1870. National or 
parish schools under a school board or a 
board of directors, and supported by 
rates. Religious instruction forms no 
part of the curriculum. These schools 
are under government inspectors and 
receive government grants per cajnta, 
according to a scale of merit given in the 
inspector's report. Every pa^^sh or 
group of parishes must have either a 
voluntary school or a board school. 

A voluntary school is not supported by a rate, 
but by voluntary contributions, children's pence, 
and a government grant. It is inspected by a 
government inspector, and those connected with 
the Church of Kngland are also under diocesan 
inspection. 

Board of Admiralty (The). A 
government department which has the 
management of all matters concerning 
the British navy. 

Board of Control (The), 1784. A 
committee of commissioners for managing 
the affairs of India. Abolished 1858 
(21, 22 Vict. c. 106). 

Board of Green Cloth (The). 
Consisting of the lord steward and several 
inferior officers. Their duty was to 
punish offenders within the verge of the 
palace and within 200 yards beyond the 
gates. So called because the board or 
table at which they sat was covered with 
a green cloth. It existed in the reign of 
Henry I., i^robably even earlier. Abo- 
hshed 1849 (12, 13 Vict. c. 101). 

Board of Ordnance (The). A 
government department to which is 
committed the management of all 
matters relating to the artillery and engi- 
neering corps of the British army. 

Board of Trade [The), 1786. Has 
the control of all matters pertaining to 
our colonial trade and all matters per- 
taining to our mercantile marine, all 
railways in the United Kingdom, the 



110 



BOARD 



BOECE 



fisheries, harbours, weights and measures, 
statistics, electric lighting, &c. All 
charters for incorporation are referred 
to this board ; the Privy Council on 
education is under its control, &c. The 
board consists of a president and vice- 
president, the lord chancellor, the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, the first lord of 
the treasury, the chief secretaries of 
state, the speaker, and several others. 

It originated in 1660, when Charles I. created 
a council for trade and a council for foreign plan- 
tations ; but the present constitution dates from 
the reign of George III. 

Board of Triers (The), March 
1G53. A committee, one-fourth being lay- 
men, appointed by Cromwell to try or 
examine the fitness of candidates to 
hold livings or take part in the church 
services, 

Cromwell also appointed a church board in 
every county to spe that the clergy did their 
duty, and to remove those who were inellicient or 
evil examples. 

Board of Works (The), 1851. 
Constituted by the Metropolitan Man- 
agement Act. It had control over the 
streets of London, the line of buildings, 
the fire brigade, the gas, drainage, 
bridges, parks, and commons ; the tram- 
ways, artisans' dwellings, slaughter- 
houses, theatres, and music-halls, &c. 
The fifty-nine members of the board were 
elected by the respective vestries ; the 
corporation and city of London used to 
elect three of them. Abolished 1889. 

Boarian, or Borome'an Tribute. 

A heavy mulct imposed hj Tuathal, over- 
king of Ireland, on the province of 
Leinster for the infamous conduct of 
■ their ruler Achy. This continued from 
the 2nd to the 7th cent., but was 
dropped in G93, though the intercession 
of St. Moling. So called from bo, a cow, 
because beeves formed the medium of 
tribute. See ' Fine of Leinster. 

The offence was this. Achy married a daughter 
of Tuathal ; but tiring of his wife, he went to 
Tara and brought home his wife s younger sister 
as a bride. When the bride discovered that her 
Bister was living, she died of the shock, and the 
Bister pined to death a few weeks after. 

'This brutal sacrilege the monarch punished 
by putting twelve of the Lagcnian chieftains 
to death, and exacting rigorously the Boarian 
tribute from the province to which they belonged." 
T. MOOEE, History of Ireland, vii., p. 133. 

Boatswain Smith. G. C. Smith, 
pressed into the British navy in 1796, 
quitted the service in l8G3 ; became pastor 
of a Baptist church at Penzance in 1807 
(1782-1803). 



Bobeche (2 syl.). A famous clown 
(1815-1825) who drew crowds to a small 
theatre on the Boulevard du Temple 
of Paris ; his rival was Galimafre. 
Bobeche takes rank with the Tabarin 
and the Bruscambille (IStli cent.). A 
comedian or farce-actor is complimen- 
tarily called ' un vrai Bobeche ' in 
France. See ' Tabarin.' 

Bocasoti. The same as ' Bizocii ' 
(q.v.). 

Bode's Law, of the relative dis- 
tances of the planets from the sun. 

Write 4 nine times. 

Under the second write 8, and multi- 
ply by 2 throughout. Then add. 

Thus : 

4444 4 44 4 4 
3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 



7 10 16 

2 ^ S 



52 



100 196 388 

a to 2 



Between IMars and Jupiter is no 
planet, but Bode said there must be one 
in the gap, and the asteroids being 
discovered proved the correctness of the 
series. 

Taking earth to be 10, the relative distances 
are (roughly) 3-9, T2, 10, 15-2, 27"4, 52, 95-4, 192, 300 
(millions of miles). 

Boden Scholarships. Four for 
Sanskrit. Value 501. a year, and tenable 
for four years in the University of 
Oxford. Founded by Colonel Boden in 
1830 and 18G0. 

Bodleian Library (TJie), 1597. 
The public library of Oxford restored by 
Sir Thomas Bodley on the site of the 
old University library, which had 
been despoiled of its contents in the 
reign of Edward VI. It has been added 
to by many magnificent gifts, and now 
contains above 256,000 volumes and 
22,000 MSS. The Bodleian Library is 
one of the five depositories of copy- 
right books. The corresponding institu- 
tion in Cambridge is called the Univer- 
sity Library. 

Eefounded by Sir Thomas Bodley (1507-1599). 
The new building commenced 17 July, IGIO, and 
finished 1613. Augmented by the libraries of 
Richard Gough and Edmund Malone In 1812 • and 
by that of Francis Douce in 1834. 

Boece {Hector), or 'Boethius.' A 
literary romancer born at Dundee (1470- 



BCEUF GRAS 



BOMBA 



111 



1550). In Ill's ' Scotorum Historia,' pub- 
lished in 1526, he has forged the names 
of forty-five Scotch kings with which he 
interpolated the Irish list of the Dalria- 
dic rulers {i.e. kings of Argyllshire). ISee 
' Literary Forgeries.' 

Bceuf Gras {La marche du). The 
procession of the prize ox on Shrove 
Tuesday through the chief streets of 
Paris, introduced in the reign of Charles 
VIIl. (1483-1408). The ox, with gilt 
horns and hoofs, a fillet on its head and 
decorated with ribbons, is led through 
the chief streets, accompanied by a host 
of followers dressed in ridiculous cos- 
tumes, and bands of music plajdng on 
ridiculous instruments. The whole is a 
farcical imitation of Roman priests going 
to offer sacrifice. The butcher's ex- 
penses are paid by donations from 
ambassadors, noblemen, ministers, and 
wealthy citizens, on whom he calls to 
show his ox. 

I have seen the procession six or eight times, 
but probably it is now d.s.-Oi shorn of its glory, it 
not abolished. Shrove Tuesday is called Mardi 
gras in French. 

Bceuf Gras pronounce Buh-grah'. 

Boeotian Confederacy (The). 
The confederacy of the fourteen indepen- 
dent states of Boeotia, with Thebes at 
the head. The chief magistrates of the 
league, called Boeotarchs, were elected 
annually, two for Thebes and one for 
each of the other states. 

The number of Boeotarchs varied as the inde- 
pendent states were not constant ; but fifteen 
may be roughly called the college of Boeotarchs. 

Bogomiles or Bogarmitae, 12th 
cent. Heretics of Bulgaria, who denied 
the Trinity, the resurrection, the institu- 
tion of the sacraments, and holy orders. 
They were deists. The Emperor Alexis 
Comnenus in 1118 burnt to death their 
leader. (Sing. Bogomil.) 

Bog is the Sclavonic for ' God,' and mil is a 
corruption of milotii, ' have pity on us.' 

Bohemian Brethren {The). The 
followers of Huss of Bohemia, 1457. 
Their great offence was allowing the cup 
to the laity, whence they were called 
' chalice men.' They subsequently 
merged into the Moravians or ' United 
Brethren.' Their platform was : (1) the 
free preaching of the gospel ; (2) the 
administration of the eucharist in both 
kinds ; (3) the separation of the clei'gy 
from all secular pursuits ; and (4) the 



punishment of the clergy by the civil 
courts. 

Bohmenists. See ' Behmenists.' 

Boiling to death. By 22 Henry III., 
c. 9, it was enacted that poisoners 
should be boiled to death. The law was 
repealed by 1 Edward VI. c. 12. 

Bolden Book ( The). The book con- 
taining the survey of the see of Durham, 
made in 1183 by order of the Bishop de 
Pusay. So called because the parish of 
Bolden is the first mentioned in the sur- 
vey. It begins thus : 

Incipit liber qui vocatur Bolden Book, Anno 
Dominice Incarnationis, 1183. 

It is a small folio, and is kept in the auditor's 
office at Durham. 

Bolivia (in South America). So 
called after Simon Bolivar, who liberated 
several of the South American provinces 
from Spain in 1824. 

Bollandists. The compilers of 
the numerous folio volumes of the 
* Acta Sanctorum ' {q.v.). So called from 
Father John Bolland, who with ten coad- 
jutors brought out the first 82 volumes 
folio, and completed the first series. Re- 
organised at Brussels in 1837, and the 
54th volume was published in 1845. The 
57th volume brings down the hagiography 
to 1855 ; the 61st to 1875. 

The first five vols, contained Jan. in two vols. 
(1G43:, and Feb. in three vols. (1658). The 53rd vol. 
appeared in 1794. 

' Les Petits Bollandistes ' is a French hagiogra- 
phy by Mgr. Paul Gucriu in 17 large octavo vols., 
the 7th edition of which was published in ISSO. 
The last vol. is all index. 

Bolleghe, pi. Bolleghes. The 
herdsman and his herd in Ireland living 
on the mountains. The usage is called 
Bollinge. 

Bologna {Treaty of), 1 Jan., 1530. 

A treaty of peace between Venice and 
Charles V. Charles abandoned to Venice 
all his conquests in Lombardy, and Venice 
gave up to Charles the Neapolitan ports. 

Bolton Quarter. Instant death 

without mercy. 

2 May, 1644 Bolton was taken. Colonel R.'a 
forces routed, and many a sweet saint slain. No 
quarter would be given, so that Bolton Qutirter 
grew into a proverb.— ISAAC AMBEOSE, Media or 
Middle Tilings, 1G50, p. 72. 

Bomba. A sobriquet of Ferdinand II. 
of Naples and Sicily, so called from his 
savage bombardment of Messina in Sept. 

lb: J. 



X12 



BOMBALINO 



BONNET 



Bombalino, or ' Bomba II.' Fran- 
cis II. of Naples, who bombarded Palermo 
in 1860. He was the son of Ferdinand 11., 
nicknamed ' King Bomba ' {q.v.). 

Bombay (in Hindustan). A corrup- 
tion of the native name into the Portu- 
guese Bovi-baJiia, the good bay (1509). 

Bona De a. Called by the Eomans 
Fauna, who revealed her oracles to 
women only, and no man was permitted 
to be present at her mysteries. There 
was a similar deity, named Faunus, 
exclusively confined to the other sex, 
Pnblius Clodius, in the house of Caesar, 
violated the sanctuary of Bona Dea, and 
was brought to trial, but he was acquitted 
by bribery (Cicero, ' Att.' i. 12). 

Eonaght (Ireland). An exaction 
imposed at the pleasure of the lord for 
the maintenance of his soldiers. There 
were two sorts, viz. Bonaght-bur and 
Bonaght-beg. The first was free quarters 
at discretion, the latter was a money 
commutation. See * Coygne and Livery.' 

Bonaparte's Egyptian cam- 
paign, 1799. Alexandria fell into his 
hands"; he won the great battle of the 
Pyramids; completed the subjugation of 
Egypt ; passed into Syria, made himself 
master of Gaza and Jaffa ; won the battle 
of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, 
attacked the Turks at Abovikir, and 
utterly destroyed tbeir whole army, 25 
June, 1799. 

Bonaparte's Italian cam- 
paign, 1796-7. He was 27 years of 
age. 

11 April, he defeated Beaulieu, the 
Austrian general, at Montenotte, in Sar- 
dinia. 

14 April, he won the battle of Mille- 
simo. 

15 April, he won the battle of Dego. 
22 April he won a victory over the 

Piedmontese at Mondovi. 

10 May, he defeated the Austrian gen- 
eral Beaulieu at the Bridge of Lodi, and 
entered Milan. 

19 June, he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, 
and Ancona. 

3 Aug., he defeated the Austrian gen- 
eral "Wiirmser at Lonato. 

5 Aug., he defeated the same general 
at Castiglione. 

8 Sept., he defeated him again at Bas- 
Bano. 



17 Nov., he won the great battle of 
Areola over Alvinzi, the Austrian gen- 
eral. 

14 Jan., 1797, he won the battle of Ei- 
voli over Alvinzi and Wiirmser. 

15 Jan., he won a battle at the 
faubourg of St. George, near Mantua. 

16 Jan., he won a battle near the 
palace called The Favourite. 

16 March, he defeated the Austrians led 
by the Archduke Karl at Tagliamento. 

17 Oct., the treaty of Campo Formio, 
and in December he returned to France. 

He had won 15 battles ; added Savoy and Nice to 
France, the Netlierlands,and Italy ; had obtained 
vast money compensations, and returned to 
France laden with treasures of art. 

Bonaparte's Forty Days' Cam- 
paign. He left Paris 6 May, 1800; 
marched over the Alps, and reached 
Aosta 23 May ; he entered Milan 2 June; 
won the battle of Montebello over the 
Austrians 9 June, and the great battle of 
Marengo, 14 June ; returned to Paris 
2 July. 

The 40 days count from his arrival at Aosta, 
23 May, to his return to Paris, 2 July. 

Bones, or St. Hugh's bones. Dice. 'To 
rattle the bones,' to play dice. The St. 
Hugh referred to is St. Hugh of Lincoln, 
whose teeth were knocked out by Jews 
when he was crucified in mockery of the 
crucified Saviour. Of course this state- 
ment is given only as a tradition, and not 
as an historic fact. 

Bonfire of Vanities (The). In 
Florence, 1493. Savonarola had such 
effect by his ]3reaching on the people of 
Florence, that women, gay gallants, and 
gi'ave scholars, went in throngs, and 
threw into a vast bonfire before the gates 
of the cathedral whole hecatombs of 
poems, works of fiction, and other works 
of art, and burnt them, after the example 
of the men and woiuen of Ephesus (Acts 
xix. 19). 

Bonnet-piece {A gold). A gold 
coin of James V. of Scotland, and the 
most beautiful of all Scottish coins. 
So called because the head of the king 
is represented wearing a bonnet instead 
of a crown. 

Bonnet Rouge ( Un). A red repub- 
lican was so called from the red cap of 
liberty worn by him. 

Bonnet Vert. Prendre le bonnet 
vert, to become a bankrupt. Alluding to 



BONONCINTSTS 



BOOK 



113 



an old law which compelled bankrupts 
to wear a green cap. This custom con- 
tinued down to the 17th cent. 

Bononcinists, 1720-1730. A 
musical faction in London opposed to 
the Handelists. The Prince of Wales 
led the Handel party, supported by Pope 
and Dr. Arbuthnot ; the Duke of Marl- 
borough led the Bononcinists, supjported 
by many others of the nobility. For 
about twelve years the Italian school 
was so strongly supported that Handel 
c^uld not resist the tide ; but in 174:2 his 
popularity returned. 

Bonzes. Priests of Fo, founder of 
a reformed Buddhism in China. Born 
about B.C. 1027. He taught the equality 
of man ; the love of others ; the love of 
truth ; honest dealing ; the sin of 
murder ; abstention from all intoxicating 
drinks ; the love of purity ; recompense 
or punislunent after life according to 
one's deeds. Bonzes live in monasteries. 

Book. I. The first booTc printed in 
German (1461) was the ' Edelstein ' (or 
' precious stone ') by Ulrich Boner. A 
collection of fables, tales, and maxims in 
reproof of evil ways and for the en- 
couragement of piety and virtue. 

The first printed book was the Psalter of Mainz, 
1457 ; the next was William Dunxnd's ' Holy Office ' 
(' Rationale divinoram otliciorum libris viii dis- 
tinctum'), printed 145'); the third was Balbis s 
' Catholieon, a sort of dictionary, 1460 ; then comes 
the 'Edelstein,' in German. 

II. The highest price ever offered for 
a book was 20,000Z. It was a Hebrew 
Bible in the possession of the Vatican. 
In 1512, the Jev/s of Venice wished to 
buy this book, but though Julius II. was 
greatly pressed for money in order to 
keep up the Holy League against Louis 
XII. ol France, he declined to part with 
the volume. 

The German Government paid 10,000i. 
for the missal given by Leo X. to Henry 
VIII., along with the parchment con- 
ferring on him the right to assume the 
title of ' Defender of the Faith.' Charles 
II. gave these relics to the ancestor of 
the famous Duke of Hamilton, whose 
library was sold by Messrs Sotheby, 
Wilkinson, and Hodge of London. 

III. The largest book on one subject 
is the ' Acta Sanctorum ' of the Bol- 
landists, not yet completed (1890). The 
61st vol. was published in 1875. 

IV. The oldest book in the world is a 



papyrus containing the proverbs of 
Ptaii-hotep, an Egyptian king, who 
reigned some 3000 B.C., which was 
before the birth of Abraham. It has 
been in part translated by Chabas and 
others ; and may be seen m English 
dress in J. D. Heath's ' Record of the 
Patriarchal Age.' 

Book of Advertisement (The), 
1505. The book containing the canons 
and articles drawn up by the Court of 
Ecclesiastical Commission appointed by 
Queen Elizabeth. The object of the 
book was to secure uniformity of doc- 
trine and discipline throughout the 
realm. 

Sampson, dean of Christchurch, and Humphrey, 
retjius professor of divinity at OxfoiM, with 
many others, refused to conform, and were called 
N ou-coniormists. 

Book of Common Order (The), 
15(32. A liturgy drawn up by John Knox 
for the use of the Scotch church. It 
was in general use for nearly a century, 
and contained forms for the Sunday 
services, for week days, for the sacra- 
ments, and for some other occasions. 
The people took no part in the liturgy. 

All saints days were ignored. 

Book of Common Prayer (The). 

Based on the ' King's Primer ' (q-v.), was 
published by Henry VIII. in 1546. In 
the reign of Edward VI. it underwent 
two revisions, and ' The Second Prayer 
Book of Edward VI.' approaches very 
near to the one now used in the Church 
of England. In the reign of James I. 
was introduced a collect in the daily 
morning and evening service, the prayer 
for the Royal Family in the Litany, and 
that part of the catechism about the 
sacraments. It was revised in 1662, 
and from time to time special prayers 
have been introduced which are not now 
included in the Common Prayer Book. 

Cranmer appointed in 1548 twelve commis- 
sioners to assist him in compiling the Boob of 
Common Prayer in the reign of Edward VI. 
'J'hey were Goodrich (bishop of Ely), Holbeach 
(bishop of Lincoln), Day (bishop of Chichester), 
S ap (bishop of Hereford), Thurlby (bishop of 
Westminster), Ridley (bishop of Rochester i, May 
(deiLn of St. Pauls), Taylor (dean of Lincoln), 
H ivnes (dean of Exeter i, Redmayn (master of 
Triaify, Cambridge^), Coxe(dean of Christ Church, 
Oxford), and Robertson (archdeacon of Leicester). 

The service books consulted by them were these 
eleven : the Antiphonariam, the Finale, the 
Graduale or Grayle, the Legenda, the Manuale, 
the Jlissal, the Ordinalo, the Pica or Pie, tho 
Pontificilo, the Portiforium or Breviary, and tho 
Processionale. Cranmer presided. 



114 



BOOK 



BORDER 



Book of Discipline (The), 1560. 

A digest of the forms by which the 
reformed church in Scotland was to be 
goyerned. Both in doctrine and disci- 
pline the church was modelled on the 
Geneva or Calvinistic plan. 

Book of Leinster (The). An 
fxish MS. compiled 1000-1100. 

Book of Mormon {The), 1830. 
The ' revealed ' history of America from 
its first settlement by a colony dispersed 
at the confusion of tongues to the oth 
cent, of the Christian era. Joseph 
Smith professed that this information 
was obtained by hinr in September 1827 
in a volume of metal plates engraved in 
reformed Egyptian, and discovered by 
revelation ' on the west side of a hill, 
not far from the top, about four miles 
from Palmyra, in the county of Ontario.' 
As Smith could not decipher the writing, 
a pair of magic spectacles, which he 
called his Urim and Thummim, were 
given to him, and one Oliver Cowdery 
wrote down on paj^er what Smith pro- 
fessed to translate. It is said that the 
' Book ' is a mere plagiary of a MS. 
romiance by the Rev. Solomon Spalding 
in 1816. Certainly the plates and specta- 
cles have disappeared. See 'Literary 
Forgeries.' 

Book of Sentences (The). By 
Pierre Lombard (1100-1164). A compila- 
tion of the leading arguments of the 
fathers upon moot points of divinity, 
arranged and digested under heads. 
Above 244 commentators have written 
annotations on this book ; among others, 
Thomas AquTnas, Guillaume Durand, 
St. Bonaventure, &c. 

Book of Sports (The), 1618. A 
declaration issued by James L of 
England, signifying his pleasure that on 
Sundays, after divine service, ' no lawful 
recreation should be barred to his good 
people.' The sports more especially 
mentioned were dancing, archery, leap- 
ing, vaulting. May-games, Whitsun-ales, 
morrice-dances, and setting up of May- 
poles. The declaration was appointed 
to be read in the parish churches; In 
1633 the declaration was again published. 
In 1644 the Long Parliament ordered all 
copies of the declaration to be burned. 
It was again reprinted in Arber's ' Eng- 
lish Garner.' 



The following sports were forbidden on Sundays : 
bear and bull baiting, bowling, and interludes. 
Those, who had not attended church were for- 
bidden to join in the sports, and no one could go 
out of his parish to join the sports of another 
parish. 

Book of Torgau {The\157Q. A 
famous confession of faith by the 
Reformers, the object of which was to 
produce unity and uniformity among the 
divergent sects. From this was develc ped 
' The formula of concord ' (1580). 

Booted M'ssion {The). *La 
Mission bottc'e,' the dragonnade of Louis 
XIV. Trench, speaking of the Ephesian 
Church, refers to ' the French Protestant 
refugees, who had found shelter from 
the dragonnades, the " Mission botte'e," 
as it is so facetiously called by some 
Roman Catholic writers, of Louis XIV.* 
(' Commentary on the Ej)istles to the 
Seven Churches of Asia,' p. 73.) 

None of the infinite abuses which might arise 
from this ' Mission bottee ' (as the rude and fierce 
body of instructors were called, either in bitter 
sportiveness or contempt) was likely to be dimin- 
ished by the temper of the officer to whom ita 
direction was entrusted.— SMEDLEY, History of 
Vw Reformed Religion in France, vol. ill. p. 250, 
chap, xxiv., of a.d. 1681. 

Boot-jack. John, earl of Bute 
(1713-1792) ; a pun on John-Bute, whence 
Jack-Bute, and by metathesis Boot-jack. 

Booth's Expedition {Felix), 1829. 
He equipped the ' Victory ' steamer at 
his own cost and sent it under the com- 
mand of Captain Ross to discover 
whether there is a north-west passage 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Mr. 
Booth has his name perpetuated in the 
words Boothia, Boothiana, and Point 
Felix ; and William IV. made him a 
baronet ; but no passage could be dis- 
covered. Captain Ross returned in 
1832, 

Border {The). The frontier of Eng- 
land and Scotland. The Tweed for 
about sixteen miles, the Cheviot hills for 
about twenty-five miles, then the Kers- 
hope Water (a tributary of the Esk), 
then the ' Debatable Land ' and the river 
Sark, to the Solway Firth. 

Border-thief School (TAe). Tliose 
novelists who took for their heroes border 
thieves, or for their subjects the adven- 
tures of border chiefs. Sir W. Scott and 
his poetical imitators are meant. 

With your Lake Schools, and Border-thief 
Schools, and Cockney and Satanic Scliools, there 
has been enough to do.— Carlyi.K. 



BOEDER 



BOSTON 



115 



The 'Lake School,' such as Wordsworth, 
Southey, and Coleridge, -who 'hiunted the lakes 
of Cumberland ' and Westmoreland. 

The 'Cockney School,' such as Leigh Hunt, 
Hazlitt. Shelley, Keats, Ac. 

The 'Satanic School,' such as Byron, Moore, 
Bul-.vnr, Eousseau, Victor Hugo, Paul de Kock, 
andl eorge Sand. So called because they show 
no deference to the conventionalities of religion 
and morals. 

Border "Warrant (A). A warrant 

issued by a Scotch sheriff or county-court 
judge to arrest a debtor on the English 
side, and detain him till he produces bail 
for his appearance when called on withia 
six months. 

Borgites (2 syl.), or ' Bordjites.' A 
dynasty of Mamelukes in Egypt (1382- 
1517), which succeeded the Baharites 
(3 syl.). Every one of these rulers, 
except Barkuk the founder, was either 
deposed or met with a violent death, 
Touman-Bey (the last of them) was 
hanged by Selim, sultan of the 
Ottomans. 

Borom^ (The), or Leinster tribute. 
An annual tribute paid by the King of 
Leinster to Tuathal, overlord of Ireland, 
for causing the death of Tuathal's two 
daughters, whom he had inveigled into 
his power under the promise of marriage. 

Boromean Tribute {The). See 
' Boarian.' 

His (Leogaire's) -war upon the Lagenians, or 
people of Leinster, to enforce the payment of the 
Loroiiiean tribute, seems worthy of notice. — 
T. Moore, Hist, oj Ireland, xi. 232. 

Borough English. The law by 
which the youngest son is the heir, from 
the supposition that he is less al'le 
to maintain himself than his elder 
brothers. 

Borough-mongers. A term ap- 
plied by Cobbett to those who were 
' iQongers ' of boroughs ; that is, had 
property in parliamentary scats, which 
seats they could sell or bestow on whom 
they thought proper. 

Borrome'o {Charles), archbishop of 
Milan, and Augustin Valerio, bishop of 
Verona, have won to themselves immortal 
fame by their intrepidity in visiting the 
plague-stricken in 157G. This terrible 
pest depopulated Venice, Verona, Milan, 
and Trent. The great Titian fell a victim 
to it. It was attributed to the miasma 
rising from stagnant water and bad 
drainage. See ' Plagues,' &c. 



We have an Englishman fully worthy of being 
placed with these philanthropists. During the 
great plague of London in lG(i-5, Sir John Law- 
rence, then Lord Mayor, continued the whole 
time in the city ; heard complaints and redressed 
grievances. The day after the disease was knowTX 
to be the plague, 40,000 servants were dismissed 
and turned into tlie streets, for no one would take 
them in. Sir John supported them all at first from 
his own private fortune, till subscriptions came 
in to help him in his benevolent work. — Journal of 
the Plague, printed by E. Nutt, 17-2-2. 

Query. — Is there a statue to this great man in 
the City 1 If not, for the honour of our Lord 
Mayors, there ought to be. The John Lawrence 
in Westminster cloisters was a ' short-hand 
writer.' I can call to mind no public monument 
to one of the greatest of England's worthies. 

Boseobel. So celebrated for the 
concealment of Charles II., was originally 
the property of a Mr. Giffard, who built 
there a small mansion, which he called 
' Bosco-bello,' fair wood. YvHien Charles 
took refuge there the farmer's name was 
Peuderell. 

Bosphorus {The). Means the ox 
or cow ford. So called because lo, trans- 
ported into a cow, forded or swam across 
it. So, at least, we are told in Grecian 
fable. 

Bosporic Era {The). Commenced 
B.C. 297. 

Boston Bard {The). Eobert S. 
Cofiin, born in Boston, Massachusetts 
(1797-1857). 

Boston Massacre {The), 5 March, 
1770. A ridiculously grand phrase for 
a petty squabble between the British 
soldiers quartered in Boston and the 
men employed in Gray's roj)e-walk. Some 
of the soldiers mockingly asked to be 
employed in the rope-walk ; a row ensued, 
which was renewed for two or three days, 
and at last some of the officers drew up 
a company of soldiers to overawe the men. 
The workmen began to taunt the ' lob- 
sters,' and struck one of them. The 
soldiers fired. Three of Gray's men fell, 
and eight were wounded. The funeral of 
the three men was made a public protest, 
and its anniversary was kept for 14 years. 

Boston ]Mew3 Letter {The). 
Appeared 24 April, 1704. It was the first 
American newspaper. 

Boston Port Bill {The), March 
1774. A bill by Lord North to take 
away from Boston (Massachusetts) the 
customs, the courts of justice, and the 
government offices, and transfer them to 
New Salem, iu consequence of the re- 
12 



116 



BOSTON 



BO WIDE S 



bellion of the Bostonians, especially their 
wanton destruction of tea to the value of 
18,000^., to show their hatred of England. 

Boston Tea-party {The), 16 Dec, 
1773. Those citizens of Boston who, 
disguised as Indians, boarded the three 
English ships, which had just come into 
the harbour, and threw into the sea 
several hundred chests of tea, by way of 
protest against English taxation of 
America without a representation in 
parliament. 

Botany {Father of). Tournefort 
(1656-1708). 

Botany {Professorship of). In the 
University of Cambridge, 1724, founded 
by the university. Stipend 300Z. a year. 

Botany Bay, 1770. So called by 

Captain Cook, who discovered, on enter- 

- ing the bay, the ei^acris (a sort of heath), 

which, though very brilliant, will grow 

in the poorest soil. 

Bottle Iliot {The), 1822. In Dublin 
theatre. Someone (12 June, 1822) 
daubed the equestrian statue of William 
III., on College Green, with lampblack. 
The Orangemen had been accustomed 
for many years to whitewash it and 
decorate it with yellow ribbons on the 
anniversary of the battle of the Boyne 
(1 July, 16'J0). As these pranks caused 
great riots, the Marquis of Wellesley, 
the lord-lieutenant, forbade any un- 
authorised person to interfere with the 
statue at all. This offended the Orange- 
men, who clubbed together to mob him 
in the theatre. During the National 
Anthem, someone threw a bottle at the 
marquis ; a riot ensued, and some of the 
offenders were prosecuted ; but the bills 
were thrown out, and when government 
took the matter u]d, the jury would not 
agree, and the prosecution was dropped. 

Bottomless Pitt {The). William 
Pitt (1759-1806), the statesman, a very 
thin man, with no ' fall ' in his back. 

Boulden Book {The). A book 
recording the inquisition made by Hugh 
Pudsey, bishop of Durham, in 1183, still 
extant. It shows that the ville-ns of 
Bolden held each thirty acres of land, 
which they paid for partly in service, 
partly in land, and partly in money. It 
is vahiable for throwing light on the 
subject of villeinage in England in the 



12th cent., and for other incidental in- 
formation on the social state of the 
people. 

Bourbon Dynasty, of France. 
Began with Henri IV. the Great, and 
continued in a direct line to the Revolu- 
tion. Louis XVIII. and his brother 
Charles X. were also in the direct line. 
Louis Philippe was of the Orleans 
branch. 

The Bourbons were descended from the sixth 
son of St. Louis, brother of Philippe III. Tlio 
dynasty (with the interruption of the Revolution 
and Empire) continued from 1589 to 1848. 

Bourbon Orleans branch, of 

the Bourbon dynasty. Gave to Prance 
one king, Louis Philippe, called Le Hoi 
Citoyen (1773, 1830-1848, died 1850). 

Bourguignons {The), 1407. The 
faction of the Duke of Burgundy (Jean- 
sans-Peur), opposed to the Armagnacs 
or Orleanist party, during the imbecility 
of Charles VI. of France. The cogni- 
sance of the Bourguignons was a St. 
Andrew cross on a red scarf. 

The cognisance of the Armagnacs was a St. 
George's cross on a white scarf. 

Bourguignons (pronounce Boor-gicin'-yohn). 
Armagnacs (pronounce Ak-maii'-yaks). 

Bow-street Kunners (established 
1749). Nicknamed Piobin Redbreasts from 
their scarlet waistcoats. The Bow-street 
officers were a brave resolute set of men, 
nimble of foot like a proctor's ' bull-dog,' 
skilled to run down offenders and ' bring 
them to book.' 

Bowdlerise. To expurgate a book 
in editing it. Dispatches are bowdlerised 
by government, or ' edited,' that ob- 
jectionable statements may be omitted, 
before the dispatches are given to the 
public. Bov/dler gave to the world an 
expurgated edition of Shakespeare's 
works, in which, as he tells us, ' nothing 
is added to the original text, but all 
words and expressions are omitted 
which cannot with propriety be read 
aloud in a family.' See ' Grangerise.' 

Boxvdlerite {A). An abridger, so 
called from Thomas Bowdler (1754- 
1825). The opposite of a Grangerite 
{q.v.). 

We have also Bowdlerise, Bowdleriser, Bowd- 
lerism, Bowdlerisation, &c. 

Bowides (2 syl.) or * Bouides,' 10th 
and 11th cents. A Mussulman dynasty, 
under the califs, in Irak Adjemi, in 
Persia, offspring of Bouyah of Dileu\. 



BOX-DAYS 



BOYCOTT 



117 



This Bouyah had three sons, viz. Imad- 
Eddaula, Rockn-Eddaula, and Moez- 
Eddaula, who rose to sovereign power, 
reigning at Bagdad and over Persia 
(932-1055). These three brothers were 
called the pillars of the state, and under 
their vigorous reign the language and 
genius of Persia revived. The Seljuks 
succeeded them. 
The Bouides (2 syl.) were not shahs, but emirs. 
Box-days, 1690. Two daj^s (one in 
the spring and one in the autumn vaca- 
tion) appointed by the Scotch judges of 
the Court of Session, when law papers 
may be filed. 

For preventing [private solicitation], and for 
easeing the leidgos themselves, and the lawyers, 
they . . . have appointed boxes for every one of 
the lords, to stand on a bank in the Session-house 
from 3 o'clk till 7 o'clk at night, each box having a 
slitt in which the informations or bills may be 
lett in, and cannot be drawn out untill the box be 
opened ; the key whereof is to be kept by every 
judge himself, and to be committed to no other. 

Boxers. There were two schools of 
boxing during the regency, the Bristol 
school and the Hebrew school, the chief 
exponents being Tom Cribb of Bristol and 
Mendoza the Jew. See 'Broughtonian.' 

The chief boxers have been : 

Jim Belcher (Bristolian), who had but one eye 
(champion), and Tom Belcher, his brother ; Ben- 
digo ; Cohen ; Thomas Cribb, the champion ; Figg ; 
Gardolio, of the Hebrew school ; Bob Gregson (the 
Pot of Pork) ; Gully ; John C. Heenan, the Benicia 
Boy ; Humphries ; Gentleman Jackson (Lord 
Byron was his pupil) ; Jim ?ilace ; Daniel Mendoza, 
the Jew ; Molineux, the Negro ; Oliver ; Painter ; 
Randal (the Nonpareil), noted for his pink cheeks ; 
Caleb Rann (Mendoza's favourite pupil, and called 
the Pink [of Bow] ; Richmond : Scroggins, a sailor ; 
Tom Savers (who fought the Benicia Boy in 1S'30) ; 
Cyrus Smalley (the Sprig of Myrtle), Cribb's 
favourite pupil ; Spring, so called by Cribb, but 
his real name was Thomas Winter ; Sutton ; 
Tomkins ; Jem Ward, the Nestor of the ring, &c. 

Daniel Mendoza published in 1799 the ' Art of 
Boxing,' in which he gives particulars of his 
match with Humphries. The era of boxing was 
1719-18(50. 

Boy Bachelor (The). Thomas 
[cardinal] Wolsey (1471-1530), of Msig- 
dalen College, Oxford. He took his 
degree before he was fifteen years of 
age. He told Sir William Cavendish 
that he was usually so called at Oxford. 

Hugo Grotius, 1600, pleaded his first cause when 
only seventeen years of age ; Francis Bacon, born 
1561, entered Trin. Coll. Cajnb. at the ag? of twelve, 
and was called to the Bar before he was twenty- 
one. Edward Herbert matriculated at University 
College, Oxford, at the age of twelve. 

Boy Bishop (The). Mentioned as 
early as 1290. Prohibited by the council 
of Sens in 1485. The election of a boy- 
bishop prohibited in England by pro- 
clamation in 1542 (reign of Henry VIII.). 



The election revived by an edict of the 
bishop of London, 13 Nov., 1554. Custom 
abolished by Queen Elizabeth in 1558. 

The boy-bishop was elected on St. Nicholas's 
Day (Dec. 6), and the oUice lasted till Holy 
Innocents Day (Dec. 28). He was chosen from 
the cathedral choir or grammar-school, and when 
elected was arrayed like a bishop, and, attended 
by his chapter, went about the streets blessing 
the people in ridicule. He took possession of the 
church and performed all services except mass. 

Boy Bishops. A child of only five 
years old was made archbishop of Pieims. 
The see of Narbonne was purchased for 
a boy of ten. See ' Boy Popes.' (Hallani, 
' Middle Ages,' vol. ii. p. 248.) 



See 



Child 



Boy Crusades. 

Pilgrimages.' 

Boy Martyr (The). St. Pancras, 
w^ho suffered martyrdom under Diocletian 
(293-303). 

Boy Patriots (The), 1742. So 
Walpole, after his fall, called Pitt, 
Lyttelton, Grenville, and their party of 
ambitious young men opposed to him 
and his measures (temp. Geo. II.). 

Boy Popes. John XII. was made 
pope at the age of eighteen (956-903). 
Benedict IX. was made pope at the age 
of ten (1033-1054). Both these lads 
were licentious, extravagant, and profli- 
gate. One died at the age of twenty- 
five, having been pope for seven years, 
and the other died at the age of thirty- 
one, having been pope for twenty-one 
years. See ' Boy Bishops.' 

Boys (The). I. So Walpole called the 
young ' Patriot * faction (1733), at the 
head of which was the young cornet of 
horse, William Pitt, the future earl of 
Chatham. In 1739 Walpole was obliged 
to bow to the faction, and consent against 
his better judgment to a war policy, and 
in 1742 he was compelled to resign. 

II. The Irish Land-leaguers {q.v.) are 
generally called ' The Boys.' 

IIL See 'Wonderful Boys.' 

Boycott (To). To ostracise. A word 
adopted from a Mr. Boycott, who was 
ostracised in 1881 by the Irish Land 
League. The principle is old enough, 
as tiie proverbs Damner une boutique, 
and Damner une ville, will show. 

One word as to the way in which a man should 
be boycotted. When any man has taken a farm 
from which a tenant has been evicted, or is a 
gr-AOber, lot every one in the parish turn his back 



118 



BOYLE 



BE AVE ST 



on him ; have no communication with him ; have 
no dealings with liim. You need never say an 
unkind word to him ; but never say anytliing at 
all to him. If you must meet him in the fair, 
■walk away from him silently. Do him no violence, 
but have no dealings with him. Let every raan's 
door be closed against him ; and make him feel 
himself a stranger and a castaway in his own 
neighbourhood.— J. Dillon, M.P., Speech to tlie Land 
League, 26 Feb., 1881. 

Boyle's La'W. The volume of a 
portion of gas varies inversely as the 
pressure (1G62). Thus if we double the 
pressure, the gas will be reduced one- 
half ; if we treble the pressure, the 
volume of gas will be reduced to one- 
third, and so on. 

Called by Continental writers Mariotte's Law 
(1676). 

Boyle Lectures. Eight lectures 
in one year in defence of Christianity 
againstheterodoxy, infidelity, or objectors. 
Bentley preached the first series. Esta- 
blished by Kobert Boyle, son of the Earl 
of Cork (1627-1691). 

Brabaii^ons. Bands of mercena- 
ries or brigands, chiefly from Brabant, 
who overran France, in the middle ages, 
and committed frightful disorders. John 
king of England and Philippe (II.) 
Auguste draughted them off into their 
armies, and trained tliera. 

Brabant Screen {The), 1720, A 
caricature in which the Duchess of 
Kendal, from behind a screen, is supply- 
ing Knight, treasurer of the South Sea 
Company, with money to effect his 
escape, when the bubble bursts. 

Knight, with all the documents, books, and 
secrets of the directors, effected his escape to 
Calais. He was apprehended near Liege, and 
lodged in the citadel of Antwerp ; but the States 
of Brabant refused to give him up, and he was 
allowed to make his escape. The Duchess of 
Kendal was the mistress of George I., the reigning 
king, and the carica.ture implies that the royal 
family was involved in the iniquity of the scheme. 
The I^rince of Wales was certainly one of the 
governors of the Company. 

Braccesclii {The), 1409. The party 
of Braccio, formed into a company on 
the death of Barbiano. See ' Sforzeschi.' 

Braceiolini {Poggio), of Tuscany 
(1381-1459), secretary to seven popes. 
Said to be the author of the ' Annals of 
Tacitus ' {q.v.), for which ' forgery ' he 
received from Cosmo de' Medici 500 gold 
sequins. We are told that the original 
MS. of Bracciolini's forgery is still pre- 
served in the library of Florence. See 
' Literary Impostors, &c.' 

If this is true, then the quotations given by 
Paley and others from Tacitus in testimony of 



Christ are utterly worthless for they are extracts 
from the ' Annals ' : thus ' Christians took th< ir 
name from their founder, one Christ, put to death 
in the reign of Tiberius by his procurator Pontius 
Pilate ' is from the ' Aunals ' xv. 44. 

Bradford Law. Hang first and 
try afterwards. A summary way of 
dealing with marauders, especially in 
border laws and iji times of general 
turbulence. 

There are many similar expressions : as Lydford 
Law, Halifax Law, Cupar Justice, Jedburgh 
Justice, Burslem Club Law, Abmgdon Law (q.v.). 
Mob Law, &c. 

Braliininisni. It includes a belief 
in a Supreme Being, the doctrine of 
immortality, that of a Trinity, and also 
of an Incarnation. It teaches a belief in 
a heaven and hell, and of a divine 
revelation. The Brahmins have their 
sacred scriptures (viz. the Vedas, the 
Vedentas, the Upani shads, and the Pura- 
nas), and two sacred j)oems of inunense 
length. The present number of Brali- 
mins is 139,000,000. 

Brandanes (2 syl.). The name 
given to the 1,000 Scotch archers, ex- 
ceptionally tall and handsome men, who, 
in 1298, followed Sir John Stewart to 
the battle of Falkirk. In that fatal 
engagement. Sir John was slain and the 

* Brandanes ' were annihilated. 

Brandons and ' St. Brandon's day.' 
Valentine's day is called ' Dominica de 
braudonibus.' A brandon is a lighted 
torch, like Cupid's torch of love ; and 
boys used at one time to carry about 
brandons on Valentine's eve and Valen- 
tine's day, collecting largesses. 

BraS-de-Fer. Francois de Lanoue, 
a Calvinist of the 16th cent., and most 
distinguished chief after the death of 
Coligny. 

Brasenose College, Oxford, 1509. 

Founded by William Smith, bishop of 
Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton of 
il'restbury, Chester. The head-master is 
called the principal. 

The origin of the word is doubtful. There is a 
brazen nose over the great gateway, 'a sign,' as 
Anthony Wood calls it ; but there is a legend that 
the site of the college was an old brew-house or 
brasserie. 

Bravest of the brave {The), 'Le 
brave des braves.' Michael Ney, marshal 
of France, so called for his services at 
the terrible battle of Moskowa in Russia, 
in 1812, which procured him the title of 

• due de la Moskowa' (1769-1815), 



I 



BSAZEN 



BREHON 



119 



Brazen Horses of St. Mark 
(The). Four horses of gilt bronze re- 
moved by the Venetians fi'om the 
Hippodrome at Constantinople, and 
placed over the western porch of the 
Basilica of St. Mark. No one knows the 
artist or date of these horses. Augvistus 
brought them from Alexandria, after the 
conquest of Antony, and set them on a 
triumphal arch in Rome; they were 
removed by Nero, Domitian, Trajan, and 
Constantine to other arches. Constantine 
removed them to Constantinople. When 
Bonaparte took Venice in 1797 he 
removed the four horses to Paris, but in 
1815 they were restored to Venice, which 
was allotted to the Austrian Govern- 
ment. 

Brazen Wall {The). A horse 
regiment of Cromwell's republican party, 
so called because it was never broken. 
See ' Stonewall Jackson.' 

Bread and Cheese. The shibbo- 
leth of Tyler's rebels, 1381, whereby he 
detected Flemish merchants. 

Bread-and-clieeseland. Twenty 
acres of land left by Mary and Elizabeth 
Chukhurst of Biddenden (in the 12th 
cent.) for the benefit of the poor of their 
parish. The rent of this land was to be 
laid out in bread and cheese, to be 
distributed on Easter Sunday. The 
parish poor were to have 270 three-and- 
a-half pound loaves, with cheese in pro- 
portion ; and 600 rolls were to be given 
to non-parishioners. 

Breaking Money. To break a 
piece of money at parting, each keeping 
a part, was a bond of fidelity at one time 
among lovers. This came from very 
remote times, before inns and houses of 
public accommodation were known. 
Travellers had then to trust to the 
hospitality of strangers living on the 
road, and it was customary at parting to 
divide some article, such as a white 
stone or small coin, and for the host and 
guest each to take a part, that if the 
host required similar hospitality from 
his guest, he might claim it by showing 
the token. In the Revelation of St. 
John this custom is referred to (ii. 17), 
where Christ says, 'To him that over- 
cometh will I give a white stone,' so tha.t 
at the day of judgment he may demand 
admission into heaven. 



It stares, beckons, points to the piece of gold 
We brake between us. — The low Breaker, iii. 1 
(163G). 

Breast-laws. The common law of 
the Isle of Man. The code being (iju.s 
non scriptum is deposited in the heart 
or breast of the deemsters and keys {q.v.). 

Breda [Compromise of), 1566. 
{Peace of), 31 June, 1667, between 
England, France, and Denmark. 

Breeches. See 'Procession of the 
Black Breeches.' 

Breeches Bible {The), 15''>7- 
Printed by Whittingham, Gilby, and 
Sampson. So called because Gen. iii. 7 
runs thus : ' The eyes of them bothe were 
opened. . . . and they sewed figge-tree 
leaves together and made themselves 
breeches.' Also called the ' Geneva Bible.' 

Breeches Martyrs. O'Brien, M.P. 
and several other Irishmen imprisoned 
in 1889 for exciting the Irish to rebellion 
during the turbulent times of the Land 
League, refused to put on the prison 
dress, and went without their breeches, 
shivering with cold. Ridiculed by the 
general j)ublic as the ' breechless martyrs.' 

Breeches Review {The). The 

'Westminster Review,' so called from 
Francis Place, a West-end breeches- 
maker who had a considerable share 
both in the proj)erty and also in its con- 
duct. 

BrefFni. Comprised the present 
Irish counties of Cavan and Leitrim. 
Cavan was called Breffni O'Reilly ; and 
Leitrim was Breffni O'Ruark. 

Dermot JlacMurrogh, king of Leinster, eloped 
•with the wife of O liuark of Breffni, who appealed 
to the monarch. — O'Connor, Hist, of the IrishPeople, 
p. 43. 

Brehon Laws. In Ireland. Un- 
written or traditional laws. These laws 
were reduced to writing about 440. As, 
not unfrequently, the Brehon laws were 
rei^ugnant to the laws of God and man, 
they were abolished in Anglo-Ireland by 
the Statute of Kilkenny 40 Edw. III., 1366 ; 
and the abolition was extended to the 
whole island by James I. 

Brehon in Ireland meant a 'judge,' and Brehon 
law was justice adininistered by the chief of a clan 
to those of his owTi tribe. The Erehon sat in the 
open air on a stone or mound. Spenser calls the 
Brehon laws ' a rule of right unwritten.' That is, 
not deriving its authority by written statutea. 
The writing was simply a record of existing laws. 
So -with tlie • common law' of England. 



120 



BRENNUS 



BEETON 



Brenims. No proper name, but a 
corrupt Cymric "word, bretihin meaning 
' king.' It was a Brennus who sacked 
Rome in the days of Camillus, B.C. 390. 
Another Brennus invaded Greece, and 
was defeated B.C. 280. 

Brethren, Brethren! sm, 1832. 
The Plymouth Brethren call themselves 
only ' Brethren,' and their religious 
system they call * Brethrenism.' They 
practise no rites and have no ministers. 
According to the teaching of these 
Christians, to preach the Gospel is to 
deny that the Saviour's work is finished. 

However, they baptize one another, which is a 
rite. See ' Brothers.' 

Brethren of Good Will {The). 
See ' Brethren of Social Life.' 

Brethren of Our Lady of 
Mount Olivet, or Olivetans, 1272. 

An offset of the Benedictines, founded by 
John Tolomei. The brethren devoted 
themselves chiefly to teaching and the 
cultivation of sacred science. 

Brethren of St. Alexius. See 
* Alexians.' 

Brethren of St. George (The), 
1472. See ' Brotherhood of St. George.' 

Brethren of Social Life {The), 
1376. Founded in Holland by Geert 
Groote and Florentius Radewin, not 
unlike the subsequent society known as 
the ' United Brethren ' or Moravians. 
They enjoined a community of goods, 
ascetic habits, the use of the vernacular 
tongue in all religious services, and ac- 
knowledged no conventual distinctions 
('all ye are brethren'). In 1430 they 
umnbered 130 societies. 

Brethren of the Christian 
Schools. 'Freres des ecoles clire'tiennes,' 
1681, instituted at Reims by Canon J. B. 
de la Salle, for the gratuitous education 
of children in the elements of religion. 
The brethren wore a large black robe 
and square cap. This order survived 
the Revolution, and was legalised in 1808. 

Brethren of the Common Lot 
{The). See ' Bretlrren of Social Life.' 

Brethren of the Free Spirit, 
1065, or ' Fratricelli.' Censured by the 
Council of Vienna in 1311, and persecuted 
by Karl IV. in 1369. They took their 
name from Rom. viii. 2. ' The law of the 
spirit of life in Christ Jesus hath made 
us free from the law of sin and death.' 



Their doctrine was a sort of pantheistic 
mysticism. They said that all things 
emanate from God, and will revert to 
Him again ; that rational souls are part 
of God, that the whole universe is God, 
that by divine contemplation the soul is 
converted into the divine essence and 
becomes free from sin. 

Brethren of the Holy Cross 
{The), 17th cent. The Rosicrucians, said 
to have been founded by Christian 
Rosencreutz, who died 1484, and bound 
his disciples not to make public any of 
his doctrines till 120 years after his death, 
The Rosicrucians were credited with pos- 
sessing the secret of gold-making, keep- 
ing lights burning for centuries, and other 
alchemic secrets. 

Brethren of the Passion {The). 

A company of pilgrims authorised to re- 
present dramatically in cathedrals and 
other churches religious ')nysteries, such 
as the Licarnation, the Crucifixion, the 
Holy Trinity, the Real Presence, the 
Resurrection, &c. (13th to 15th cent.). 

Brethren of the White Caps, 

13th cent. The followers of one 
Durand, a carpenter, so called because 
their headgear was of white linen. They 
bound themselves not to play dice, not 
to frequent taverns, to wear no affected 
clothing, to avoid perjury and all vain 
swearing. They also forbade the lords 
from taking ' dues ' from their vassals. 

Bretigny {Treaty of), 8 May, 1360. 
Between France and England, in which 
Edward III. renounced all pretensions 
to the crown of France ; abandoned his 
claim to Normandy, Anjou, and Maine ; 
but, on the other hand, his duchy of 
Aquitaine (including Gascony, Guienne, 
Poitou and Saintonge) remained to him, 
not as a fief, but in full sovereignty ; while 
his new conquest of Calais continued till 
the reign of Queen Mary a possession of 
the English crown. 

King Jean was taken captive and brought to 
London, when his ransom was fixed at 8,000,000 
gold crowns (about 1,500,000L sterling). When he 
went to France to collect the money, he left his 
son, the Due d'Anjou, as a hostage ; but the duke 
ran away, and Jean returned to Loudon, where 
he died in 1364. 

Breton Club {The), 1789. Founded 
at Versailles at the instigation of Lafay- 
ette by the deputies of Brittany. It was 
subsequently transferred to Paris, and 
became the famous ' Club des Jacobins.' 



BUETTS 



BRIDGEWATER 



121 



The Breton club was formed because the 
king (Louis XYI.) over and over again 
refused to see their deputations, sent to 
remonstrate against his arbitrary con- 
duct. 

Bretts and Scots. Bretts were the 
remains of the British or "Welsh people in 
Scotland. At one time the ' British ' 
were the chief inhabitants of Dumbarton, 
Renfrew, Ayr, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, 
Roxburgh, Dumfries, and Cumberland ; 
and this province was called ' Cambria,' 
' Cumbria,' and ' Strathclyde.' In the 
middle of the 10th cent, it was a tributary 
to England, and continued so into the 
12th cent., when Cumberland became a 
part of England. 

The Scots were a Keltic people dwell- 
ing in the western and northern parts, 
and were called the 'wild Scots,' the 
* Irishry of Scotland,' and ' Scotch High- 
landers.' 

The * Laws of the Bretts and Scots ' 
were abolished by Edward I. 

Bretwalda. An Anglo-Saxon chief 
chosen to command the army {Bi'etwald, 
British ruler). 

I. Ella of Sussex, 491-514. 

II. Ceawlin of Wessex. 5.-^4-592. 

III. Ethelbert of Kent, 507 to Feb. 616. 

IV. Kedwald of East Anglia, 616. 

V. Edwiii of Northumbria, king of all England 
except Kent. 620 to Oct. 633. 

VI. Oswald of Northumbria, 635 to 5 Aug., 642. 

VII. Oswy (his brother) of Northumbria, 651 to 
15 Feb., 670. 

VIII. Egbert of Wessex, 827-8P.7. Also king. 

IX. Alfred the Great, 871. Also king. 

X. Edgar the Pacific, 958. Also king. 

Breviarium Alaricianum, a.d- 

506. An abridgment of the Theodosian 
Code by Alaric II., king of the Visigoths. 

Breviary {The), 494. A book con- 
taining the canonical hours of the Latin 
church, viz. Matins, Lauds, Prime, Tierce, 
Sexte, None, Vespers, and Compline. It 
is called a breviary because it contains in 
a brief or abridged form the several offices. 
An ecclesiastic ought to go through his 
breviary daily. The original breviary 
was the work of Pope Gelasius, a.d. 484, 
but it has been often modified. The 
Greek breviary is called ' Eueology,' and 
is more ancient than the Latin, going 
back to the time of Chrysostom, who died 
409. 

Originally it consisted of the Lord's Prayer and 
extracts from the Psalms. Subsequently short 
readings (lessons! from the Scriptures were added. 

•.• The Breviary is quite a distinct book from the 
Missal (.q.v.). 

a 



Brian (Born) king of Munster, in the 
10th cent. He was slain in the battle of 
Clontarf on Good Friday 1014. 

Bridewell, 1522. Was built by 
Henry VIII. for a royal palace, for the 
reception of Karl V. and his retinue, but 
sometimes the king himself lived there ; 
in 1553 the palace was given by Edward VI. 
to the city of London for a workhouse and 
house of correction. In 1666 it was burnt 
down in the fire of London. Bridewell is 
the name of the parish, so called from a 
well dedicated to St. Bride. 

Bridge of Sighs (The), or Ponte 
dei Sospiri, Venice. Connecting the 
Prigioni Sotterraneo with the judgment 
hall of the doge's palace. Those who 
passed over it after their trial were prison- 
ers on their way to execution. 

Ruskln says it is renaissance of the IGth cent. 
After the great fire of 1674 the prisons previously 
connected -uith the palace were moved to the other 
side. Whether Niccolo da Ponte, the doge, who 
died in 1578, had any connection with the word 
' Ponte ' in the phrase I cannot determine. The 
bridge was the work of Jacopo Tatti Sansovino, the 
architect (1479-1570). 

Bridge of Straw, Venice, (The). 
' Ponte della Paglia.' One of the bridges 
which connected the prisons with the 
doge's palace. So calted because when the 
nobles rode to the council they left their 
horses at the foot of this bridge in charge 
of grooms, and they were either stabled 
or baited, or both. 

Bridge water Canal {The), 1760. 
From Worsley to Manchester, cut by 
Brmdley under the direction of the Duke 
of Bridgewater. 

Bridge water Collection (The), 
1829. In the MS. department of the 
British Museum. Collected by the last 
earl of Bridgewater. Chiefly MSS. relat- 
ing to French history. 

Bridgewater Treatises {The), 
1829. Francis Henry Egerton, 8th and 
last Earl of Bridgewater, placed 8,000Z. at 
the disposal of the president of the Royal 
Society to be paid to eight persons ap- 
pointed by him to publish 1,000 copies of 
a work on the goodness of God mani- 
fested in his works, from eight stand- 
points. Whewell was appointed to take 
general physics considered in connection 
with natural theology. Buckland, geo- 
logy and mineralogy. Bell, the human 
hand. Roget, animal and vegetable 
physiology. Prout, chemistiy and the 
functions of digestion. Chalmers, ex- 



122 



BRIGANDAGE 



BRITAIN 



temal nature adapted to man's moral and 
intellectual constitution. Kidd, on the 
adaptation of nature to man's physical 
condition. And Kibby, the history, 
habits, and instincts of animals. 

Brigandage of Ephesus (The), 
A.D. 449. A council of Ephesus, which 
condemned Theodoret, one of the Chris- 
tian fathers, and defended Eutyches the 
heresiarch, who maintained that the 
humanity of Christ was absorbed in his 
divine nature. The Council was called 
' Latrocinium,' the assembly of thieves 
and robbers. 

Brig^s's Logarithms. Construc- 
ted by Henry Briggs, a contemporary of 
Baron Napier (1556-1630). 

Bright's Disease. A fatty de- 
generation of the tissues of the kidneys. 
So called from Dr. R. Bright, who was the 
first to investigate the character of the 
disease in 1837. 

Brighton of the Riviera {The) 
or 'Brighton of the South,' Nice. 

Brilliant Madman (T/ie). Charles 
XII. of Sweden (1697-1710). He com- 
pelled the Danes to make peace, dethron- 
ed the king of Poland, and waged war 
with Russia for a time with success ; but, 
being defeated by Czar Peter the Great 
at Pultowa, Sweden fell from her high 
estate as a first-class power. 

Brinvilliers, the poisoner, was Marie 
Madeleine d'Aubray, marquise de Brinvil- 
liers (1630-1676). She poisoned her 
father, her two brothers, and a sister. She 
was tortured, beheaded, and then burnt 
to ashes in Paris, 16 July, 1676. 

Brissot (Jean-Pierre). The French 
revolutionist (1754-1793) ; was the first to 
abandon the use of hair-powder, and was 
the first victim of Robespierre. He as- 
sumed the dress of a quaker, and the 
name of De Warville. 

Brissotins. The followers of Jean- 
Pierre Brissot in the first French revolu- 
tion. Brissot was editor of the journal 
called ' Le Patriote Fran(jais,' and was 
one of the moving spirits of the times. 
He was a member of the Convention, but 
was opposed to the Montagnards, which 
drew upon him the wrath of Robespierre, 
who caused him to be proscribed 31 May, 
and he was put to death 31 Oct., 1793. 



Bristol Fashion (In). Blethodical, 
in apple-pie order. In the great mass 
meeting, 18 Oct., 1884, a route of above 
three miles was observed in one un- 
broken line. No cheering disturbed the 
stately solemnity; no one ran to give 
any direction ; no noise of any kind was 
heard ; but on, in one unbroken line, 
steady and stately, marched the throng 
in ' Bristol fashion ' (' Daily News,' 20 
Oct., 1884). 

Bristol Riots (The), Sunday, 29 
Oct., 1831, on the visit of Sir Charles 
Wetherell. It was during the excitement 
of the Reform Bill, which had been 
thrown out by the House of Lords. Sir 
Charles, a tory, entered with a cavalcade 
in a kind of triumph, and the mob rose 
in rebellion. The bridewell, the new 
gaol, the Gloucester county prison, several 
of the toll-houses, the bishop's palace, 
the mansion-house, the custom-house, 
the excise-office, and several private 
houses were set on fire. About 110 
persons were killed, and three of the 
ringleaders were executed. The loss of 
property sustained was over half a million 
sterling. 

Bristolians or Bristolites (3 syl.). 
Prize-fighters in the regency, of the 
Bristol school. Bristol was famous for 
the three pugilists, Jem Belcher (who 
had lost one eye), Thomas Cribb (once a 
coal-porter), and Molineux. The other 
school of boxers was called the ' Hebrews,' 
of which Mendoza was the chief ex- 
ponent. The Prince Regent was a 
Bristolian, and his brother Frederick, 
duke of York, was a partisan of the 
Hebrew rivals. Much to the annoyance 
of the general public, the Prince Regent 
actually attached Tlaomas Cribb to his 
household. See * Boxers.' 

Britain [Bulers of), before Egbert. 

(Those in Italics were praetors, propraetors, or 
prsefects of Rome.) 

Segonax B.C. 38-20 

Temantius 20 to A.D. 2 

CunobelinJ (Cymbeline) (at Camelodti- 

num) 2-31 

Adminius 81-40 

Caractacus and Togodumnos (sons of 

Cunobelin) 40-51 

Pub. Ostorius Scapula, prietor 50-53 

Didius, proprietor 53-57 

Veraniiis , 57-58 

Paiilums Suetonius 58-fi2 

Boadicea, queen of the IcSni 60-62 

Petroniiis Turpilianus 62-70 

Petilius Cerealis 7C-7B 

Cnxtis Julius A pricola 7ti-8:> 

Gladus, king oiE the Icenl „. ... ^ 7J 



J 



BRITAIN 



BRITISH 



123 



TrebelUus „. ... A.D. 86-120 

Hadrian, emperar 120 

Severus,pr,etor 120-1:38 

LoUiui Urbiciii 138-161 

Calpumius Aqncola ... 161-183 

Vlpius Marcellus 183-186 

Pertinax 186-192 

Clodius AlUnut 192-196 

r. Lupus 196-206 

(Sfverus, the emperor, died at York 211) 

INo narrws given till 257) 

Pofthumui.proprcetor 257-276 

Boiiosus 276 

Marcus Aurellua Carausius 287-2y3 

(Iievolts,and assumes the title of Augustus, 

in Britain) 

Alectus, emperor of Britain 293-296 

(He murdered Carausius) 

Asclepiodotus, captain of the guard 296-804 

(Slew Alect}is ; and acted as prtetor) 

Britain joined to tlie pnrfeclure of Gaul ... 804 

Constantius Chlorus, with imperial power 804-806 

(IHed at York) 

Constantino the Great S06-aT5 

Constantino II 835-340 

Constans 840-850 

Constantius 850-H60 

Julian and Lupicus.prators 860-361 

Lupicus alone „, H62 

Nectaridius „ 862-.%7 

Theodocitis the Ancient, proprietor ... ^. 867-;^78 

Gratian (emperor) ... ... 878-395 

(.Kevolt of Maximus 881) 

VIctorlnus „. 895-403 

Stilicho, prator ... ... ... 4'j;h-408 

Constantine, picefeci 4^/8-421 

(Romans recalled 421) 

Vortigern, king ol the Brltona 445 

(Dethroned 454) 

Ambrosius and Vortimer 454-457 

( Vortigern restored 454 ; deposed by 

Hengist 4.55) 

Ambrosius sole nominalking 508 

Hengist ... 457-483 

Ella, bret-walda of Britain 491-519 

Cerdic 619-584 

(A rthur is said to have reigned 518-C42) 

Kenri<5 684-560 

Coeline 560 

Chevline „ ... 560-589 

Ethelbert, king of Kpnt 689-616 

(St. AugiLitine arrives) 

Redwald of East Anglia ... 616-624 

Edwin the Great of Mercia 624 635 

Oswald of Northumhria 635-642 

Oswv of Northumbria 642-G70 

Wolfhere of Btfrcia 670-075 

Ethelred of Mci-cia ... 675-704 

Cenred of Mercia 7C4-716 

Ethelbald of Mercia 716-757 

Offa of Mercia 757-7^14 

Egfryd of Mercia 794-795 

Cenolf of Mercia ... 795-629 

Egbert sole king 

(He was bretwalda in 827) 

Britain. The Romans divided it 
into five parts : 

1. Britannia Prima : all the southern 
counties from Kent to Cornwall. 

2. Britannia Secunda : Wales, Here- 
ford, Monmouthshire, with parts of Shrop- 
shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucester- 
shire. 

3. Flavia Ccesariensis : all between 
the north of the Thames and the wall of 
Severus, and between the Blersey and 
the Humber, i.e. Lincoln, Nottingham, 
Leicester, Cheshire, and part of Shrop- 
tihire. 



4. Valentima : Northumberland, part 
of Cumberland, and the south of Scot- 
land. 

5. Maxima Ccesariensis: Lancashire 
and Yorkshire. 

Britain {Little), Aldersgate Street, 
London. So called from the Earl of 
Breton, whose mansion stood on the 
site. Brittany is so-called by Waller. 

Britain of the South. New 

Zealand. 

Britannia on the copper coins was 
first adopted by Charles II. The academy 
figure of Britannia was Louise de Querou- 
aille, created by the king duchess of 
Portsmouth. The general design was 
copied from the coins of Antoninus Pius, 
in which is a female figure holding a 
sceptre, and sitting on a rock, the whole 
encompassed by the word Bbitannia. 

Some say that Britannia Is meant for Francea 
Theresa Stuart, duchess of Richmond ; others say- 
it is meant for Barbara Villiers, duchess of Cleve- 
land. Ihe probability in favour of Lomso de 
Querouaille is this : tho coinage dates from 1672, 
and a son by Louise was born t)ie same year, and 
she was created duchess of Portsmouth in 1673; 
BO that at the time she was the reigning favourite. 
Querouaille, pronounce Ker-wail. 

Britannia Prima. One of the 

five provinces into which Britain was 
divided in the reign of the Emperor 
Severus. It included all the country 
south of the Thames and the estuary of 
the Severn, It had its own ruler (called 
presses), who was subject to the prsefect 
or governor-general of the island. 

Britannia Rediviva. A birthday 
ode by Dryden. His Pollio, who was 
to usher in the Golden Age, was the son 
of James II. and Mary of Modena, known 
in history as that very poor creature 
called ' The Old Pretender.' Dryden 
might be a good poet, but certainly he 
was no prophet. 

Britannia Secunda. One of the 
five provinces into which Britain was 
divided in the reign of the Emperor 
Severus. It included that part of the 
island lying between the Severn and the 
sea, now called Wales. It had its own 
ruler (called prceses), who was subject to 
the prasfect or governor-general of the 
island. 

British Association (The). L 
In 1831. To give a stronger impulse 
and more sj'stematic direction to scientific 
inquiry; to promote the mtercourse of 



121 



BRITISH 



BROMSBEna 



scientific men generally ; to obtain more 
general attention to objects of science, 
and a removal of whatever impedes its 
progress. First meeting was held at 
York. 

II. In 1846-1847, for the relief of the 
starving Irish and Scotch during the 
potato famine. It was under the direc- 
tion of Mr. Jones Lloyd (Lord Overstone) 
and Mr. Thomas Baring, and the collec- 
tion was 269,302?., to which was added 
collections made in churches of 209,738Z., 
total 470,041 Z., of which one-sixth was 
sent to the highlands of Scotland and 
the rest to Ireland. 

British Columbia, 1859. A terri- 
tory about 420 miles in length (extending 
from the Rocky Mountains on the east to 
the Pacific), with an average breadth of 
800 miles from the American frontier 
northwards. It includes Vancouver's 
Island. 

British Kings. According to the 
' Chronicles of the Celtic Kings,' Japhet 
was the first British king. T.us is not 
given as history, but it is worth knowing 
as a tradition. 

British Ijegion in Spain (The), 
1838, The 1,200 men under the command 
of Colonel Evans which Lord Palmerston 
permitted to serve the Queen of Spain in 
the Carlist civil war, by doing which he 
suspended the Foreign Enlistment Act. 

British Lion ( The). Richard Cosur 
de Lion (1157, 11S9-1199). 

So early were his heroic energies displayed, that 
he -was called ' The British Lion ' before he beg • u 
his reign.— Sharon Tuenek, Hist, of England, vol. 
1. p. 301. 

British Mnsenm (The), 1753. 
Began with the library and curiosities of 
Sir Hans Sloane, purchased for 20,000Z., 
and deposited in Old Montague House, 
Bloomsbury (the house was built by the 
first Duke of Montague for his residence). 
Townley's collection of marbles was 
purchase d by the nation in 1805 ; " his 
gems, coins, and bronzes in 1814. The 
Elgin Marbles were purchased for the 
nation in 1816; and Blacas's collection 
of antiquities in 1867. See * Townley 
Marbles,' ' Elgin Marbles.' 

British Museum Library (The), 
1753. The library of Sir Hans Sloane, 
and the MSS. collected by Harley (earl of 
Oxford) and his son, were purchased by 
the British Museum. In 1757 George II. 



presented to the Museum the 'Royal 
library,' and the Cottonian library was 
then transferred thither (the Cottonian 
library was collected by Sir R. B. Cotton, 
who died in 1031). In 1823 the splendid 
library of George III. was presented to 
the Museum by George IV. In 1847 
the Grenville library was bequeathed to 
the Museum. In 1857 the new reading- 
room was opened, and the miUtary guard 
was discontinued in 1863. 

British ITorth America Aet 

(The), 1807. The instrument of Federa- 
tion, constituted as the 'Dominion of 
Canada.' 

British Solomon (The). James I. 
(1566, 1603-1625). Sully called him 
' the most learned (not the wisest) fool in 
Christendom.' The poet Hawes calls 
Henry VII. the ' British Solomon.' 

British Thaumaturgus (The). 
St. Cuthbert, who died 688. 

Broad Bottom Administration 

(The). From Aug. 1743 to March 1754, 
formed by Pelham and dissolved at his 
death. It succeeded the Grenville ad- 
ministration. It was called ' Broad Bot- 
tomed ' because it included both "Whigs 
and Tories. Lord Hardwicke (chan- 
cellor) ; Pelham (first lord, &c.) ; Duke 
of Newcastle and Earl Harrington (secre- 
taries of state) ; Duke of Devonshire 
(steward of the household) ; Bedford 
and Sandwich (admiralty); Earl Gower 
(privy seal) ; Lyttelton, Marquis of 
Tweeddale, Earl Harrington, Mr. Gren- 
ville, Sir John Hynde Cotton, Bubb 
Dodington, Cobham Hobart, and the 
Duke of Dorset were the other members. 
It contained nine dukes, seven of whont 
were in the cabinet, viz. — Argyll, Bed- 
ford, Dorset, Grafton, Montagu, New- 
castle, and Richmond. See ' Unionists.' 

Broad Church School (The). Of 

German theology, headed by Neander, a 
convevted German Jew. His ' Universal 
History of the Christian Religion and 
Church' has superseded Mosheim's 
* Ecclesiastical History.' 

Brom.sberg (Treaty of), 23 Aug., 
1645. Between Sweden and Denmark. 
In 1643 Oxenstiern, chancellor of Sweden, 
invaded the duchies of Holstein and 
Sleswig, because Christian IV., jealous 
of Sweden, had secretly tried to ruin its 



BRONZE 



BROTHERHOOD 



122 



trade. After a war of two years, a con- 
ference for peace was opened at Broms- 
berg, through the mediation of France, 
and in Aug. 1645 a treaty was duly 
signed. This treaty secured to Sweden 
exemption from the payment of the 
Sound duties ; and the isles of Gothland 
and Oesel were ceded in perpetuity to 
Sweden. 

Bronze Age. That period when a 
people or race use chiefly bronze for 
tools and weapons. Byron calls the era 
of Napoleon Bonaparte 'the Age of 
Bronze.' 

Brook Farm. A socialistic society 
which had its locale in the vicinity of 
Boston, U.S. Every member contributed 
to the general fund or paid his quota in 
manual or other work. The idea was 
suggested by Margaret Fuller, but the 
society was organised by the Rev. W. H. 
Channing. The members boarded in 
common, dressed most economically, 
bought at their own stores, and reduced 
the price of living to the lowest point. 
The evenings were spent in intellectual 
amusements or social gatherings. The 
speculation was an utter failure, and 
after six years the ' Farm ' was broken 
up. Emerson often visited the Farm, 
and Hawthorne lived there for twelve 
months. 

Broom {Van Tromp's). Dr. Lin- 
gard, in his ' Hist, of Engl.,' viii. 5, tells us 
that in 1652, while Admiral Blake (sup- 
posing the naval operations for the year 
to be over) had detached a large part of 
his fleet. Van Tromp came into the 
Downs with a fleet double the size of 
that commanded at the time by Blake. 
A battle ensued, but at night Admiral 
Blake ran up the river as far as Leigh. 
Van Tromp insulted the coast as he 
sought to renew the fight, cruising back- 
wards and forwards from the North 
Foreland to the Isle of Wight. Intoxi- 
cated with his success, he now fastened 
a broom to the head of his mast to 
indicate that he had swejit the English 
from the sea ; but next year, 18 Feb., 
Blake met Van Tromp on an equal 
footing, when the victory rested with the 
English, the loss of the Dutch being 11 
men-of-war and 30 merchant-men. 

He gives as his authorities : Heath, p. 335 ; 
\Yhitelook, p. 551; Leicester s 'Journal,' 138; Le 
Clorc, i. 32o, and Basnago, i. 2<J8-301. 



Brother Protectors {The). A 
secret republican society of France and 
Lombardy, sprung from the Carbonari, 
after the unsuccessful outbreak of 24 
June, 1817. 

Brothers and Sisters of the Free 
Spirit, 13th cent. Sprang up in the 
Rhine country and spread into France 
and Italy. As the ' Spirit had made 
them free,' they claimed perfect civil, 
moral, and religious freedom. They set 
aside the marriage tie and acknowledged 
no church. Their religion was a mixture 
of pantheism and antinomianism. They 
were condemned by the synod of Cologne 
in 130G, and by that of Treves in 1310. 

Brothers of Charity, 1520. 
Established for visiting and administer- 
ing to the sick. Approved by Paul V. 
in 1621, and subjected to the rule of St. 
Augustine. In Europe they dress in black, 
in America in brown. See ' Brethren.' 

Brothers of the Cross. I. A name 
adopted by the Jesuits after the society 
was suppressed by Clement XIV. in 1773. 
See ' Paccanarists.' 

II. The Flagellants. See 'Brother- 
hood of the Cross.' 

Brothers of the Pen {The). A 
trade-guild at Brussels, in the middle of 
the 15tli cent., for the coj)ying of manu- 
scripts, and their illuminations, hitherto 
confined to the scriptoria of religious 
houses. Some twenty years later the 
introduction of j)rinting revolutionised 
the literary world of Europe. 

Brothers of the Teutonic 
House of our Lady of Jerusalem 

{The). The ' Teutonic knights ' {q_.v.). 

Brotherhood of St. George 

{The), 1472-1494. A short-hved fraternity 
of arms constituted by Act of Parliament 
in the reign of Edward IV., and consisting 
of 13 gentlemen chosen from the four 
counties of the Pale : for Kildare 4 ; for 
Dublin 8, one of which was the lord 
mayor of the time being ; for Meath 4, 
one of which was the senescLi 1 , and for 
Louth 2, one of which was tlie mayor of 
Drogheda. They met annually to elect 
a captain on St. George's Day and main- 
tained 120 mounted archers, 40 horse- 
men, and 40 pages, for the protection of 
the English border. 



126 



BEOTHERHOOD 



•BRYANITES 



Brotherhood of St. Patrick 

(The), about 18G3. An Irish secret 
society, a branch of the Ribbon associa- 
tion {q.v.), their platform being simiUxr 
to that of the Fenians. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Brotherhood of Thomas h 

Becket {The), 1300. A merchants' 
company chartered in 1406 by Henry IV. 

Brotherhood of the Cross (The). 
The Flagellants (q.v.) so called them- 
selves. They wore a cross on their 
breast, another on their back, and a third 
on their hat ; and took upon themselves 
to do penance for the sins of the people. 
AH who joined the brotherhood had full 
forgiveness of sins for 33 days, a day for 
a year of Christ's sojourn upon earth. 

Broughtonian {A). A boxer, so 
called from Broughton the beefeater, 
who was the best boxer of his day. 

Brown Monarch of Ireland 

(TJie). Rotherick O'Conor, called don, 
dun, or dliu, king of Connaught (1116- 
1198). 

Browne Scholarship, for classics. 

Value 211., tenable for seven years. 
Founded in the University of Cambridge, 
by Sir William Browne, M.D., 1774. 
See ' Regius Professor of Greek.' 

Urowne's Medals {Sir William). 
(1) For a Greek ode in imitation of 
Sappho ; (2) for a Latin ode in imitation 
of Horace ; (3) for a Greek and Latin 
epigram. Each medal to be gold, 
worth 51. For undergraduates in the 
University of Cambridge. Founded by 
Sir Wilham Browne, M^D., in 1774. See 
'Regius Professor of Greek.' 

Brownists, 1580. The followers of 
Robert Brown, educated at Corpus 
Christi College, Cambridge. He main- 
tained that the Scriptures ought to be 
followed in all matters of discipline, as 
well as in matters of doctrine. That 
every congregation is a church, indepen- 
dent, and with power to settle its own 
discipline and government. Whence 
they were called 'Independents' and 
' Congi'egationalists.' 

The Brownists were rigid Separatists, the Robin- 
Bonians only semi-separatists. The Brownists, as 
ultra-puritans, looked on the Established Church 
as unchristian, and refused communion with it. 
Thaeker and Copping, two Brownists, BUtfered 
doatb. 



Bruno {Giordano), 1530-1600. Ha 
was burnt to death for what was called 
' heresy,' but his heresy consisted in his 
belief that this earth of ours is not the 
only pai't of the universe inhabited by 
intelligent beings; that the temporal 
power of the pope is an anomaly ; and 
that thought should be free. In 1889 
the Italians, Germans, Swiss, and some 
others, erected a bronze statue to the 
'martyr,' executed by Signor Ettori Fer- 
rari. It stands on a granite pedestal, 
adorned with bas-reliefs. The ceremony 
of unveiling took place on Whitsun Bay, 
9 June ; a procession of above 3,000 took 
part in it, and 200 flags were carried. 
The statue stands in the Campo dei 
Fiori, on the spot where Bruno was 
burnt to death. 

Brunswick {Line of). See 'Hanover 
&c.' 
Brunswick Clubs and 'Bruns- 

wickers,' 1828. Clubs organised to coun- 
teract the Catholic Association {q.v.). 
Called Brunswick because George III. 
was most resolute against any conces- 
sions to the Roman Catholics. Frederick, 
duke of York, shared his father's hos- 
tility, and so did George IV. Members 
of these clubs were called ' Brunswickers.' 
The Duke of Newcastle, Lord Winchelsea, 
and Lord Kenyon led the way to the 
formation of Brunswick clubs in Eng- 
land. 

The Catholic Association led to a counter-organ- 
isation of the Protestants, in the form of Brunswick 
clubs. This organisation embraced the whole of 
tiie Protestant peasantry (of Ireland), north and 
south, the Protestant farmers, and many of the 
gi5ntry. They held their regular meetings . . .and 
had their ' rent ' to bear the expense of the agita- 
tion.— HowiTT, Hist, of England (year 1828, p. l'2o). 

Brunswick Manifesto {The), 25 
July, 1792. A manifesto of the Duke of 
Brunswick, commander-in-chief of the 
united armies of Prussia and Austria, 
sent to put down the French revolution. 
Tlie duke stated in this foolish and in- 
sulting document that he had been sent 
by the sovereigns of Europe 'to lay 
Paris in the dust, and to crush the 
republican vipers under his heel.' 
Brunswick was thoroughly beaten by the 
revolutionists. 

Bryanites (3 syl.), 1815. The fol- 
lowers of William Bryan, a local 
preacher, who separated from the 
Methodist connection, and introduced a 
more popular element in his scheme of 



BEYCE 



BUFFON 



127 



church government. Like the Methodists 
they are great open-air preachers, and 
receive the Lord's Supper sitting. 

Bryce, or Brice (St.). Bishop of 
Tours ; he succeeded St. Martin about 
400, but was driven from his see by the 
mob, and took refuge in Rome. Subse- 
quently he returned to Tours, where he 
died in 444. His day is 13 Nov. 

Bryce's Day {St.), 13 Nov., 1002. 
Memorable for the massacre of the 
Danes in England. They had accepted 
heavy bribes time after time from Ethel- 
red II. the Unready to quit the kingdom, 
but always returned again to commit 
further devastation. At length, by un- 
wise policy (un-ready policy), it was re- 
solved to massacre all the Danes in the 
kingdom. As might have been expected, 
this roused the vengeance of the Danes, 
and next year Sweyn appeared with a 
more formidable army to avenge his 
countrymen. 

Bubble Act (The), 1719. 6 George L 
c. 18 ; to punish the promoters of bubble 
schemes. Repealed 5 July, 1825. 

Buccaneers, 1528-1G97. In French 
' Flibustiers.' An association of seamen 
whose object was to effect landings 
forcibly on the shores of the New World, 
locked against them by Spanish guarcla- 
costas. Originally the English and the 
French united for the purpose, and were 
afterwards joined by the Portuguese and 
the Dutch. Thomas Tyson was the first 
to fit out a fleet which ravaged several of 
the West India Islands (1526); but the 
most renowned buccaneer was Henry 
Morgan, a Welshman. In the reign of 
William III. the French flibustiers were 
the sworn enemies of the British bucca- 
neers ; and at the treaty of Ryswick, in 
1097, all these piratic expeditions were 
suppressed. 

Bueentaur (The). The state barge 
of the Venetians. A flashy cumbersome 
'Lord Mayor's Coach,' some 100 feet 
long and 21 broad, with 32 banks of oars, 
manned by 168 rowers. All the fittings 
were gorgeous in the extreme. It was 
employed every year when the doge 
* married the Atlantic,' and also to con- 
duct guests whom the republic de- 
lighted to honour, to the doge's palace. 
See ' Espousal of the Adriatic' 



The barge was broken up by the French 'when 
Venice in 1797 fell into the hands of Bonaparte. 

Buchanists, 1783. A Scotch sect, 
extinct in 1846. See ' Buchanites.' 

Buchanites (3 syl.), 1776, &c. 
Followers of Mrs Buchan {nee Elspeth 
Simpson, 1738-1791), a native of 
Banff. She was called by her disciples 
* Our Lady,' and had rather a numerous 
following, who lived in common, were in- 
dustrious, and paid their way. They 
neither married nor were given in 
marriage, and believed that they would be 
taken to heaven without dying. On her 
deathbed she told her disciples she 
would rise again within six days, ten years, 
or fifty years, according to the strength 
of their faith. Andrew Innes was her 
first disciple, and died at the age of 
ninety, a few days after the expiry of the 
50th anniversary of Mrs. Buchan's death. 

Bucharest {TreaUj of), 28 May, 1812. 
Between Russia and Turkey, signed 
while Napoleon with his grand army was 
in Russia, and meditating a descent on 
Moscow. 

Buckeye State {The). The State 
of Ohio is so called because the buckeye 
tree {cbscuIus flava) abounds there. 

Buckingham House, London, So 
called from John Sheffield, duke of 
Buckingham, who built it in 1703. 
Bought by government for Queen 
Charlotte, in 1761. It was taken down 
in 1825, and the present palace raised on 
the site in the same year, but enlarged 
by Queen Victoria in 1853. 

Buckingham's Flood, Oct. 1483. 

The Duke of Buckingliam, having ratted 
from Richard III. to the Duke of Rich- 
mond's party, set out to join his forces 
with the other leaders ; but there fell 
such heavy and continuous rains during 
his whole march from Brecon through 
the Forest of Dean to the Severn, that 
the bridges were carried away, and all 
the fords were rendered impassable. 
Such rains and floods had not been 
known in the memory of man ; and the 
inundation of the Severn was called 
' Buckingham's Flood.' 

Buddhist St. Augustine {The) 
of Japan. Shodo Shonin, who, in 7b7, 
erected the Buddhist temple of Nikko. 

Buflfon. The supplemental works ol 
Buffon's * Natural History ' are — • 



128 



BUG 



BUNDESRATH 



Daubenton (1710-1800), the anatomy of animals. 

Laceptde (1757-1625;, oviparous animals, serpents, 
%vhales and fishes. Published 17^9. 

Gueneau de .Uontbeillard (1720-1785), birds. 

Sonnini (1751-1811), foreign birds. He published 
an edition of Butfon in 127 vols. 

Daudin (1774-1^04), reptiles. 

Latreille (17iJ2-1833), insects. 

Bug Bible (The), 1551. Matthew's 
bible is so called because verse 5 Psalm 
xci., 'Thou shalt not be afraid of the 
terror by night,' is there translated 
' Thou shalt not be afraid of the bugges 
by night.' See ' Bibles.' 

Building Act Committee {TJie 
Metropolitan). Responsible for the carry- 
ing out of the different acts regulating 
the height of buildings in the metropolis, 
the materials used in their construction, 
the thickness of the party walls, and 
(in cases of theatres and other places 
of public entertainment) the facilities 
afforded for ingress and egress. 

For these purposes London is divided into 74 
districts, each under the charge of a district sur- 
veyor appointed by the board, but paid by fees. 

Building Bess of Hardwick. She 
was thrice married. She built a former 
Chatsworth, the existing Hardwick Hall, 
and added ' a great parlour,' and the 
chapel of Sutton Court, in Somersetshire. 

Bulgarians {The). The Cathari 
{q.v.) were so called sometimes from their 
connection with the Bulgarian Paulicians. 

Bull Run. See Appendix. 

Bull against Luther {The). By 
Leo X., 1521. ' In the name of the 
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost, the Blessed Virgin, St. Peter and 
St. Paul, we do curse him and those who 
are led astray by him; and we cut oif 
both him and them from all communion 
of the saints. Cursed be they in i)rayer, 
cursed in speech and in silence, in eating 
and in sleep, in taste, in hearing, and in 
all the other senses. Cursed in the eyes, 
the head, and the whole body, from the 
crown of the head to the sole of the foot. 
I conjure Satan and his imps to torture 
them both day and night, till they 
perish by water, by fire, or the cord.' As 
this bull was read in the churches, the 
officiating priest, after the lights had been 
extinguished, said aloud, ' As I blow out 
these lights, may the light of life be for 
ever hidden from their eyes. So be it. 
Amen and amen.' 

See a similar bull in ' Notes and Queries,' 21 Jan. 
16^2, p. ii. 



Bull of Pius V. {The), 27 April, 1570 
Commanding all the faithful to break 
with the Anglican Church, to ab.andon 
and dethrone Elizabeth, and to subject 
England to a foreign invader. See ' Ccena 
Domini.' 

The words ran thus : ' Declaramus Elizabethara 
hosreticara . . . eique adhrerentes . . . anathema- 
tis sentontiam incurrisse esseque a Christi cor- 
poris unitate prsecisos . . . prout nos illos prjBsen- 
tium autoritate absolvimus, et privamus eamdem 
Elizabetham praetenso jureregni aliisque omnibus 
Bupradictis. Proecipimusque et interdicimua 
universis et singulis proceribus, subditis, populia, 
et aliis preedictis, ne illi, ejusve monitis, mandatia, 
et legibus, audeant obedire. Qui secus egerint, eoa 
simili anathematis sententia innodamus. 

•.• In 1576 Gregory XIII. supplemented the bull 
of his predecessor by declaring that Elizabeth had 
forfeited the crown of Ireland. 

BullaAureaof Hungary, 1222. The 

Magna Charta of that kingdom, exacted 
from Andrew II., a feeble, self-willed, 
worthless king, not unlike our King John. 

Bulla Ccsnse Domini. A bull of 

excommunication and anathema against 
heretics, read before the j)eoj)le on Holy 
Thursday. Those offences which are 
condemned by this bull can be absolved 
only by the pope. 

Buller of Brasenose. John 

Hughes is so called in Wilson's ' Noctes 
AmbrosiaiiEB.' Hughes, however, was 
not of Brasenose, but Oriel College, 
Oxford. 

Bullies. F. J. Gall noticed that 
all bull-eyed boys are overbearing and 
quarrelsome. By bull-eyes he meant full 
prominent eyes. As an historical pun 
this connects bull-eyes with our word 
' bullies,' but whether the connection is 
of any philological worth is quite another 
matter. See ' Nab.' 

Bulwer Clayton Treaty {The), 
1850. Between Great Britain and the 
United States of North America, respect- 
ing the ship-canal between the Atlantic 
and Pacific Oceans. Signed at Washing- 
ton. This treaty bears upon the canal 
through Lake Nicaragua. 

Bund {The) of Germany. A confede 
ration of the tliirty-five sovereign states, 
which had every variety of government, 
from absolutism to democracy, all inde- 
pendent. It was represented by a Diet, 
q.v. 

Eundesrath {The), 1871. The dele- 
gates of the confederated governments of 
the German empire. 



BUNGTOWN 



BURGESS 



129 



The twenty-five states confederated with Prussia 
are Alsace-Lorraine (taken from France), Anhalt, 
liadeu, Bavaria, Bremen, Brunswicii, Hamburg, 
Hesse, Lippe, Liibeck, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
Wecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, lleuss (elder 
branch), Reuss (younger branch), Saxe-Altenburg, 
S ixe-Coburg and Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxony, 
Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwartzburg-Sondershausen, 
Schwartzburg-Kudolstadt, Waldeck, Wiirtemburg. 

Bills which have passed the Reichstag and 
Bundesrath, after being signed by the emperor, 
are binding on all the empire. 

Bungtown Coppers (American). 
Counterfeit English ha'pennies manu- 
factured at Bungtown (now Barneysville), 
Mass. (Bartlett, ' Dictionary of American- 
isms,' 1877). 

Buoy {The Mystery of the), 14 Sept., 
185-1. When the combined French and 
Enghsh army resolved to land on the 
Crimea, the spot selected was the ' Old 
Fort Bay,' i.e. the southern bay ; and to 
prevent confusion a buoy was to be 
placed in the centre of the bay. The 
French were to debark on the left of this 
buoy, and the English on the right. 
During the night, three French officers 
placed coloured buoys as the limits for 
the French landing, taking up the whole 
south bay, and leaving Admiral Lyons 
to improvise a new arrangement as a 
landing place for the English. This was 
a dodge that the French might be the 
first to land. 

Burchardicum, Burcliardic. 

Beyond dispute. Burchard, who died 
1026, bishop of Worms, coi^.piled a huge 
volume which long enjoyed unbounded 
repute. It was a ' compte rendu ' of edicts 
and decretals, so admirably set forth that 
an appeal to his book was considered 
final. Hence ' Burchardicum ' came to 
mean a dictum beyond dispute. 

Burchardicum has not an English timbre, but 
Eurchardism, Burchardic, Burchardise, might 
be admitted and prove useful. 

Burehell [Old). The pen-name 
of Elihu Burritt, the * learned black- 
smith,' an American linguist and author 
(1810-1879). 

Burdett Riot {The\ 1810. This 
arose out of the arrest of Gale Jones, 
president of a debating society called the 
* British Forum.' The question of debate 
was, ' Which was the greater outrage 
npon public feeling : Mr. Yorke's enforce- 
ment of the standing order, or Mr. Wind- 
ham's attack on the liberty of the press 
on the same occasicm ? ' Sir Francis 
Burdett moved in the house that Gale 
Jones should be discharged, as the * Brit- 



ish Forum ' was a'private debating society » 
and Cobbett, in his ' Weekly Register, 
took Burdett's side of the question. Sir 
Francis, in a letter published by Cobbett, 
spoke contemptuously of the House of 
Commons, and Mr. Lethbridge moved 
that he should be committed to the Tower. 
This led to a riot, in which the soldiers 
were called out, and two men were shot 
dead. The question now was whether 
the soldier who killed one of the men 
should not be tried for murder. Ulti- 
mately the contention drifted into this 
question ; Is not the House of Commons 
so one-sided that it needs a radical re- 
form ? 

Burdett-Coutts Seholarsliips. 

Two for geology in the University of 
Oxford, each tenable for two years- 
Founded by the Baroness Burdett-Coutts> 
18G0. 

Bureau. Not unlike our board of 
Green Cloth in the history of the name'. 
A bureau meant originally a coarse wool- 
len cloth. Hence Boileau says of Damon, 
the author, ' n'etant vetu que de simplo 
bureau, passe I'ete sans linge, et I'hiver 
sans manteau.' It then came to mean 
the cloth on the board table, then the 
officials who sit at the board. 

Bureau d'Esprit. Literary re- 
unions, such as those held in the Hotel 
Rambouillet, in the hotel of the Duchesse 
du Maine, of Madame de Tencin, of Mes- 
dames du Chatelet and du Boccage, of 
Deffand and Geoffrin, of Madame Doublet, 
&c. 

In the reign of Louis XV. the three 'bureaux 
d'esprit ' were presided orer by Madame de Detf. 
and. Mademoiselle de Lespinasse, and Madame 
Geolfrin. The first embraced the elite of the 
literati ; the second, the leading political reform- 
ers ; and the last, professed sceptics. Madame 
Delfand was noted for her caustic v/it ; Mademoi- 
selle de Lespinasse for the charms of her conversa- 
tional power ; and Madame Geoffrin for her prac- 
tical benevolence. 

Burgess Oath [The), administered 
in royal boroughs of Scotland, ran thus : 
' I protest before God and your lordships 
that I profess and allow with my heart 
the true religion now at this present pro- 
fessed within this realm, and authorised 
by the laws thereof. I will abide in the 
same and defend it to my life's end, re- 
nouncing the Roman religion called 
popery.' Those who saw no inconsistency 
in taking this oath were called burghers, 
those who refused to take it were called 
anti-burghers. 



ISO 



BURGESS 



BURNETT 



Burgess Roll (The), 1832. An 
alphabetical list of the burgesses entitled 
to vote for municipal officers or borovigh 
members, made out by the respective 
town clerks. There was also for a time 
another list called the Freeman's Roll 
Iq.v.), but this list is no longer required 
(5, 6 Will. IV. c. 76, amended by 20, 21 
Vict. c. 50). 

Burgesses of the Palisades 
Aliens who sought the sanctuary of forti- 
fied towns in the middle ages, especially in 
Germany, where they were called ' Pal- 
burgers.' These aliens were allowed to 
dwell in the suburbs between the ci*y 
walls and the palisades which bounded 
the territory of the corporation. Hence 
the name. See ' Outburgere.' 

It must be remembered that there was a con- 
stant collision bet-ween the feudal barons and the 
corporate towns; and therefore offenders of the 
one sought refuge with the other, and it was a 
point of honour or policy not to give up the 
refugee. 

Burgh Schools, 1696. Fou- ded by 
the General Education Act in Scotland. 
They were of the same character as 
English grammar schools ; of a higher 
grade than the parochial schools, founded 
by the same Act, and existing in burghs 
or towns, managed by the town councils, 
and supported by grants from the 
' Common Good,' i.e. the public funds of 
the burgh. 

Burghers and Anti-Burghers, 

1745. Seceders from the Kirk of Scot- 
land. The burghers are those who saw 
no inconsistency in taking the ' Burgess 
Oath ' iq-v.). Those who refused to take 
it were anti-burghers. 

The two parties were united in 1820, and called 
the ' United Presbyterians.' 

Burgundian Code (The), or'Loi 
Gombette,' published in 502 by Gundi- 
bald, at Lyons. See ' Gombette.' 

Burgundians The). The followers 
of the Duke of Burgundy, in the early 
part of the 15th century, opposed to the 
faction of the united Orleanists and 
Armagnacs (q.v.). Headed by Jean 
Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. He got 
the Duke of Orleans assassinated at 
Paris 23 Nov., 1407, and became reconciled 
with the Orleans family in 1409 ; but after 
the marriage of the young Duke of 
Orleans with the daughter of the Count 
of Armagnac in 1411, the feud broke out 
again: tiie Orleanista and Armagnacs 



against the Burgundians. The Duke of 
Burgundy in 1417 led an army to Paris, 
liberated the queen at Tours, and was by 
her named governor of the kingdom 10 
Jan., 1418; but in 1419 he was assassinated 
at the bridge of Montereau. 

Burkers* Hole. Formerly called 
' Nova Scotia Gardens,' a part of Bethnal 
Green now occupied by St. Thomas's 
Church and Baroness Burdett Coutts's 
model lodging-houses. It was the resi- 
dence of May, Bishop, and Williams, the 
infamous 'burkers,' who procured sub- 
jects for dissection by secret assassina- 
tion. They were convicted of the 
murder of a poor friendless Italian boy 
in 1826. Burke (who gave his name to 
the words to hurke, burker, &c.) used to 
place a pitch plaster over the mouth of 
his victim to smother his cries. He was 
an Irishman, and was hanged in 1829. 

Burmese "Wars {The). I. 1826. 
Arakan and Tenasserim were acquired 
by the treaty of Yandabo, and annexed to 
our province of Lower Bengal. 

II. 1851-1853. Martaban stormed 5 
April, 1852 ; Rangoon stormed 14 April, 
1852 ; Pegu taken 4 June, 1852, and 
annexed to our province ; Prome taken 
9 July, 1852. 

III. Upper Burmah was annexed to 
our Indian empire 26 Feb., 1886. The 
population of this province is about 
3,500,000, and the territory (including the 
Shan States) about 200,000 square miles. 

Burnbill. Henry de Londres, arch- 
bisliop of Dublin, in the reign of Henry 
III. He fraudulently procured the 
archiepiscopal estates, and burnt all the 
deeds by which the lands were held. 

Burlington Fine Arts Club 
(The). London, established 1867. 

Burnett Prizes (The). Allotted 
every forty years to the authors of the 
two best essays on the ' Evidence that 
there is a Being all-powerful, wise, and 
good, by whom everything exists, &c.' 
First award, 1815, to Dr. William Law- 
rence Brown 1200Z., and the Rev. J. B. 
Sumner (archbishop of Canterbury) 
400Z. ; the next award, 1855, was to the 
Rev. R. A. Thompson, 1800Z., and Dr. J. 
Tulloch COOL The third award should 
be in 1895. Founded by Mr. Burnett of 
Dens, Aberdeenshire. The judges are 
three. 



BUKNEY 



BUTCHERS 



181 



Burney Collection (The), 1818. 
In the Mb), department of the British 
Museum. Collected by the Rev. Dr.Charles 
Burney, and consisting of 520 volumes, 
chiefly Greek and Roman classics. 
Amongst these is the Townley * Homer,' 
a MS. of the 'Iliad' similar to the 
* Odyssey ' in the Harleian collection ; a 
Greek MS. of Ptolemy's ' Geography,' 
adorned with maps of the 15th cent., &c. 

Burney "Prize {The). For an essay 
on some moral or metaphysical subject 
on the existence, nature, and attributes of 
God. For graduates of the University 
of Cambridge of not more than three 
years standing, value 1051. annually. 
Founded by Richard Burney of Christ's 
College, Cambridge, 1845. See ' Mathe- 
matics,' &c. 

Burning and Starving Act 

(The), The Commutation Act passed by 
VVilliam Pitt, greatly reducing the duties 
on excisable articles, enabling the lawful 
dealer to compete with smugglers. 
These smugglers in Galloway and 
Dumfriesshire, being ruined by the Act, 
called it the Burning and Starving Act. 

Burnt Candlemas (Day), 2 Feb., 
1356. The day when Edward III. 
marched through the Lothians with fire 
and sword. He burnt to the ground 
Edinburgh and Haddington, and then 
retreated for want of provisions. The 
Scots call the day ' Burnt Candlemas.' 

Burnt Pillar {The), or 'Tchern- 
berle Tash.' A column in the centre of 
the forum of Constantinople. It was 
raised by Constantine on a pedestal of 
white marble twenty feet high. The 
pillar was composed of ten pieces of 
porphyry, each eleven feet in height and 
thirty-three in circumference. It was 
Burmounted with a colossal statue of 
Apollo in bronze, said to have been the 
work of Phidias. This statue was thrown 
down in the reign of Alexis Comnenus. 

Burschenschaft, 1813. A secret 
society of Germany, established by the stu- 
dents for the defence of the country The 
Grand Burschenschaft of Jena, in Saxe- 
Weimar, was established 12 June, 1815, 
and soon absorbed all the others. In 1818 
the government declared the association 
to be illegal, and it gradually dropped off. 

r.urschen. pi. of.' Bursch,' a student, and ' Bchaft, 
an association. 



Burton Arch {T7ie). The marble 
arch formerly at Hyde Park Corner, in 
imitation of the arch of Titus at Rome, 
on the top of which was placed, in 1846, 
a huge equestrian statue of the Duke of 
Wellington, the work of Mr. C. Wyatt. 
This hideous deformity was removed in 
1883. 

' Hail to the statue ! ' people cry — 

In justice there they fail ; 
But let it have the Burton arch, 

If we've the Burton ale. 

Newspaper Epigram, 1846. 

Butcher {The). I. Dante, in his 
' Purgatory ' (canto xx.), makes Hugh 
Capet say, ' I was the son of a butcher of 
Paris.' Pasquier told Francois I. that 
Dante meant by ' butcher ' a formidable 
warrior. 

II. Olivier de Clisson, constable of 
France (1320-1407), who never spared 
the life of any Englishman who fell into 
his hands. 

III. John de Clifford, called the ' Black 
Clifford,' the ninth baron, died 1461. 

IV. Ahmed Jezzar, pacha of Acre, 
which he defended against Napoleon. 
He struck off the heads of his nine wives at 
one and the same time (1735, 1775-1804). 

Butcher {The Bloody). William 
Augustus, duke of Cumberland (1721- 
1765), son of George II., so called for his 
cruel treatment of the Jacobites, whom 
he defeated at Culloden, 16 April, 1746. 
Also called the ' Butcher of Culloden.' 

He (Cumberland) seemed to revel in blood, and 
to be ambitious of earning the name he tliere (at 
Culloden) won of the butcher. . . . When the 
wounded had writhed In their agonies all night 
they were despatched by the bayonets of the 
Butchers. They were hunted out of their hiding- 
places in the woods and moors, and massacred in 
cold blood. Twenty wounded men, who had crept 
into a farmhouse, were shut up and deliberately 
burnt in it. The prisoners in Inverness were treated 
with equal cruelty. — HowiTT, Hist, of England^ 
(George II. ch. xi. p. 525). 

Butcher of England (T/te). John 
Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, lord deputy, 
who died 1470. On one occasion, in the 
reign of Edward IV., he ordered Clapham 
(one of Lord Warwick's squires) and 
nineteen other gentlemen to be impaled. 
This bloodstained leader of the Wars of 
the Roses was a great patron of Caxton, 
and one of the earliest scholars of the 
revival of letters. 

Butcher of Vassy(r7ie). Franc^ois, 
due de Guise (1519-1563), was so called by 
the Huguenots. See ' Massacre of Vassy. 

Butchers and Carpenters' In- 
surrection, 1413. This was the great 
K2 



132 



BUTCHEES 



BYNO 



nsurrection of the Wliite Hoods and 
White Scarfs. The Butchers or White 
Hoods were the Burgundian faction ; the 
Carpenters or White Scarfs were the 
Orleans or Armagnac faction. The Car- 
penters or White Scarfs prevailed, and 
after the bloody fray in the Place de 
Greve, the White Hoods were driven out 
of Paris, and disappeared. 

Butcher's Dog {The). Cardinal 
Thomas Wolsey, son of a butiher of 
Ipswich (1471-1530). After ho brought 
Edward Stafford, duke of Luck ngham, to 
the block in 1521, it was Wxttiiy said of 
him, ' The butcher's dog has pulled 
down the fairest buck in Cliristendom.' 

Many efforts have been made to give Wolsey a 
more aristocratic birth. One is this : that he was 
a bourgeois sou, and that bourgeois was corrupted 
into btilcher; but tliere would be no point then in 
the witticism above referred to. Another is this : 
that the limperor Charles V. called Hejiry VIII. the 
butcher and Wolsey was the 'butcher's dog'; but 
Henry was by no means a butcher when a young 
man, and at the death of Buckingham he was 
under thirty, and called ' a gentle, merciful, and 
pleasure-loving iprince.' Buckingham was exe- 
cuted in the l^th year of Henry's reign ; and 
Wolsey must have been known before then as a 
butcher's son, or there would have been no wit in 
the remark. Skelton, a contemporary, speaking of 
Wolsey, says he ' was cast out of a butchers stall,' 
and William Roy, another contemporary, calls 
him ' the vile butcher's sonne.* 

Begot by butchers, but by bishops bred ; 

How high his honour holds his haughty head ! 

Butcher's Sharables (The). An 
old oak tree in Birkland, a part of 
Sherwood Forest. It is now a mere shell, 
but in this tree a butcher named 
Hooton used to conceal the carcases of 
sheep or deer till he could dispose of 
them. There used to be a beam across 
the tree with hooks, on which three sheep 
could be suspended. Old men can still 
(1890) remember this arrangement. In tlie 
hollow of this tree fourteen or fifteen 
persons could stand, and its girth at the 
height of a man was certainly thirty feet 
or more ; but now half even of the rind is 
gone, and the other half is a mere shell. 

Butter mere {Mary of). Daughter 
of an innkeeper, called the ' Beauty of 
Buttermere,' married a man who came 
to the vicinity for fishing, and passed 
himself off as the Hon. Augustus Hope. 
It turned out he was a married man, 
whose name was Hadfield, a notorious 
swindler, who was ultimately executed 
for forgery. At the beginning of the 
19th cent, this romantic tale caused a 
very great sensation. It is said that 



Mary afterwards married a substantial 
farmer. 

Buttoners {The). A branch of the 

Strict Mennonites (3 syl.), which split 
from the general body in 1554, and were 
so called because they used buttons in 
their dress instead of hooks-and-eyes. 
See ' Mennonites.' 

Buttons. In China there are nine 
official buttons v/orn in the cap, each one 
denoting a special rank. 1. the plain 
red ; 2. the red figured with the char- 
acter Siiou (longevity); 3. the clear 
blue ; 4. the opaque blue ; 5. the crystal ; 
6. the opaque white; 7, 8, 9. buttons of 
brass. 

By this conquer, a.d. 312. The 

inscription said to have been annexed to 
the cross seen in the sky by Constantine 
when about to encounter Maxentius. 
According to tradition it was the cause of 
his conversion to Christianity. 
Of course the words were Greek, 'Ew -roirui vUa. 

Bye Conspiracy {The), 1G03. A 
conspiracy of Koraan Catholics, Puritans, 
and Presbyterians, who thought that 
James I. would favour their own special 
religious party, but found that he threw 
himself entirely into the hands of the 
High Church of England party. Clarke 
and Watson, two Catholic priests, were 
the heads of the conspiracy. Their plan 
was to seize the king, proclaim Arabella 
Stuart queen, and to place the govern- 
ment in the hands of the chief con- 
spirators. Lord Cecil was to be put to 
death, and Watson to be made lord 
chancellor. The plot was revealed to 
Cecil, the leading conspirators were 
tried for treason, and Watson, Clarke, 
and Brooke were executed. The con- 
spiracy was called the ' Bye ' because it 
was simultaneous with another con- 
spiracy called the ' Main ' {q.v.). 

Byng (To), or 'make the Byng of the 
day,' to sacrifice one as a scapegoat. 
The reference is to Admiral John Byng, 
who was shot at Portsmouth by sentence 
of court martial, 14 March, 1757. He was 
sent to relieve Minorca, besieged by the 
French, and after a partial action sheered 
off, declaring that the ministry had not 
supplied him with a sufficient fleet. 
The ministry and the public were furious, 
and Byng was brought before a court 
martial. 



rA'ZANTINB 



CACCIxVTORI 



13a 



Precisely the same thing occurred in 
the Crimean war. The ministry and 
ofticers were blamed for not taking 
Sebastopol sooner, and the Duke of 
Newcastle, minister of war, was made 
the ' Byng ' or scapegoat of the day. 

Byzantine Historians {The). 

Greek historians who lived under the 
Eastern empire between the Gth and 15th 
cents. They consist, 1. of historians 
who continue the history of the Byzan- 
tine empire ; 2. of general chroniclers ; 
and 3. of authors who wrote on the 
antiquities, jDolitics, manners and cus- 
toms x»f the Romans. The whole of the 
works were compiled and published by 
order of Louis XIV., and rail to thirty-six 
•volumes folio (1844-1711). 

The most noted are Zonaras, Nieetas Acomi- 
natus Chon-'a,tes, and Niccphorvjs Grej,'oras, who 
form a complete corpHS ,'ii.s/. ■)('«•■ to tho close of the 
15th cent. Then comes Laonicus Chalcondylas, 
and then follow a host who wrote detached parts 
of history. 

Ca<'aba, or ' Kaaba.' A stone which 
Mahomet removed to Mecca, where it 
was inserted in the walls of the saci'ed 
shrine built by Abraham and Ishmael. 
The angel Gabriel presented Mahomet 
with this stone, which was originally a 
petrified angel, and quite white. It is 
now black from the kisses of sinners. 

The site of this shrine is where repentant Adam 
stood, after wandering for 200 years, when he 
received pardon for his disobedience in Paradise. 

Cabal' Ministry {The\ 1GG7-1G74. 
A ministry under Charles II., so called 
because the initial letters of the cabinet 
happened to form the word cabal : they 
were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Arlington, and Lauderdale. 

The French ' cabale' means a party who seek to 
gain their object by underhand or unscrupulous 
means, and the Spanish ' cabala ' means intrisjue. 
The word was not therefore first coined from 
Clifford s ministry, although it was not used in 
the English language before. Dryden uses the 
•word. 

Thomas Clifford (first commissioner of the 
treasury, afterwards Lord Clifford). 

Lord Ashley (chancellor of the exchequer, after- 
wards Earl of Shaftesbury). 

Duke of Buckingham (master of the horse), 
Earl of Arlington (secretary of state). Duke of 
Lauderdale. 

Caballarii. Feudal tenants bound 
to serve on horseback, equipped with 
coat of mail. This service implied no 
personal merit and gave no civil privi- 
leges. It was a mere duty or kiiight's fee. 

Cabbala. Jewish tradition said to 
have been handed down from Moses. 



The first book, on cosmogony, is attribu- 
ted to the 7th cent. ; but from the 12th 
to the 15th cent, numerous cabbalistic 
writings were added, teaching the esoteric 
meaning of 'the Law,' the method of 
performing miracles, incantations, &c. 

The 'Sohar' (i:U,h cent. ) in .Aramaic may be 
called the bible of the Cabbalists. 

Cabinet Council. Lord Clarendon 

says the term originated thus : In the 
reign of Charles I. the affairs of state 
were controlled by the Archbishop of 
Canterbury, the Earl of Strafford, and the 
Lord Cottington; to these were added 
' for ornament ' the Earl of Northumber- 
land, the Bishop of London as lord 
treasurer, and Vane and Windebank 
(two secretaries) for service and intelli- 
gence. The Marquis of Hamilton 
' meddled just so far and no further than 
he had a mind.' These persons made up 
the committee of state, reproachfully 
called the junto, but ' enviously ' called 
afterwards the 'cabinet council.' In 
cabinet councils the royal presence is not 
necessary, as it is in 'privy councils.' 
When George I. was king, as he was 
ignorant of the English language, he 
took no part in state councils ; and ever 
since cabinet councils have dispensed 
with the sovereign's presence. 

Cabinet ia"oir {The). The secret 
offices where all the correspondence of 
the French nation used to be handled 
during the monarchy. 

Cabi'ri. Ancient Pelasgian deities. 

Cabocllienne {La), 1413. An ordi- 
nance for the reform of the state forced 
from the Dauphin of France by the White 
Hoods or Cabochians {q.v.). 

Cabocliiens {Les), 1413-1422. A 
gang organised by Jean Sans Peur, duke 
of Burgundy, and placed under the 
command of Simonet Caboche, a 
butcher. It numbered 500 vagabonds, 
and kept Paris in terror by its massacres 
and plunder. In 1422 the Parisians rose 
en masse, fell upon the gang, Jean Sans 
Peur fled from the city, and the Arma- 
gnacs or Orleans faction remained in the 
ascendent. See ' French Brigands.' 

Cacciatori. The Chasseurs of the 
Alps, or ' Cacciatori delle Alpi.' (Italian, 
cacciare to hunt, cacciatore a hunter). 

We have already referred to Garibaldi as 
general of the Cacciatori.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng- 
land, year 1859, p. 652. 



134 



CADDEE 



CAGLIOSTRO 



Caddie or Cad^e {The), or ' League 
of God's House,' 1400-1419. See ' Cade- 
ian, &c.' 

Cade (Jack). Ringleader of the in- 
surrection which broke out in Kent, 1450. 
He was an Irishman, and called himself 
Mortimer, because he was a natural son 
of the Duke of York. He marched to 
London at the head of 20,000 armed men, 
who encamped at Blackheath, 1 June, 
1450. Being slain by Alexander Iden, 
11 July, his head was stuck on London 
Bridge. 

Cade's Insurrection. See above. 

Cadeian League (T7ie), 1400-1419, 
i.e. the league of Casa-dei, or God's 
house; in German, Gotteshausbiind. 
One of the three unions of the canton of 
the Grisous. 

The other two leagues were the ' Ligue Grise,' 
formed in 1424 ; and the ' League of the Ten 
Jurisdictions,' formed in 1436. All three were 
admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798i 

Cadets of the Cross, 1703. Catho- 
lic auxiliaries in the army of Marshal 
Montrevel, sent to extirpate the Cami- 
sards of the Cevennes. Also called 
* White Camisards.' 

Cadjahs. See 'Dynasty of the 
Kadjahs,' or Kujurs. 

Cadmean Letters. Sixteen Greek 
letters said to have been introduced into 
Thebes (in Boeotia) by Cadmus, son of 
Agenor, king of Phoenicia. The letters 
are a, b, g, d, e, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. 
These letters were subsequently increased 
by 8 Ionic letters, z, e, th, x, ph, ch, ps, 
and 6. Simonides of Cos is credited with 
the 4 letters th, z, ph, ch, and Epicharmos 
the Sicilian with the 4 letters x, e, ps, 6. 
The lonians were the first to emjiloy all 
the 24 letters, whence the 8 added were 
called Ionic letters. 

Cadmean Victory (A). A victory 
purchased with great loss. The refer- 
ence is to the armed men who sprang 
out of the ground from the teeth of the 
dragon sown by Cadmus. These men 
fell foul of each other, and only five 
escaped with their lives. Hence the 
Greek ' Kadmeia nike,' and Latin ' Cad- 
mea Victoria.' The victories of Boadicea 
sowed her kingdom with dragon's teeth, 
and the Romans were roused by them to 
most vindictive fury 

CsDrite Franchisp (The). The 
franchise of a Roman subject in a pre- 



fecture. These subjects had the right 
of self-government, were registered by 
the Roman censor as taxpayers, but 
enjoyed none of the privileges of a Roman 
citizen. Cs9re was the first community 
placed in this dependent position, whence 
the term ccerite franchise. 

CsBSar, as a title, varied in its force. 
I. The first twelve emperors were all 
entitled Caesar in compliment to Julius 
Cffisar. Thus Octavius or Octavianus 
Ccesar (better known as Augustus) ; 
Tiberius Caesar ; Caligula Caesar ; 
Claudius Caesar; Nero Caesar; Galba, 
Otho, Vitellius, whose united reigns 
lasted only one year ; Vespasian Caesar ; 
Titus Caesar ; and Domitian Ctesar. 

II. After the death of Domitian, a.d. 96, 
the word as a title dropped out of use 
till the reign of Hadrian (14th emp. 
117-138), who called the heir presumptive 
CcBsar. 

III. In the reign of Diocletian, a.d. 
292, the two emperors of Constantinople 
and Rome were each styled Augustus, 
and the two viceroys of Illyricum and 
Gaul were each styled Ccesar. This 
arrangement, however, soon dropped 
after the death of that emperor. 

The wife of a Roman emperor was entitled 
Ca'sara, and probably all imperial princes were by 
courtesy addressed as Ca-sar, Czar and Kaiser are 
modified forms of Ctesar. 

Caesarean Era of Antioch {The). 
This era began 1 Sept., B.C. 48, to com- 
memorate the victory of Julius Caesar 
over Pompey. 

Cage {The). The little hut built of 
sticks, heather, and moss, in a thicket of 
trees on the rocky face of a high moun- 
tain, called Letternilinchk, in Benalder, 
to which Charles Edward was taken for 
concealment by Lochiel and Macpher- 
son, after the fatal battle of Culloden 
(174G). 

Cameron had been one of those who assisted 
Charles Edward to escape, and had lived with 
him in the ' Cage.'— HowiTT, Hist, of Eiujkind, 
(George II. ch. xii. p. 549). 

Cagliari. Generally called Paul 
Veronese (1530-1588). 

Cagliostro of Literature (The), 
1835. Comte de Courchamps, the most 
unblushing literary thief on record. He 
stole the two novels of John Potocki, a 
Polish count, and published them as his 
own. The ' National ' exposed the theft, 
and ferreted out all the falsehoods of De 
Courchamps, establishing his infamous 



CAGOTS 



CALEDONIA 



185 



piracy beyond a shadow of doubt. 
Comte de Courchamps called his book 

* The Inedited Memoirs of Cagliostro,' 
and hence the quack of literary quacks 
was stigmatised with the name of the 
quack of quacks. jSee ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Joseph Balsamo, the prince of quacks, assumed 
the title-name of Comte de Cagliostro (ms-lTjo). 

Cagots. A tribe of men in France 
akin to the gipsies. Some think the word 
is compounded of Caas-goths (dogs of 
Goths), and that they are remnants of the 
Teutons who overran the south of Europe 
at the fall of the Roman Empire. Others 
quote the synonyms Caqueux, Cacous, 
Capos, and Gaffos, meaning ' lepers,' to 
prove that they were Jewish lepers. They 
are often called ' Canards,' because they 
were obliged to carry as a badge 'une 
patte de canard.' 

It is in Brittany that they are called Caaucux. 
In Poitou, Maine, and Anjou they are called ' Colli- 
berts.' In Au%-ergne, ' Marrons.' 

Cainites {The), 2nd cent. A Chris- 
tian sect which held that the books of the 
Old Testament were inspired by the 
Demiurge, or son of darkness and chaos ; 
and that the real worthies were Cain, 
Esau, the men of Sodom, Korah, and so 
on ; and the only spiritual apostle was 
Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Clirist lest he 
should lead men into darkness. These 

* heretics ' say Judas Iscariot left a gospel, 
which is the only true one. 

9^ Ira (It will succeed). The 

* Carillon National ' of the French Revo- 
lution. The refrain is : 

Ah ! <;a ira, qa ira, <;a Ira ! 

Les aristocrates a la lanterne I 

Cairns' Act (Lord), 1882. Called 
' Cairns' Settled Lauds Act,' to allow the 
sale of entailed estates, but not the ' family 
mansion.' 

Caius College (generally called 
Keys), in Cambridge University. Origin- 
ally called Gonville Hall {q.v.) ; changed 
in 1353 by William Bateman, bishop of 
Norwich, into ' The Hall of the Annuncia- 
tion, &c.'; and in 1558 by the tliird 
founder, John Caius, M.D., into ' GonviUe 
and Caius College.' 

Calaslrians and Hermotybians. 

The Egyptian military, an hereditary 
caste spoken of by Herodotos (ii. IGG). 
He numbers the former at 250,000 men, 
and the latter at 160,000. Their settle- 
ments were in Lower Egypt, the Calasi- 



rians in elefen nomes and the Hermo- 
tybians in five. Herodotos speaks of linen 
tunics fringed about the legs, ov<; /caAtouo-t 
KaAttcrtpis (Coptic kali, a leg). The deriva- . 
tion of the other word is extremely 
doubtful. 

Cala'thumpian (A). A nothing- 
arian, or anythingarian, or what' you 
please in regard to the question ' What 
religion are you of ? ' From calathus. a 
waste basket for all sorts of odds and ends. 

Calatrava {Knights of), 1158. A 
Spanish mihtary order founded by 
Sancho III. of Castile, when he took from 
the Moors the strong fort of Calatrava. 
The mantle is white, decorated with a red 
cross cut out in the form of lilies. 

Calcuith, in Lancashire {The 
Council of), 785-787. I. By this council a 
third archbishopric of England was made, 
viz. Lichfield, and Higbert was appointed 
primate. The authority and decisions of 
the first six general councils were also 
adopted. In 803 Lichfield was again 
reduced to its original rank of bishopric. 

II. A.D. 816, decided that the saint, in 
honour of whom a church was dedicated, 
might be pictured on the walls ; that no 
Scotch clergyman shall officiate in an 
English church, because they refused to 
admit the primacy of the bisliop of Rome ; 
that no private monastic institution shall 
be allowed ; and that baptism shall be by 
immersion, and not by sprinkling. 

Caleb d' An vers. The pen-name of 
Nicholas Amhurst, a noted political 
writer who conducted a paper called the 
' Craftsman,' and died in 1712 in most 
miserable circumstances. 

Caledonia. A name given by the 
Romans to that part of Scotland lying 
between the Forth and the Clyde ; so- 
called from the tribe of the Caledonii. 
Tiie name disappears in the 4th cent., and 
the people of Scotland began to be called 
Picts (to the east) and Scots (to the west). 
In more modern times Caledonia is a 
poetical name for Scotland. 

MTiat the Romans called Caledonii were tha 
Celyddones, i.e. dwellers iu the woods. 

Caledonia. The Irish race of kings 
in Caledonia are said to have been — 

Eder u.c. 55-71 

Evenus... B.C. 71 to A.D. 1 

Metellan ^ l-:« 

Caractacus S'-'^V 

Colbrede 1 57-i4 

Pardanes 74-78 

Colbrede II., with G.Ugacua ^ 16-64 



136 



CALEDONIAN 



CALIXTINS 



[Agricolawas praetor and defeated Galgacus A. D. 84) 

Coibrode alone 113 

Lut;tace 113-118 

Wot^al ^ lls-K^D 

Conar 100-162 

Argade lG-2-l'o6 

Ethodel 166-199 

Satrahal 19y-203 

(JIarcellus \vp.s prostor) 

Donald I ■ 203-2-24 

Erode II 2-24-240 

Aiirgo ~. 240-252 

Natholio 2.5-2-203 

Findoc 263-273 

Donald II 273-274 

r>onald III 274-284 

Cratlii'.i „ a<4 ;t08 

Eincormao ... „ 3 s ;^5 

Kom-iC ~. ... 3.-,f.-R58 

Augusian ... 35o-;;60 

Fetolmac oii;-HC3 

Kugene I. .. ^ 303-3;;5 

Forgas (the restorer) 440 

Eugene II. ... 440-4G1 

Dongard 461-465 

Constantine I. king of Scotland. 

Caledonian "War {The), a.d, 208- 
V/hen the Koman emperor Severus was 
sixty years old, he went with his two sons, 
Cara^lla and Geta, into Scotland to repel 
ai^*!*^ion. He marched to the northern 
extremity without meeting an enemy, but 
it cost him the loss of 50,000 men. At 
length the Caledonians sued for peace, 
but the moment the Koman legions were 
withdrawn they were up in arms again. 
While Severus was preparing to extirpate 
the Caledonians, he died. 

If Osslan is historic, it was Fingal -who opposed 
Severus, and Caracalla is called by Ossian 'Caracul, 
son of the king of the -world ' (Poems, i. p. 175). 
Strange that Ossian should call Antoninus by a 
nicUnanie not used even in Rome till four years 
after the -war ! 

Calendar. The French Republican 
calendar was the work of Pabre d'Eglan- 
tine and M. Eomme. 
Autumn months: Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frl. 

maire. 
VHnter months : Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose. 
Spring months : Germinal, Floreal, Prairial. 
Summer months : Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor. 

1. Wheezy, Unc.ezy, Freczy. 

2. Slippy, Drippy, Nippy. 

3. Shoicery, Floitrry. HoiDCi-y. 

4. Wheaty, He.aty, Sweety. 

Calenders, 13th cent. The 'Purists,' 
a species of Moslem hermits, founded by 
Youssouf, an Arab of Andalusia. They 
have no fixed abode, but lead a vagrant 
life under the vow of poverty. They 
have proved themselves dangerous 
sectaries, who have always taken an 
active part in all Oriental revolutions. 
See ' Santons.' 

Calends. See 'Diet of Phrase and 
Fable,' p. 132. 

Attsonian Calends (Ausoniae Calendae), 
the Eoman Calends. 



Greek Calends (Greecae Calendas), never; 
there were no Greek Calends. 

Intercalary Calends (Intercalares 
Calendte), February. 

Calends of Janus (Jani Calendse), New 
Year's day (Statius). 

The Women's Calends (Foeminese Ca- 
lendae), the 1st of March (Juvenal, ix. 53) 

Tristes Calendce, pay-day. The 
Romans paid on the 1st of every month. 

Calif. The successor of Mohammed 
the prophet, both in temporal and spirit- 
ual power. At first there was but one 
calif, whose empire was called the califate, 
which for three centuries exceeded tlie 
Eoman empire in extent ; but in 970 
there were three califates, viz. one at 
Bagdad, one at Cairo, and one at Cor- 
dova. 

In 1031 the califate of Cordova ceased. 

In 1158 the calif of Bagdad fled to 
Egj^t before the sword of the Monguls. 

In 1517 the -Turks conquered Egypt, 
and the sultan thus became the one and 
only calif. 

In 800 Tunis and Fez made themselves indepen- 
dent for a time, and in 821 Taher established for a 
time an independent califate at Khorassan. 

Calif of the West [The), a.d. 756. 
So Abd-el-Ramah, founder of the Cordova 
califate, styled himself (781-787). This 
califate lasted till 1031. 

The calif of Bagdad was then called Calif of the 
East. Since 1517 the sultan has been the only 
calif. 

California (U.S. America). The 
inhabitants are called * gold-hunters.' 

Caligula. Caius, son of Germanicus, 
and successor of his uncle Tiberius, in the 
empire of Rome. So called because he 
wore the caliga or clouted shoe of the 
common Roman soldier. The caliga was 
a close shoe, studded with nails, and 
bound on the foot and ankle by straps. 
It was not worn by the superior officers, 
but Caius was an insane fool. 

Caligatus meant 'a common soldier,' one of the 
rank and file. It was this monster who said ' Oh, 
that sdl the Koman people had but one neck, that 
I might decapitate Eome at a blow ! ' 

Calixtins (The), or ' Calixtines ' (3 
syl.), 1424. Bohemians in the Hussite 
war. These were for the most part the 
gentry and better classes. So called 
because they insisted on retaining the 
calix or cuj? in the Eucharist. The priests 
had only very recently withheld the cup 
from the laity. The more violent party 
were called Ta'borites (3 syl.). 



i 



CALIXTIXES 



CALVIN 



137 



Calixtines' Confession of 
Faith {The). 

1. The Word of God ought to be freely 
and regularly preached thoughout all 
Bohemia. 

2. The Eucharist ought to be adminis- 
tered to all communicants. 

3. The clergy ousht to follow no secular 
occupation. 

4. All crimes ought to be punished by 
those in lawful authority, whether com- 
mitted by clerks or laymen. 

Call of Abraham {The), b.c. 1921. 
The command from God to Abraliam to 
leave the land of his birth and sever 
himself from his relations, friends, and 
neighbours, who were idolaters, and to 
go afar off to live among strangers, that 
he might be the founder of a people 
which would serve God and abjure 
idolatry. He was 75 years old at the 
time ; the land he left was Ur of the 
Chaldees; the land he went to was 
Canaan, ' the land of promise ; ' and the 
son of promise was Isaac, father of the 
twelve patriarchs. 

Call of the Abbasides (3 syl.). 
Abu Moslem, a.d. 750, the founder of the 
Abbaside califs, who removed the seat 
of empire from Damascus to Bagdad. 

Call of the House {A). An im- 
perative summons to every member of 
parliament to be present in his place, 
when the sense of the whole house is 
deemed necessary. 

In 1820 Buch a call was made to pass an opinion 
respecting the trial of Queen Caroline. On the 
day appointed the Speaker (in the House of Com- 
mons) calls over the names of the county mem- 
bers first, and then of the borough members, both 
in alphabetical order. Absentees are committed 
to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms. 

Callias (Peace o/), B.C. 371. Between 
Sparta, Athens, and their allies. Tiiobes 
was excluded. Calliaa was the Athenian 
representative. 

Callippie Cycle {The). Meton's 
cycle corrected by Callippus, B.C. 330. 
In B.C. 432 Meton set up a column in 
Athens which recorded that 235 lunar 
months corresponded to 19 solar years. 
This was too long, and made an error 
of nearly a day and a half in a cen-' 
tury. Callippus discovered that a year 
consists of 305 7 daj's, and proposed a 
cycle of 76, or 4 Metonic cycles' (19 x 4 = 
76). A further correction was made in 
1512, whereliy the error of a day requires 
the lapse of 3,000 years. 



Callippie Period {The). Began 
with the new moon of the summer sol- 
stice, B.C. 330. 

Calojoannes. John II. (Com- 
nenus), emperor of the East, so called 
from his extremely handsome person. 
Eeigned 1118-1143. 

Calottistes (3 syl.), or 'Le regiment 
de la Calotte,' in the time of Louis XIV. 
A society of satirists, headed by Torsac 
and Aimon, who sent a ' calotte ' (or small 
cap) to any public character who had 
exposed himself to ridicule. The ' calotte ' 
was worn by monks over their tonsure, 
and was to cover the ' weak part of the 
head ' of the receiver. The armorial 
bearings of the Calottistes consisted of 
various symbols of folly, and their motto 
was ' C'est re'gner que de savoir rire.' 

Calvary {A). A chapel with a cross, 
generally placed, in Catholic countries, 
on an eminence, or at the meeting of two 
or more roads. The calvary of Mont- 
martre and of Mont Vale'rien, near Paris, 
are well-known examples. The latter 
still attracts many persons during Holy 
Week. The approach to a calvary is 
called the ' Via Dolorosa,' and at each 
stone which marks a station a prayer 
should be said. 

A little farther on . . . Is a colossal wood-carved 
calvary, and beside it a smtsll but ■<-ery rich 
chapel.— OuiDA, BimU, The Nurnberg Stove. 

Calvinism, 1561. The religious 
tenets of John Calvin of Picardy. They 
are generally called the five points : 

(1) Predestination and reprobation ; 

(2) original sin; (3) particular redemp- 
tion ; (4) irresistible grace ; (5) the per- 
severance of the saints. 

Calvinist. A Christian whose tenets 
are Calvinistic. See ' Calvinism.' 

There are Calvinistic Baptists, Calvinistic 
ITethodists, Welsh Calvinists, and even in tlia 
Kpiscop.ll Cliurch there are some tew of a Cal- 
vinistic tendency. 

Calvinistic Methodists, 1741. 

A body which seceded from Wesley, 
especially on the doctrine of election. 
Wliitefield was the leader of the Calvin- 
istic Methodists. After Whitefield's 
death they divided into two ; (1) Lady 
Huntingdon's Connexion, and (2) the 
Tabernacle Connexion. 

Calvin's Daily Offices. For 
family prayer, as well as for mo):iiit.g 



138 



CAMALDOLITES 



CAME 



and evening services, in the reformed 
churches. It was used in the reformed 
chtirches of France after their organisa- 
tion in 1555. Various modificAtious have 
been introduced from time to time. It 
was at one time much used in Scotland, 
and John Knox died repeating words of 
Calvin's ' Diulv Ofiices.' 

Camal'dolites (4 syl.). See below. 

Camaldulensian Order {The). 

' Camaldules,' or' Camal'dolites ' (4 syl.), 
1010. A very austere religious order 
first established in the vale of Camaldoli 
by Eomuald, a Benedictine monk; and 
approved by Alexander II. in 1072. The 
order is almost extmct. 

Camarilla (A). A royal clique, 
junto, or secret coimcil, composed of the 
sovereigfii, the priests, and the intriguing 
ladies of the court. It was for a long 
time part, of the Austrian government. 
Some of the sovereigns of France and 
England too had their camarillas. 

Cambray {League of), 1508. Be- 
tween the pope, Louis XII. of France, 
and the Duke of Ferrara, * to blot out the 
Republic of Venice from the map of 
Europe.' The Venetians, however, 
bribed off the pope, who promised to 
break up the league. To this end he 
made a compact with the Swiss to chase 
the French out of Lombardy ; and then 
Venetia, Spain and England joined the 
league, which was caUed ' The Holy 
Alhance ' (1513). 

Cambray {Peace of), or ' Paix des 
Dames,' 5 Aug., 1529. Between France 
and the Kaiser. So called because its 
terms were settled by two ladies, viz. 
the mother of Francois I. on behalf of 
France, and Margaret of Austria, the 
aunt of Karl V., on behalf of G-ermany. 
By the terms of this scandalous treaty, 
Franijois stipulated to renounce the lord- 
ship of Flanders and Artois ; to pay 
400,000/. for the ransom of his two sons ; 
to abandon Venice and all his other allies 
to the vengeance of Karl V. ; and to 
marry Eleouore, sister of the emperor. 

Cam.bria, "Wales. The Welsh call 
their coinitry 'C;<mra,' 'Cymro' is a 
Welslunan, ' Cymraes ' a Welsh woman, 
' Cyroraeg ' the Welsh language, and 
' Cymruain ' the adjective Welsh. 



Cambria, or Cumbria, vras also the country of the 
Brotts or Welsh in Pwmbartou. Honfrew. .Vyr, 
Lannrk, Peobios. Selkirk, l\o\burgh, Pamfrios, 
and Cumberlaud, \shich formed a sei>arate kiug- 
doni. 

Cambridge Colleges. N.B.— The 
head of King's is a provost, of Queen's a 
president, and of all others a master. 

Called 

Citherine Hall or College .„ Cat's 1475 

Cuiisis 1505 

Clare Hall or College ... V^i6 

Corpus Christ! .., ... C.C.C.C. l.'Wl 

l>o\vnin!: - ~. ... iJ^^W 

Emmanuel ... LV-^i 

Gonville or Caics ... ... Keys l:^4!» 

.Tesus „. ... ... ... 14i>«5 

.Tohns(St.) .^ 1511 

KinsTs _. „ 1441 

Macdalene ... „, „. ... Maudlin 1519 

Ponibroke ... ... ... 1343 

Peter siSt.) ... ... Ii57 

Queen s ... ... ... 144o, refounded 14<55 

Sidney Sussex «. ... 15.18 

Triniiv ... _. ... 1546 

Trinity Hall _ 1S50 

AH these 17 are corporate bodies. 
Hostels 

AycrstHall „ „ 1SS4 

Cavendish College .. ... „. 1876 

Sol-svvn CoUece and Ridley Hall ... ... lSS-2 

In 1.^7:1 Giriou, and in ISS) Newnham, collegea 
for ladies. 

Cambridge Platonists {The). 
The Whig pjtrty opposed to the Oxford 
Anglicanism of which Laud was the 
exponent. The leaders were Whichcote, 
Cudworth, Henry More, Culverwell, 
Rust, Glanvil, and Xorris. They suc- 
ceeded the puritan divines, and were 
succeeded by the school of Sherlock, 
Law, and Paley, who in turn gave way 
to the evangelical school of Berridge, 
Milner, and Simoon; and still later came 
the school of Trench and Hail am. 

Camden and Powis Medals. 

For a poem in Latin hexameters. 
Founded hy the Marquis of Camden, 
chancellor of the University of Cam- 
bridge, and called, from 1841 to 1866, the 
Camden Medal. On the death of the 
marquis, the Earl of Powis, high steward 
of the University, continued the medal, 
since called the Powis Medal. For 
undergraduates of not more than two 
years' stiuiding; 

Camden Professorship of 
Ancient History {The\ in Oxford 
University. Stipend 6001. a year. 
Founded by William Camden, Clareu- 
cieux King of Arms, in 1622. 

Came witli a lass and -will go 
■with a lass [It). Tiie words uttered 
by James V. of Scotland on his dying bed, 
when informed of the birth of a daughter. 



CAMEL 



CAMPUS 



139 



' God's will be done. It came with a lass 
and will go with a lass.' Marjory Bruce, 
daughter of Robert Bruce, married 
Walter, the tJth steward of Scotland, and 
this alliance eventually brought the crown 
into the Steward family (called Stuart in 
French). The daughter born to James V. 
on his death-bed was Mary (Queen of 
Scots), whose son James removed to 
England, and called himself James I. of 
England and VI. of Scotland. 

Camel-driver of Mecca (The). 
MaJaomet the prophet of Arabia (570-632). 

Camel People (The). So the Arabs 
call the inhabitants of the Sahara. The 
inhabitants of the towns of Barbary they 
call the Gold people, and those of the 
Tell, or cultivated lands, they call the 
Silver people. 

Cam^l^on. A nickname given in 
France to Thiers the historian (1797- 
1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' 

Cameron Highlanders (The). 
The 79th regiment in the British service, 
raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 
1793. 

No-w called the Queen's Own Cameron High- 
landers. 

Cameronians (The). I. Scotch 
Covenanters, 1680. So called from 
Richard Cameron, who was slain at Airds- 
moss, Ayrshire, 20 July, 1680. Richard 
Cameron disowned Charles Stuavt (11.) 
for having violated the Engagement {q.v.), 
and hisbrother James as apapist. He col- 
lected some six-and-twenty horse and forty 
foot, which he called ' the host of Israel,' 
was attacked and fell. His followers hold 
the perpetual obligation of the Solemn 
League and Covenant {(l-v.) ; they stoutly 
resisted the introduction of the English 
Church into Scotland, and continued to 
preach in the open air in violation of the 
Act against * Field Conventicles ' (q-v.). 
The party still exists in Ireland and North 
America, but is very small. 

Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, has 
obtained dishonourable notoriety for his slaughter 
Of tlie Cameronians. 

II. The Scottish Rifles. Originally 
formed from the Glasgow Cameronian 
guard, raised in 1786 from the followers 
of Richard Cameron, the puritan preacher. 
The first battalion is the 26th foot, and 
the second battaHon the 19th. 



Camisards {The), 1688. Calvinists 
of the Cevennes, who, after the Revoca- 
tion Edict, took up arms under their 
leaders Cavalier and Roland, and defeated 
the French troops sent against them by 
Louis XIV. again and agam. At last the 
Duke of Berwick extirpated them and 
desolated the whole province of the 
Cevennes in 1705. Called Camisards 
from the camise or smock which they 
wore. Clement VI. said they were ' a 
cursed brood from the execrable race of 
the Albigenses.' 

Dr. Emms died 22 Dec, 1707, and the Camisards 
of Kngland staked their reputation that he would 
return to life on 25 May. Guards were set o%-er 
his grave ; but it is needless to add that Dr. Emms 
slept on the sleep which knows no waliing. 

2s'.B. Any military surprise by night is a Camis- 
ade. Thus the taking of Pontoise in 1419 was 
a camisade, and the battle of Pavia in 1524 com* 
menced with a camisade. 

Camp of Boulogne (The), 1802. 
Preparations made by the Consul Bona- 
parte, at Boulogne, for the invasion of 
England. It contained a vast number of 
gunboats and flat transports, military 
stores and munitions of war ; but it camo 
to nothing. 

Campbell's Acts. Two Acts of 
Parliament introduced by Lord Campbell 
(9, 10 Vict. c. 93) 1846, and (20, 21 Vict. 
c. 83) 1857, against the sale of obscene 
publications, prints, &c. 

Campbellites (3 syl.). Reformers 
of New America, 1823, so called from 
Alexander Campbell of Bethany, U.S. 
He was a Baptist ; protested against all 
creeds, and professed subjection to the 
Bible only. The Campbellites reject all 
school theological terms and doctrines 
attached to names such as Regeneration, 
Trinity and Trinitarian, Unitarian, Calvi- 
nism, Arianism, Arminianism, using only 
the words and phrases of Scripture. They 
baptize by unmersion, and employ the 
word Immerse instead of baptize. 

Campo-Formio {Peace of), 17 Oct., 
1797. In which Austria recognised the 
Rliine as the boundary of France ; and 
ceded to that nation Milan, Mantua, and 
the Nethei-lands. France, on the other 
hand, restored to Austria the city of Venice, 
Istria, Dalmatia, and the left bank of the 
Adige. 

Campus Martins. A vast plain 
to the west of Rome where was a temple 
of Mars. Here the assemblies of the 
people were held, here magistrates were 



1-10 



CANADIAN 



CANONICAL 



elected, and here tlie young Romans lield 
their athletic sports. In the latter times 
of the republic porticoes, triumphal arches, 
and magnificent public monuments were 
erected round the Campus Martius. At 
Paris a vast plain was laid out in 1770, 
which was called the Champ de Mars ; it 
is south-west, of the city, between the 
Ecole Militaire and the river Seine. And 
here in 1815 was held the federation of 
the Champ de Mai. 

Champ de Mars (pronounce sharnd Marz), Che^mp 
de Mai (ijronounce snainu, May), 

Canadian O'Oonnell _ (The). 
Papineau, leader of the democratic party 
of Lower Canada, in the rebellion of 1836. 
He was made attorney-general when the 
two Canadas were united in 1840. 

Canal Navigation {Parent of). 
Francis Egerton, Gth earl and 3rd duke 
of Bridgewater (1729-1803). 

Candiotes (3 syl.). Natives of Candia 
or Crete. 

Candle Hymn {The). The hymn 
sung at the kindling or lighting of the 
lamp at sunset. 

Just then the voices of the singers . . . concen- 
trated themselves . . . into an evening or 'candle 
hymu.'— Patee, Marius the Epicurean, chap. xxi. 

Candlemas Day, 2 Feb. The feast 
of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, 
observed by Catholics with a procession of 
lighted candles. On this day the candles 
required for the services of the ensuing 
year are consecrated. 

In Scotland Candlemas-day is one of the four 
term days, for the payment of rents, interest, 
taxes, &c. Tlie other three term-days are Whit- 
sunday, Lammas-day, and Martinmas-day. 

Candle Kent. A rent given for an 
out-let or out-drift before the passing of 
the Enclosure Act in 1811. Those who 
liked met at a given time and place, and 
perfect silence was exacted. An inch of 
candle being liglited, one of the party 
named what he would give for the plot, 
and laid a shilling near the candle. If 
another would give more he stated it, and 
laid a shilling near the candle, returning 
the deposit to the first bidder. This went 
on till the candle had burnt out, and the 
last depositor rented the land at his own 
price for the year. 

Canicular Period {A). 1,4G1 
Egyptian years, which began with the 
heliacal rising of the dog-star. Also 
called a Sothic Period. 



The first Canicular period was B.C. 2783. In 1461 
Egyptian years, the sum ot the deficit 3 of the Canl- 
cular years equals one entire year, bie ' Dog Days. 

Cannonade of Valmy {The), 20 
Sept., 1792. The attack of General 
Kellermann on the Duke of Brunswick at 
Valmy was so called, because as many as 
20,000 cannon shots were exchanged be- 
tween the French and Prussians. 

Not above 400 men on either side were slain in 
this battle, notwithstanding these 20,000 cannon 
shots. In Kellermann's army were the young Duke 
de Chartres (Louis Philippe), and his brother the 
Duke of Montpensier, then only 17 years of age. 

Kellermann was afterwards created by Napoleon 
' due de Valmy ' ; and on his deathbed he requested 
to be buried in the field of Valmy. 

Canon (.4), A cathedral dignity 
(Greek ' kanon,' a rule), originally a 
Cenobite living under a certain rule, as 
the rule of St. Augustine, the rule of 
St. Francis, the canonical rule, &:c. By 
the rule of Chrodegang (763) canons were 
bound to manual labour, silence, and 
confession twice a year. Later on the 
canons formed the bishop's council, and 
were paid by the bishops. The dean and 
canons of a cathedral form what is called 
' the dean and chapter.' See ' Canons.' 

Canon La-w (T/^e). 'Corpus Juris 
Canonioi ' (1151), a body of rules for 
ecclesiastical government compiled by 
Gratian, an Italian monk, from Scripture, 
the Latin Fathers, the decrees of general 
councils, decretals, and bulls ; together 
with the decrees of Gratian, the decre- 
ta,ls of Gregory IX. &c., the Clementine 
constitutions, and the Extravagants of 
John XXII. (20 in number), drawn up by 
John Lancelot in the time of Pope Paul 
IV. (155.5-1559). See ' Civil Law.' 

In 1003 Convocation was ordered to draw up a 
new body of canons, and 141 canons were decided 
on, wliieh make the present code of ecclesiastical 
law in England. They were compiled by Bancroft 
from the articles, injunctions, and synodical de- 
crees published in the reigns of Edward VI. and 
Elizabeth. 

Canonical Hours {The Eight). 
Four great (in capitals), and four little 
(in ita,lics). 

Matins or Nocturns before break of 
day. On festivals and Sundays they 
consist of 3 psalms, 3 anthems, and 3 
lessons. 

Lauds, at dawn. They consist of 5 
psalms, 2 or more capitules {i.e. Scrip- 
ture extracts), prayers, and canticles. 

Prime, at 6 o'clock in the morning, 
called the first hour of the day. 

Tierce, at 9 o'clock in the morning, 
called the third hour of the day. 



CANONICAL 



CANTER 



HI 



Sext, at mid-day or noon, called the 
sixth hour of the day. , 

Nones, at 8 o'clock in the afternoon, 
called the niyiilt hour of the day. 

Vespebs, at sunset, or after 3 o'clock. 
They consist of 5 psalms, a capitule or 
extract from Scrix)ture, a hymn, the 
Magnificat, one or more anthems, and 
prayers. 

Compline, at bed-time. Consisting 
of confession, one lesson, 3 psalms, one 
anthem, one capitule, one short 're- 
sponse,' the Nunc Dimittis, and prayers. 

Canonical Obedience. The 

obedience which the inferior clergy owe 
to the diocesan bishop, which bishops 
owe to the metropolitan, and the metro- 
politans to the pope in the Eoman 
Catliolic Church. 

Canons. Means rules (Greek Jcanon). 
The ' Canons of the Church ' are the 
laws and regulations of ecclesiastical 
discipline, the decrees and decisions of 
the councils, and the creeds to which 
Christians should conform. /See' Canon.' 

Canons {The Book of). In Scotch 
history. A code of the rules for the 
guidance of the Scotch Church, prepared 
by the Scotch bishops, in obedience to 
the command of Charles I. ; revised by 
Laud, and confirmed by letters patent 
23 May, 1G35. The influence has been to 
widen the breach between the Scotch 
and Anglican Churches. 

Canons Apostolic. A collection 
of ecclesiastical laws attributed to St. 
Clement, a disciple of Peter the apostle. 
This tradition requires proof ; the proba- 
bility is that these canons are of Eastern 
origin, and of the 3rd or 4th cent. 

Canons Penitentiary. Rules en- 
joined on iDenitents for different sins, drawn 
from different councils, papal rescripts, 
and the writings of the Fathers. 

Canons Regular of St. Gene- 
vieve, 1615. Confirmed 1G22 by 
Gregory XV. 

Canons Regular of St. Victor, 
1113. Established in Paris by G uillaume 
de Champeaux, abbot of St. Victor. 

Canons of Scripture. Those books 
of the Old and New Testament contained 
in our ordinary Bible, regarded by the 
church as authentic in contradistinction 
to the Apocryphal Books. 



The books accepted by the church are called 

the canonical books. 

Canons of the Churcli of 
England (The). Agreed upon in the 
synod held m London 1G03-4. They are 
141 in number. 

Canonical obedience means obedience to these 
canons ol the Anglican Church. 

Canons of the Mass (The). 
Secret or inaudible words, and certain 
ceremonies employed by the priest be- 
tween the Sa)icius and the Pater, in 
which interval the elements are conse- 
crated. Attributed to St. Jerome and 
Pope Severus. 

In the Protestant Common Prayer Book this 
part of the communion service begins with ' Wo 
do not presume to come to this Thy table. . . .' 

Canons of the Saints. A cata- 
logue of the saints recognised by the 
Catholic Church. Hence canonisation, 
i.e. insertion of a name in the canon of 
saints ; and to canonise is to insert the 
name in the list or canon. 

Canossa. 'Has the Czar gone to 
Canossa ? ' This was part of a leader in 
the ' Standard ' newspaper in Nov. 1887, 
referring to the visit of tlie czar to Berlin 
to visit the Emperor of Germany, with 
whom relationships had not been friendly. 
The meaning is, ' has he gone to eat 
humble pie ? ' Canossa, in tlie duchy of 
Modena, is the place to which Kaiser 
Heinrich IV. went in the winter of 
1076-7 to humble himself before Pope 
Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). 

Canosa, or Cannse, in the south of Italy, is quite 
another place. 

Canteen (A). A licensed store 
within a barrack, under the superinten- 
dence of a committee of officers and the 
charge of a sergeant. Here the best ale, 
beer, porter, tea and coffee, tobacco, 
with ginger-beer, soda-water, flour, bacon, 
bread, butter, and sw^eets, together with 
tapes, needles, buttons, marbles, tops, 
and a hundred other things are sold, at 
less than half the price they would cost 
in any shop, and all of the very best 
quality. These canteens are very pro- 
fitable, and the surplus is applied to the 
reduction of the cost of other charges 
to the men. 

Canter of Coltbridge {The)> 
1745. The retreat of the dragoon 
picquets, immediately the Highlanders 
under Charles Edward fired their pistols. 
These rascal dragoons, not waiting to 



142 



CANTERBURY 



aAJ?S 



return the fire, rode off towards Colt- 
bridge, nearer to Edinburgh. Fowkes 
and Gardiner now ordered a retreat, and 
the men went belter skelter through 
New Town towards Leith. Still dread- 
ing an attack, they made off to Preston, 
six miles further, and stopped not till 
they reached Dunbar. This is certainly 
one of the most dastardly actions on 
record. 

Canterbury Riots (The), 1838. 
Caused by a Cornishman, named John 
Nicholl Thorn, who went to Kent, and 
passed himself off as Sir William 
Courtenay. He said he was the Messiah, 
invulnerable, and immortal. Strange as 
it may appear, hundreds of respectable 
persons followed him. At length the 
military being called out the 'lunatic' 
was shot. No such absurd delusion and 
infatuation had been known for cen- 
turies. 

Cantred (A), of land contained 100 
towns; so that an Irish cantred (says 
"Ware) corresponded to the Saxon 
hundred. In the registry of Duisk 
Abbey, Connaught is said to contain only 
twenty-six cantreds {i.e. 2,600 towns). 

Canuleian Law {The), b.c. 445. 
A law projected by Caius Canuleius, a 
Roman tribune, to allow patricians and 
plebeians to intermarry, and legitimise 
their offspring. This wise law utterly 
broke down the absurd caste of old 
Rome. 

Canute the Great (995, 1016- 

1035). 

Canute was called ' the Great ' from the extent 
of his dominions (six kingdoms); he was called 
' the Brave ' for his military prowess ; he was 
called ' the Rich ' from his wealth and liberality, 
and 'the Fious ' for his devotion. 

Canute's Law, or 'Cnut's Law.' 
The laws enforced by King Canute, and 
the mode of government which then pre- 
vailed. 

When the people clamoured for Canute's law, 
they meant that they wished to be governed in 
the same way as Canute governed the nation 
(1014-1036). 

Cap. See also : — 

Blue cap (repnhlicea) Phrygian cap 

Cardinal's red hat Pope s cap 

City flat cap Purple caps (religious 

Episcopal cap virgins) 

Greek cap Square caps 

Green cap (bankrupt's) Statute caps 

Mortar board Yellow cap (J ews' badge) 

Cap of Liberty {The). In the 
French Revolution was not like the cap 





worn by manumitted slaves in Roman 
liistory, but a red cloth 
Plirygian cap, properly with 
two pointed ends behind. 
The annexed engraving ia 
taken from a 25 centime-piece 
in the year 3 {i.e. 1794-1795). 
See * Phrygian Cap.' 

It was and still is called ' Le bonnet rouge." 
' Bonnet ' means a woollen cap, ' mortier ' a velvet 
one. 

Cap of Liberty {The). Worn in 
the Roman states by manumitted slaves ; 
was made thus, according to a coin of 
Brutus, after the death of 
Caesar. It was made of red 
cloth, and those who wore it 
were called ' pileati,' i.e. wearers 
of the ' pileus.' In revolutionary 
emeutes at Rome the pileus was 
sometimes hoisted on a spear. 
After the murder of Ceesar, Brutus and 
his rebels adopted the red cap as a 
token of their republican sentiments. 

The pileus was commonly worn at games and 
festivals. The sick also wore it as more convenient 
than the 'gelarus' or the broad-brimmed 'pe- 
tasus.' 

Cap of Maintenance {The). One 
of the regalia of state belonging to the 
British sovereigns, and carried before 
them at the coronation and other national 
solemnities. Caps of 
maintenance are also 
carried before the 
mayors of several cities 
in England. It is made 
of crimson velvet lined with ermine, and 
has two points behind. Most of the 
reigning dukes of Germany and various 
families of the British peerage bear their 
crests on a cap of maintenance. 

' Mantenementum ' (says Ducange) means ' ad- 
ministratio ' ; and the cap of maintenance, with- 
out doubt, is the symbol of administrative power. 

Caps {The), 1738-1771. The popular 
faction of Sweden under Frederick and 
Adolphus Frederick. They upheld the 
treaty with Russia, and wore the Russian 
cap as a badge of their proclivities ; they 
were also friendly to England. The 
opposite faction were called the Cha- 
peaux or Hats, and wore the French 
' chapeau ' as their badge, to show their 
French proclivities. They wanted to 
roll back the government into an oli- 
garchy. The leader of the Caps was 
Count Horn; the leader of the Hats 
was Count Syllenborg. Gustavus IIL 




CAPABILITY 



CAPTAIN 



143 



prohibited the names and broke up the 
factions, 1771. 

Gustavus courted the Caps, that la, the citizens 
and the people, and thus received the services of 
the burgher guard of the capital. The Caps were 
only too ready to assist In pulling down the 
haughty and oppressive aristocracy.— HoWiTT, 
Hilt, of Encil., ' George III.,' chap. Iv. p. 95. 

Carlyle says : ' Faction of Caps, that is night- 
caps, asbeingsomnolent and disinclined to France 
and war. Seldom has a valiant nation sunk to 
Buch depths.' 

Capability Brown. Lancelot 
Brown, the landscape gardener, was so 
called from his constant use of the word 
in regard to the sites submitted to his 
skill (1715-1783). 

Bute . . . emnloyed Capability Brown (1771) . . . 
to sound Chatham as to a coalition. — HowiTT, 
Hist, of Engl., ' George III.,' chap. iv. p. 87. 

Capetian Dynasty [The). The 

third race of French kings (987-1848). 
In 1270 the Philippine or elder branch 
succeeded, and in 1328 the younger 
branch, called the Valois. In 1848 Louis 
Philippe abdicated, and the line ended. 

Huguet Capet appeared in public in an abbot's 
cope, for he was abl)ot of St. Martin de Tours, but 
never crowned. He was called Capetus, which 
means one who wears a capot, or abbot s cope. 
In 17!>2 the monarchy was interrupted by the First 
Eepublic. In 1804 Napoleon I. became Emperor 
of the French. The monarchy was restored in 
Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. In 
1848 the Second Republic was introduced. From 
18o'2 to 1873 the Empire was restored in Napoleon 
III., after whose captivity the liepublio was again 
restored. 

Capitoline Games [The), a.d. 86. 
Instituted by the Emperor Domitian to 
commemorate the saving of the Capitol 
by the sacred geese when Rome, B.C. 390, 
was invaded by the Gauls. 

Capitularies. The laws of the 
Frankish kings are so called because 
they are subdivided into ' capitula ' or 
chapters. Ducange says any laws re- 
duced into a code may be so called ; but 
the most famous are the Capitularies 
of Charlemagne (827) compiled by the 
Abbot Angesius of Fontenelles (3 syl.), 
and those of his son Louis le De'bonnaire. 

Capitulation Resolution [The), 

1612. Granting absolute religious liberty 
and equality, because the estates of 
Austria, leagued in tlie Union of Horn, 
refused otherwise to do homage to 
Mathias, the new kaiser. Ferdinand II., 
who succeeded Mathias in 1619, wholly 
disregarded the capitulation, and acted 
on the motto, ' Better a desert than a 
country full of heretics.' 



Capitulation of Dajitzig {The), 
26 May, 1807. 

Capon Tree {The). An oak on 
which six followers of Charles Edward 
were hanged on Tuesday, 21 Oct., 1746, 
viz. Colonel James Innes, Peter Lindsey, 
Ronald Macdonald, Thomas Park, Peter 
Taylor, and Michael Delard. Called the 
Capon Tree because under it the judges 
and their retinue regaled themselves with 
capons on their way from Newcastle to 
Carhsle. The tree no longer exists. 

Cappel {Wars of), 1529, 1531. These 
were religious wars between the adhe- 
rents of Zwingli the Swiss reformer and 
the Catholics. The Ziirichers sided with 
Zwingli, but the Catholics of Lucerne, 
Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Zug 
opposed them. On 11 Oct., 1531, in a 
conflict at Cappel, in Switzerland, Zwingli 
the reformer was slain. 
The war of 1529 was patched up by a peace. 

Capriana {Peace of), 1441, between 
Venice and Milan. Celebrated by the 
marriage of Sforza with Bianca, only 
child of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of 
Milan. 

Captain Cobbler. An insurgent 
leader in 1536, who with Dr. Mackrel 
headed a rising in Lincolnshire. Some 
20,000 followers presented a petition to 
Henry VIII. complaining of extortion and 
misgovernment. The King replied : ' Ye 
are presumptuous — the rude conmions of 
one shire, and that the most brute and 
beastly of the whole realm — ye would 
rule your prince whom ye are bound to 
obey and serve with your lives, your 
lands, and your goods. Mind your own 
business and leave government to your 
betters.' Captain Cobbler (Melton) and 
Dr. Mackrel, with thirteen others, were 
executed. 

* Captain ' Grant, sometimes called 
* Cooney.' A famous Irish burglar, 
executed 29 Aug., 1816. He was pro- 
fusely liberal, most polite, and an incom- 
parable dancer. He never injured any- 
one except in self-defence, and on no 
account allowed those who paid him 
blackmail to be robbed of anything. He 
was a great favourite with Irish farmers, 
and a welcome guest at every fair. His 
first operations were in Queen's County, 
Lis last in the county of Wexford. 



144 



CAPTAIN 



CARACALLA 



* Captain Grant ' being surprised by the 
military, was committed as ' Cooney.' 

Captain Moonlight, 1878. The 
name assumed by some unknown leader 
of Irish Fenians, who wrote threatening 
letters to those who resisted or refused 
to join their league. The following was 
received in May 1889 by a tenant on the 
Kenmare estate for being on friendly 
terms with the bailiS. 

Feniun Lodge, Castle ipland. 

... I give you till Tuesday evening to let the 
people know you repent mending a cooler, re- 
ceiving the milk and butter, and taking tea wibh 
•Gloster." If you don't ask pardon , - I -will 
take your life within a week. . . . 

(signed) Capt. Moonlight. 

A diagram below of a cofBn, a rifle, and a skull 
With cross-bones. (See ' Irish Associations.') 

Captain Rag. Edmund Neale 
Smith, the poet (16G8-1710), so dubbed 
at Oxford. 

Captain Swing (1830-1833). An 
assumed name adopted by the writer of 
threatening letters to those who used 
threshing instruments instead of flails. 
As the letter was generally followed by 
the burning of ricks, the 'captain' was 
called ' Swing the Rick-burner.' There 
was a life published by Carlile, Fleet 
Street, of 'Francis Swing, the Kent 
burner,' in 1830, pp. 24. Another, pub- 
blished by Eooke & Varty, Strand 
(? 1831), called ' The Life and Death of 
Swing the Rick-burner.' 

Captains of Liberty, 1270-1291. 
Oberto Spinola and Oberto Dona of 
Genoa, who seized the supreme power 
from the podesta, and ruled the state for 
21 years. Under them was a magistrate 
called the Abbate del Popolo. 

Captivity of the Popes (The), 
1309-1877. The time that the popes 
held their court and resided at Avignon, 
instead of Rome. It was followed by 
' the Great Schism of the West,' when 
there were two or more popes, one at 
Rome and one at Avignon or Basel 
(Bale). 

Boniface VIII. anathematised Philippe IV., le 
Bel, of France ; whereupon the king seized him, 
and the pope, angry and vexed, fretted himself 
into a fever and died. Philippe then secured the 
papal chair for Bertrand de Goth (Clement V.), on 
condition that he stigmatised the memory of 
Boniface, assisted in suppressing the Knights 
Templars, and consigned to the king for five 
years the tithes of all the church proper hy in 
France. In order to carry out these conditions 
Clement V. took up his residence in Avignon. 
The time that the prpes resided in France is 
called 'the seventy jeiirs* captivity." 



Captivity (Popes of the). (1) Cle- 
ment V. (1305-1314), who removed his 
court from Rome to Avignon. 

(2) John XXII. (1316-1334). Louis of 
Bavaria set up Nicholas V. in opx)Osition 
to John, but John called him antii^ope, 
and succeeded in imprisoning his rival. 

(3) Benedict XII. (1334-1342). 

(4) Clement VI. (1342-1352), 

(5) Innocent VI. (1352-1362). 

(6) Urban V. (1362-1370). 

(7) Gregory XI. (1370-1378), who re- 
moved his court back to Rome in 1376. 

These are not anti-popes. The anti-popes 
followed the popes of the captivity. See 'Anti- 
popes,' p. 31. 

Capucins, or 'Capuchin Friars,' 
1528. Reformed Franciscans established 
in Italy by Matteo Baschi ; established in 
France at Meudon in 1585 ; in Spain 1006. 
So called from the ca^^p^icio, cayuche, 
their head-dress. See ' Franciscans.' 

CapuletS and Montagues (3 syl.), 
or Capuletti and Montecchi. Two noble 
families of Verona, whose feuds have 
been rendered familiar by Shakespeare's 
tragedy of ' Romeo and Juliet,' 1303. 
Da.nte in his ' Purgatorio ' (VI.) alludes to 
the same. The story of Romeo and 
Juliet forms one of Bandello's famous 
tales (1554). 

Caput {The). The council of the 

Senate in Cambridge University, consist- 
ing of the vice-chancellor, one doctor in 
each of the three faculties, and two 
masters of arts. This caput represents 
the senate. A muster, called a ' congre- 
gation,' is held once a fortnight. A 
measure passed or licence granted by the 
Caput is called a Grace, and a Grace for 
a degree, duly signed by the praslector of 
the college to which the candidate belongs, 
is called a Supplicat. 

Caqueux. So the Cagots {q.v.) are 
called in Brittany. 

Caracalla. A Roman emperor (211- 
217), so called because on his visit to Gaul 
he brought home a number of Gaulic gar- 
ments, called caracalla, which he both 
adopted himself and compelled all about 
his person to adopt also. Caracalla's 
name was Bassianus, and he was usually 
called Antoninus. 

The caracalla was like what we now call a frock 
coat, much more convenieut than the llomaai 
toga,. 



CAR AC CI 



CAKDINALISTk 



145 



Caracci of France [Le). Jouvenet 
(1647-1707), being paralysed on the right 
Bide, he paiuted with the left hand. 

Caracci Scliool of painting. See 
' Incamminati.' 

Caraites (Kara-ites), 8th cent. Those 
Israelites who reject the authority of the 
Talmud. Those who admit it are called 
Talmudists. They were textualists, con- 
fining their faith to the text of scripture, 
and rejecting tradition. 

Caravats. The Ribbonmen of 
Tipperary, Kilkenny, Cork, and Limerick. 
Organised in 1808. See 'Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

The Cnravats had been called ' Pauddeen Gar's- 
men,' till one of their number, prosecuted (in 1610) 
by the Shanavests for burning the house of a man 
■who had taken land over his neighbours head . was 
hanged, and Pauddeen Gar declared he voi'ld not 
leave tlie place of execution till ho saw caiavai 
about the fellow's neck.— Browne, Nayratii-c of 
Stall' Trials in the KineU'cnth Cent. (1882), vol. i. p. 40J. 
((Quoted ia 'Notes and Queries,' 18S2, p. 44(5.) 

Carbonari {The). 'The charcoal 
burners,' 19th cent. A secret political 
and ' religious ' society of Italy, having for 
its object the expulsion of Austria and the 
establishment in Italy of a democracy. 
It spread into France in 1818, where it 
aimed at the downfall of the restored 
Bourbons. The society was organised 
into companies of twenty called vendita, 
and the central assembly was called the 
alia vendita ; and the united lodges, the 
republic. The name originated with the 
Guelfs, who, in order to elude the Ghibel- 
lines (masters of Italy), met in the woods 
in the cabins of the charcoal-burners. 

• It is said that the Carbonari established them- 
Belves in the Forest of Ardennes as far back as 
A.D. 445, but in the reign of Charlemagne became 
incorporated with the French nation. They were 
noticed at Naples in 13-27 as a dangerous political 
association, and Pope John XXII. tried to put down 
their gladiatorial contests. 

Carbonarism, or * The Rule of the 
Carbonari,' 1808. Scarcely known till 
1815, when Maghella, the Genoese, esta- 
blished affiliated lodges in Naples and 
the Roman States. The ostensible object 
of the society was the suppression of vice, 
the real object the establishment of re- 
publicanism. The initiated, called Good 
Cousins, were divided into apprentices 
and masters. In 1821 Paris was made 
the head-quarters, but the society was 
called ' The Associated Patriots.' After 
the July revolution (1830), a split was 
made in the society ; the French portion 
7 



called itself the * Charbonnerie Democra- 
tique,' and the Italian portion called itself 
* Young Italy.' See ' Santa Fedists.' 

The lodge of the Carbonari was called 'a hut.' 
Inside was ' the place for selling ch;ucoal ; ' outside 
was ' the forest.' The political opponents were 
called 'Wolves.' Carbonari meant 'charcoal- 
burners.' All the insurrections between l«li) and 
1822 were instigated by the Carbonari. The 
' Secret Association of the Holy Faith ' (g.o.) de- 
clared war to the knife with the Carbonari. 

Carders, 1808. The Ribbonmen of 
East and West Meath, Roscommon, and 
part of Mayo. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Cardinal Canons. Canons at- 
tached, in cardinali, to a church, as a 
priest is to a parish. 

Cardinal Carstairs, 1649-1715. 
Born at Cathcart near Glasgow ; was no 
cardinal, but a gi-eat friend and adviser of 
the Prince of Orange. It was by the 
advice of "William Carstairs that WiUiam 
planned his invasion in 1688. He was 
made chaplain to "William III., and it was 
from his enormous influence in church 
and state that he was popularly called 
Cardinal Carstairs. 

Cardinal de I'lgnominie (Le). 

Cardinal de Lom(3nie, finance minister of 
Louis XVI. He was so hated by the 
people that they burnt him in effigy. He 
took the oath to the civil constitution of 
the clergy, and being proscribed by 
Robespierre and sent to prison, died in 
1794, as it is supposed, by his own hand. 

Cardinal Mass, ' Missa Cardinalis.* 
A mass ' qufe in ara cardinali celebratur.' 

See ' Mass.' 

Cardinal's Red Hat, 1244. 

Directed to be worn, instead of mitre, by 
Innocent T"V., in the Council of Lyons. 
Twelve cardinals were then created in 
honour of Christmas day. As 25 Dec. 
was called the ' Sun's annual birthday,' 
and red was the symbolic colour of the 
sun, the reason and connection are obvious. 
The notion of martyrdom is wholly 
erroneous. 

Galerus cardinallum rnbeus, lis ab Innocentio IV. 
prinium concessus in Concil. Lugd. ann. 1244, in 
previgilio Natalis I>omini, creatis 12 cardinalibus. 
—DC Cange, vol. iii. p. 730. 

•.• Before the Council of Lyons cardinals wore 
mitres. 

Cardinalists, 1643. Adherents of 
Cardinal Richelieu when Cinq Mars 
headed the royalist faction to assassinate 
him.. 



IIG 



CARDS 



CARLO 



Cards. P. A. Prince, in his * Parallel 
History ' (vol. i. p. 673) says : Cards were 
the invention of the Spanish Moors, and 
represented the seasons. Two colours re- 
present the two equinoxes, and the four 
cjuits the four seasons. Spring was 
designated by a rose (now a diamond) ; 
summer by a trefoil (a club) ; autumn by 
an acorn (a spade) ; and winter by a cup 
(now a heart). There are twelve court 
cards to represent the twelve months and 
52 cards to represent the 52 weeks in a year. 

After the expulsion of the Moors, the 
Spaniards changed the original symbols, 
and made the four suits represent the 
four castes or grades of society — Chori, 
the ecclesiastics (called by the French 
ccBwrs, hearts); Spada, swords, the mili- 
tary rank (corrupted into spades) ; 
Dineros, coins to represent the merchant 
class (our diamonds) ; and Basta, clubs to 
represent the agricultural class. There 
are traces both in India and Egypt of this 
quadripartite division of society. 

The French caU spades jnque, i.e. pike- 
jnen ; clubs they call trefle, i.e. clover ; 
diamonds they call carreaux, i.e. square 
pavements. 

In French cards the four kings are representa- 
tives of the four kingdoms : France, Judsea, Mace- 
donia, and Rome. Thus Charlemagne (hearts) 
stands for France; David (spacUs) for Judrea ; 
Alexander (chibs) for Macedonia; and Csesar 
(diamonds) for Rome. In English packs hearts 
Btand for England ; spade's for France ; clubs for the 
pope ; and diamonds for Spain. 

In the reign of Charles VI. of France the four 
queens represented Isabeau (clubs), the queen- 
mother ; Jeanne d'Arc (spadt's) ; the queen herself 
was hiiarts ; and Agnes Sorel was diamonds. 

The four knaves were Hogier the Dane, La Hire, 
Lancelot, and Hector de Galard. 

Careme. A perversion of Quaresme, 
which is a French contraction of Qua- 
dragesima (Qua'r'es'm'), the season of Lent 
which begins with Ash Wednesday, forty 
days before Easter. 

Caricaturists (English). It is said 
that Hogarth and Cruikshank are our 
best; that Gillray exaggerated, and 
animal Rovvlandson was a humourist ; it 
was elegant Leech; Bunbury ('H.B.') 
was gaseous ; ' genteel ' Sayer was vulgar ; 
Collet stupid ; and that Seymour excelled 
in cockney foolery. John Doyle was the 
reputed author of the ' H.B.' sketches in 
' Punch.' 

Carizmians {TJie), or ' Chorasmims,' 
or * Kharizms,' or ' Khovaresmians,' in- 
habitants of Kharizm or Chovaresm in 
Turkestan, south of the Aral. From 094 



to 1231 this province was independent, 
and in 1193 the Carizmians ruled over 
Persia. Genges-Khan overturned the 
dynasty. A dynasty of Carizmians 
reigned in Delhi from 1213 to 1398, when 
it was succeeded by the Patans. 

Carl X. of Sweden, 1G22, 1655-lGGO. 
First of the 7th dynasty, called Deux- 
Ponts, succeeded his cousin Christina, who 
had abdicated. 

Father, John Casimir ; mother, Cath- 
arine (daughter of Carl IX., and sister of 
Gustavus Adolphus) ; w»/e,Hedwig; son, 
Carl XL 
Contemporary with Cromwell and Louis XIV. 

Carle Sund ay. The Sunday before 
Palm Sunday, from an ancient practice of 
eating carliiigs (gray peas) fried in butter, 
with pejiper and salt, on that day. Per- 
haps the more orthodox food would be 
hallowed beans fried. See ' Sunday.' 

It will be remembered that Twelfth Day was the 
beanfeast, and the person who drew the bean was 
bean king for the nonce. 

Carlists [The), 1833, of Spain, adher- 
ents of Don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand 
VII. Up to 1830 the Salic law prevailed 
in Spain ; but Ferdinand VII., having no 
child except a daughter, announced that 
the succession would in future pass to 
both male and female. He thus set aside 
the succession of his brother Carlos for 
Isabel, an infant girl not three years old. 
Carlos resisted, and a civil war ensued 
from 1833 to 1839. In 1845 Don Carlos 
abandoned his claim, and died at Trieste 
in 1855 at the age of 67. 

Don Carlos the younger (Count of Montemolin). 
after an unsuccessful struggle, was arrested in 
France, IHOO, and renounced his claim. He also 
died the following year. 

In 1871 the nephew of young Carlos renewed the 
struggle, but after five years' desultory fighting, 
he fled to France, and the contest ended. 

*„* The ' Pragmatic Sanction ' of Austria made 
Maria Tlieresa the heir of Karl VI. and set aside 
the Duke of Bavaria, who raised a civil war. 

Carlo Klian, 1784. A name given 
to Charles James Fox from a popular 
caricature during the progress of his first 
India Bill. Fox is represented as the 
Great Mogul riding into Delhi on an 
elej)hant ; Lord North and Burke are re- 
presented as leading the elephant. Burke 
has a trumpet, to indicate that he is Carlo 
Khan's trumpeter. It is supposed that 
Fox aimed at being khan or dictator of 
the East Indies, and this supposition is 
supported by a bill which, in .''783, he 
brought before parliament. 



i 



CARLOVINGIANS 



CAROLIN 



117 



Carlovingians [The), 715-987. The 
2ncl French dynasty. So called from 
Charles (Carolus) Martel, maire-du-palais, 
and son of Pepin d'Heristal. 

*^* Charles Martel, king 715-741; his 
son Pej)in le Bref , 752-768 ; Charlemagne, 
768-814, who was king of France and 
emperor of the West. He was succeeded 
by Louis le De'bonnaire, 814-840. 

In 840 a separation took place; the 
Frencli kings were Chables le Chauve, 
Louis le Begue, Louis til., and Carloman, 
Cn.UiLES LE Gkos, Charles le Simple, 
Louis d'Outremer, Lothaire, Louis V. 
called Le Faineant, 986-987. 

The emperors were Lothaire, Louis his 
son, Chables le Chauve, Chaeles le 
Gkos, Guy of Sopeto, Lambert, Arnoidd 
of Carinthia, Louis son of Boson, and 
Berenger, 906-924. 

The kings of Germany were Louis the 
Germanic, Louis the Young, Chables le 
Gbos, Arnoulcl of Carinthia, and Louis 
the Infant, 899-911. 

The kings of Italy were for the most 
part the same as the emperors up to Louis 
son of Boson ; but then follow Hugh of 
Provence, Lothaire, Berenger II., and 
Adelbert, 950-961. 

Carlo-W^itz [Peace of), 26 Jan., 1699. 
Between Venice, Kaiser Leopold, and the 
Turks. By this treaty the Turks ceded 
to Germany Hungary, Transj'lvania, and 
Sclavonia ; and Turkey ceded to Venice 
the Morea, in honour of Morosini, sur- 
named Peloponnesiacus. This peace was 
effected by the mediation of England. 

The Turks reconquered the Morea in 1715, and it 
was made part of the kingdom ot Greece in 1830. 

Carmagnole. I. A revolutionary 

dress worn in France, especiallj'^ during 

the reign of terror. It consisted of a 

blouse, a red cap, and a tricoloured girdle. 

Blouse, pronounce blilze. 

U. A street dance, in which men, 
women, and children promiscuously took 
hold of hands, danced in a ring, ran 
butting down the street, broke into small 
parties, and danced vehemently like Bed- 
lamites, till ready to drop. 

III. A song, ' Madame Veto ' {q-v.), the 
refrain of which was ' Dansons la Carma- 
gnole ! Vive le son, vive le son du canon ! ' 

IV. Sometimes red rei)ublicans were 
called Carmagnoles, and M. Bai'ere 
designated the speeches made against 
Marie- Antoinette as * Dos Carmagnoles.' 



V. Bombastic and fanatical reports of 
the successes and glory of the French 
arms. These were tried in the Franco- 
Prussian War (g.u.), but were found to be 
wind-bladders. 

Carmagnole, pronounce knr-man-yole. 

The word is from Carmagnola, in Piedmont, the 
great nest of the Savoyards, noted for their street 
music and dancing. 

Carmathians {The), or 'Carma- 
thites ' (3 syl.), a.d. 890-951. The foUow- 
ers of Carmath, the Mussulman reformer, 
who called himself ' the guide, the director, 
the demonstration, the Y/ord, the Holy 
Ghost, the camel, the herald of the Messiah, 
and the representative of Mahomet, John 
the Baptist, and Gabriel. He relaxed the 
duties of ablution, fasting, and pilgrimage, 
allowed the indiscriminate use of wine and 
food, and enjoined the daily x*epetition 
of fifty prayers. His twelve apostles by 
the success of their preaching seemed to 
threaten Arabia with a revolution. The 
Carmathians were a secret society united 
and concealed by an oath of secrecy. 

Carmelites (3 syl.), 1171. One of the 
four orders of begging friars and nuns 
founded by a Calabrian monk on Mount 
Carmel in Syria, and established in Eng- 
land in 1240. They dress in white and 
are called 'White Friars ' from the colour 
of their dress, as the Dominicans are 
called ' Black Friars,' and the Franciscans 
are caUed ' Grey Friars.' The CarmeUtes 
abstain from animal food. 

St. Theresa in 1540 established a reformed order 
called the Carmes-dechaussOs, or Barefooted 
Carmelites. See ' Monastic . . . Orders." 

Carraental Gate {The), or Carmen- 
talis Porta. One of the eight gates of Rome, 
very celebrated because it was the gate 
through which the Fabian clan (consisting 
of 306 men) passed, when the patricians 
rejected their agrarian law. They were 
aU cut off by Veientines, and the gate waa 
nicknamed Scelerata or cursed. 

Carmenti Portse dextro via proxima .Jano est ; 
Ire per hanc noli, quisquis es : omen habet. 
Ovid, Fasti, u. 201. 

Carm.es. See ' Carmelites.' 

Carolin Books {The). Containing 
the judgments of the general council of 
thebishoi^s of the West on certain religious 
questions which were mooted in the time 
of Charlemagne, especially the desirability 
of having pictures and images in churciiea 
as aids to devotion. Alcuin induced 
Charlemagne to submit tlie question to a 



148 



CAROLINA 



CARROLL 



general council, and the practice was con- 
demned. See ' Iconoclasts.' 

Carolina. So called in 1562 by Jean 
de Ribault in honour of Charles IX. of 
France, whose envoy he was. He settled 
in the south, but in 1565 the colony was 
massacred by the Spaniards. In 1663 
some English settled there, and renewed 
the name in compliment to Charles II. of 
England, who granted the whole country 
to eight English adventurers. The nick- 
names of the North Carolinians are tar- 
boilers, tar-heels, buffaloes, axidituckoes', 
of the Southerners weasels^ 

Caroline of Brunswick. The 

divorced wife of George IV., and mother 
of the Princess Charlotte. It was Bergami, 
her chamberlain, with whom the queen's 
name was so slanderously connected. 

Carolus. A silver coin worth ten 
deniers, struck in the reign of Charles VIII. 
of France (1483-1498). It bore the letter 
K, the initial of Karl. Hence the 
phrase ' II a des Carolus ' — he has lots of 
money. This word is quite common in 
French comedy, and is called sometimes 
a carle, charle, or carlo. 

The English Carolus was -what -we now call a 
Bovercign. It was a gold coin struck in the reign 
of Charles I. 

Carosse a cinq sons, 1662. A 
French omnibus introduced by Colbert. 
Seven were started, each containing eight 
seats, and they were compelled to start 
at fixed times whether full or not. Three 
started in Paris from the Porte St.-An- 
toine, and four from the Luxembourg. 

The modern omnib-as, ' Entreprise Generale dea 
Omnibus,' was established in 1827; and Shillibeer 
Introduced the omnibus into London three years 
Jater, in 1830 ; the fare was Gd. 

Carpenters' and Butchers' In- 
surrection {The), 1413. This was the 
great insurrection in Paris of the White 
Scarfs and White Hoods. The Carpenters 
or White Scarfs were the Orleans or 
Armag-nac (Ar-man'-yak) faction ; the 
Butchers or White Hoods were the Bur- 
gundians. The Carpenters prevailed, and 
after the bloody fray in the Place de 
Greve, the White Hoods were driven out 
of Paris and soon wholly disapjpeared. 

Carpet-bag Regime (The), 1866- 
1876. When the Southern States of 
America were practically disfranchised 
after the rebellion, there grew up swarms 
of adventurers who went down to the 
Southern States and organised the negro 



voters, who got elected to all the chief 
ofiices, plundered the state treasures, 
contracted huge state debts, and stole 
the proceeds. Government in the South 
Carolina and Mississippi states was a 
mere caricature. When, in 1876, Presi- 
dent Hayes refused the ' carpet-baggers ' 
the protection of Federal trooj)s, the 
regime fell to pieces, and the rule fell 
again into the hands of the whites. 

Carpocratians (The). Disciples of 
Carpocrates, who flourished under 
Hadrian (a.d. 130) at Alexandria. Carpo- 
crates taught that the world was made by 
angels ; that Jesus was the son of Joseph 
and Mary, and that his body after his 
burial remained in the grave ; he denied 
the doctrine of the resurrection of the 
body, but seems to have believed in the 
transmigration of souls. 

Carrickshoek AfPray {The), 1832. 
An anti-tithe affray. A number of writs 
against defaulters having been issued by 
the court of exchequer, tlie process-servers, 
with a strong body of police, proceeded 
on their mission with secrecy and dis- 
patch ; but the Irish were in waiting, and 
suddenly a vast number armed with ' pitch- 
forks and scythes attacked the yeomen.' 
A terrible hand-to-hand fight ensued, 
and in a few minutes eighteen of the 
police, with their conmianding officer, were 
slaughtered; the remainder fled. The 
coroner's verdict was ' wilful murder,' but 
not one single conviction was obtained. 

Carrier of Europe {The). Den- 
mark, which lets out for hire her mer- 
chant ships and men to foreign states. 

Carrier's Battues, 1794. A device 
by Carrier for clearing Nantes of persons 
suspected of being disaffected towards 
the republic. Some 500 persons were 
placed on a bridge near Nantes (1 sjd.), 
and shot down by cannons. 

Carrier's Vertical Deporta- 
tion, 1794. A scheme devised by 
Carrier to clear Nantes of persons sus- 
pected of not being red republicans. He 
confined 150 persons at a time in the hold 
of a ship, and drowned them in the Loire 
by scuttling the vessel. We are told that 
the number of persons thus 'deported' 
amounted to 32,000. 

Carroll {Leivis). The pen-name of 
C. Lutwidge Dodgson, autlior of ' Alice 
in Wonderland/ ' Through the Looking* 



i 



CARROUSEL 



CASTE 



149 



glass,' ' Phantasma,goria,' ' Hunting the 
Snark,' &c. 

Carrousel. A species of tournament 
at one time very common and very popu- 
lar in all the courts of Europe. It was 
not known in France till the reign of 
Henri IV. (1589-1610); but there were 
such sports in Italy before that time. 
The most famous carrousels in history 
were that of Louis XIII., and the two 
given by Louis XIV. in honour of Made- 
moiselle de la Vallil're (one in Paris, 1662, 
and the other at Versailles in 1664). The 
' Place de Carrousel ' in Paris is the place 
where these fetes were usually held. In 
1750 a revival of the carrousel was 
attempted at Berlin, and in 1828 the 
cavalry school at Saumur held one in 
honour of the Duchesse de Berry. The 
Eglinton tournament was the last car- 
rousel held. 

Running with a lance at the pasteboard head of 
a Turk, or cutting it down with a sword, or firing 
at it with a pistol, were favourite tests of horse- 
manship in France. 

Cartesians. Partisans of Ren^ 
Descartes, the French philosopher (1596- 
1650). Gisbert Voet charged him with 
atheism, and some of his books were 
placed in the Roman ' Index,' especially 
his ' Meditations.' Descartes said he could 
find only one tiling that was not doubt- 
ful, and that was that he existed because 
he thought {cogiio, ergo sum). From 
this he inferred that whatever ' thought ' 
must also exist, hence God must exist. 
Now spirit cannot act on matter without 
a concursus on the part of God, the true 
cause of the action of mind on matter. 

It is absurd to call Descartes an atheist. He was 
not orthodox, but a God was absolutely essential 
to his system. Of course, his axiom is a petitio 
J^Kl^(■' j'ii. Why not ' anibulo, ergo sum ' 2 

Carthu'sians {The), 1084. A mon- 
astic order founded by Bruno of Cologne. 
So called because their chief institution 
was at Chartreuse (in Latin Cartusia), 
near Grenoble, in France. Their esta- 
blishments, wherever situated, were called 
' Chartreuse Houses,' corrupted into 
Charter Houses. They were introduced 
into England in the reign of Henry II., 
A.D. 1180. They adopted, in a great 
measure, the Benedictine rule, with addi- 
tional austerities. 

The Carthusian Rule was as follows: 

To fast all Lent till six at night ; never to eat 
meat at .-xiiy time ; and three days a weeli to fast 
on bread, salt, and water. 



Each monk to have a separate cell, where he 
was to sleep and take in silence his solitary meals. 

Every monk to wear a hair-shirt at all times. 

All to work at agriculture, to be hospitable, and 
given to works of charity. 

Cartoon of Pisa {The), by Michel 
Angelo. It represented some soldiers 
bathing, and suddenly disturbed by the 
appearance of the enemy. It was torn to 
pieces by Baccio Bardinelli out of envy 
of the young artist. An old cojpy of this 
cartoon is in the possession of the Earl of 
Leicester. 

Cams Greek Testament Prizes. 

In the University of Cambridge, 1853. 
Two prizes of books, raised by subscrip- 
tion in honour of the Rev. Wilham Carus, 
Fellow of Trinity. 

CasadePila'tos. In Seville. It is a 
Moorish house said by tradition to have 
been rem.oved from Jerusalem by angels. 
Murray's ' Handbook for Spain ' tells us 
' it was built (1533) in imitation of Pilate's 
house at Jerusalem by Fredrique Enriquez 
de Ribera, in commemoration of his having 
performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem 
in 1519.' Others say it was built by 
Moorish captives for a duke of Medina 
Coeli. See ' Santa Casa.' 

Cassation {Court of). France. For 
qiiashing the decision of other courts 
{casser, to annul). The only question this 
court has to decide is whether the tenor 
of the law and its administration have been 
correctly observed by the court from which 
the appeal is made. 

Cassin'ians. In Latin Cassiani. A 
law school which took its name from 
Cassius Longlnus, governor of Syria, 
A.D. 50. He wrote ten books on the civil 
law, and was a follower of the Sabinians 
{q.v.), or imperial party. 

Caste. In India, a social class, to 
each of which certain pursuits are limited 
by the Laws of Manu, B.C. 900. 

1. The Brahmans or sacerdotal class, 
which ' issued from the mouth of Brah- 
ma.' 

2. The Chuttree or military class, which 
' sprang from the a?-??i of Brahma.' 

3. The Ba'is or mercantile class, which 
' sprang from the thigh of Brahma.' 

4. The Siuiras or servile class, which 
' sprang from the foot of Brahma.' 

The Pailihs and Chandnlas are nobodies, or 
worse, for is is pollution to be touched by such 
' scum of the earth.' 



150 



CASTLE 



CATHARINE'S 



Castle {The), Dublin. The town 
residence of the lord-lieutenant. It is the 
headquarters of the principal public de- 
partments, and contains an armoury, 
an arsenal, and a chapel. Here are the 
offices of the chief secretary, who is prac- 
tically the prime minister of the lord- 
lieutenant or viceroy, but he has nothing 
whatever to do with the police. His 
office is divided into two departments, 
each presided over by one of the two per- 
manent under-secretaries. The lord- 
chancellor of Ireland and the law officers 
of the crown have offices in a wing of the 
castle. Prosecutions are initiated in the 
law-rooms of the Castle, and both the 
attorney-general and the solicitor-general 
of Ireland have their offices here. 

Cat {The). So James I. used to call 
Chief-Justice Sir Edward Coke (1549- 
1634), noted for his ' Commentary on 
Littleton's Treatise on Tenures.' James 
called him * the Cat,' because he always 
fell on his legs when he got into trouble. 
Thus, in 1616 he was removed both from 
his office of chief-justice and the council, 
because he refused to favour certain 
views of Villiers(the king's new favourite) 
on money matters ; but in 1616 he married 
his youngest daughter to Villiers' brother, 
and was restored. Again in 1621 (27 
Dec.) he was imprisoned in the Tower 
for supporting the privileges of the 
Commons, but was liberated 6 Aug., 1622. 

Cat Hoax {The), 1815. When 
Napoleon was about to depart for St. 
Helena, some wag in Chester had a 
number of handbills distributed, stating 
that the island was so overrun with rats 
that 16s. would be given for every full 
grown tom-cat, 10s. for every full-grown 
tabby, and 2s. Gd. for every kitten able to 
feed itself. The city on the day fixed 
was crowded with men, women, and 
children carrying cats. A riot ensued, 
the cats broke away and infested the 
private houses ; 500 were killed, others 
were drowned, and many infested the 
neighbouring sheds and barns for many 
weeks afterwards. See ' Cats,' p. 152. 

Catamaran' Admiralty {The), 
1804. The English Admiralty which 
employed a catamaran to destroy the 
French flotilla at Boulogne. 

The catamaran referred to was a machine in- 
vented by Fulton to be sent against an enemy s ship 
with a view of blowing it into the air. The machine 
employed on this occasion blew itself up with the 



commp.nder and thireeen sailors, amidst the jeers 
of the French and tlic sarcasms of our own people. 
This was the first and last time that such a 
niacliine was employed by our navy. 

Cateau Cam.bre'sis {Peace of), 
2 April, 1559. Between France, England, 
and Spain, called in French history 
La Paix Malheureuse, because, after 
65 years of war in Italy, the French had 
to renounce all their conquests in that 
peninsula and also Corsica. 

Catechumens' Mass, ' Missa 

Catechumenorum.' The part of the liturgy 
which precedes the ' MIssa Fidclium,' i.e. 
the consecration of the elements and the 
communion. That is the epistle and 
gospel, after which the catechumens were 
dismissed, the deacon saying ' Si quis non 
communicat, det locum.' See ' Mass.* 

Caterans (Scottish history), outlaws, 
freebooters. Thus Sir Robert Graham, 
the outlaw who murdered James I. at 
Perth, was the leader of a band of 
caterans. (G-aelic, ceatharnach, a soldier.) 

Iron stanchions on the lower windows ... to 
repel any roving band of gipsies, or resist a preda- 
tory visit from the Caterans of the neighbourmg 
Highlands. — Sir W. Scott, Waverley, chap. viii. 

Cath'ari, ' Cathares,' or * Cathar- 
ists ' (about a.d. 255), similar to the 
Waldenses (12th cent., latter part). A 
plain, unassuming, harmless, and industri- 
ous race of Christians, who placed their 
religion in faith, and entertained supreme 
reverence for the Bible. They rejected 
the dogmas of apostolic succession, pur- 
gatory, and papal supremacy; accepted 
only two sacraments ; believed in only 
one Mediator, and therefore disavowed 
the advocacy of the Virgin Mary and of 
saints, and disbelieved in masses for the 
dead, the adoration of images and relics, 
and, of course, in indulgences also ; and 
set their faces against second marriages. 
Sometimes c-alled Bulgarians, sometimes 
Patarenes or Patarines, sometimes 
Popelitans or Pojjlicans, and in the Low 
Countries Pij)hles. 

The word Cathari is the Greek kathnroi, puritans. 
Their religious tenets were very similar to those 
of the ' Poor Men of Lyons,' and the Waldenses. 
Probably they rejected infant baptism, but it is a 
gross slander to call tliem Manichceans. Of course 
they were persecuted as Luther was in later 



Catharine's College {St.). In 
Cambridge University, founded by 
Robert Wodelarke, D.D., chancellor of 
the University, 1473. 

Familiarly called Cat's. 



CATHARINE 



CATO 



151 



Ccitliarine de' Medici of Africa 
{The). Sophouisba, queen of Numidia 
(died B.C. 203). 

Catharine de» Medici of China 

{The). Voo-cliee, who married Kao- 
tsong. As Francois I., the father-in-law 
of Catharine de' Medici, was called Le 
Pere des Lettres, so Tae-tsong, the 
father-in-law of Voo-chee, was called the 
' Solomon of China,' and the greatest 
patron of letters of all the emi)erors of 
the celestial kingdom. As Catharine, on 
the death of her husband, ruled her sons 
like puppets, so Voo-chee ruled her son, 
and usurped the whole power. As the 
conduct of Catharine demoralised society 
and impoverished France, so Voo-chee 
demoralised and impoverished China. 
As Catharine alienated from her all 
France, so Voo-chee exhausted the 
patience of her subjects, who at last 
deposed her. See also ' Catherine.' 

Cathedra Petri means Roman 
supremacy, or the supremacy of the 
Church of Rome, ' founded ' by St. 
Peter. Hence the Church of Rome is 
styled ' Ecclesia Apostolica.' 

Cathedral Beard {The). A long 
square-cut beard j)eculiar to ecclesiastics. 

The fashion of his beard was just, for all the 
world, like those upon Flemish jugs, bearing in 
gross the form of a broom, narrow above and 
hroa.dh&nea.lh.—Bvi^WER, The ArtiJicialChaiKjeUng, 
1053. 

Cathedral Builders of Flo- 
rence. Arnolfo, Giotto, Ghiberti, 
Donatello, Brunelleschi, and Agnolo. 

Cathedrals of the Kew^ Foun- 
dation. Those to which Henry VIII., 
after the dissolution of the monasteries, 
gave a new dean and chapter. 

Catherine of Aragon. Wife of 
Prince Arthur and afterwards of Henry 
VIII. of England, was lineal descendant 
of John of Gaunt, whose fourth child 
and second daughter married Alfonso 
V. of Castile. See also ' Catharine.' 

John of Gaunt; his daughter Joanna married 
Alfonso v. of Aragon, and their son was Juan II. 
of Aragon. 

The son of Juan II. was Ferdinand V., who 
married Isabella of Castile, and the daughter 
Df Ferdinand and Isabella was Katharine or 
Catherine, who first married Arthur (eldest son 
of Henry VJI.), and then his younger brother, 
Henry VIII., by whom she was divorced. 

Catholic Association {The), 1824. 
In Ireland. Abolished by Act of Parlia- 
ment in 1825. It still existed in 1828. 



when the Brunswick clubs were formed ; 
but after the passing of Catholic eman- 
cipation the association dissolved itself, 
1829. 

Catholic Emancipation, 1829 
(10 Geo. IV. c. 7). The repeal of all 
laws which disqualified Roman Catholics 
from the enjoyment of civil rights and 
the free disposal of their property. 
The Corporation and Test Acts had been 
repealed in 1828. In 1832 Jews were 
adjnitted to their elective franchise, in 
1845 were admitted to municipal offices, 
and in 1858 were made eligible for seats 
in Parliament. 

Catholic Epistles {The). Those 
seven epistles of the New Testament, 
not addressed to particular churches or 
persons. They are the Epistle of James, 
the three Epistles of John, the Epistle 
of Jude, and the two Epistles of Peter. 
Originally only 1 John and 1 Peter were 
accepted as apostolical, but in the 4th 
cent, the other five epistles were read 
as ' lessons,' and therefore received as 
canonical epistles. 
The 2 and 3 John are anything but ' catholic.' 
Catholicos. The primate of the 
Armenian Church, and of the Christians 
of Georgia and Mingrelia. 

Catilines and Cethegi {The). 
Conspirators who hope to mend their 
fortunes by rebellion. Cethegus was one 
of Catiline's crew, a kind of O'Donovan 
Rossa of ancient Rome. 

The intrigues of a few impoverished Catilines 
and Ccthegi.— Motley, Dutch IlcpuUic. 

Catnach Press {The). The press 
which published * last dying speeches 
and confessions,' with accounts of ex- 
ecutions of notorious criminals, such as 
Thurtell and Greenacre, Bishop and 
Williams, Fauntleroy and Corder. So 
called from ' Jemmy ' Catnach, the printer 
of ' patter songs ' and ' last dying speeches 
and confessions,' &c. One of his chief 
assistants was John Morgan, the ' last of 
the Catnach bards.' 

Cato {The Polish). Thaddeus 
Reyten, deputy of Novogrodek, who in 
1773 resisted the partition of Poland. 

Cato the Younger. Sir John 
Barnard (1685-17G4), the firm and 
upright patriot. A statue was erected 
to him in tlie Royal Exchange, after • 



152 



CATO-STREET 



CAVALIERS 



which he never transacted business 
within the edifice, but always in the 
front of it. 

Cato-street Conspiracy [The), 
22 Feb., 1820. A conspiracy devised by 
Arthur Thistlewood to assassinate Lord 
Sidmouth, Lord Eldon, Lord Castle- 
reagh, and all the other cabinet ministers 
at the great ministerial dinner to be 
given at the house of Lord Harrowby. 
One of the conspirators was to call with 
a note, and then the rest were to rush in 
and put the ministers to death. This 
done the conspirators were to fire the 
cavalry barracks by throwing fireballs 
into the straw-sheds. Then they were 
to take the Bank and the Tower. Two 
spies, Edwards and Hidon, kept the 
ministers well posted in all the plans. 
Thistlewood and four others were ex- 
ecuted on May day (1820). 

The conspirators met in a stable in Cato Street, 
near Edgware Road, London. 

Catochiens, 1413. French rebels 
so called from their leader Catoche, a 
butcher. Like the Jacquerie (1357), 
they insisted, amidst blood and rapine, 
on stamping out the privileged classes 
and abolishing royalty in France. 

Catskin Earls. Earls who wore 
catskin trimmings instead of ermine — 
that is earls prior to 1520, as Shrewsbury, 
Derby, and Huntingdon. 

Some period subsequent to 1520, the catslrin 
trimmings of earls was changed to ermine. The 
earls, however, created before that period -were 
allowed to wear their catskin trimmings. The 
only ones existing are those of Shrewsbury, 
I>erby, and Huntingdon.— A'ote« and Queries, 
6 Sept., ix. 214. 

Cats' Raffael [The). Gottfried 
Mind of Berne, in Switzerland (1708- 
1814). See ' Cat,' p. 150. 

Caucasians [The). An ethnological 
division adopted by Blumenbach, in- 
cluding all the inhabitants of Europe 
(except the Fins); with the Hindus, 
Persians, Assyrians, Arabians, Jews, 
and Phoenicians, of Asia ; and in Africa, 
the Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Moors. 

Dr. Prichard says this division includes two 
separate groups ; language, not the form of the 
skull, being now consia. red the pliilosophical 
basis of ethnological groups. 

Caucus, 1774. A meeting got to- 
gether at Boston (Massachusetts) by 
Samuel Adams to resist the British 
Government and especially the Boston 
' Port Act (2 •'«.). He induced thirty persons 



to join him, and appointed a committee 
of five to meet the provincial committees 
of Philadeli^hia 1 Sept. The scheme 
was kept a profound secret from the 
government, and 500L was voted for the 
expenses of the delegates. The com- 
mittee met in a calker's shed in Boston, 
called a calk-house, hence calk-hus, 
Caucus. See ' Patres Patriae.' 

Caudine Forks (The). ' Furculee 
Caudinas,' two mountain gorges near the 
town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium, 
where the Roman army was entrapped 
by Pontius in the second Samnite war 
(B.C. 321). Four legions under Titus 
Veturius and Spurius Posthumius, locked 
in these gorges by the Samnites, were 
obliged to surrender. They passed, as 
was customary, under the yoke. Terms 
were made by the Roman consuls, but 
the senate basely repudiated them. The 
consuls were sent back prisoners to 
Caius Pontius, the Samnite general, but 
he refused to accept them. 

The phrase has become proverbial for a strategic 
trap. 

Cauldron of Slaughter (The). 
In the Teutoberger Wald, where the 
Roman legions under Varus were cut to 
pieces by the Germans under Hermann 
in the reign of Augustus. 

Cautionary To^p^ns. Briel, 
Flushing, Rammekens, and Walcheren, 
which were placed in the possession of 
Queen Elizabeth (1585), as security for 
the payment of troops furnished by her 
to the Netherlands. Only one-third of 
the sum was ever refunded; but the 
' Cautionary ' towns were delivered back 
14 July, 1616. 

Cavaliere. In Venice was a title 
given to a noble who had been an 
ambassador. He wore a gold star em- 
broidered on his robe. Tlius Antonio 
Foscarini, ambassador to the court of 
France, was on his return to Venice in 
1GG2 styled a 'cavaliere.' 

Cavaliers and Koundheads, 

1641. The royalists and puritans in 
the reign of Charles I. The royalists 
wore their hair long, flowing over their 
shoulders ; the puritans cropped their 
hair short, and were called crop-haired 
or ' Roundheads.' The terms sprang up 
25 Nov., 1641, on the return of Charles I. 
to London, when the parliament greeted 



I 



CAVALRY 



CELESTINES 



153 



him with a ' remonstrance ' on his evil 
doings. The royal party had long hair 
falling in ringlets^ over their shoulders, 
the remonstrants wore their hair cropped 
short, studiously avoided all ornaments, 
and affected a very sober style of dress. 

Cavalry {The British) is divided 
into mediums, heavies, and light cavalry. 

The viediums consist of 13 regiments ; 
the heavies of 2 regiments; and the 
light of 13. 

(1) The mediums contain the 7 regi- 
ments of Dragoon Guards (numbered 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) ; 5 regiments of Lancers 
(numbered 5, 9, 12, 16, 17) ; and the 6th 
Lmiskilling Dragoons. 

(2) The heavies consist of the 12th 
Royal Dragoons and 2nd Royal Scots 
Greys. 

(3) The light contains the 3, 4, 7, 8, 
10, 11, 13, 14", 15, 18, 19, 20, 21 Hussars. 

There are no Light Dragoons now. 

Cavendish College. In Cambridge 
University. Founded by the County 
College Association, and named from 
William Cavendish, duke of Devonshire, 
chancellor of the University at the time, 
1882. 

The chief objects are (1) economy; (2) to train 
for schoolmasters ; (3) to enter at a somewhat 
younger age. 

Cavendish's Creed (Mr.), 1769. 

* I do, from my soul, detest and abjure, 
as unconstitutional and illegal, that damn- 
able doctrine and position, tliat a resolu- 
tion of the House of Commons can make, 
alter, suspend, abrogate, and annihilate 
the law of the land.' This was spoken 
in reference to Mr. Wilkes, who was 
returned to parliament time after time 
by the freeholders of Middlesex, but not 
allowed to take his seat. 

A little more than a century later a similar 
contest arose between the Commons and Mr. 
Bradlaugh, junior member for Northampton. 
Ostensibly the cause of objection to Mr. Bradlaugh 
•was his slighting the obligation of the required 
oath ; but the real objection was his unorthodox 
opinions disseminated, like those of Wilkes, in a 
journal. 

Cavendish Experiment {The). 
To discover the weight of our earth. 
Cavendish makes it 5"480 times the weight 
of water, and the total weight to be 
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons {i.e. 
6,000 trilhons). 

Cavendish Laboratory {The). 
For physical researches. Founded in 
Cambridge by William Cavendish, duke 



of Devonshire, Chancellor of the Uni- 
versity from 1861 to 

Cavour Federation {The). 'La 
Federazione Camillo Cavour,' July, 1888. 
A ]political association in Italy for carry- 
ing out the great programme of Camillo 
Cavour: viz. monarchy, liberty, progress, 
and a parliamentary government. It 
may be called a progressive Tory policy, 
similar to the Primrose League in 
England. 

Caxton Society {The), 1845-1854. 
For tlie publication of the literature of 
the middle ages. It published 16 vols. 
Named in honour of William Caxton 
(1412-1491), the first English printer. 

Caymes Castles or ' Cayms Castles 
(Ca}Tn = Cain). Monasteries were so 
called by Wyclif. 

Wyclif called monks ' devil's kitchens.' 

Ceada. The deep pit into which 
the Spartans threw criminals condemned 
to death. 

Cecilite Order. Founded by Lord 
Adeibert Cecil. The tenets resemble 
those of the Plymouth Brethren. 

Celestial Empire {The), China. 
The emperor is called 'the Son of 
Heaven.' The first hypothetical 
sovereign was Puon-ku, i.e. Highest 
Eternity, and the second was Tien-hoang 
= emperor of Heaven. Then followed 
Ti-hoang = emperor of the earth ; and 
then Gine-hoang = emperor of the race 
of man. 

Celestial Indexes. So the Irish 
round towers were called by some Irish 
annalists. Whence it is supposed their 
object was astronomical observations 
connected with sun-worship. 

Celestial Judgments ('Breathe 
Neimidh'). The code of Forchern, a.d. 
40, was so called by the Irish. It was 
a digest of the ancient laws greatly 
venerated. 

Celestians. Pelagians {q.y.), so 
called from Celestius, a disciple of 
Pelagius (5th cent.). Condemned by 
the Council of Carthage in 412, and 
again in 430 by the Council of Ephesus. 

Celestines ( The), 1254. A religious 
order, a branch of the Benedictma 
founded by Pietro da Morone (Celestino 



154 



CELLAMARE'S 



CERINTIIUS 



v.). Suppressed in 1778. The ' Quai 
des Ce'lestines ' of Paris was so named 
because the chief house of the Celestines 
was behind the arsenal on the Quai 
called after the order. They adopted the 
Rule of St. Benedict. 

Cellamare's Conspiracy, 1718. 

This was a conspiracy to outwit the 
Quadruple Alliance, by ousting Philippe, 
due d'Orle'ans, from the regency of 
France, and giving it to Felipe V. of 
Spain. Cellamare was the Spanish 
ambassador at Paris, and acted on the 
instructions of Alberoni. The con- 
spiracy being discovered, Cellamare was 
conducted to the frontiers, and others 
concerned in the plot were sent to the 
Bastille. 

Cellites (2 syl.) or ' Celli.' Lollards, 
Matemans, Alexians or Brethren and 
Sisters of Alexius, who rose in Antwerp 
about 1300, and were admitted by Sixtus 
rV. amongst the religious orders in 1472. 
Kullus Christianus ad fana, vel ad petras, vel ad 
fontes, vel ad arbores, aut ad cellos [i.e. lucellos, 
groves], vel per trivia luminaria faciat, aut vota 
reddere pitOBSumat. — St. Audoenus, Li/e of St. 
Eligius, bk. ii. chap. 15. 

Celts or Kelts (The). A race which 
at one time peopled almost all Western 
Europe. They possessed France, much 
of Germany, most of Spain and Portugal, 
Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. 
The Celts of France were called Gaels 
(Gauls), those of Britain and Belgica Cym- 
ri. Druidism was properly Cymric. After 
the Saxon and Danish invasions Eng- 
land largely became Teutonic, and after 
the Norman Conquest still more so. 

In Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland we 
Btill find Gaels ; but in Wales and Low Brittany 
we find Cymri. Kelt and Gael are mere varieties 
of the same word Kelt-ai, Galat-ai, Gall-i, Gaul, 
Gael. 

Cenchi (The), 1293. A faction in 
Florence opj)osed to the Donati. So 
named froni two powerful houses. At 
first both these factions were Guelfs, but 
later on the Cenchi were Ghibellines, 
and the Donati Guelfs. 

In Pistoia, an ally of Florence, there were two 
similar factions called the Bianchi (= Cenchi, 
Ghibellines), and the Neri (=Donati, Guelfs), 
Dante the poet, though of the house of Donati, 
joined the Bianchi, and had his house pulled down 
over his ears. 

Cenchi, pronounce Chen'-ke. 

Central Committee of Insur- 
rection {The), 1792. A committee of 
five (afterwards nineteen) federates which 
eat daily in one of the Jacobin club- 



rooms. The object of these five villains 
was to assassinate the king (Louis XVI.). 
Their names were Vaugeois (grand vic\r), 
Debesse of La Drome, Guiflaume of Caen, Simon 
(editor of newspapers, a native of Strasburg), 
and Galissot of Langres. These five were soon 
joined by fourteen others, such as Santerre, 
Camille Desmoulins, and Danton, &c. 

Central Committee of the 
Communists (The), 1871. The in- 
surgents' government, in opposition to 
the Republic with M. Thiers at the 
head, appointed after the Franco- 
Prussian war. It had nine sub-com- 
mittees to superintend the several 
departments of finance, public instruc- 
tion, foreign affairs, home matters, the 
army, the municipa,lities, and so on. 
The Hotel de Ville was the seat of 
government. It lasted nine weeks, when 
it was stamped out by Marshal Mac- 
Mahon, with much bloodshed. 

Centuria'ni. So the primitive 
Christians were called from their ceintures 
or broad belts by which they were dis- 
tinguished. 

In ista autem Babylonia habitant . . . multitude 
christianorum, qui dicuntur Ccnturiani . . . quia 
cingulum portant latum, vestimantum per quod 
recognoscuntur ab aliis.— Ordericus. 

Cercle de Bourgogne (Le). The 
duchies of Brabant, Limbourg, and 
Luxembourg ; the Franclie Comte' ; the 
Comte Palatin ; the counties of Flanders, 
Hainaut, Namur, Artois, HoUand, and 
Zealand; the marquisate of Antwerp; 
and the seignory of Mechlin. 

Ceremonial (The). The service 
book for the pope, embracing all that 
pertains to the various functions of his 
office. See ' Pontifical.' 

Cerinthians {The). Followers of 
Cerinthus contemporary with the apostles. 
He maintained that Jesus was a proper 
man, the son of Joseph and Mary, but 
that, at baptism, God sent the first of the 
^ons named Christ, in the shape of a dove, 
upon him. He further taught that this 
^on left the body of Jesus before death 
on the cross, for the Christ could not die, 
though the man Jesus, like other men, 
was mortal. Cerinthus considered the 
Mosaic law binding on all Christians. 

According to Cerinthus the Saviour referred to 
this /Eon when on the cross He cried, ' Mj' God 
(or ^on), my God, why hast Thou left or forsaken 
Me?' 

CerintllUS, the heresiarch, wrote 
a book on the millennium. Dionysius of 
Alexandria says (' On Promises,' book ii.) 



CEETIOEAKI 



CHAMBERLAIN 



155 



that ' Cerintlius affixed the name of John 
to his forgery.' 

Irenaeus (' Against Heresies," book i.), says that 
' John the apostle once entered the public baths, 
but ascertaining that Cerinthus was within tlie 
Bfeme building, he (John) rushed out of the door, 
not enduring to be under the same roof wibh Cer- 
inthus ; and, as he fled, he cried to his companions, 
" Flee ! Flee ! Let us flee, lest the bath fall in, for 
Cerinthus is within." '— Eusebius, book iii. 28. 

Certiora'ri. A writ issued from a 
superior court to an inferior one to remove 
a cause depending in it. The writ com- 
mands the judges &c. of the inferior court 

* to certify,' i.e. return, the records of the 
depending cause, that the party may be 

* more fully assured,' or may have more 
speedy justice. 

Cessation {The), 1645. In the Irish 
rebellion (q.v.), Charles I. being at war 
with the Parliamentarians, was greatly 
in want of money, and under hope of 
obtaining a subsidy from Ireland, com- 
manded t!ie Marquis of Ormond to treat 
with his Majesty's subjects in arras, and 
agree with them for a cessation of hostilities 
for one year. This was called the khig's 
new and favourite expedient. The Irish 
insurgents granted the king 30,000/., one 
half in cash and the other moiety in 
beeves. Never did any project encounter 
such a storm of opposition, indignation 
and rage, as broke out in Great Britain 
and Ireland at the proclamation of the 
cessation, especially from the English and 
the Scotch. 

Cestui que trust {A). A person for 
whose benefit a trust is created. For 
example : if A founds and endows a pro- 
fessorship at Cambridge University, the 
professor who receives the endowment is 
the cestui que trust. Or, if A founds a 
church, the vicar is the cestui que trust, 
or, in old French, the fidei commissaire. 

Chain of Silence {To shake the). 
In the tribal assemblies of the Scots in 
Ireland. It is mentioned in the celebra- 
ted Eric Fine case of the children of 
Turenn, cited in an article on the ' Ancient 
Irish Eric Fine ' by E. E. Cherry, in the 
*Law Magazine and Eeview,' No. 255 
(Feb. 1885). 

A celebrated contention between Goll and Finn 
MaoCumhail had risen to such a pitch, that it could 
only be appeased by the intervention of the bards, 
who, shaking the Chain of Silence between the 
chiefs, succeeded In calming their strife. — T. 
Moore, Hist, of Ireland, viii. p. 135. 

Chaldaic Tar.^ums. Paraplirastic 
versions of the Old Testament in Chaldee 
for the use of the Jews, who, after the 



cai)tivity, did not undr^rstand Hebrew 
(Neh. viii. 3). The oldest and best is 
that of Onkelos on the pentateuch, in the 
3rd Christian cent. Next in value and 
age is that by Jonathan Ben Uzziel on 
the prophets. 

Chaldee MS. {Translation from an 
ancient). A skit published in ' Black- 
wood's Magazine ' in 1817. The authors 
were Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Pro- 
fessor Wilson, and Mr. Lockliart. It 
really is a chronicle of the strife of 
Whiggism and Toryism in Edinburgh. 
The following persons are introduced : 
John Ballantine, Blackwood and Con- 
stable (publishers). Sir David Brewster, 
Professor Jameson, Lord Jeffrey, Profes- 
sor Leslie, J. G. Lockhart, Henry Mac- 
kenzie (novelist), Macvey Napier, Profes- 
sor Playfair, Sir Walter Scott, Charles 
Kirkpatrick Sharpe, Fraser Tytler, and 
Professor Wilson. 

Cha,lk Sunday. The first Sunday 
in Lent is so called in Ireland from the 
common practice indulged in by young 
women on that day, of chalking the backs 
of young men who have not plighted troth 
to any one. See ' Sunday.' 

Chamanism, or ' Shamanism.' A 
religious cult which spread among the 
Samovedes (3 syl.), Bouriates (3 syl.), 
and in the islands of the Pacific. The 
chief doctrines are that God is one whose 
habitation is the sun, and under whom 
are a host of ministering angels and 
genii, benevolent and malignant. The 
great evil spirit they call Chaitan, and 
their priests they call chamayis. The 
priests carry a horse's tail as a talisman. 
Their women, they say, have no souls; 
certahily they have no modesty. 

Chamber of Liquidation {The), 
IfiSu. Erected by Carl XI. of Sweden 
for the purpose of liquidating the public 
debt by raising the nominal value of 
money, without increasing its real worth. 
Thousands were reduced to poverty by 
this arbitrary act. 

Chamberlain {The Lord). A mem- 
ber of the privy council with a salary of 
2,000?. a year. He has control over all 
the officers and servants of the royal 
chambers, excei)t those of the bedcham- 
ber ; over the physicians, surgeons, and 
apothecaries of the royal household ; over 
the musicians, comedians, trumpeters, 
and messengers ; over all tradesmen and 



i:g 



CHAMBEELAIN 



CHAMBEES 



officers employed, and over the state 
robes. All theatres in towns in which 
there is a royal palace must be licensed 
by him, and no new play can be acted 
without his licence. He issues also all 
royal invitations. 

N.B. The lord great chamberlain is 
quite another officer. See below. 

There is a vice-chamberlain, whose salary is 924Z. 
a year. 

Chamberlain {The Lord Great). 
An hereditary officer who has the govern- 
ment of the palace of Westminster. At 
coronations and state trials or banquets 
the fitting-up of the hall devolves on him ; 
and when the sovereign goes to parlia- 
ment he delivers the sword of state to 
any member of the administration he 
thinks ]Droper, to be borne before the 
sovereign, he himself walking on the 
right-hand side. During the sitting of 
Parliament he has charge of the House of 
Lords, and issues tickets of admission on 
the opening or prorogation of parliament. 
The lord chamberlain is quite another 
officer, not hereditary, but dependent on 
the choice of the chief minister or premier 
of the time being. 

Chamberlainars in Scotch his- 
tory were courts of justice held by the 
chamberlain in the royal boroughs. 
There lay appeal from this court to the 
* Court of the Four Boroughs ' {q.v.). 

Chamberlaine's Riot, 1288. 
Thomas Chamberlaine, a gentleman of 
fortune, under pretence of holding a 
tournament, assembled a number of 
associates at Boston, in Lincolnshire ; 
their secret understanding being a raid 
on the town during a fair. In order to 
create confusion the conspirators set the 
town on fire, broke into the booths, and 
carried off the goods. Chamberlaine was 
arrested and hanged, but refused to 
implicate any of his companions (Edw. I.). 

Chambre a crucer, the torture 
chamber. It was a chest lined with sharp 
stones or nails, in which the victim was 
fastened up. 

Chambre Ardente {La). 'The 
lighted chamber.' A court for the inves- 
tigation of ' heretics ' established in 1525 
by Fran(;ois I. Also an extraordinary 
commission nominated in 1680 by Louis 
XIV., to judge Brinvilliers, La Voisin, 
and La Vigoureux (Italian exiles). Also 
the chamber under the regency, in 171(3, 



to verify the accounts of the fermiers 
generaux. So called because they were 
quite dark and lighted only by torches. 

The ' Chambre Ardente 'of 1G80 is also called ' La 
cour dcs poisons ' (the court for the poisoners) ; and 
the 'Chambre Ardente' of 171(3 is also called 'La 
chambre du visa ' (the court of the endorsements). 

Chambre Introuvable {La), 7 
Oct., 1815. The French ' Mad Parhament ' 
{q.v.), only the reverse of our house so 
called. It was ultra-royalist, and in its 
zeal for the aristocracy and clergy it tried 
to roll back the government into the 
ancient regime or the state before the re- 
volution. It pronounced the banishment 
of all the conventionnels who voted for 
the death of Louis XVI., and went to su'^h 
outrageous extremes that Louis XVIII. 
was obliged to dissolve it 5 Sept., 1816. 

Chambre des Deputes {Le), 4 
June, 1814. The French House of Com- 
mons. It took the place of the Corps 
Le'gislatif of the French empire, and at 
the accession of Napoleon III. the term 
Corps Le'gislatif was restored (1852). It 
consisted at first of 430 members ; was 
increased ' in the monarchy of July ' to 
459 deputies, but reduced to 2C0 deputies, 
5 Sept. (1814). At first the office was for 
five years, and one-fifth retired annually ; 
each deputy must be at least forty years 
of age, and pay a direct contribution of 
1000 francs (40Z.). But after 1830 the age 
required was reduced to thirty years, and 
the contribution to 500 francs (20^.). The 
king called the assembly every year, and 
if he dissolved it he must reassemble 
another within three months. 

The uppe» house was called the 'Palrlo' or 
Chambre des Pairs ' (q.v.), which in 185'2 was re- 
placed by the Senate. 

Chambre des Pairs {Le), 4 June, 
1814. TheFrenchHouse of Lords. The 
peerage abolished in 1789 was restored by 
Louis XVIIL, and the Chambre des Pairs, 
formed, with the Chambre des De'putes, 
the French legislature. In 1831 heredi- 
tary peerages were abolished and peers 
were named by the king. The Chamber 
of Peers was abolished in 1848 and in 
1852 was replaced by a Senate. 

Chambre du Visa, 1716. To 
verify and endorse the accounts of the 
fermiers generaux of France. 

Chambres de Reunion {Les), 1679. 
Commissions formed by Louis XIV. to 
search into the ancient dependencies of 
the countries ceded to France by the trea- 
ties of Westphalia, Aix-la-Chapelle, and 



CHAMP 



CHANCELLOR 



157 



Nimeguen (2 syl.) : viz. Vaudemont, Saar- 
bourg, Saarbruck, Salm, part of Luxem- 
bourg, Honiburg, Deux-Ponts, Mont- 
beliard, Wissemburg, Strasbourg, and 
part of Alsace Infe'rieure. The Peace of 
Eyswyk (1G97) compelled liim to restore 
a large part of these acquisitions ; but he 
retained Strasbourg and Alsace. 

Champ de Boulogne (Le), 1803- 
4. The wonderful preparation of Bona- 
parte at Boulogne for an invasion of 
England. A large army was collected, 
and above 2,000 flat-bottomed vessels, 
built for transports, were moored at 
Boulogne, Etaples, and Ambleteuse. 
Yfhen all was ready the descent was 
deferred to the spring of ISOJ:. Li the 
meantime other matters diverted the 
attention of the First Consul, and in 
180J: he was crowned emperor, so the 
invasion came to nothing. 

The Column of Boulogne commeTnorates this 
' Champ de Douloglie.' 

Champ, pronounce sham, the r silent. 

Champ de Mai, or 'the Field of 
May.' After a.d. 755 the Champs de 
Mars were held in May. June 1, 1815, 
was held in Paris, in a large camjjus 
mai'tius, the famous assembly called the 
* Champ de IMai ' during the ' Hundred 
Days ' when Napoleon proclaimed, in the 
presence of the deputies, the electoral 
colleges, and the army, L'Acte addition- 
nel aiix constitutions de VEmpire. 
See below. 

It was called ' the Field of May,' but was held 
IJune. 

Champ de Mai, pronounce Sharnd May, 

Champ de Mars, or ' the Field of 
March.' A grand general assembly of 
Frank warriors held from time to time 
in Gaul from the 5th cent, till the time 
of Charles le Chauve (877), when all 
trace of them disappears. The objects 
of these conventions were twofold : (1) 
that of military reviews in which the 
freemen came to pay homage to their 
chief and bring their annual gifts; and 
(2) consultative deliberations upon, what 
expeditions should be made, what should 
be done for the defence of the nation, 
and what laws should be passed for the 
better government of the state. From 
755 these assemblies were held in May. 
See above. 

Napoleon I. announced a Champ de Mai to be 
held in the great plain called the Champ de Mars 
[' Sharnd iXarz ] of Paris, ou 2G May ; but it was 
not held till 1 June, Iblo. The object was to 
proclaim L Acte aUdiUond aux cousUlutiona de 
lE.niiiie.' 



Cham.pagne Speech (TJie), 17G7. 

A si^eech made by Charles Townshend, 
chancellor of the exchequer, after a 
dinner party in his own house, which 
astonished the whole country. 

Horace Walpole says it was ' a torrent of wit, 
parts, humour, knowledge, absurdity, vanity, and 
fiction, brightened by all the graces of comedy, 
the happiness of allusion and quotation, and the 
bufOoonery of farce.' He adds that it gave him 
the most singular pleasure he ever enjoyed. 

Champion of the Cross (The). 

Prince Edward (Edward I. of England), 
who led a crusade (1209-1272). So called 
mainly from the wound he received from 
a poisoned dagger. The Emir of Jaffa 
pretended to be converted, and sent a 
letter to Edward, but while the prince 
was reading it the messenger stabbed 
him. Tlie tradition is that Eleanor 
sucked the poison from the wound, but, 
like so many other pretty stories, this is 
only a troubadour's tale. 

Chancellor (The), of our Uni- 
versities. Tlie nominal head, but \us 
duties are de]puted to the vice-chancellor 
(q.v.). The first cliancellor, in Oxford, 
elected for life was John Pvussell, bishop 
of Lincoln, in I-I80. In Oxford tlie 
chancellor is elected by the House of 
Convocation (q.v.), in Cambridge by the 
Senate (q-v.). In both cases the office is 
practically held for life. The chancellor 
is expected to be present at his installa- 
tion and on occasions of a royal visit. 

The chancellor has power to deal with all 
offences, short of mayhem and felony, between 
members of the university. 

*,* Blayhem is mutilation of an arm, leg, flngci", 
eye, or fore-tooth. It takes no cognisance of a 
broken nose or broken jaw, or loss of an ear. 

Chancellor {The Lord), 1079. 
Head of tlie Court of Chancery; lord 
keeper, holding the royal signet, which 
it is his duty to impress on all documents 
issued in the name of the sovereign. 
The lord chancellor is the highest lord 
in the realm ; he appoints all justices of 
the peace, is a j)rivy councillor, and ex- 
officio Speaker of the House of Lords. 
He is keeper of the king's conscience, 
visitor of all royal hospitals and colleges, 
and patron of all royal benefices, which 
in the king's book are stated to be not 
more than 20Z. a year. He is al^ 
guardian of infants and lunatics, and 
has the general superintendence of all 
charitable foundations in the nation. 

ChancGllor of Scotland {The). 
Had duties in Scotland similar to 



158 



CHANCELLOK 



CHAPTEK-nOUSE 



fiose of the lord high chancellor of 
England ; bvit on the unioxi of the two 
kingdoms in 1707 the office was abolished, 
and the lord high chancellor of Great 
Britain is chancellor of both kingdoms. 

Chancellor of a Cathedral 

{The). An officer who superintends the 
arrangements for the celebration of the 
religious services. The chancellor of a 
diocese is quite another officer. 

Chancellor of the Diocese 

(The). Vicar-general to the bishop. An 
ecclesiastical judge appointed to assist 
the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical 
law, and to bold his courts for him. He 
may be a layman, but must be a doctor 
of the civil law. 

Chancellor of the Exchequer 

(The). The highest finance minister of 
the British government. 

Chancellor of the Order of the 
Gi-arter {The). An officer who seals 
the commissions and mandates of the 
chapter, &c. 

Similarly there is a chancellor to every other 
military order. 

Chancellor's Classical Medal 

(The). In the University of Cambridge, 
1751. Two gold medals. First given by 
his grace Thomas Holies, duke of New- 
castle. See 'Regius Professorship of 
Greek.' 

Chancellor's English Iledal 
{The). For English heroic verse. A gold 
medal for any undergraduate of the 
University of Cambridge. Founded (1812) 
by the Duke of Gloucester, chancellor, 
and continued by his successors in the 
office. In Oxford this competition is 
called the Newdigate {q.v.). 

Chancellor's Medal for Legal 
Studies. In the University of Cam- 
bridge. First awarded in 1857. In- 
stituted by Prince Albert, chancellor of 
the University. See ' Regius Professor 
of Civil Law.' 

Chancery [The Court of), 1070. 
Next in power to the House of Peers. 
It exercises jurisdiction in cases of equity, 
to abate the rigour of common law. Its 
head is called the lord ' chancellor ' (q.v.). 

Called 'Chancery' from the carwelli or lattice- 
work to keep off public intruders. 

Chandos Clause of the Reform 
Bill [The), 18 Aug., 1831. That tenants 



at will {i.e. from year to year) paying an 
annual rent of 50Z. have a county vote, 
regardless of the tenure by which the 
land is held, or the interest derived 
from it. 

Chang or Shang Dsmasty {The), 
B.C. 1766-651. The second Imperial 
dynasty of China, of the semi-historic 
period. It gave twenty-eight emperors, 
whose chief city was Yang-tching. Tiie 
17th emperor of this dynasty (Poan-keng) 
changed the name of the dynasty to that 
of Yn, in which city he held his court 
(B.C. 1401-1373). 

Chanzos. Poems of love and gal- 
lantry by the Provencals or troubadours 
of France. Those of war and chivalry 
were called ' Sirventes.' 

Chapeaux {Les), 1738-1771. The 
oligarchical party of Sweden, in the 
reigns of Frederick and Adolphus Fred- 
erick. Sb called because they adopted the 
French chapeau as their badge, to show 
their French proclivities. They were 
bitterly averse to the late treaty with 
Russia, and openly avowed their desire to 
recover all the provinces which had been 
ceded to the czar. The faction oiDposed 
to the Chapeaux or Hats were called the 
Caps iq-v.). The leader of the Hats was 
Count Syllenborg. The leader of the 
Caps was Count Horn. 

The Hats were composed chiefly of the remains 
of the late king's military officers and servants; 
and entertained principles favourable to the old 
system of administration. 

Chaperons. Many popular factions 
have been distinguished by the colour of 
their hoods. The ' chaperon rouge ' was 
the Paris colour, the ' chaperon blue ' was 
the Navarre colour. In 1356 the com- 
mune of Paris adopted a ' red and blue 
hood.' In 1379 the workmen of Gand in 
their revolt against the Duke of Burgundy 
adopted ' white hoods.' 

Chapter of Mitton ( The), or ' Wliite 
Battle.' Between the English and the 
Scotch, 20 Sept., 1319. >See' White Battle.' 

Cha,pter-house {The). A house 
contiguous to a cathedral or collegiate 
churcli, where, in Catholic times, the 
monks and canons of monastic establish- 
ments, with the dean and prebendaries, 
used to meet for the management of their 
society. They are now used for the dean 
and chapter as their official chamber. 



CHAREaiTES 



CHARLES 



159 



Char'egites, (3 syl.). Moslem fanatics, 
who classed themselves vv ith the free-born 
Arabs, and disclaimed tive yoke of sulo- 
ordination and reason. Tuese enthusiasts 
agreed that there would bo no peace and 
unity till Ali, Moawiyah, and Amrou 
(viceroy of Egypt) v/ere dead ; so three of 
their number were told off and furnished 
with poisoned daggers to despatch the 
three. The viceroy of Egypt escajjed, 
because the assassin mistook the deputy 
for the viceroy, and slew the wrong person. 
Moawiyah (prince of Damascus) was 
wounded, but not killed. Ali, the calif, 
received a movtal wound from the third 
assassin in the mosque of Cufa. 

Charge of the Light Brigade 

[The), or 'Death charge of the GOO at 
Balaclava ' 26 Sept., 1854. It was the 
13th Light Dragoons, the 17th Lancers, 
the 11th Hussars commanded by Lord 
Cardigan, the 8'uh Hussars, and the 4th 
Light Dragoons. The Russians were 
advancing in great strength to cut off the 
Turkish force from the British. Lord 
Raglan sent an order to Lord Lucan to 
advance, and Lord Lucan, not understand- 
ing what was intended, applied to Captain 
Nolan, who brought the message, and 
Nolan replied ' Tiiere, my lord, is your 
enemy.' Lucan then gave orders to Lord 
Cardigan to attack, and the 600 rode 
forward into the jaws of death. In twenty 
minutes 12 officers were killed and 11 
wounded; 147 men were killed and 110 
wounded, and 325 horses were slain. The 
blunder must be shared by Lord Lucan, 
General Airey, and Cai)tain Nolan. How- 
ever, never victory was more glorious to 
the devoted men than this useless charge. 
' It was magnificent, but it was not war.' 
When Lord Cardigan rallied the scattered 
remnants, and said ' My men, someone has 
blundered,' they replied, ' Never mind, 
my lord, we are ready to charge again, 
if it is your lordship's command.' 

Charing Cross. Not from chere 
reine in honour of Eleanor, the ' dear 
queen ' of Edward I., for it was so called 
before Edward's time. In the Close Roll, 
6 Rich. II., p. 1 (lob2), we read that the 
custody of the falcons ' at Cliarryng, near 
Westminster,' was gi'anted to Simon 
Barley, who was to receive 12d. a day 
from the Wardrobe. 

Charitable Corporation Fund 
(TAe), 1731. A horrible swindle which 



numbered on the board six members of 
Parliament and several noblemen. The 
scheme was to lend money to the poor 
upon small jsledges at 5 per cent, interest. 
When the capital reached 600,000^. the 
board decamped with all the money. It 
was a most disgraceful transaction. 

Charity {Brothers of), 1520. A 
religious order instituted to relieve the 
indigent, ratified in 1621 by Paul V. 
Another order called ' The Sisters of 
Charity ' was instituted by Vincent de 
Paul, 8 Aug., 1655. 

Charlemagne. A French com 
pound for Charles-ma gnus. Called by 
the Germans Karl the Great, or Karl I. 
The English usually adopt the French 
compound (born 742, king of the Franks 
768-814, emperor of the West, 800-814). 
He was the third and youngest son of 
Pepin le Bref. Charlemagne was the 
founder of the Carlovingian dynasty, which 
followed the Merovingian in ' France ' and 
was succeeded by the Capetian. 

Pronounce shar'-le-mah'n'. 

The pedigree runs thus from father to son: 
Pepin d Heristal ; Charles Martel (his son) ; Pepin 
le jjref (his son) ; Charlemagne. 

The son of Charlemagne was Louis le Debon- 
naire, and his grandson was Charles II. le Chauve. 

Charlemagne, emperor of the West 
and king of France, was son of Pepin le 
Bref (742, 771-814). His nine wives were 

1. Hamiltrude, a poor Frenchwoman, who bore 
him several children. 

2. Desiderata, who was divorced. 

3. Hildegarde (died before him), daughter of 
Hildebrand, count of Suabia, mother of Charles 
(king of Italy) and of Louis le Dybonuaire. 

4. Fastrade, daughter of Count Rodolph the 
Saxon (died before him). 

5. Liutgarde the German (died before him). 

6. IMaltegarde. 

7. Gersuinde the Saxon. 

8. Regina. 

9. Adalinda. 

Cliarlemsbgne {The Seco7id). Karl 
V. of Spain and Austria, called by the 
French Charles-quint (1500, 1519-1556, 
abdicated, and died 1558). 

Charles. For those of Germany see 
' Karl,' of Sweden ' Carl,' of Spain ' Carlos,' 
of Italy ' Carlo.' See also ' Charlemagne.' 

EITG-LAND. 

Charles I. of England. Son of 
James I., born at Dunfermline, in Scot- 
land (1600, 1625-1649) ; beheaded for 
treason against his parliament by making 
war upon their army. He marrietl 
Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henri IV. 
of France. His sons Charles and Jamea 



160 



CHARLES 



CHARLES 



succeeded to the crown, and his daughter 
Mary married WiUiam II. of Orange. 

His style was : Charles D.G. of Great 
Britain, France, and Ireland, King, 
Defender of the Faith, &c. 

The chief battles were Edgehill (Warwickshire) 
23 Oct., 1642, won by Rupert and lost again ; New- 
bury (Berkshire) 20 Sept. 1643, in which Charles lost 
hi« £'pr>pral Gary, lord Falkland; Blarston Moor 
(Yorkshire), 2July,lG44, in which Cromwell defeated 
Prince Rupert ; and Naseby (Northamptonshire) 
Xt june, io»u, won Dy J?airlax and Cromwell. This 
■victory closed the contest. 

The servaniswho followed the body from London 
to Windsor were Herbert and Captain Anthony 
Mildmav, his sewers: Captain Preston; .Toyiier, 
the king's cook ; and Murray, his coachman, who 
rtvn^'^ the hearse.— IiGHE and DAVIS, Annals of 
Windsor. 

Charles II., of England. Son of 

Charles I., born 1630, dates his reign from 
1G48-9, restored Saturday 29 May, IGGO, 
died 1685. Married Catharine or liaterine. 
Infanta of Portugal, had no legitimate off- 
spring, but many children by mistresses. 

His style was : Charles D. G. of Great 
Britain, France, and Ireland, King. 
Defender of the Faith. Head of the 
Anglican and Hibernian Church. 

Wife, &c. of Charles II. His wife was 
the Infanta Katerine of Portugal ; but 
his wandering fancy fell on Nell Gwynne ; 
Davies ; Roberts ; Louise Rene'e de 
Querouaille, created duchess of Ports- 
mouth ; Barbara Villiers, created duchess 
of Cleveland, &c. These women were 
thrown in his way for political ends, 
answered their purpose, and were 
successively supplanted by others. 
Probably, Nell Gwynne came the nearest 
to his true affection, if such a volatile 
heart was capable of such a passion. 

Charles II. was a traitor to his country, being 
the mere tool of Louis XIV. ; a man of the loosest 
morals ; a ' heretic ' under false colours ; and 
faithless in every stage of life. We have had some 
bad monarchs, but it would be hard to find one 
worse than Charles II. 

Escape of Charles II. After the 
battle of Worcester, 3 Sept., 1G51, he 
first went to White Ladies, in Stafford- 
shire, but the family being away, Mr. 
Giffard disguised him as a servant, and he 
remained aU the next day with Richard 
Penderell at Boscobel, near White 
Ladies. At night they tried to reach the 
house of Mr. Wolfe, Shrewsbury, and next 
day returned to Boscobel. Being told that 
the soldiers were searching for him, he 
concealed himself, with Major Carlis, in a 
polled oak, and at night sought refuge 
seven miles off in the house of Mr. 
Whitegreave Next day Mrs. Lane, the 



sister of Colonel Lane, took him as a 
groom to Bristol. From Bristol he went 
to Lyme, riding before Mrs. Judith 
Connesby, and thence to Brldport, and 
from Bridport to Shoreham, where (17 
Oct.) he embarked on a merchant vessel 
and was landed at Rouen. 

Issue of Charles II. (none by his wife). 

James, duke of Monmouth, by Lucy 
Walters. 

Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth, by 
Lady Shannon. 

Charles (duke of Southampton), 
Henry (duke of Grafton), George (duke 
of Northumberland), and Charlotte 
(countess of Lichfield), by the Duchess of 
Cleveland (Lady Castlemaine, or Mrs. 
Palmer, nee Barbara Villiers). 

Charles, duke of St. Albans, by Nell 
Gwynne. 

Charles, duke of Richm.ond, by the 
Duchess of Portsmouth (Louise de 
Querouaille). (Pronounce Koo-rah'e.) 

Mary, countess of Dumbarton, by 
Mary Davies. 

PRANCE. 

Charles II. {le Chauve), of France 
(823, 840-877), grandson of Charlemagne. 

Father, Louis I., le Debonnaire; 
Mother, Judith of Bavaria ; Son, Louis 
II., le Begue. He died while Alfred the 
Great was king of England. 

Charles I. was ' Charlemagne ' (q.v.). 

Charles III. {le Sirnple), of France 
(879, 887-929). Posthumous son of 
Louis II., le Begue, and brother of Louis 
III. 

Charlemagne (Charles I.) ; whose son was Louis 
I., le Lebonimire; Louis s son was Charles II., le 
Chauve, whose son was Louis II., le lii-ijiu'. 

Louis II., le Begue, had two sons, viz. Louis III. 
and Charles III. From the latter the line was 
continued in his son Louis IV., &c. 

Charles IV., {le Bel), of France 
(1294, 1322-1328). Third son of Philippe 
IV., le Bel, and last of the Capetian 
dynasty. 

Contemporary with Edward II., who 
was his brother-in-lav\^, having married 
Isabelle, ' the she wolf of France.' 

Huguos Capet ; Robert, his son ; Philippe I., hia 
son: Louis VI., his son; Louis VII., his son; 
I'hilippe II., his son ; Louis VIII., his son ; Louis 
IX., his son; Philippe 111., his son; Ihilippe IV., 
his son ; whose three sons were Louis X., Pliilippe 
v., and Charles IV. Hcu ' Fatal Three." 

Charles V. {le Sage), of France 
(1337, 13G4-1380). Grandson of Philippe 
v., and third of the Valois line. 



4 



CHARLES 



CHARLOTTE 



101 



FatJier, Jean 11., le Bon ; Mother, 
Bonne, daughter of the blind king of 
Bohemia slain at Creepy ; Wife, Jeanne, 
daughter of the Due de Bourbon. 

Contemporary with Edward III. and 
Richard II. of England. 

• The Valois line was from Thilippe III., son of 
St. Louis [IX.], whose second son was Charles de 
Valois. 

Charles VI. {le Bien-aime), of 
Fr.\nce (1308, 1380-1422). An .imbecile, 
who resigned his kingdom to Henry V. 
of England, after the battle of Agincourt. 
He was the fourth of the Valois line. 

Father, Charles V. ; Mother, Jeanne, 
daughter of the Due de Bourbon ; Wife, 
Isabelle of Bavaria. One of his daughters, 
Isabelle, married Richard II. of England, 
and another, Catherine, married Henry 
v., and afterwards Owen Tudor of Wales. 

Contemporary with Richard 11., 
Henry IV., and Henry V. of England. 

Charles VII. {le Victorieux), of 
France (1403, 1422-14G1). So called 
because he succeeded in wresting France 
from the hands of the English. His first 
success was due to Jeanne d'Are. 

Father, Charles VI., the Imbecile ; 
Mother, Isabelle of Bavaria ; Wife, 
Marie d'Anjou, daughter of Louis II. of 
Naples ; Son, Louis XL 

Contemporary with Henry VI. of Eng- 
land. 

Charles VIII. {VA fahle), of France 
(1470, 1483-1498), last of the Valois line. 

Father, Louis XL ; Mother, Charlotte 
of Savoy ; W^ife, Anne of Brittany. 
All his children died young. 

Contemporary with Edward V., 
Richard III., and Henry VII. of England. 

Charles IX., of Fr.\nce (1550, 1560- 
1574), of the Valois-AngoulOme line. 
Notorious for the St. Bartholomew 
slaughter {q.v.). 

Father, Henri II. ; Mother, Catharine 
de'- Medici ; W^ife, Elizabeth, daughter 
of Maximilian II. of Austria ; no issue. 

Contemporary with Elizabeth of 
England. His mistress was Marie 
Touchet, who afterwards married 
Francois de Balzac, whose younger 
daughter was the Marchioness of Ver- 
neuil, mistress of Henri IV. It was Henri 
IV. who made the anagram on the name 
of ' Marie Touchet,' Je charme tout. 

Charles V. had two sons, Ciiaules VI. and 
Louis, due d'Anjou. 



The elder branch of the Valois line, viz. Charles 
VI.; Charles VII., his son; Luris XI., his son; 
Charles VIII., his son ; no surviving issue. 

The younger branch or second son of Charles 
v., viz. Louis, due d'.Vnjou; Louis, due d Orleans 
who had two sons, viz. Charles, due d Orleans, and 
Jean, comte d Anijouleine. 

First take Charles, due d'Orleans : his son was 
Louis XII., no son. 

Next take Jean, comte d'.\ngouIeme : his son 
was Charles, due d'Angouleme, whose son was 
Francois I. ; then comes Henri II., his son, who 
had three sons, all crowned, viz. Francois 
II., Charles IX., and Henri III., with whom 'the 
dynasty became extinct. See ' Fatal Three.' 

Charles X., of Fr.\nce (1757, 1824- 
1830 ; abdicated and died in 1836). The 
fourth son of Louis the Dauphin, grand- 
son of Louis XV., and last of the 
Bourbon dynasty. The only king of 
France who reached his 80th year. 

Father, Louis the Dauphin ; Mother, 
Marie Leczinska ; Wife, Maria Theresa 
of Savoy ; So7i, Henri [V.] never crowned, 
lived at the castle of Frohsdorf in Austria, 
where he died in 1883. His eldest son 
Louis-Antoine married Marie-The'rese 
(his cousin, daughter of Louis XVL), ' the 
modern Antigone.' 

Contemporary with George IV. 

Charles X., on abdicating, assumed the title of 
Comte de Marnes. He first retired to Holyrood 
in Scotland, then to Hradschin near Prague, and 
lastly to Giiritz, where he died. 

The Bourbons : Henri IV. ; Louis XIII., his 
son; Louis XIV., his son, died 1715; [Louis, le 
grand dauphin, his son, died 1711 ; Louis, due do 
liourgogne, dauphin, his son, died 171-2]: Louis 
XV., his son, died 1774 [Louis, the dauphin, died 
17^5], leaving three sons, Louis X\I., LouiS 
XVIIL. and CHARLES X. See ' Fatal Three." 

(Louis XVII., the son of Louis XM.,te Mailur.-was 
never crowned, but as he sur\ived his father ho 
received the empty title, like Henri V. (stjc above), 
and Napoleon II.). 

Charles le Tdm^raire or the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy (1433-1477). 
' Bold ' he was not ; foolhardy or self- 
willed would be nearer the mark. 

Charles's Law (1787). The volume 
of a gas under constant pressure expands 
when raised from the freezing to the boil- 
ing point, by the same fraction of itself, 
whatever be the nature of the gas. 

Citizen Charles lived 17461823. This law is also 
called • Dalton's Law,' who publislied it in 18U1, and 
' Gay-Lussac s Law,' who published it in 1ko2. 
Charles di d not publish it at all, but it is mentioned 
in his rdemoir. 

Charlotte {The Princess), daughter 
of George IV. Her mother's name waa 
Caroline (afterwards the wife of George 
IV.) ; her husband was Prince Leopold 
of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the 
Belgians). She was married 2 May, 1816, 
at Carlton House. Her town residence 
was Camelford House ; and her country 
residence was Claremont, not long ago 

M 



162 



CHARTS 



CHARTISTS 



the property of Lord Clive. She was 
born 7 Jan., 1796, and died m child- 
birth 6 Nov., 1817. The name of her 
accoucheur was Croft. 

Charte Constitutionnelle (of 

France), 1814. Granted by Louis XVIII., 
and re-formed in 1830 after the abdication 
of Charles X. 

Charter of Community {A). A 
charter of corporate rights, a French 
term. See ' Chartered Towns.' 

Charter of 1830 (France). The 
charter granted by Louis-Philippe when 
he was made King of the French. This 
was a modification of the Constitutional 
Charter granted in 1814 by Louis XVIII. 
Its chief item was changing the line of 
monarchs into the family of Louis- 
Phiiipi^e, Due d'Orleans, and his de- 
cendants. 

M. Guizot said: 'The Charter of 1830 would be 
transmitted to future generations as an inviolable 
deposit ; and would' secure for France the alliance 
of order and liberty, the most invaluable coheri- 
tance which a nation could receive ' (1847). 

Charter of Liberties [Henry I.'s), 
1100. This charter was the re-establish- 
ment of the laws of Edward the Confessor. 
Magna Charta is for the most part a mere 
renewal of the same. 

Charter of Louis XVIII. (The). 
See above, ' Charte Constitutionnelle.' 

Charter {The People's), 1838-1848. 
It consisted of these six items : (1) Man- 
hood Suffrage, (2) Annual Parliaments, 
(3) Stipendiary Members, (4) Vote by 
Ballot, (5) Electoral Districts, and (G) No 
Property Qualifications for members. It 
was drawn up by William Lovett, a 
working man, but the preamble was 
written by Mr. Roebuck, M.P. In 1848 
the monster petition was taken to the 
House of Commons in three cabs, but 
being examined, was found to contain 
the name of the Duke of Wellington 15 
times, with whole strings of fictitious 
names, such as Snub-nose, Hook-nose, 
Long-Nose, Short-nose, &c. It was a 
comjilete failure, and brought the Chart- 
ists into such ridicule that the society 
fell to pieces. See ' Chartists.' 

Their first petition was presented to Parliament 
by Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 

Charter-house (The). A corrup- 
tion of Chartreuse, i.e. Carthusian house 
— in Aldersgate Street. It was originally 
founded by Sir Walter de Manny, in 1371, 



as a monastery ; but, on the suppression 
of monasteries in 1537, it was used by 
Henry VIII. as a depot for his nets and 
pavilions. It was next sold to the Duke 
of Norfolk, and sundry other persons. 
In 1611 Thomas Sutton bought it for 
13,000Z. of Lord Suffolk, and endowed it 
with the revenues of more than twenty 
manors, lordships, and other estates, for 
eighty poor brethren over 50 years of 
age ; and the free education of forty-four 
boys, ' sons of poor gentlemen,' admitted 
at the age between 10 and 14. 

The following were educated at this school : 
Dr. Barrow. Judge Blaekstone, Addison, Sir Rich- 
ard Steele, John Wesley, Bishop Thirlwall, George 
Grote, Thackeray, Sir Charles Eastlake, and many 
others. Removed to Godalmiug, Surrey, in 1872. 

Charter Schools [The), 1733. In 
Ireland. Schools chartered by govern- 
ment for the education of the Irish poor 
on the principles of the Established 
Church. Grant withdrawn in 1832. See 
' Incorporated Society for Promoting 
English Protestant Schools in Ireland.' 

Chartered To'wns. According to 
feudal law, towns (like all the rest of the 
soil) pertained to the feudal lords ; and 
the inhabitants, together with their shops 
and houses, were the property of these 
lords ; but when a town was chartered 
it was emancipated and set free. It then 
chose its own magistrates, had its own 
guild, its own police, and its own bye- 
laws. The bailiff or steward hitherto ap- 
pointed by the feudal lord to collect his 
dues was then superseded by a mayor 
and other civic officers, elected by the 
townsmen. The feudal lord had no 
longer any legal authority in the town, 
which was wholly governed by its own 
magistrates and the king. 

Louis VI. (1108-1137) was the first to grant char- 
ters of community in France ; but Ilenry I. in 
1100 granted such charters in England, and pro- 
bably Edward the Confessor did the same. 

Charters of Inspeximus or of 

'Vidimus.' Charters reciting previous 
charters and confirming them, with the 
addition of some new privilege. ' In- 
speximus' or 'Vidimus,' i.e. we have 
insx^ected or seen the old charter, and 
confirm it. 

Chartists. Organised 1838, but the 
word was in use in 1832. The most sedi- 
tious speakers were Stephens (a dissent- 
ing minister), Oastler, and Feargus 
O'Connor. Charles Ernest Jones, bar- 



CHAETIST 



CHATEAUBRIAND 



ma 



rister-at-law, was also a great Chartist 
advocate (1819-1869). 

The Rev. Joseph Rayncr Stephens, of Hyde, 
Chester, was in 1839 iinprisoued ia Knutsiord 
g lol for 18 months. 

For the six points see above, 'Charter (The 
People's).' 

Chartist Constitution {The). It 
contained six items. See under ' Charter 
{The People's).'' The Chartists intended 
to march to the House of Commons on 
10 April, 1848, to place Peargus O'Connor 
in the chair, and pass their charter ; but 
the whole scheme fell through. 

Chartist Convention {The), 1889. 
Also called by them the 'National 
Convention' {q.v.). 

Chartist E-iots in Birmingham 

{The), 1838. Of these riots the Duke of 
Wellington said in the House of Lords : 
* I have seen as much of war as most men ; 
but I have neA"er seen a town, carried by 
assault, subjected to such violence as 
Birmingham has been in one single hour 
by its own inhabitants.' 

Chartist Kiot at IMe^wport 

{The), 29 Sept., 1839. Led by John Frost 
(linendraper, a magistrate), Williams, and 
Jones. Upwards of twenty persons were 
killed in this riot. The three leaders 
were condemned to be hanged. Sen- 
tence of death was commuted into trans- 
portation for life ; but in May 1858 the 
three were pardoned and returned to 
England. 

Chartrenx. A religious order, called 
in English 'Carthusians' {q.v.). La 
Grande Chartreuse is a celebrated French 
monastery in the department of Is^re, 
which owes its origin to St. Bruno, who 
settled there in 1084. The monks were 
despoiled in the revolution of 1789. 

Chasidim,«.e. Pietists. I. Those who 
resisted the efforts of Antiochos Epipha- 
nes and his successors to lure the Jews 
into idolatry, 

II. Jewish ascetics who studied the 
Kabbala, and sought by mortifying the 
flesh to come into closer communion with 
God and his angels. 

III. In 1750 Israel Baal Shem pre- 
tended to work miracles, and the revived 
Chasidim became numerous, but at his 
death in 17G0 they died out again. 

IV. In 1760, among the Jews of the 
Ukraine. The sect spread rapidly through 
Poland and other parts of Bussia. They 



are very strict observers of the law ; be- 
lieve in the miracles of their saints, and 
in their power of curing bodily ailments. 
Joyfuhiess is insisted on by these Pietists, but it 
is said to tsnd to Epicureanism. 

Chasles Forgeries {The). M. 
Chasles, a member of the French Aca- 
demy of Sciences, gave out that he had 
bought 27,000 MSS. for 5,000^., but would 
not tell where, ' lest others should go and 
spoil his market.' Amongst these MSS. 
was a correspondence from Alexander 
the Great to Aristides, several letters 
from Attila, king of the Huns, and from 
the widow of Martin Luther. Several 
also from Judas Iscariot to Mary Magda- 
lene, and from Lazarus to St. Peter. 
What, however, more nearly concerns 
Englishmen was a faded yellow MS., 
purporting to be letters from Pascal to 
Sir Isaac Newton, to prove that Newton 
had pilfered his system of gravitation. 
The tale was that this MS. belonged to 
the Abbey of Tours ; came into the pos- 
session of Comte de Boisjourdain, who La 
1791 was wrecked on his way to America. 
The MS. was sold, and the purchaser 
gave it to M. Chasles. Another letter 
was produced from Galileo, stating that 
the discovery had been made known to 
him. A committee was formed to ex- 
amine into the matter, when a poor tool 
named Vrain Lucas was discovered to 
be the forger, and, after conviction, was 
severely punished. See ' Literary For- 
geries.' 

Chassepot Rifle, 1866. A breech- 
loading rifle invented by M. Chassepot, 
and adopted by the French government. 
It was largely used by the French in the 
Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871. 

Chasseurs de Vincennes, or 

* Tirailleurs,' i.e. sharp-shooters, 1835. A 
coY-ps in the French army organised by 
the Duke of Orleans, and armed with the 
new rifle. They were first garrisoned at 
Vincennes; but now a whole battalion 
has been organised. 

Chaste ^Week {The). Hebdomada 
Casta. The week preceding Lent ; so 
called because the faithful vowed in that 
week to observe inviolable chastity 
throughout the coming Lent. 

ChateauT^riand {Edict of). In 
France, 27 June, 1554. Published by 
Henri II., renewing the persecution of 
ai:2 



164 



CHATTEETON 



CHESTNUT 



the Huguenots, and referring cases of 
' heresy' to the civil as well as to the 
ecclesiastical judges. The edict prohibits 
all books of an unorthodox tendency. 

Chatter ton {Thomas). 'The mar- 
vellous boy.' A literary impostor. He 
began in 1768 to produce poems which 
he'professed to be from the pen of Tho- 
mas Rowley, a monk of the 15th cent. 
Chatterton was born at Bristol, and com- 
mitted suicide (1752-1771). See ' Literary 
Forgeries.' 

Cliattertonian Controversy 
{The), 1770. This controversy was 
whether the poems said by Thomas Chat- 
terton to be Rowley's were forgeries or 
not. Rowley was said by him to have 
been a priest of Bristol in the reigns of 
Henry VI. and Edward IV. The forgery 
was exposed by the poets Mason and 
Gray. The wonder is how anyone the 
least acquainted with the literature of 
the period referred to could be deceived. 
Modernise the spelling, and the deception 
is manifest. The boy, however, was a 
true poet and great genius. 

Chaucer of Artists (TM- Albert 
Diirer, of Niirnberg (1471-1528), called by 
his countrymen the ' prince of artists.' 

A contemporary artist was Lucas Kranach 
(1472-1558), famous for his portraits of Luther, 
Melanchthon, and other reformers. These por- 
traits are as celebrated as the portraits of Charle- 
magne and his successors by Albert Diirer. 

Chaucer of France {The). Cle'- 
ment Marot, valet to Francois I. (1484- 
1544). 

Chaucer of Scotland {The). Wil- 
liam Dunbar (14G5-1530). His ' Thistle 
and Rose,' an allegory, celebrates the 
marriage of James IV. (the Thistle) with 
Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. (the 
Rose), and is a rich specimen of poetical 
allegory worthy the bard of Woodstock, 

Chaucer's Inn, the ' Tabard,' was 
burnt down in the Great Fire of London, 
1666. Rebuilt and called the 'Talbot' 
or ' Dog ' till 1873, when it was converted 
mto a gin-shop. 

Chaumont {Treaty of), 1 March, 
1814. A treaty of alliance against Napo- 
leon, between Great Britain, Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia. The allies bound 
themselves to pursue without relaxation 
war against France, till Nai^oleon con- 
sented to renounce all the acquisitions 
made by France since the commencement 



of 1792, and to abandon all interference 
with any state except France. 

Chauvinism originally meant ex- 
travagant admiration of Napoleon ; but 
now it means jingoism. Chauvin is a 
character in Scribe's Soldat Laboiireur, 
an intense admirer of Napoleon Bona- 
parte. 

Cheapside Knight {The). Sir 
Richard Blackmore, who resided at Sad- 
lers' Hall, Cheapside, and was knighted 
by V/illiam IIL (1650-1728). 

Chefs Plaids {The). The parlia- 
ment or general assembly of Sark, con- 
vened by the ' Seigneur ' {q.v.). The 
members consist of the seneschal, the 
prevot, the greffier, and the tenants of 
the forty farms. 

Chelsea Philosopher {The), or 
' The Sage of Chelsea.' Thomas Carlyle 
(1795-1881) ; he was born at Ecclefechan, 
in Dumfriesshire, but settled in Chelsea. 

Chemistry {Father of Frejich). 
Arnaud de Villeneuve (1238-1314). 

Chemistry {Professorship of). In 
the University of Cambridge, 1709; 
founded by the University. Stipend, 
500Z. a year. 

Cherubim. Ezekiel's cherubim is 
identical with the four standards sta- 
tioned at the four sides of the Tabernacle 
in the Wilderness : the Lion for Judah, 
Man for Reuben, Ox for Ephraim, and the 
Flying Eagle for Dan (Gen. xxx. 14). 
According to Dante the Cherubim in- 
habit the Fixed Stars, and the Seraphim 
the Primum Mobile. See ' Evangelical 
Symbols.' 

Cheruscan League {The), a.d. 9. 
A league of German tribes each side of 
the Weser to drive out the Romans from 
their territory. Hermann, cpJled in Latin 
Arminius, was chosen chief ; and suc- 
ceeded in destroying the army of Varus, 
and driving the Romans beyond the Rhine. 

Chestnut Bells. In 1886, in New 
York, and some other large cities in the 
United States, the gallery gods carried 
little bells into the theatres, and rang 
them when a stale witticism (or ' chest- 
nut ') was uttered by the actors. Tiiese 
bells soon became a stale nuisance, and 
were called ' chestnut bells.' 

Chestnut is an Americanism for a stale joke oi 
witticism. 



i 



CHEVALIER 



CHIEF 



105 



Chevalier de St. George {The), 
17C8. The name and title assumed by- 
James the Pretender, just as he was 
about to cross over to Scotland as its 
king. This son of James II. is generally- 
called the ' Old Pretender.' See ' Warm- 
ing-pan.' 

His son -was Charles Edward [Stuart], the 
• Young Pretpiider," -who, on the death cf his 
lather, laid claim to the throne of Great Britain ; 
but, being signally defeated at CuUoden in 1746, 
he fled to the continent. 

*<,* He assumed the name of Betty Blake, an 
Irishwoman, w/ien he escaped to S!;ye, accom- 
panied by Flora Macdonald. The sum of 30,000i. 
was set on his head. 

Clievalier sans peur et sans 

reproche {Le). The Chevalier de 
Bayard (1476-1524). Like Horatius 
Codes, the Roman, lie defended alone a 
bridge {Garigliano) against a -whole 
army ; and, like Fabricius, he rejected 
with indignation the offer of a villain 
to poison Pope Julius II., with whom he 
was at war. 

Chevaliers de Xjivonie {Les). 
The same as the ' Freres de la milice du 
Christ,' or the ' Chevaliers Porte-glalve ' 
{q.v.). 

Chevaliers du Poignard {Les), 
28 Feb., 1791. Certain royalists who, 
being alarmed at the attack of the 
French mob on the prison of Vincennes 
(called the Seoond Bastille), rushed to 
the Tuileries to defend the king and 
royal family. La Fayette, with his guards, 
searched the courtiers, and took from 
them a large basket full of poniards, 
daggers, pistols, and sword-canes. The 
courtiers were very roughly handled. 
Marat declared in his journal, L'Ami du 
Peujyle, that 5,000 poniards had been 
manufactured against the patriots ; but, 
after a strict search, only thirty-six were 
found in the whole city, and those be- 
longed to persons engaged in tlie slave- 
trade. See ' Day of the Poniard.' 

Chevaliers Porte-glaive {Les). 
In Latin ' Ensiferi,' 1201. A religious 
military order founded by Albert d'Apel- 
dorn, bishop of Livonia, to subdue 
countries still pagan. They were first 
called ' Les Freres de la milice du Christ,' 
and were sometimes called ' Les Cheva- 
liers de Livonie.' They wore a white 
robe with two red swords on the breast. 
In 1237 the order was amalgamated with 
the Teutonic Knights, and remained so 



till 1525, when the original order was re- 
constructed. 

Chevy Chase. A British ballad 
based on the story of the battle of Otter- 
burn, Aug. 1388. This battle was de- 
clared by Froissart to have been tlie 
bravest and most chivalrous ever fought 
in his day. The two chieftains were 
Percy and Douglas ; and, if the ballad 
so named can be trusted, Douglas was 
slain by an English arrow, which pierced 
his heart, and Percy was slain by Hugh 
Montgomery. Probably a mere tale. 
{CJievaucher, to ride ; chevauchage^ a 
riding out ; clievaiichee, chased.) 

Chicard. A French harlequin, so 
called from Mons. Chicard, the originator. 
His costume consists of a helmet, a 
postilion's wig, a flannel shirt, and cavalry 
trousers. His arms are half-bare, and 
his hands are thrust into buff gloves with 
large cuils. 

Chichele Professorships {The). 
One for International Law, and one for 
Modern History, in Oxford University. 
Formed out of fi.ve suppressed fellow- 
ships in All Souls, 1854. Stipends, 750Z. 
a year each. 

Henry Chicheley, or Chichele, archbishop of 
Canterbury, founded All Souls College in 1437. 

Chicken {The). Mr. Michael Angelo 
Taylor was so called because, in the 
debate on the Westminster scrutiny in 
1785, he said, ' I always deliver my 
legal opinion in this house with great 
diffidence, because I am young — a mere 
chicken in the profession of the law.' 

Chief Secretary of Ireland 

{The). Practically the prime minister of 
the lord-lieutenant. He advises and di- 
rects the viceroy, and is responsible to 
parliament for every act of the Irish Ad- 
ministration ; but to the viceroy belongs 
the prerogative of pardon. The chief 
secretary is president of the Local Go- 
vernment Board, and can be called to 
account for every detail connected with 
the poor law. As head of the civil 
service he can be interrogated in parlia- 
ment upon well nigh everything which 
takes place in Ireland ; the police (both 
the Royal Irish Constabulary and the 
Dublin Metropolitan Police) are not 
under him, both being self -governed. The 
chief secretary's office has two depart- 



166 



CHILD 



CHILTERN 



ments, each presided over by one of the 
jiermanent under-secretaries. 

Child of Fortune [The). So 
Nai^oleon called Marshal Masseiia after 
the battle of Rivoli, 14 January, 1707, and 
created him ' due de Rivoli.' 

Child of Hale. John Middleton, 
the giant, born at Hale, in Lancashire, in 
1578. His height was 9 feet 3 inches. 
Dr. Plott tells us that John Middleton 
wanted only 6 inches to equal Goliath in 
size.' 

Goliath was 6 cubits and a span. 

Child of the Cord {The). The 
prisoner summoned to appear before the 
Vehmgerichte {q.v.), who was always 
dragged bound before the tribunal. If 
found guilty the president said to him : 
' Prisoner ... I devote your neck to the 
rope, your body to the birds of prey, and 
may God have mercy on your soul.' He 
was then dragged bound out of the court 
and hanged on the nearest tree. See 
* Free Bench.' 

Child Pil.-^r images (13th cent.). 
A religious epiclemic which broke out in 
Europe in 1212, but the last boy crusade 
was in 1459. Threats and persuasions, 
love and fear, had no effect upon the boys, 
who wept day and night, pined, and 
trembled in every limb. There was no 
difference in the social scale, the children 
of counts and barons ran away from home 
as well as the sons of shepherds and 
tradesmen. 

Childermas, or 'Holy Innocents' 
Day,' 28 Dec. In commemoration of the 
children slain by Herod. 

The coronation of Edward IV. was put off till 
the Monday, because the preceding day was 
' Cliildermas Day.' 

Children's Crusade {The), 1212. 
Preached in France by Stephen, a peasant 
boy, and in Germany the same year by 
Nicholas, also a peasant boy. Some 
90,000 children left their mothers and 
schoolmasters in the spring 'to rescue 
the Holy Land from the infidels,' and 
ships were placed at their disposal. The 
French contingent embarked at Mar- 
seilles in August ; part perished the same 
month by shipwreck on the island of San 
Pietro, and the rest were sold into slavery 
to Mohammedans. The German contin- 
gent reached Genoa in August, and was 
utterly dispersed by various disasters be- 
fore the next spring. 



Children's !Employm.ent Com- 
mission {The), 1841. To inquire into 
the employment of children in mines, 
cotton mills, and other industries. In 
1842 they laid before Parliament a state- 
ment of the employment of children in 
coal-mines which greatly shocked the 
moral sense of the country, and Lord 
Ashley took the subject up. 

Children of Rebecca, 1843. 

"Welsh rioters whose object was to destroy 
toll-gates. So called from Gen. xxiv. 60. 
Laban said to Rebecca or Rebekah, ' Let 
thy seed possess the gate of those that 
hate thee.' 

Chiliasm. The belief that Christ 
will come to earth and rule the world 
from Jerusalem for 1,000 years. The 
Latin word ' millennium ' means the same 
thing. The Revelation of John is the 
chief authority of the Chiliasts. 

Papias, Justin Blartyr, Irenasus, Tertullian, and 
LactantiuswereCliiliasts, but Origen was opposed 
to the notion. Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, says, 
in the millennium 'every vine will bear 10,000 
branches, every branch 10,000 shoots, every shoot 
10,000 sprigs, every sprig 10,000 bunches, every 
bunch 10,000 berries, and every berry 36 times iJ5 
gallons of wine ; and if a saint comes to pluck a 
berry it will cry out, "Pluck me, O saint ! I am 
better for being plucked, praise the Lord." ' 

The Fifth Monarchy Men were, of course, Chill- 
asts, only they maintained that the golden age 
had begun, and that they were of it. 

Chilly Saints {The Three). St. 
Pankratius, St. Liberatus, and St. Ser- 
vatius, whose anniversaries are the three 
cold days of May the 11th, 12th, and 
18th. Some substitute St. Mamertus for 
St. Liberatus. 

Chiltern Hundreds. There are 
three, viz. Stoke, Desborough, and Bonen- 
ham or Burnham. At one time the 
Chiltern HiUs between Bedford and 
Hertford, &c., were covered with beech 
trees, which formed shelter for robbers ; 
so a steward was appointed by the crown 
to pvit down these marauders and protect 
the inhabitants of the neighbourhood 
from their depredations. The necessity 
of such watch and ward has long since 
ceased, but the office remains ; and when 
a member of parliament wishes to vacate 
his seat, one way of doing so is by accept- 
ing the office of steward of the three 
Chiltern Hundreds. Being thus advanced 
to a government office, his seat is ex 
officio vacated. Immediately the member 
has effected his object he resigns his 
oHice again. The gift is in the hands of 



CHIMINAGE 



CHOPPINa 



3G7 



the chancellor of the exchequer. In 
18-12 it was refused to the member for 
Reading. This acceptance began in 1750. 

Similar crown offices are the Stewardshii> of the 
Manor of Poyiiing.*, of East Heudred and Nortii- 
Btead, and the escheatorship of Blunster. The 
holder of these sinecures is party to a contract 
between the crown and certain hypothetical con- 
tractors. One farthing sufflces to make the con- 
tract. 

Chimina^e. Toll for passing through 
a forest. Those who carried brushes, 
timber, bark, or coal on their backs to 
sell, i^aid no chiminage. Also called 
' pedagium ' (French chemin, a road or 
way, chiminus regince). 

Chimney-tax. ' Hearth-money,' or 
• Chimnev-money.' A tax of 2s. a chimney 
levied bv 13, 14 Car. II. c. 10 (16G2), but 
abohshed by 1 WiU. & Mary, c. 10 (1G89). 

Chinese Bible {The), Compiled 
and partly composed by Confucius, di- 
vided into five books : — 

1. Called the Yih-Eing, a treatise on 
cosmogony. 

2. Called the Shu-King, the acts and 
maxims of Yaou, Shun, and other ancient 
kings held in religious veneration. 

3. Called the Shi-King, which contains 
811 sacred poems. 

4. Called the Ee-King, or book of rites, 
containing maxims and directions for 
everyday life and all conditions of men. 

5. Called the Chun-tsien, a history of 
Confucius's own times. 

Chinese Caesar [The). Kao-hoang- 

ti, founder of tlie Han dynasty, one of 
the most illustrious that ever occupied 
the Chinese throne (dynasty lasted B.C. 
~ 202-A.D. 22G). 

Chinese "Wars {The) with Great 
Britain. The First War 1834-1842 ; the 
Second War 1855-1858. The cause of 
the first war was the prohibition of the 
opium trade by the Chinese Government. 
When this prohibition was disregarded 
the British boats were fired on from the 
Chinese forts. Commissioner Lin was 
Bent to adjust the dispute, and his first 
demand was that aU the opium in store, 
whether in factories or boats, should be 
given up to him to be burnt. This was 
done. Then Lin forbade all trading 
whatsoever between Great Britain and 
China. This provoked hostilities, and 
after several successes the British at- 
tacked Nanking ; whereupon the Chinese 
concluded a treaty of peace 26 Aug., 



1842, in which Hong Kong was ceded to 
Britain. 

The Second War broke out (1855) in 
consequence of the bad faith of tlie 
Chinese, who violated the treaty. The 
English now demanded free access to 
Canton, and, this being refused, they pro- 
ceeded to besiege that city. A second 
treaty of peace at Tientsin was at once 
concluded, and the war ceased in 1858. 

The first treaty of peace stipulated (1) 
the surrender of Hong Kong; (2) 21 
million dollars [about 5 millions stei'ling] 
for war indemnity ; (3) free trade between 
Britain and China, and (4) the following 
to be open ports, in each of which a 
British consul was to reside, viz. Canton, 
Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shang- 
hae. 

Napoleon, by the Berlin Treaty {q.v.'), boycotted 
Great Britnin as the Chinese did, and both at- 
tempts failed. Any individual may refuse to deal 
with any other, but no one has a right to enforce 
that prolaibition on another against his will. 

Chivalrous Madman {The). 

James IV. of Scotland (1473, 1488-1513), 
slain at Flodden Field. 

Cholera [Morbus]. An epidemic 
which appeared in Bengal, the Isle of 
France, and the He de Bourbon in 1818, 
1819, and 1S20. It appeared in Sunder- 
land 26 Oct., 1831, in Edinburgh 6 Feb., 
1832, and in March had reached Dublin. 
In Paris the deaths between March and 
Aug., 1832, were 18,000. It raged in Rome 
and in the Two Sicilies, Genoa, and Berlin 
from July to Aug., 1837. In 1818, 1849 
it again appeared in England, and the 
death-rate of September was 3,183, and 
from 17 June to 2 Oct. it was 13,161. In 
1866 it appeared again in Great Britain, 
and in fifteen weeks above 5,000 persons 
in London were carried off by it. It re- 
turned to Germany in 1883, 1884. 

Chopping with the Whittle. 

An ancient tenure. ' Walter de Aldeham 
holds land of the king in the More in the 
county of Salop by the service of paying 
to the king yearly at his Exchequer 
2 knives [whittles], whereof one ought 
to be of that goodness that it would cut, 
at the first stroke, into the middle of a 
hasle rod of a year's growth, and of a 
cubit in length. The same service ought 
to done in the middle of the Exchequer 
in the presence of the treasurer and 
barons on the morrow of St. Michael ; 
aaid the said whittles are to be dcJivered 



1C3 



CHOEBISHOPS 



CHRIST 



to tlie Cliamberlain for tlie king's use.' 
Blount, Ancient Tenures, 1815. 

Cliorbisliops, or * Chorepiscopi.' 
Suffragans, or rural bishoi^s, delegated 
by the diocesan. In 846, at the Council 
of Sens, Andrad Modicus was appointed 
cliorbishop; but in 849 the Council of 
Paris deposed all the chorbishops of 
France. 

Pronounce Eor-Mshops. 

diouans. I. Fiist Period. "Were 
bands of insurgent royalists who, during 
the first French Revolution, organised a 
reactionary movement against the Blues 
(or Republicans). The original Chouan 
was Jean Cottereau, a maker of sabots, 
near Laval, who turned smuggler. He 
was called Chouan, or screech-owl [chat- 
huani], because he rallied his men, or 
warned them of danger by imitating the 
cry of that bird, and all his gang went 
by the name of Chouans. In 1791 several 
' trees of liberty ' were destroyed in Brit- 
tany, and other outrages were fomented 
by seditious priests. In 1792 an insur- 
rection was planned by the Marquis de 
la Rouarie, under the sanction of the two 
brothers of Louis XVI. The marquis 
entered into communication with Jean 
Cottereau, who, with his Chouans, car- 
ried on successfully a guerilla war with 
the Blues, till he fell, 28 July, 1794. 

II. Sccoiul Period. George Cadoudal 
was the next leader of the Chouans, or 
royalist insurgents of Brittany. He was 
born in 1771 near Auray, where his 
father was a miller. He was captured 
by the Blues in 1794, but made his es- 
cape, and became more active than ever 
in the royalists' cause. Annoyed at the 
dissensions of the Vendean generals, he 
organised an army in which no aristocrat 
was permitted to hold command. So 
brave, so well drilled, and so well offi- 
cered was this Chouan army that General 
Hoche was unable either to subdue or 
to disperse it. In 1799 George Cadoudal 
was the soul of the conspiracy to over- 
throw the First Consul (Bonaparte), but 
on the 18 Brumaire he was forced to re- 
nounce the war, and took refuge in 
England. In 1803 he joined Pichegru's 
plot against the First Consul, but the 
conspiracy being discovered, Cadoudal 
was apprehended and put to death, 
25 June, 1804. 

III. Third Periods. Many petty 
Bpurts of Chouannerie broke out after 



1799, when George Cadoudal was obliged 
to give up the struggle. In 1803 it 
ceased for a while, in 1814-1815 it 
again started into life on both banks of 
the Loire, but Lamarque stamped it out. 
In the July Revolution (1830) the Du- 
cliesse de Berry tried to revive Chouan- 
nerie on behalf of the Due de Bordeaux, 
but it was soon crushed out by the ener- 
getic measures of M. Thiers. 

Chouans, pronounce Shicahng. 

Chouannerie. Guerilla warfare by 
volunteers on behalf of a royal cause. The 
word is from Chouans, the insurgents 
of Brittany, who rose on behalf of Louis 
XVI., and also against the First Consul 
(Bonaparte). Sometimes the word means 
"devotion to the kingly cause in France, 
as chauvinistn means enthusiastic de- 
votion to Napoleon I. and the Imperial 
cause. 

CliOW, or Tchow dynasty {The). 
The third Imperial dynasty of China. It 
gave 34 sovereigns, and lasted 866 years 
(from B.C. 1122 to 256). Yn was the seat 
of government. This dynasty is called 
that of the 'Kings Combatant,' being a 
period of almost unvarying contention 
and feudal strife. 

Confucius and Mencius, the Chinese philoso- 
phers, were both born under this dynasty. 

Chremonidean War {The), e.g. 

2G8 or 263. When Athens was taken by 
Antigonus Gonatus. So called from Chre- 
monidcs, the Athenian, who distinguished 
himself m the defence of the city. 

Christ {Knights of), 1318. A mili- 
tary order, founded in Portugal by King 
Dionysius ; also founded in Brazil in 1813. 

Christ {Order of), 1205. In Livonia, 
instituted by Albert, bishop of Riga. The 
popes also confer the ' order of Christ.' 

Christ's Birth. 

Idler fixes it in . . Dec. B.C. 7 
Petavius and Usher . 25 Dec. „ 5 
Bengel ... 25 Dec. „ 4 

Anger and Winer • . March „ 4 
Scaliger .... Oct. „ 3 
St. Jerome . . 25 Dec. „ 3 

Eusebius (Bk. i. 6.) . .6 Jan. „ 2 
(Dr. Geikie, ' Life of Christ,' i. p. 5B9.) 

Bunsen shows, on the authority of Irenseus, tha t 
Jesuswas born some fifteen years before the tine 
assigned, and that he lived to be about fifty years 
of afe'e. 

Basnage, the Jew, in his ' Hist, des Juifs,' placed 
the birth nearly a century sooner than A.D. 1. 

According to Luke ii. 1-7. it was about A.D. 10. 



I 



CHRIST 



CHRISTIAN 



1G9 



Christ Church, 1526. Founded 
by Ciirdinal Wolsey. The most aristo- 
cratic and wealthy of all the colleges of 
Oxford. The head-master of this college 
only is called the* Dean. 

Christ's College. In Cambridge 
University, founded by the Lady Mar- 
garet, countess of Richmond and Derby, 
mother of Henry VII., in 1505. 

The founder of St. John's College also. Snrely 
this college ought to be Christ College, as Christ 
Church in Oxford. What would be said of Tri- 
nity's College, Peter's House, or Corporis ChriHti 
College ? Bishop Latimer, Milton, and Cudworth 
■were of this college. 

Christ's Hospital (The Blue-coat 
School), London, 1553. founded by Ed- 
ward VI. (the year of his death). 

Called Blue-coat from the blue ■woollen coat 
fastened round the waist with a narrow red 
leather girdle. The boys wear yellow breeches 
and yellow stockings, bands, and a very small 
blue worsted cap. 

Christadelphians {The), 1st cent. 
Brethren of Christ, not brethren in 
Chi'ist. Revived by Dr. Thomas in the 
19th cent. The immortality of the soul, 
the theory of hell, the devil, disembodied 
spirits, and the Trinity they utterly dis- 
believe ; but the millennium they believe 
in fully. The Holy Ghost is not a dis- 
tinct person, they say, but simply the 
instrumental power of the Father. And 
Jesus Christ is God, only because the 
Spirit of God dwelt in Him fully and 
without measure. Dr. Thomas died in 
1871, but the Thomasites continue still. 

Christian Advocate (T/je). In the 

University of Cambridge, 1789 ; founded 
by the Rev. John Hulse, of St. John's 
College. In 1860 converted into the 
Hulsean Professor of Divinity [q.v.). 

Christian Brethren {The), 1525. 
An association chiefly of London trades- 
men and citizens, who smuggled over 
and circulated the Gospels and Epistles 
translated by Tyndale, and reprinted at 
Cologne or Worms the tracts of WycHf 
and Luther. 

Christian Charity {Knights of), 
1578. Instituted by Henri III. of France 
for the benefit of poor military officers 
and maimed soldiers. It resembled our 
' Poor Knights of Windsor ' {q.v.). 

Christian Cicero {The). Lactan- 
tius, first of the Latin fathers {q.v.). 
About 250-330. Converted 301. 
8 



Christian Club {The), 1768. A 
political union in the borough of Shore- 
ham, where the burgesses agreed to sell 
their borough to the highest bidder, and 
share the proceeds equally. Called the 

* Christian ' club because, like the early 
Christians, they agreed to have all things 
[i.e. the proceeds of the bribe] in common. 

Christian Connexion {The), 
1800. Chiefly in the United States of 
America. They recognise no leader, no 
creeds, no forms of prayer. The Bible 
is their code, and each man is his own 
intei-preter. Their great law is universal 
toleration. The general creed is this : 
There is one God ; Christ the Son of God 
is the Mediator between God and man. 
The Holy Ghost is the power and energy 
of God. Of course the table of com- 
munion is open to all who choose to 
attend. 

Christian Eloquence {Founder 
of). Bourdaloue (1632-1704). Especially 
famous for his ' Lent Sermons.' 

Christian Era. It was Dionysius 

* Exiguus,' in the 6th cent., who introduced 
the felicitous custom of dating from the 
birth of Christ. He, however, was incor- 
rect in fixing the Nativity after the death 
of Herod ; and indubitably it was not in 
December, but either in the spring or 
autumn. 

Ireneeus (ii. 22, 5) tells us that Jesus was between 
40 and 50 when he was put to death, but the general 
opinion is that he was between 33 and 84 years of 
age. 

Christian Era {The). 
Fixed by Dionysius Exiguus at zero a.d. 1 
Eusebius . . b.c 2 

Jerome and ScalTger . „ 3 
Anger, Bengel, Petavius, 

Winer, Usher . . „ 4 

Ewald . . . . „ 5 

Idler . . . • „ 7 

Bunsen . . . , „15 

Irenseus apparently , „ 20 

Luke ii. 1-7 . . a.d. 4 or 5 

(See Josephus,'Ant.' xvli. 1. 1, and Eusebius, i. 6.) 

(On the authority of Ireneeus Jesus was 50 at hla 

crucifixion.) 

In regard to the month of the Nativity, Euse- 
bius places it in January ; Anger and Winer in 
the spring; Scaliger in Oct.; Bengel, Idler. 
IrensBus, Petavius. and Usher in Dec. 

The Christian Era, suggested by Dionysius 
Exiguus, began to be used a.U. 526. Christmas 
Day was celebrated in the reign of Antoninus 
Pius (1.S8-1G1), and the festival is attributed to 
Telesphorus. (See ' Dec. 25.') 

Christian Era {The). This era 
begins Jan. 1, a.d. 1, or A.U.C. 753. Firs* 



170 



CHEISTIAN 



CHEISTINOS 



used by Dionysius Exiguus in 526. In- 
troduced into Italy in the 6th cent. ; into 
France in the 7th cent. ; ordained by the 
Council of Chelsea in 816. Not generally 
used in Spain till the 11th cent. ; not in 
Portugal till 1415; not in the Eastern 
Church till 1453. 

Called the 'Year of Grace'; the Year of the 
Incarnation ' ; ' Annus Traboationis' ; and some- 
times ' Recapitulatio Dionlsii ' [sic]. It is generally 
tiiought that A.D. 1 should be A.D. 4, in order to 
bring in Herod the Great, who died that year ; but 
the government of Cyrenius, mentioned by Luke, 
requires an adjustment in the opposite direction, 
ae he was proconsul of Syria 4-5, according to the 
calculation of Dionysius. 

Christian Fathers {The), 8rd 
cent. Irenaeus, Pantaeus, Clemens Alex- 
andrlnus, Tertullian {Latin), Minucius 
Felix {Latin), Hippolytus, Origen, Gre- 
gory Thaumaturgus,Cyprian, and Metho- 
dius (10 altogether). See ' Doctors.' 

Christian Forgeries {The), Of 
Brahmanic writings printed in French 
at Yverdun, in 1778, imposed even on 
Voltaire. A Carmelite missionary justi- 
fies the forgery, as the object was laud- 
able. Origen thought that a good aim 
or end justifies the means. See 'Literary 
Forgeries.' 

Christian Sen'eea {The). Joseph 
Hall, bishop of Norwich (1574-1656). 

Christian of the Cleek, 1335, 
&c. A Scotchman who, in the early part 
of the reign of Edward III., used to catch 
men with a ' cleek,' or hook, for food. Sir 
Walter Scott gives us a heartrending 
picture of the miserable condition of the 
people who saved life by devouring their 
fellows. 

Christians. Believers in Christ 
were so called first at Antioch in apos- 
tolic times. In modern times the sect so 
called own no name or founder but the 
Lord Jesus. 

The following sects keep the word with a differ- 
ence : Christian Believers, Christian Brethren, 
Christian Connexion, Christian Disciples, Chris- 
tian Eliasites, Christian Israelites, Christian Mis- 
Bion, Christian Teetotallers, Christian Temperance 
Men, Christian Unionists, The Free Catholic 
Christian CViurch, The Free Christians, The Free 
Christian Association, The Free Evangelical 
Christians, The Free Grace Gospel Christians, The 
Rational Christians, The Unitarian Christians, 
The United Christian Church, The Universal Chris- 
tians, The Christians of St. John (q.v.). The Chris- 
tians of St. Thomas (q.v.), &c. 

Christians are subdivided into three general 
categories : 

1. Those who admit the authority of tradition 
and of the Pope, as Roman and Greek Catholics. 

2. Those who acknowledge some authority 
besides the Bible: The Greek Church, which ac- 
knowledges the authority of the patriarchs of Con- 



stantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. 
The Russian Church, which acknowledges the 
Czar as ' liead of the Church.' The Chaldaian 
Cliurch, or Nestorians ; the Monophysites or Euty. 
cheans, as the Copts, Jacobites, and .Armenians. 

3. Those which acknowledge no authority ex- 
cept the Bible. They are (n) Unitarians, (b) Trini- 
tarians : as the Arians and Socinians ; the Ana- 
baptists, the Anglican Church or Church of Eng- 
land, Arminians, Baptists, Calvinists, Congrega- 
tionalists. Enthusiasts, Episcopalians or those 
Protestants who have an order of Bishops, Evan- 
gelicals, Hernhiitters, Huguenots or French Cal- 
vinists, Lutherans, Mennonites, Methodists, Mo- 
ravians, Mormons, Mystics, Nonconformists, 
Presbyterians, Puritans, Quakers or Friends, 
Remonstrants, Shakers, Swedenborgians, Wes- 
leyans, Zwinglians, &c. These and many others 
■will be found under their distinctive name. 

Christians of St. John {The), 1st 
cent. A sect which recognised John the 
Baptist as their head. They repeated their 
baptism annuall/; denied the divinity of 
Christ ; attributed a body to God ; called 
Gabriel God's son, and declared that God 
created the world by the instrumentality 
of Gabriel and 50,000 angels. At death, 
they asserted that the soul went to diffe- 
rent spheres. 

Christians of St. Thomas {The), 
A.D. 883. Said to have been founded by 
Thomas the Apostle. In 883 ambassa- 
dors of Alfred visited the shrine of the 
founder in the neighbourhood of Madras. 
They were then governed by the bishop 
of Ajigamala, who exercised jurisdiction 
over 1,400 churches and 200,000 souls. lu 
1500 the Portuguese inquisitors accused 
them of the Nestorian heresy, and after 
a fierce persecution Malabar was reduced 
under the dominion of the Pope of Rome. 
They remained sixty years in this servi- 
tude (1599-1663), when, the Portuguese 
empire being shaken, the Malabar Chris- 
tians asserted their independence and 
relapsed into their Nestorianism {q.v.). 

The ' Thomists ' were Roman Catholics. The 
disciples of Thomas Aquinas were quite another 
class of Christians. 

Chris ti'na of Sweden. Crowned 
under the title of ' king,' was bern 1626, 
reigned 1633-1664, abdicated, and died 
1689. She was the daughter of the great 
Gustavus. 

Christinos and Carlists, 1833, 

&c. In Spanish history. The partisans 
of Donna Maria Christina (regent for her 
daughter, Isabella Maria II.) and Don 
Carlos, brother of the late king. A 
salique law had been passed in Spain by 
Felipe V., but was repealed by Carlos IV., 
as he had only a daughter. Don Carlos 
claimed his right of succession, on the 



I 



I 



CHRISTMAS 



CHUPATTIE 



171 



salique law. His partisans were called 
Carlists, and for seven years a tedious 
guerilla war ensued. It was renewed 1873, 
and ended in 1876. 

Christmas Day. Now held on 25 
Dec. The early Christians held it, some 
in May, some in April, and some in June. 
It could not have been m December, as 
shepherds would not be in the fields 
watching their flocks by night in that 
month. Most likely it took the place of 
the Yule-feast and Roman festivals held 
during the winter solstice. The festival 
of the Nativity was introduced at Antioch 
in 375, but in the forged Isidorian 
Decretals (q.v.) Telesphoros (who lived 
in the 2nd cent.) is said to have insti- 
tuted it. 

The Puritan Parliament abolished the Christmas 
festival ; and the decoration of churches and 
houses was made an act of sedition. 

Christmas Day, 1684. Eight of 
the British sovereigns were all living. 

1. Richard Cromwell, born 4 Oct., 
1626-1712. 

2. Charles II., born 29 May, 1630-1G85. 

3. James II., born 14 Oct., 1633-1701. 

4. William III., born 4/14 Nov., 1650- 
1702. 

5. Q. Mary II., bom 30 Apr., 1662-1694. 

6. Q. Anne, born 6 Feb., 1664-1714. 

7. George I., born 28 May, 1660-1727. 

8. George II., born 30 Oct., 1683-1760. 
(See ' Notes and Queries,' Dec. 28, 1889, 
p. 505.) 

Christm.as Eve. Sir Walter Scott 
Bays, ' On Christmas Eve the mass is 
Bung.' Strictly speaking, this is not 
correct, as no mass is celebrated on the 
vigil of Christmas Day, or indeed on any 
vigil ; but it is usual in Rome to celebrate 
a midnight mass, i.e. a mass in the small 
hours of the morning of Christmas Day. 
The service may commence before mid- 
night, but it cannot be finished till after 
midnight. It is absolutely necessary that 
the elements be taken in the morning, 
i.e. between midnight and midday. On 
Christmas Day or any other day any 
number of masses may be said in a church 
at different altars by different priests, 
but no priest should celebrate more than 
one mass in a single day. This is not 
strictly observed. 

Christmas Prince (A). A Lord 
of Misrule. 

The High and Mighty Prince, Henry, prince of 
Parpoole [? Poole Paxk], archduke of Stapulia aud 



Bernardia [Staples and Barnard's Inn], duke of 
High and Nether Holborn, marquis of St. Giles and 
Tottenham, count palatine of Bloomshury and 
Clerkenwell, great lord of the cantons of Islington, 
Kentish Town, Paddington, and Knightsbridge.— 
Notes and Q^iericii, 17 March, 1888 iquoted from tho 
' Book of ChriBtmas,' by T. K. Hervey, 1835). 

Christopher North. The pen- 
name assumed by John Wilson (1785- 
1854). 

Christot'okos, Theot'okos, 
Theoph'oron. Nestorius (5th cent.) 
taught that Mary was not fleoTo'/co? 
(mother of God), but only xp'o'^'otojco? 
(mother of Christ), for God cannot be 
born of a woman. Jesus of Nazareth he 
called e€o4>6pov (possessed of God). These 
distinctions were condemned by the 
Council of Ephesus in 431. 

Chronicle of St. Neots (The). 
The Chronicle of Asser is so called be- 
cause it was discovered in the monastery 
of St. Neots. 

Asser, bishop of St. David's, Wales, died 910. His 
chronicle goes down to 893, and has been con- 
tinued by other hands. 

Chronicles of Denis (The), or 
' Chronicles of France.' The lives of St. 
Louis (IX.) and his brothers (Robert, 
Alphonse, and Charles), and the sons of 
St. Louis, Philippe III. le Hardi, and 
Robert de Clermont (the root of the 
Bourbon dynasty of France). It was 
written by Guillaume de Nangis, who 
died in 1300, and was a Benedictine 
monk of St. Denis. 

Suger (1092-1152), the wise minister of Louis VH. 
le Jeune, is called the precursor of the Chronicles 
of St. Denis. [Pronounce Sahit Dnee.] 

Chronology {Father of). Scaliger 
the younger (1540-1609). 

Chry SOS torn, or Golden -mouth. 
John, patriarch of Constantinople, was 
so called, but not till long after his death. 
His oratory was very attractive, appeal- 
ing more to the feelings and passions 
than to the reason (347-407). 

Dion, the rhetorician, was surnamed ChryBOstom 
before the patriarch (A.D. 60-117). 

Chupattie Mystery (The), Feb. 
1857. Just before the Indian mutiny, a 
native policeman entered a village of 
Oude, carrying two chupatties, or cakes, 
and ordered the person who took them 
to make ten more and distribute two to 
the five contiguous villages. In a few 
hours the whole country was alive with 
watchmen running from place to place 
with these cakes. The mystery has not 



172 



CHURCH 



CHURCH-SCOT 



yet been solved, but two facts are known : 
(1) that soon all India was in mutiny ; 
and (2) that five centuries previously a 
similar distribution of cakes in China 
led to the mutiny which overthrew the 
dynasty of the Moguls. 

Church {Orders of the). The sacra- 
ment of orders is only one ; but it is di- 
vided into seven grades in the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

I. Latin Church : Seven clerical orders 
(or grades) : Ostiarius, exorcist, reader, 
acolyte, subdeacon, deacon, priest. The 
last three are called the greater orders ; 
the other four are called the lesser orders. 
The priesthood completes the grades; 
the dignitaries being only priests. 

Subdeacons have been classed with the higher 
orders only since the time ot Innocent III. (1193- 
1216). 

Bishops, priests, and deacons are said to be of 
divine institution. 

The five orders of ostiarius, exorcist, reader, 
acolyte, and subdeacon are human institutions, 
which (we are told) have existed from apostolic 
times. 

Ten clerical orders. Those who insist 
that there are ten clerical orders in the 
Latin Church reckon these three amongst 
the grades : the tonsure, the office of 
precentor, and episcopal consecration. 

II. Greek Church : Either Four cleri- 
cal orders: reader, subdeacon, deacon, 
and priest ; 

Or Eleven. Those who maintain that 
there are eleven clerical grades in the 
Greek Church recognise the following : 
sexton, confessor, singer, ostiarius (or 
doorkeeper), exorcist, acolyte, reader, 
Bubdeacon, deacon, priest, and bishop. 

III. Anglican Church : Three clerical 
orders : deacon, priest, and bishop. 

Church-ale. A wake to commemo- 
rate the dedication of a church. These 
revels consisted of drinking and sports, 
especially dancing. 

In 16,S4 Denham issued an order in the western 
circuit to put an end to the disorders attending 
church-ales, bid-ales, and clerk-ales.— HowiTT, 
Hist, of Englatui (Charles I. ch. ill. p. 159). 

Church Army {The), 1882. A 
home missionary society for the conver- 
sion of the masses by out-door and in- 
door meetings, and by personal influence. 

Church Catechism (T^e). Strype 
assigns it to Nowell (' Ecc. Mem.' ii. 368) ; 
but Churton, in his ' Life of Dean NoAvell,' 
attributes it to Poinet, afterwards bishop 
of Winchester (pp. 403, 407). The ' Church 



Catechism' must not be confounded with 
what is called ' Cranmer's Catechism ' 
{q.v.), which was originally German. 

Church-cess (Ireland). Same as 
church-rate in England, for the general 
expenses connected with the parish (Pro- 
testant) church, such as clerk's salary, 
washing the surplice, cleaning the church, 
buying the sacramental bread and wine. 
Levied in Ireland on Catholics as well as 
Protestants, and in England on dis- 
senters as well as church-goers. Church- 
rates abolished 1868 (31, 32 Vict. c. 31); 
but the Irish church-cess was abolished 
in 1833. It amounted to 80,000Z. a year. 
See ' Irish Church Temporalities Bill.' 

Church Cities. In feudal times, 
were those built on church lands ; and in 
these the abbot or bishop was chief 
magistrate. Generally speaking these 
cities were much more free than ' Ducal 
Towns ' {q.v.). 

Church Education Society 

{The). In Ireland, 1839. Supported 
wholly by voluntary subscrij)tions. This 
society was started by those who dis- 
approved of Mr. Stanley's ' National 
Schools' (g'.-y.), because religious instruc- 
tion was disallowed, and because any 
person, of any persuasion, at certain 
hours, might give special instruction to 
the children whose parents sanctioned it. 
The Church Society insisted that the 
Bible should be taught, and that reli- 
gious instruction should he given to the 
children in conformity with the prin- 
ciples of the Established Church. 

Church Forgeries. Mosheim says 
(vol. ii. 17) : * Acts of councils, records, 
epistles, and whole books were forged by 
these zealous fanatics [the monks], in 
order the more easily to rob and plunder 
the credulous, on whom they imposed 
their glaring and fraudulent absurdities.' 
See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Church-scot. The same as church- 
rate, a tax levied as far back as 692 for 
the repair of churches, and the supply of 
what was needful for divine worship. It 
was paid at Martinmas, according to a 
rate made at Christmas. In case of 
failure to pay the rate, a fine of twelve 
times the amount was imposed. In 1868 
Mr. Gladstone virtually abolished parish 
church rates by making the payment 
voluntary. 



CHURCH 



CINQ 



173 



Churcli Temporalities Act 

(The). Ireland, 1834 (3, 4 Will. IV. c. 37). 
Investing the revenues of the suppressed 
bishoprics of Ireland (about 50,000Z.) in the 
Board of Ecclesiastical Commissioners, 
to be applied by them to the erection 
and repairs of churches, church-rates, 
and other ecclesiastical purposes. The 
archbishoprics of Cashel and Tuam were 
reduced to bishoprics, the total number 
of sees being 10, instead of 21 as hereto- 
fore, with 2 archbishops instead of 4. 

The suppressed sees were Ardagh, Clogher, 
Clonfert with Kilniacduagh, Cork with Ross, 
Dromore, Elphin, Kildare, Killala with Achonry, 
Ossory, Raphoe, VVaterford witli Hsmore. Value 
in 18:« of the 11 sees, 61,5'ili. Of those Clogher was 
10,u()0/. a year, and Elphin i),4si/. 

There are now (1890) 4 Catholic archbishops and 
24 Catholic bishops in Ireland, 

Church of Christ {The). See 
'Disciples.' 

Cicero {The British). William Pitt, 
earl of Chatham (1708-1778). 

Cicero {The Christian). Lucius Cse- 
lius Lactantius (died 830). Tutor of 
Crispus, son of Constantine. 

Cicero {The German). Johann 
Sturm, printer and scholar (1507-1589). 

Cicero of France {The). Massil- 
lon, bishop of Clermont (1663-1742). The 
conclusion to his sermon called ' The Day 
of Judgment ' is sublime and harrowing. 

Cicero of G-ermany. John elector 
of Brandenburg (1486-1499). 

Cicero of Latin Christianity 

{Tfie). Augustine (354-430). 

Cicero of the British Senate. 

George Canning (1770-1827). 

Cicero's Mouth. Philippe Pot, 
prime minister of Louis XL (1428-1494). 

Cicero's Murderer was Popilius 

Lcenas. 

Cid el Campeador (4 syl.). Don 
Roderigo Ruy Diaz de Bivar [i.e. Rode- 
ric, son of Diego of BivarJ, a nobleman 
of Castile (1040-1099). 

' Cid ' is an Arabic word meaning lord, and 
•campeiidor ' — champion. 

Cid'aris. The head-dress of Persian 
monarchs, not unlike the French cap of 
liberty, or Phrygian cap. Only the king 
is allowed to wear the top of the cap 
erect. The cidaris of Darius was blue 
and white, or purple and white (Quintus 
Curtius, book iii, eh. 3, and vi. chap. 6). 



Cimbri. The inhabitants of the 
Chersonesus Cimbrica. Confederated 
with the TeutonC'S, they invaded the 
Roman dominions, and were overthrown 
by Marius in the battle of the Campi 
Raudii, B.C. 101. 

Cimbrian Panic {The), b.c. 105. 
A Roman panic after the annihilation 
of five armies by the Cimbrians. This 
panic rose to its climax after the terrible 
defeat of Caepio, the consul in Gallia 
Narbonensis. 

Cimburgis Lip {The). A pro- 
truding under-jaw, with a heavy lip in- 
disposed to shut close, often called the 
'Austrian Lip.' It came from Kaiser 
Maximilian L, and was inherited from 
his grandmother, Cimburgis, a Polish 
princess, who married Kaiser Friedrich 

in. 

Cimon {Peace of), b.c. 447. Which 
brought to a close the hostility between 
Persia and Greece. 

This treaty of peace was made by AnaxIcr&tSs, 
not Cimon, who had lately died. 

Cincinna'ti {The), or * Cincinnatus- 
es,' 1783. An order in the United 
States of N. America, established by the 
officers of the anti-British army ' to 
perpetuate friendship, and to raise a 
fund for tlfe relief of the widows and or- 
phans of those who fell in the War of In- 
dependence.' Their badge is Cincinnatua 
receiving the ensigns of dictator, and the 
motto is * Omnia reliquit servare rem- 
publicam.* 

Cinerarians, * Cinerarii.' So Chris- 
tians were called by their enemies, be- 
cause they reverenced the ashes or bones 
of the dead. 

Reliqua SS. Mirac. S. Ursinari, sumptis de con- 
cineratione sanctissimi corporis in sepulcro ejus 
duohus dentibus. Hinc ' cinerarios ' cacholicos ap- 
pellabaut heretic!.— Du Cange, vol. ii. p. 619, col. 2. 

Cinq Mars {Conspiracy of), 1642. 
A conspiracy secretly fomented by the 
king himself, Louis XIIL, ' to get rid of 
Richelieu, whose domineering spirit was 
most hateful to him. Those who favoured 
the conspirators were called ' Royalists,' 
the adherents of Richelieu were called 
'Cardinalists.' The object of the con- 
spiracy was to dismiss Richelieu and 
make Cinq Mars chief minister. The 
plot being discovered, and it being known 
that Cinq Mars had made a treaty with 
Spain, the leading conspirators were 



174 



CINQUE 



CIKCULAR 



arrested. Cinq Mars and other noblemen 
were beheaded ; the Due de Bouillon was 
deprived of his principality, which was 
confiscated to the throne; and the in- 
famous Due d'Orle'ans turned king's evi- 
dence. 

Kichelieu brought to the block at least six noble- 
men : Marillac, Cinq Wfirs, De Thou, Chalais, 
BouteviUe, and Montmorency. 

Cinque Centisti. Those Italian 
artists of the 16th cent, who formed the 
Cinque Cento school. See ' Seicentisti,' 
and ' Trecentist!.' 

Cinque Cento (2 syl. each), 500. 
Used to designate the style of art which 
rose in Italy after 1,500. 

The Golden Age of Italian art, con- 
taining the immortal five, who all died 
after 1500, viz. : 

Leonardo da Vinci "who died 1520 

Baphael 1520 

Correggio » 1534 

Michel Angelo [MichelagrwloT » 1564 

Titian „ 1576 

• His name was Michel Angelo Buonarroti. 
•,* In literature Italy produced at the same 
period : 

Machiavelll vrho died 1527 

Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) ... „ 1533 

Tasso (Gerusalemme Liberata) „ 1595 

All these, except Tasso, were born in the cen- 
tury before, so that many use the word ' Cinque- 
cento' to denote the sensuous school that fol- 
lowed the immortal five— a school which borrowed 
their subjects from heathen mythology. 
Pronounce Chin-kwa Chehto. 

Cinque Ports (T^e). Incorporated 
in 1212 by King John. The five ports 
are Dover, Hastings, Sandwich, Komney, 
and Hythe. Three other ports, viz. Eye, 
Winchelsea, and Seaford, were subse- 
quently added. The governor is entitled 
lord warden. 

Cinque in English Is pronounced Sink. 

Circe of the Revolution (The). 
Madame Roland (1754-1793). The most 
fascinating woman of the period. As she 
was led to the guillotine she exclaimed, 
bowing to the statue of Liberty, ' O 
Liberty, how many crimes are committed 
in thy name ! ' 

Circle of Popilius (The). The 
necessity of explaining your intentions 
without hesitation or delay. The tale is 
that Popilius was sent by the Roman 
Senate as envoy to Antiochus, king of 
Syria, and was commissioned to forbid 
the king making war on Egypt, or harass- 
ing the children of Ptolemy. Antiochus 
replied that he would think about the 



matter, when Popilius drew a circle round 
the king, and said : ' Prince, you must 
reply before you leave this circle.' Anti- 
ochus, taken by surprise at this boldness, 
replied at once, ' Tell the Senate I will 
do what they demand of me.' Having 
so said, Popilius saluted him, and offered 
him the friendship of the Roman people. 

Circle of Stennis {The), or ' Circle 
of Odin.' A circular hole in one of the 
huge Standing Stones of what is called 
the Orcadian Stonehenge. This Standing 
Stone was at one time used by rustics for 
plighting troth. The lovers joined hands 
in this hole, and swore by Odin to be 
faithful to each other. This plight is 
called the ' promise of Odin,' and making 
the plight is 'taking the promise of 
Odin.' 

We were wedded alter the ancient manner of 
the Norse, our hands were clasped in the circle of 
Odin, with . . . vows of eternal fidelity.— Sir W. 
Scott, The Pirate, chap, xxxiii. 

Circles of G-ermany (The). De- 
partments or districts. In 1387 Kaiser 
Wenceslaus divided Germany into four 
circles, viz. (1) Saxony ; (2) the Rhine 
provinces; (3) Austria, Bavaria, and 
Suabia; and (4) Franconia and Thuringia. 

In 1438 Kaiser Albert II. increased the 
number to six, each of which had a right 
to be represented on the diet or national 
assembly. The circles were : Franconia, 
Bavaria, Suabia, Westphalia, Upper 
Rhine, and Saxony. 

In 1512, under Maximilian I., the num- 
ber of circles was increased to ten, -v iz. 
Austria, Bavaria, Burgundy, Franconia, 
Lower Rhine provinces, Upper Rhine 
provinces. Lower Saxony, Upper Saxony, 
and Westphalia. 

Each circle had an ecclesiastical and 
lay prince, with a military chief. 

At the Reformation the circles were 
divided into Catholic, Protestant, and 
Mixt. The Catholic Circles were Austria, 
Bavaria, and Burgundy ; the Protestant 
Circles were those of Upper and Lower 
Saxony ; and the Mixt Circles were the 
other five. In 1806 the division into circles 
was broken up by the ' Confederacy of the 
Rhine.' 

Circular Coin. 'When English 
coin is made circular the prince of Wales 
shall be crowned in London.' Th'S 
' prophecy ' is attributed to Merlin. In 
1281 Edward I. issued a new coinage of 
round halfpence and farthings, and for- 



CIRCUMCELLIANS 



CITY 



176 



bade the penny to be divided into four 
quarters. David, thinking this to be 
the thing predicted, invaded England 22 
March, 1282, and, being joined by Llewel- 
lyn, brought Edward I. into the field and 
led to the conquest of Wales. In 1284 
Edward's son was born at Carnarvon, 
and was presented to the Welsh as the 

* prince of Wales.' When Llewellyn's 
head was placed on the Tower of London 
it was crowned with a willow-wreath in 
derision of the ' prophecy.' The circular 
coin and coronation of the Welsh prince 
synchronised, but the prophecy brought 
about its own accomplishment. 

Cireumcellians {The), or 'The Cir- 
cumcelliones,' a.d. 317. A kind of ' Sal- 
vation Army ' organised by the Donatists, 
which marched from town to town with 
staves in their hands, to redress wrongs, 
and propagate their own religious views. 
They set slaves at liberty, released debtors 
from prison, and called themselves ' The 
Saint's Chiefs.' They were very zealous, 
and courted martyrdom, but were at last 
put down by the magistrates. (Lat. cir- 
cvmcello, to beat about, to go about. Ex- 
cello, to excel, is to go beyond others). 

The leaders were called Captains ; the 'soldiers' 
(who were peasants) carried huge clubs called 
Israelites; their war-cry was ' Praise be to God.' 

Circumspecte Agatis {The Sta- 
tute of), 13 Edw. I. St. 4 c. 1, A.D. 1285. 
Defining more strictly the power of the 
clergy, and directing the bishops to see 
that the parishioners kept their parish 
churches in repair. 

The statute is called ' Circumspecte AgStis,' from 
the first two words. 

Cirrhaean War {The), b.c. 595-586. 
This was the First Sacred War. See 

* Sacred War.' 

Cisalpine Republic {The), 1797. 
Bonaparte, after the battle of Lodi, organ- 
ised two states in Italy, one on the south 
and the other on the north side of the 
river Po. These two states were united 
next year into one under the title of the 
Cisalpine Republic, with Milan for the 
capital. 

Cistercians, 1098. Reformed Bene- 
dictines, founded by Robert, abbot of 
Moleme, in Burgundy, who retired with 
some twenty monks to Citeaux, in the 
diocese of Chalons, His order rapidly 
increased, and acquired the form and 
privileges of a religious republic, which 



exercised a sort of dominion over other 
monastic orders. The Cistercians were 
great graziers and wool-growers. 

Cities of Great Britain. 

Aberdeen, the granite city. 
Birmingham, the midland capital. 
Brighton, the queen of watering-places. 
Edinburgh, the modern Athens. 
Liverpool, the modern Tyre. 
Manchester, Cottonopolis. 
Worcester, the faithful city, so called 

from its motto : ' Floreat semper civitas 

fidelis.' 
Brighton is often called ' London-super-: 



Citizen King (T^ie). * Le roi citoyen • 
Louis Philippe of France (born 1773, 
reigned 1830-1848, died 1850). He was a 
member of the Jacobin Club, the son of 
Philippe Egalite, and one of the leaders 
of the revolutionary party. As a king he 
was most despotic and autocratic. 

Servius Tullius of Rome was called the 
' People's King.' 

Cittadini {The). The Venetian 
bourgeois, between the popolari and gen- 
tiluomini. 

City Flat Cap {The). The cap of 
Edward VI.'s reign, similar to the cap of 
the Blue-coat Boys. Subsequently called 
the Statute cap {q.v.). See ' Cap.' 

City of Brotherly Love {The). 

A translation of Philadelphia, the chief 
city of Pennsylvania, U.S. of America. 

City of David ( The). Mount Zion, 
the fortified part of Jerusalem, where 
David had his palace. 

City of Elms {The). New Haven, 
Connecticut, the streets of which are 
thickly shaded with elm-trees. 

When happier days shall return . . . the South 
. . . will re ir a monument of gratitude in the 
beautiful City of Elms, over the ashes of her 
greatest benefactor (Eli Wliituey).— Edw. Evb- 
BETT, 18C1. 

City of Magnificent Distances 

{The). Washington, chief city of the 
U.S. of America, intersected with fifteen 
avenues from 180 to IGO feet wide. It was 
designed to cover a space of four and a 
half miles long by two and a half wide. 

City of K'otions {The). Boston, 
Massachusetts, ' the metropolis of Yan- 
keedom.' 

City of Peace {The). I. Jerusalem. 
The word Salem means peace. Jesua, 



176 



CITY 



CIVIL 



' King of the Jews,' was called the ' Prince 
of Peace ' (Salem). 

II. Bagdad, the capital of the Abbas- 
sides (3 syl.). 

The calif retired from Bagdad, and established 
his residence at Samara on the Tigris, about 
twelve leagues above the City of Peace.— Gibbon, 
ch. 111. 

City of Rocks {The). Nashville, 
in Tennessee. 
City of St. Mark (The). Venice. 

City of Spindles (The). Lowell, 
in Massachusetts, the largest cotton city 
of the U.S. of America. 

City of Victory (The). Cairo, 
which means victory. The Arabic name 
is El Kahira (the Victorious). Founded 
969 by Gohar, lieutenant of Moez (the 
first Fatamite kalif ). 

City of the Golden Gate {The). 
San Francisco in California. 

City of the Seven Hills {The). 
Both Rome and Constantinople stood on 
seven hills. 

City of the Seventy Isles {The). 
Venice. 

City of the Straits {The). Detroit, 
which means a strait. It is situated on 
the west bank of the strait connecting 
Lake St. Clair with Lake Erie. 

City of the Violated Treaty 

{The). Limerick, in Ireland ; so called 
from the repeated violations of the treaty 
signed Oct. 1691, granting to Roman 
Catholics the same privileges in the exer- 
cise of their religion as they enjoyed in 
the reign of Charles II. 

Years of unjust and vindictive penal laws show 
that the name, ' City of the Violated Treaty,' was 
well bestowed.— Knight. 

City of the Violet Crown (r^ie). 
Athens. Aristophanes {Equites, and 
Acharnians) calls it locrr€<l)avo<:. Ion 
[meaning a violet'] was a representative 
king of Athens, whose four sons gave 
names to the four Athenian classes. It 
was Ion's city, the city of the violet, the 
city of King Ion or king of the Violet 
Crown. 

Similarly, Paris, the city of Louis or 
Lys, is the city of the lily. 

[Pitt] loved England, as an Athenian loved the 
City of the Violet Crown.— MacaulaY. 

Civil Era of Constantinople 
[The). This era began 1 Sept. B.C. 5508. 



Civil Jewish Era {The). Thia 
era began Oct. B.C. 3761. 

Civil Law {The), or 'Corpus Juris 
Civllis.' A collection of the laws, edicts, 
and imperial decrees of the Roman Em- 
pire ; first compiled by private indi- 
viduals, afterwards by Theodosius, a.d. 
438, and finally by Justinian, a.d. 533. It 
comprises (1) The Institutes or first prin- 
ciples of Roman Law ; (2) The Digest or 
Pandects in 50 books, being the opinions 
of eminent lawyers ; (3) a new Code or 
collection of Imperial Constitutions in 
12 books, and (4) the Novels, or new 
constitutions of succeeding emperors. 
This body of laws was unknown in feudal 
times till a copy was discovered at 
Amalfi, in Italy in 1130, and produced a 
greater effect on the laws, pursuits, and 
characters of the Middle Ages than any 
book ever published before or since. 

The Corpus Juris Civilis, with certain modifica- 
tions, restrictions, and additions, is still an 
authority in our Ecclesiastical, Admiralty, and 
University Courts. 

Civil List {The). The yearly sum 
of money granted by the British govern- 
ment for the support of the household 
of the reigning monarch and the dignity 
of the crown. 

It used to include the royal household, 
the privy purse, the royal palaces, the 
salaries of the chancellor, judges, great 
officers of state, and ambassadors, the 
incomes allowed to the several members 
of the royal family, secret service money, 
pensions, and other irregular claims. 
The army and navy, with the interest of 
the national debt, have been separate 
charges since the accession of James I. 

At tlie beginning of the reign of Vic- 
toria the Queen surrendered the here- 
ditary revenues of the crown, and received 
from parliament a yearly stipend of 
385,000^., with 1,200Z. a year for pensions 
' to those who have just claims on the 
royal bounty.' Her Majesty pays her 
own household, but all other national 
expenses are paid by parliament as 
separate items. 

Civil Marriage Act. 6, 7 Will. 
IV. c. 85. 17 Aug., 1836. Provided for 
the celebration of marriage without re- 
ligious service, before a registrar, or 
with religious service in any certified 
place of religious worship, leaving it 
optional with the parties concerned to be 
married, as aforetime, in a parish church, 



CIVIL 



CLARENDON 



177 



by licence, or after banns. By this Act 
marriage is constituted a civil compact 
consummated before witnesses, with or 
without religious service. 

Civil Oath (The), 13 July, 1790. 
Taken in the Champ de Mars, first by 
Lafayette on behalf of the National 
Guards, then by the President of the 
Assembly, and then by the king himself 
(Louis XVI.), who said ' I, king of the 
French, swear to use all power delegated 
tome by the constitutional law of the State 
to maintain the Constitution [q.v.) de- 
creed by the National Assembly, and 
accepted by me.' The oath taken by 
Lafayette and the President was : ' We 
Bwear to be faithful to the nation, the 
law, and the king. To maintain with 
our utmost power the Constitution de- 
creed by the National Assembly, and to 
remain united to all Frenchmen by the 
indissoluble bonds of fraternity,' 

Champ de Mars, pronounce Sharnd Marx. 

Civil Service [The). The duties 
rendered by those in government ap- 
pointments, and paid for by the State. 
The whole list would be over 15,000 
names, including the officers of the royal 
household, the officers of the House of 
Lords and House of Commons, all such 
offices as the Treasury, Home, War, 
Foreign, Admiralty, Post, &c. (but not 
policemen, postmen, and such other em- 
ployes as receive weekly wages). In 1855 
a law was made for the examination of 
candidates for the Civil Service, who 
enter generally as clerks and rise by 
seniority, the age at entrance being be- 
tween eighteen and twenty-five, and the 
first year's stipend about 80Z. Of course 
the more important departments are not 
included. 

The Civil Serrlce Estimates are between seven 
and eight millions sterling annually. 

Civil Wars of Rome {The). In 
their widest extent they began with 
Tiberius Gracchus, and terminated with 
the election of Octavius Augustus to the 
empire, b.c. 133-31. In a more limited 
sense, they mean the contest between 
Caius Marius and Cornelius Sylla, or 
Sulla (B.C. 88-78). 

The original cause of the civil war 
was the struggle between the oligarchy 
and the democracy of Rome. This 
struggle lasted till Sylla restored the 
Senate to sovereignty ; but this sove- 



reignty was soon disturbed by Julius 
Cessar. 

Clan-na-G-ael(r7«e), 1870. An Irish 
Fenian organisation founded in Phila- 
delphia, and known in secret as the 
' United Brotherhood.' Its avowed ob- 
ject is to secure ' the complete and ab- 
solute ir dependence of Ireland from 
Great Britain ; and the complete sever- 
ance of all political connection between 
the two countries, to be efTected by un- 
ceasing preparation for armed insurrec- 
tion in Ireland.' See ' New Departure.' 

In 18.9.3 Alexander Sullivan was elected one of 
the thr'-e heads of this murder club. Ilis col- 
leatruos were Colonel Michael Boland, and D. C. 
Feely (.or, rs some say, Michael Kirwin). To this 
club the dyn imlte outrages in London are duo, 
the desi^'ns to murder the Queen's ministers, and 
all the outrages ol 1883 connected with 'Homo 
Bule' (q.v.). 

Clare College, Cambridge, 1326. 
This is University Hall, founded by 
Richard Badew, chancellor of the Uni- 
versity. It was destroyed by fire, and 
on its restoration by Elizabeth de Clare, 
countess of Ulster, changed its name 
to Clare Hall; since 1857 called Clare 
College. 

Clare Election {The), 1828. An 
epoch in the history of Ireland. Daniel 
O'Connell was elected M.P., although, 
being a Catholic, he was disqualified 
from taking his seat. So popular was he, 
and so powerful the Catholic Association, 
that the Duke of Wellington (the pre- 
mier), and Sir Robert Peel (leader of the 
House of Commons) did not dare to 
resist the movement ; and in 1829 Sir 
Robert brought in his bill for Calholic 
Emancipation, which was carried. 

The Clara election was the harsh prelude to 
Catholic Emancipation and civil equality.— 
HowiTl, llislory of England (year 1828, p. 125). 

Clarenceux King - of- arms. 

English herald of the southern provinces. 
That of the northern provinces is called 
Norroy [q.v.). Clarenceux king-of-arms, 
like Garter king-of-arms, was first ap- 
pointed by Henry V. 

Clarendon, in Wiltshire {The Coun- 
cil of), A.D. 1164. It comprised the 
king (Henry II.), the 2 archbishops, 11 
bishops, 40 of the higher nobilitj'-, and a 
host of barons. It was convened in con- 
sequence of the conduct of Thomas 
Becket, and its judgments are comprised 
in the 16 canons called 'The Constitu- 
tions of Clarendon ' {q_.v.). 



178 



CLAEENDON 



CLEMENTINES 



Clarendon Press [The). Univer- 
sity of Oxford. The building was erected 
by Lord Clarendon, partly out of the 
profits of his ' History of the Rebellion,' 
1713-1880. On the south side Bibles 
and Prayer-books are printed, on the 
north side general literature. Ten dele- 
gates have the management of the press, 
the vice-chancellor being one. The cor- 
responding foundation in Cambridge is 
the Pitt Press {q.v.). 

Clarisses, or * Poor Clarisses,* 1224. 
Founded by St. Francis of Assisi, and 
placed under the charge of Clara, or 
Clarissa, of Assisi, his favourite nun. See 
under ' Franciscans.' 

Clarty Hole. Muddy hole or slough, 
the site of Abbotsford, on the south bank 
of the Tweed, the residence of Sir W. 
Scott. 

Claude {The English). Kichard Wil- 
son (1713-1782). 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1850. 
See ' Bulwer-Clayton,' &c. 

Clean-the-Causey Riot, 1515. 

The street riot between the rival factions 
of Angus and Arran. The former repre- 
sented the Douglas party, and the latter 
the Hamiltons. The partisans of the 
Earl of Angus were swept from the cau- 
seys or streets like dirt. 

Cleanest City in the "World 
[The). Broeck, in Holland. It is 'pain- 
fully clean and neat.' 

Cleanse the Cause'way {The 
Battle of), 1522. A skirmish between the 
Douglases and Hamiltons in the High- 
street, Edinburgh. The Douglas party 
occupied the High-street, and attacked 
their opponents as they issued in disorder 
from the narrow closes or lanes. The 
Hamiltons were driven out of the city, 
leaving upwards of 70 men dead. 

Their strife had been appeased since the battle 
of Cleansethe-Causeway, and Arrau drew outiiis 
forces in support of Angus, and not in opposition 
to him.— Sir W. Scott, Hist, of Scctiand, xxil. 

Clear the Causeys. See ' Cleanse 
the Causeway ' and ' Clean the Causey.' 

Clearing-House {The), 1775. A 
building in Lombard Street, where debit 
and credit cheques from different banks 
are balanced by transfer tickets. These 
tickets are white and green ; the ivhite 
being vised when the bank has to pay a 
balance to the Clearing-house, and the 



green when it has to receive one. By this 
means transactions to the amount of 
several millions daily are settled. 

There is a Railway Clearing-house in Seymour 
Street, London (adjoining the Euston Station), 
which enables ditferent companies to carry on 
a through traffic. The Railway Clearing Act was 
passed in 1850. Most large commercial cities have 
clearing-houses. 

Clem's Day(OZ^). St. Clement's day, 
the blacksmiths' day (23 Nov.). St. Cle- 
ment is patron saint of blacksmiths, as 
St. Crispin is of shoemakers, St. "Wini- 
fred of bakers, St. Louis of barbers, St. 
John Port Latin of booksellers, St. Lucy 
of candle-makers, St. Joseph of carpen- 
ters, St. Christopher of ferrymen, St. 
Peter of fishermen, St. Sever of fullers, 
St. Eloy of goldsmiths, St. William of 
hatters, St. Yves of lawyers, St. Arnold of 
millers, St. Florian of mercers, St. Cloud 
of nailers, St. Luke of painters and 
sculptors, St. Cosmo of doctors, St. Se- 
bastian of pinmakers, St. Gore of potters, 
St. Nicholas of seamen, St. Gwendoline of 
shepherds, St. Hubert of sportsmen, St. 
Peter of stonemasons, St. Goodman of 
tailors, St. Urban of vintners, St. Boni- 
face of wheelwrights, St. Blaise of wool- 
combers &c. &c. 

Clementi'na. A spurious account 
of the journeys of Clemens Romanus 
with the Apostle Peter. The Apostolic 
Canons and Constitutions attributed to 
him are also spurious. Clemens is said 
to have died in 102. See ' Literary For- 
geries.' 

Clementine Liturgy {The). The 
oldest liturgy extant. It directs that two 
deacons shall stand, one on each side of 
the altar, holding their fans of vellum, 
fine linen, or peacock's feathers, to wave 
off the flies, and prevent their defiling 
the sacred elements. See ' Liturgy.' 

Clementine Museum {The), of 
the Vatican, 1773. Founded by Clement 
XIV. It was improved by Pius VI., and 
then called Museo-Pio-Clementino. 

Clementines {The). Nineteen dis- 
courses, preceded by two letters. One of 
Peter to James, bishop of Jerusalem, and 
the other of Clement to the same. The 
discourses are spurious Christian stories, 
but the work was esteemed next to the 
Holy Scriptures. There is no reason to 
believe it to have been the work of Cle- 
mens Romanus. On these fictitious 
homilies rests the sole evidence that St. 



CLEMENTINES 



CLINIC 



179 



Peter ever was in Rome. See ' Literary 
Forgeries.' 

What is usually understood by Clementines is 
the third part of the Decretals of liaimond de 
Pennafort, a continuation of the text iq.v.) to- 
gether with the rescripts since Boniface VIII. 
Undertaken by the order of Clement V. The Cle- 
mentines of Clement I. are homilies, and wholly 
apocryphal. The Clementines of Clement V. are 
' constitutions,' decrees, or rescripts of Roman 
pontiffs, forming the seventh volume of the Decre- 
tals. The Extravagantes Joannis (XXII.) form 
what was the ' Extravagantes Communes ' of the 
Corpus Juris Canonicl. 

Clementines and Urbanists, 

1878. The followers of Clement VII., 
pope in Avignon, and Urban VI., the 
simultaneous pope in Rome. France 
and Spain were Clementines. The split 
lasted fifty-one years, during all which 
time there were always two popes. 

Cleomen'ie -war {The). The war 
waged by Cleomenes III., king of Sparta 
(22.5-222), against the Achaeans, aided by 
Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia. 
Cleomenes was completely defeated at 
the battle of Sellasia, B.C. 222, and in 
B.C. 220 put an end to his life. 

Cleopatra's Needles. Two obe- 
lisks of the time of Thothmes III., who 
reigned in Egypt some 1,500 years before 
Cleopatra was born. 

Clerical Titles. The English clergy 
first assumed their honorary titles at 
the beginning of the 18th cent. Every 
clergjTnan is called ' Reverend.' Addres- 
sed in letters by strangers ' Rev. Sir.' An 
archbishop is styled, ' Most Reverend 
Father in God,' or ' The Most Reverend 
Arbp. of — .' Addressed as ' Your Grace,' 
* May it please your Grace.' A bishop 
is styled ' The Right Reverend Father in 
God,' or ' The Right Reverend the Bishop 
of — .' Addressed as ' My Lord.' Deans 
are called ' The Very Reverend the Dean 
of — ,' Addressed in letters ' Mr. Dean,' 
or 'Dear Mr. Dean.' Archdeacons are 
called * The Venerable.' Addressed in 
letters by strangers ' Rev, Sir.' 

The title of Canon was assumed by canons and 
honorary canons in the last quarter of the Itlth 
cent. They are addressed as Canon — , or the 
Bev. Canon — . Seu ' Church Orders." 

Cler'ici Regula'res (4 syl.). Monks 
ordained to the priesthood, and who lived 
in monasteries (10th cent.). 

Cler'ici Secula'res (4 syl.). Parish 

clergymen who lived in their own houses 
and might marry (10th cent.). 

• Clericis Laicos ' {The Bull), I. 



1074. By which Gregory VII. forbade 
prelates to receive investiture from secu- 
lar princes. This bull gave rise to the 
long contention about investitures. 

II. Of IIGO. Directed against Kaiser 
Friedrich I. 

III. Of 1227, 1246, Directed against 
Friedrich II., Barharossa. 

IV. Of 1263. Directed against Man- 
froi, king of Naples. 

V. Of 1294. Issued by Pope Boniface 
VIII., forbidding Edward I. and all other 
princes, under pain of excommunication, 
to tax church property without permis- 
sion from Rome. In 1296 Edward, in 
defiance of this bull, did tax church pro- 
perty, and that severely ; nay, more, he 
outlawed all those ecclesiastics who re- 
fused to pay the levy, and then confis- 
cated their whole property. 

VI. Of 1327, 1346, Directed against 
Ludwig of Bavaria. 

Clerk of Assize. A salaried officer 
attached to each circuit, who accompanies 
the judge at the assizes, to issue sub- 
poenas, orders, writs, and other processes. 

Clerk of the Pipe. An exchequer 
clerk for making out leases for crown 
lands, sheriffs' accounts, and so on. The 
Pipe Office was abolished in 1833, 

The office is so called (says Lord Bacon) because 
the whole receipt of the court is finally conveyed 
Into it by means of divers small pipes or quUls, as 
water into a cistern. 

Clerks in Oxford University, Stu- 
dents on the foundation, received at re- 
duced fees. These foundations belong 
to the five colleges : Magdalen, Merton, 
New College, Queen's, and Wadham. See 

* Bible Clerks,' ' Sizars,' ' Servitors.' At 
Jesus College, Oxford, there are three 

• clerks ' not on the foundation. 

Clerk-ales. A festive meeting in 
the house of the parish clerk, celebrated 
with drinking, dancing, and sports. 

The ordinary amusements (1C«'J) In country 
parishes were church-ales, clerk-ales, and bid- 
ales.— T. v. Shoet, D.D., Hist, oj tlui Church of EnO' 
land, p. 392. 

Climacteric Years. Certain years 
in the life of man which were at one time 
considered to be turning-points in his 
health and fortune. They were 7 and 
its multiples. The Grand Climacteric 
was 63, which consists of 8 times 3 mul- 
tiplied by 7, all ' sacred ' numbers. 

Clinic Baptism. Baptism admin- 
istered to a clinic us, or one on a sick- 
bed. No clinicus could enter holy orders. 
N2 



180 



CLINICU3 



CLUB 



ClinictlS. One who lias received 
clinic haj)tism — that is, one who has 
been baptized on a sick-bed. 

Cliquot. The sobriquet given by 
Punch to Frederick William IV. of 
Prussia (1795, 1840-1861), who was fond of 
champagne with the ' Cliquot ' brand. 

Clog Almanac {The). A square 
stick of some hard wood about 8 inches 
long, which might either be hung up in 
a room or be fitted into a walking-stick. 
It was a ' perpetual almanac,' showing 
the Sundays and other fixed festivals. 
Used in Denmark, and brought to Eng- 
land by the Danish invaders. 

Close Communionists, or ' Strict 
Communionists.' Those Baptist dis- 
senters who admit no one to partake 
with them of the Lord's Supper who is 
not one of their special persuasion. Dr. 
Doddridge says, ' They most inconsis- 
tently avow that they hope to sit all 
together in the great Marriage Supper of 
the Lamb, but refuse to sit together at 
the table of a little Bethel.' 

Closelings, 1687. Private confe- 
rences in which James II. sought to win 
over men of influence and men in office 
to aid him in the abolition of the Test 
Acts, which excluded Catholics from 
office. He said, of course, men must act 
as they think proper, but, at the same 
time, they could not expect to continue 
in his favour or employ while they acted 
in direct violation of his wishes. The 
Lords Derby, Thanet, Shrewsbury, Lum- 
ley, and Newport, with Vice-admiral 
Herbert and many others, at once re- 
signed their respective offices. 

Closter Seven {Convention of), 10 
Sept., 1757. Concluded with the French 
by the Duke of Cumberland, but dis- 
avowed by the British parliament. By 
this most disgraceful compact Hanover 
was left in the hands of the French, and 
it was agreed that England and France 
should take no further part in the Seven 
Years' War. 

Clothier of England {The). Jack 
of Newbury — that is, John Winchcomb — 
the greatest clothier in England in the 
reign of Henry VIII. He kept 100 looms 
in his own house at Newbury. 

Cloveshoo, in Kent {The Council 
of), 747. Called by Cutlibert, arch- 



bishop of Canterbury, in deference to a 
request of Pope Zacharias. It was de- 
cided in this Council that bishops should 
visit their dioceses every year ; that the 
people should be taught the Creed and 
the Lord's Prayer in the vulgar tongue, 
and have the two sacraments explained 
to them ; prayers for the dead were en- 
joined. The great historical value of this 
council is, however, that there is no in- 
dication that the English Church was at 
the time under submission to the See of 
Rome, although Wilfrid, an ultra-par- 
tisan of the Roman pontiff, and friend of 
Cuthbert's, was certainly present. 

Club {The), 1689. A league of dis- 
contented Whigs in the Scotch Conven- 
tion of Estates, at the beginning of the 
reign of William and Mary. The leaders 
were Montgomery, the Lords Annandale 
and Ross, and the factious Sir Patrick 
Hume. These clubbists caused for a 
time great trouble. They opposed every 
measure which the ministers introduced 
in the Scotch ' Convention of Estates,' 
refused all supplies, and claimed for the 
convention a veto on the nomination of 
Scotch judges, by which they put a stop 
to the business of the Court of Session. 
They tried to ruin the Dalrymples, and 
succeeded in carrying an act to incapaci- 
tate all who had served James II. from 
holding office under the new sovereigns. 
The government of Scotland was at a 
deadlock ; both the legal and legislative 
business was at an end. The object of the 
clubbists was to compel the king to give 
them posts in the government of Scotland. 
By the end of the year their influence 
declined, and the nation insisted that 
business should be obstructed no longer. 

Club des Enrages {Le), 1789. A po- 
litical club which acted with the Breton 
club {q.v.) at the outbreak of the Great 
French Revolution. When the States- 
General was about to be convened, these 
two clubs vehemently insisted that the 
Tiers Etat should outnumber the other 
two orders together. 

Club Monarchique {Le), 1790. A 
nickname of the ' Feuiilants Club ' {q.v.). 

Club Parliament {The), 1426. So 
called because, arms teing prohibited, 
the retainers of the barons appeared with 
clubs on their shoulders. This prohibi- 
tion was made in consequence of tha 



CLUB 



COALITIONS 



181 



brawls of the Duke of Gloucester and 
Cardinal Beaufort. See ' Parliaments.' 

Club of Equality and Freedom 

{The), 1793. A Scotch club in sympathy 
with the French revolutionists. 

Club of '89 {The). A branch of the 
Jacobin Club {q-v.). It held its meetings 
in the Palais Royal. Lafayette, Bailly 
the mayor of Paris, the Abbe' Sieyes, and 
Mirabeau were members of this club. 
Though called the ' Club of '89,' it was 
not founded till 1790. It was nicknamed 
Le Club Monarchique, being friendly to 
the monarchic constitution. It changed 
its quarters from the Palais Royal to a 
convent of the Feuillants, near the 
Tuileries, and was then known at ' The 
Feuillants.' 

Clubbists. /See above, 'The Club.' 
1689. 

Clubmen, 1644. A society formed 
for self-defence against Maurice's and 
Goring's armies in the west. They were 
yeomen and others, who armed them- 
selves with clubs to resist military ma- 
rauders. They were not political, and 
being between two stools, were befriended 
by neither. The king's party hated them 
because they hindered their movements ; 
and the parliamentary party called them 
* traitors to the commonwealth ' because 
they opposed the depredations of Fair- 
fax's army. They were strong in num- 
bers (some 10,000 in all), but want of 
discipline was their weakness. Their 
badge was a white ribbon. 

The republican party had cause to be suspi- 
cious if it is true that ' after the battle of Naseby 
there was found on Sir Lewis Davis a royal com- 
mission for raising clubmen to aid the king's 
party.' 

Cluniac Order {The), or 'Cluniacs,' 
942. A branch of the Benedictine monks 
reformed by Odo abbot of Cluny, in 
Normandy. Introduced into England by 
William earl of Warren, in 1077. 

Coal Burner (T/ze). Edmund king 
of Sweden (1026-1051) was called Kol- 
hrenner because he enacted ' If anyone 
injures his neighbour's goods, he shall 
have goods to the same value burnt in a 
coal-fire.' 

Coalition Ministry {The). The 
ministry formed under Lord North and 
Charles James Fox, from 5 April, 1783, to 
19 Dec. same year. 



Also the Aberdeen Administration, 
28 Dec, 1852, to 30 Jan., 1855. 

Coalitions against France. 

First coalition 1793, made by England 
and all the powers of Europe, except 
Sweden and Denmark. Napoleon Bona- 
parte won the battles of Montenotte, 
Milesimo, Dego, Mondovi, Lodi, Lonato, 
Castiglioni, Bassano, Areola, Rivoli, Ta- 
gliamento. The Treaty of Campo For- 
mio was made 17 Oct., 1797. 

Second coalition 1799, by Russia, Aus- 
tria, England, Naples, Portugal, Turkey, 
&c., a year and a half after the Treaty of 
Campo Formio ; 1800 famous for Bona- 
parte's ' Forty Days' Campaign,' in which 
he won the battles of Montebello and Ma- 
rengo ; and Moreau won those of Iloch- 
stlidt, Hohenlinden, and Traun. Peace 
of Luneville, 9 Feb., 1801. 

Third coalition 1805, consisting of 
England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. 
Napoleon won the battle of Austerlitz. 
Peace of Presburg, 26 Dec, 1805. 

Fourth coalition 6 Oct., 1806, to the 
Treaty of Tilsit, 8 July, 1807, consisting 
of Prussia, Saxony, Great Britain, and 
Russia. Napoleon won the battles of 
Schleitz (9 Oct.), Saalfeld (10 Oct.), Jena 
and Auerstadt (14 Oct.), Potsdam (16, 

17 Oct.), Berlin (28 Oct.), Eylau, the 
most bloody of all his victories (8 Feb., 
1807), Heilsberg (10 June), and Fried- 
land (14 June, 1807). 

Fifth coalition of April 1809, to the 
battle of Wagram (6 July, 1809). Na- 
poleon won the battle of Ingolstadt 
(20 April), Eckmiihl, in Bavaria (22 April), 
and Wagram (6 July). 

He was wounded in tlie heel at Ratlsbon 23 April; 
was defeated by the Archduke KavX at Aspern 
21 May, and at Essling 22 May ; and was excom- 
municated by the pope 10 June, 1809. 

Sixth and last coalition, consisting of 
Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and 
Great Britain, 3 March, 1813 to the 
banishment of Napoleon to St. Helena, 

18 Oct., 1815. 

Napoleon won the battles of Liitzen 
2 May, 1813, Bautzen (in Saxony) 19 May, 
Wurschen 20 May, Hochkirchen 21 May, 
Dresden 27 Aug. (here Marshal Moreau 
was slain), St. Dizier 27 Jan., 1814, 
Brienne 29 Jan., Champ-Aubert 10 Feb., 
Montmirml 11 Feb., Chateau-Thierry 

13 Feb., Champ-Aubert (a second time) 

14 Feb., Me'ry-sur-Seine 24 Feb.; and 
after his escape from Elba he won the 
battle of Ligny 16 June, 1815. 



182 



COASTGUARD 



COCKPIT 



He lost the battles of Leipzig 16, 18, 
19 Oct., 1813 ; Rothiere 1 Feb., 1814 ; Laon 
7 March, Quatre Bras 16 June, and 
"Watekloo 18 June, 1815. 

Coastguard. A force originally 
established to prevent smuggling. In 
1856 it was placed under the Admiralty, 
and is now divided into eleven districts, 
each under a captain of the navy, and 
the whole under a commodore. The 
number is 4,000. 

Coat and Conduct Money. Mo- 
ney required for the equipment and 
transport of the militia. This tax was 
extorted by Charles I. (' Fairfax Corre- 
spondence,' vol. ii. p. 2.) 

Cobden Prize (The). For an essay 
on political economy. For members of 
the University of Cambridge who have 
not graduated more than three years. 
Value 50Z. Founded by the Cobden Club 
in 1876. See * Political Economy.' 

Cochrane-plack. Debased coin 
issued in Scotland in the reign of 
James III. by Cochrane, the royal mason, 
on whom the king conferred the earldom 
of Mar, lately made vacant by the mur- 
der of the king's brother. When Coch- 
rane was told that the base coin would 
certainly be called in, he answered in- 
credulously, ' Yes, on the day when I am 
hanged.' But so it turned out — Cochrane 
was hanged, and the Cochrane-plack was 
called in. 

Cockade City {The). Petersburg, 
in Virginia. 

Cockburn's Act. The Act of Sir 
Alexander Cockburn in 1853 to abolish 
' list offices,' set up after the Act of 1845 
to abolish sweepstakes. In list offices 
money was staked in advance on an ad- 
venture, and they proved to be most 
disastrous of all the methods of gambling, 
especially among clerks, shopboys, and 
servants, who were induced to rob their 
employers under the promise of certainly 
winning. 

Though betting houses were abolished in 1858 
(16 & 17 Vict. c. 119), yet Tattersall escapes the law 
because he himself has direct personal interest in 
a bet, like a ' bank ' ; and gentlemen there bet with 
each other freely, without any interference what- 
ever. No bet can be recovered as a debt in any 
court of law. They are ' debts of honour ' only. 
Gambling was prohibited by law even in the reign 
of Henry VIII. (1541). 

Cock Lane Ghoat (The). Near West 



Smithfield, London, 1760-1762. The Duke 
of York,with Lady Northumberland, Lady 
Mciry Coke, Lord Hertford, and Horace 
Walpole, all in one hackney-coach, drove 
to the ' haunted house,' while the rain fell 
in torrents. The house was crammed 
full, above fifty people having crowded 
into the room, lighted with one tallow 
candle, and stayed from seven till half- 
past one in midwinter, to witness the 
knockings and scratchings of the ghost, 
which refused to make any manifesta- 
tions. But such a company tells plainly 
what hold the imposition had taken on 
the public. The case was this : Kent, a 
broker, having lost his wife, was visited 
by his sister-in-law Fanny, with whom he 
fell in love. They took lodgings with Par- 
sons, parish clerk of St. Sepulchre's, and 
each made a will leaving all to the sur- 
vivor. Fanny died suddenly, and Parsons 
gave out that Kent had murdered her. 
In proof of this, certain knockings and 
scratchings were heard every night in the 
chamber lately occupied by Fanny, and 
these were attributed to her ghost. When 
questions were asked ' the ghost knocked 
once to signify yes, twice to signify no, 
and scratched to indicate displeasure.' 
Parson's daughter, a child of 12, took a 
board into her bed, and made these 
knockings and scratchings, which for 
many months set all London agog, and 
even made matter for sober history. 

Cock-pen Tree. A large hollow 
oak in that part of Sherwood Forest called 
Birkland, from the number of silver 
birches. In the hollow of this tree game 
cocks were penned for the Shrove Tuesday 
sports, to keep them well out of the way 
of dunghill poultry. The tree is now 
called 'The Major,' or the 'Major's 
Oak,' from Major Rooke, the antiquary. 

This tree is very large, fifteen persons can be 
packed inside it. The bole grips the earth with a 
circumference of 90 feet ; 6 feet above the ground 
its girth is 30 feet ; and its branches cover a cir- 
cumference of 240 feet. It stands in a part of the 
forest belonging to the Earl Man vers, and is almost 
always called the ' Major Oak." 

Cockpit, Whitehall, the Privy Coun- 
cil Office. Also a locality where persons 
lived, for George duke of Albemarle died 
' at his apartment in the Cockpit ; ' and 
the Princess Anne, we are told, ' left the 
Cockpit ' to live ' at Zion House.' 

After the Restoration, the Treasury Board sat 
at a place called the Cockpit.— Cox, Inst, of Eng. 

Govern, ii. vii.682 (1803). 

Cockpit of Europe {The). Bel- 



COCLES 



CODEX 



183 



gium is so called because it has been the 
site of more battles than any nation in 
Europe. 

Codes, or Horatius Codes, of 

Horn. John Haring, of Horn, who de- 
fended the Diemerdyke against 1,000 
Spaniards, and made his escape un- 
wounded by either spear or gun. 

Codes, or Horatius Codes, of 
the Tyrol, 1793. Alexander Davy 
Dumas, father of the novelist, who, at 
Brixen, defended the passage of abridge 
on which Dumouriez's success wholly 
depended. 

Code Henri (The). That is the 
code of Henri, king of Hayti (1767, 1811- 
1820). Joining the black insurgents 
against the French, he became head of 
the Haytian army in 1806, president of 
Hayti for life in 1807, and king of Hayti 
in 1811. He was a giant in stature, and 
his courage was indisputable. 

Code de ITapoldon (Le), 15 Mar., 
1803 to 17 Sept., 1804. A French code of 
laws regulating all that pertains ' aux 
droits civils, a la personne et a la pro- 
prie'te des citioyens.' 

There are several other codes used in France, 
as Le Code de Commerce, Le Code de Procedure 
Civile, Le Code d Instruction Criminelle, Le Code 
Penal, LeCode Rural, Lo Code Forestier, Le Code 
de la Peche fluviale ; all except the last two are 
Napoleonic codes. There are also Le Code Mill- 
taire, Le Code Maritime, Le Code de lEnregistre- 
ment, Sec. 

Code Noire (Le). That is, a code 
of laws for the negroes in the French 
colonies, made by Colbert, in the reign 
of Louis XIV. 

Code of Lanego {The). An excel- 
lent code of laws drawn up at Lanego, in 
Portugal, by order of King Alfonso I. 
(1139-1185). 

Code of Melrose (TTi^). A collec- 
tion of laws compiled at Melrose Abbey ; 
the work of many learned jurisconsults, 
appointed for the purpose by David L of 
Scotland, who reigned 1114-1143. 

Codex Alexandri'nus. Long sup- 
posed to be the oldest MS. of the Bible 
extant. It is preserved in the British 
Museum, and was published in facsimile 
under the care of Charles Godfrey Woide, 
in 1786 (London). It contains all the New 
Testament, except Matt, i., xxv. 5 ; John 
vi. 50, viii. 52 ; and 2 Cor. iv. 13, xii. 6. This 
valuable MS. was found in Alexandria, 



and was presented to Charles I. in 1628 
by Cyril Lucar, at one time patriarch of 
Alexandria. It is in four vols., size 10 in. 
by 13, in double columns, and in uncial 
or capital letters. The Codex Vaticanus 
[q.v.) is older. See ' Sinaitic MS.' 

Supposed to be of the 5tb cent., towards the 
close. 

Codex Argen'teus, or rather * Ar- 
genteus Codex.' A MS. of the Gospels 
in Moeso-Gothic, by Ulfilas bishop of 
the Goths (348-388). It was discovered 
by Arnold Mercator, in the abbey of 
Werden, and taken to Prague in 1597, 
where it remained till 1648, when it 
was captured and presented to Christina 
of Sweden. Finally, it was presented to 
the University of Upsala in 1662 by Count 
Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie. Called 
Argenteus, or the Silver MS., from its 
silver letters. 

Codex Augiensis. Purchased by 
Richard Bentley, and presented, after his 
death, to Trinity College, Cambridge, by 
Thomas Bentley. It contains most of 
the Pauline Epistles, in Greek and Latin. 

Codex Basiliensis. A MS. copy 
of the four evangelists, with a few gaps, 
attributed to the close of the 10th cent. 
Belonging to the library of Basel, or 
Basle. 

Codex "Bezos, or ' Cantabrigiensis,' 
A Bible MS. of the middle of the Gth 
cent., once in the possession of Beza, and 
sent by him as a gift to the University 
of Cambridge. It contains the Gospels 
and the Acts. Edited in 2 vols, folio by 
Thomas Kipling in 1793. 

Codex Claronionta'nus. Con- 
taining the Pauline Epistles. This MS., 
which belongs to the latter half of the 6th 
cent., was edited in facsimile by Tischen- 
dorf in 1852 (Lips.) 

Codex Coislinia'nus. Belonging 
to the Imperial Library of Paris. It is 
a MS. of the 6th cent. 

Codex Cyprius. Formerly Colber- 
tinus. Containing the four Gospels. The 
MS. belongs to the 9th cent. 

Codex Damasce'nus. A Greek 

MS. of the Old and New Testament, 
with the Epistle of Barnabas and part 
of * Shepherd ' of Hermas. It was dis- 
covered in 1S89 by M. Papadopulos in 
the vaults of the Arabic library oi 
Damascus. 



IS< 



CODEX 



COGNIZANCES 



From the eTtreTt>eljrTn©a,gr*<ie«'riptJon glv^n ot 
this nev-fcnnd MS., it se^-n-s t<? be a copy of the 
SiTiaitic C^iex. The dou M inicht e*«il\ be settled 
hy referrjiig t-o the ' Shepherd,' which in the 
^m&itic MS. I&cks the oonclusioa. 

* Codex Diplomat icus Sici- 
lias.' 1791. A literary forgt^iy. by Abbo' 
Giuseppe Vella^ who confessed his frauds, 
and was sentenced te fift^een years' im- 
prisonment. He died 1S14. See ' Lite- 
rary Forgeries,' 

His other boolc is Liiird drl ConsiplUi di EgitUt, 
17SS. 

Codex Dubliniensis. A palimp- 
sest belonging to Trinity College, Dublin. 
It belongs te the close of the 6th cent., 
and was edited in facsimile by Dr. Barrett 
in 1801. 

Codex Ephra'iini. The Parisian 

palimpsest, so called because over the 
original Bible MS. some troAtises of 
Ej hraim the Syrian have been inscribed. 
It is preserved in the Royal Library at 
Paris. Edited in facsimile by Tischen- 
dori, 184S (Lips.) Latter part of 5th 
cent. 

Codex Sinait'ieus. A Greek MS. 
of the Old and New Testament, with 
f-he Epistle of Barnabas, and part of the 
' Shephej-d' of Hennas, discovered in 1S59 
by Tischendorf in tlie Convent of St. 
Catherine. This codex, supjvised to be- 
long to the 4th cent., is one of the oldest 
in the world. In 1S6S it wa^ ac-quired by 
the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. 

Codex Tlieodosia'nus. A recuHl 
of the Roman laws since the reign of Con- 
stantine, reduced by the o:^der of Tlieo- 
dosius II.. and promulgat.ed in the East 
in 4SS. Valentinian III, introduced tlie 
codex into the "West. 

Codex Vatieanus. The oldest MS. 
of the New Testament, containing the 
four gospels, the Acts, the Catholic 
Epistles, and the Pauline Epistles. A 
facsimile of this MS., comprising the 
LXX. version of the Old Testament, 
was issued at Rome (edited by Cardinal 
Mai), and published in 1858, 4 vols, folio. 
Called ' Vaticanus ' because it is pre- 
served in the Vatican Library at Rome. 
Its date is supposed to be of the 4th 
cent. It does not contain the Revela- 
tion of John the divine. Copies are to be 
found in all the chief libraries of Chris- 
tendom. 

This MS. contains TOOleAresof the finest veUum, 
fcbouft a toot square, bound together. 



It Is very donhtfol which codeit is the older, 
the VatioAnus or the Sinaiticxis. The sccretArv of 
the Kible Society cI8 .Vpiil. ISiQi vrrU.es to me thaa 
the lfttt.er is • regarded as the oldest MS. of the 
New Testament.' 

Coenobites (8 syl.). Tliose who 
lived in community, having all things in 
common. The locality where they dwelt 
was called the Co?nobium, and the first 
was built by Pachomius in Egyi->t k.t>. 
840. The ccpnobium was subsequently 
called a ' monast-ery,' and the Ca?nobite a 
* monk.' It was St. Basel who reduced 
monachism into a system a.d. 878. 

Of coarse the word is compoanded of the two 
Greek words ro«.»c, i!''^> coiY:mon life, or livinf 
in o».->TOmon\ in contradistinction to .^Jichoritea 
or Hermits, who lived solitary lives. 

Coeur de Lion, ' Lion's-heart.* 
Richard I. of England (1157, 1189-1199). 
Probably so called from his generosity, 
magnanimity, and bravery. 

It is said by the tronbadonrs that Richard ao- 
QTiired the name of Laon s-heATt from a contest 
he had with a lion, like r»jivid, the son of .Te«se, 
and in the cont<>st. thrusting his mailed arm 
down the lion £ throat, he tore out ite heart. 

Cogito, ergo sum. Because I think, 
therefore I must exist. Descart^s's axiom 
(1597-1650>. He argued thus: 'I think, 
but thought cannot proceed from nothing; 
if therefore I think, I must be some- 
thing.' Pushing the argument further 
back, as ex nihil-o nihil Jit, if something 
cannot proceed from nothing, and I my- 
self am something, there must be a 
something from which I proceed, and 
tliat something is God. 

Of conrse the t.<i,llacy of this argument is patent, 
for it makes cogitation the proof of what is re- 
quired to be proved, and Descartes {-2 syl.i is hope- 
le.ssly involved in a vicious circle. Ice is cold, 
therefore there is such a thing as ice. 

r>escArt«s furthermore said : ' I can thin'k of 
eternity and infinity, subjects beyond a finite 
mind ; and .^s no man can think beyond himself, 
man must possess a soul. " sp^irk of the Peity." 
But CA.n a man think of eitlier eternity or in- 
finity ? r»oes he not think inst*'a4 of time without 
dimension, and the finite multiplied ? ' 

Cognac {Treaty of), 22 Mar., 1526. 
Between Leo X., Francois I., Henry VIIL 
of England, Venice, Florence, and Swit- 
zerland. 

Cognizances of English Kings. 
Tlie Cross of St. George has been the 
royal badge since its introduction by 
Edward III., but all the kings up to the 
time of Henry VII. (inclusive) had their 
private cognizance also. 

StF-P-EV, a ss.gittary. 
Hh;vn\" II., an escarbunrle. 
KiCHAiu) I., John, and U£nst m.. a star abov* 
& horned cre^iceut. 



COIFFURE 



COLONISATION 



185 



Edward I., a golden rose. 

Edwai:d II., a ciistle, in allasion to hismothcr'B 
arms (Cast.ilei. 

Edwakd III. had several badges, as a falcon, 
the oatrich feather, a griffln, and the stump of a 
' tree. 

Richard II. adopted the stamp and the falcon, 
but added the hart couchant, the peacock, and 
the sun behind a cloud- 

Hk.nky IV., the ermine, the eagle, and the 
panther crowned. 

Henry v., a lighted beacon, an ant^loi)e and 
rwan chained, with crowns round their necks. 

Henry VI., the antelope, panther, and doable 
ostrich feather. 

Edward IV., the falcon within a fetterlock, the 
rose and sun, a white hart, a white wolf, and a 
sable dragon and bull. 

Edward V., the falcon and fetterlock. 

Richard III., the rose and son, a white boar ; or 
boar and thorn-tree. 

Henry VII., a hawthorn bush crowned, a grey- 
hound, the red dragon of Wales, a portcullis, red 
and white rose combined. 

Coiffure h la serviette (La). A 
head-dress devised by Le'onard, hair- 
dresser of Marie Antoinette. It consisted of 
a coarse whity-brown table-napkin twisted 
into the hair amidst real vegetables, such 
as artichokes, cabbage-leaves, carrots, 
turnips, and radishes. 

Coincidences — 

I. The fall of liobespierre was 1794, 
which added together = 21. Now add 
the two together thus, 1794 + 21 = 1815, 
the fall of Napoleon. 

n. 1815 added together = 15, which two 
added together, thus 1815 -h 15 = 1830, the 
fall of Charles IX. 

It would be remarkable if 1902 were to completo 
the triad so striking in French history. 

III. It is curious about Louis Philippe. 
The year of his birth, or the year of the 
queen's birth, or the year of his flight, 
added to the year of his coronation, will 
give 1848, the date of abdication (this is 
another French triad — q.v.). He was bom 
1773 ; his queen was born 1782, and his 
flight was 1809 ; the sum of each is 18. 
And 1830 + 18 = 1848. 

IV. Charles I., Louis XVI. each con- 
tains 8 letters. 

Charles was decapitated January, Louis 
was guillotined January. 

The sum of the day of the month in 
each case is 3. Thus Charles was exe- 
cuted January 30, Louis January 21. 

The sum of the year in each case is 20. 
Thus 1049 = 20; and 1793 = 20. 

Hence, finally, the entire summation is 
identical, 8 letters in the names, month 
January, sum of the daj's of the month 
8, sum of the year 20 ; and total 31 + 
January. 

V. Louis XIV. The number 14 is the 
Bum oi the figures of his age, 77 = 14 ; 



the sum of the figures which make the 
date of his coronation 1643 = 14 ; and 
the sum of the figures which make the 
date of his death 1715 = 14. 

Coining Machine of the Revo- 
lution (The). The guillotine, so called 
by Fouquier Tinville, the public accuser, 
because the wealthy were always sus- 
pected when money was needed. 

Cold shade of the aristocracy 

(The). It was Colonel Napier, in his 
' History of the Peninsular War,' who said 
the people were doomed ' to wither in the 
cold shade of the aristocracy.' 

Cold Year {The\ 1614. 

Collar of Tomar (TAe). A golden 
torque which Malachy, monarch of Ire- 
land, took from the neck of a Danish 
chieftain whom he had conquered. 

Let Erin remember the days of old. 
Ere her faithless sons betrayed her. 

When Malachy wore the cellar of gold 
Ti'hich he won from the proud invader. 
T. ilooEE, Irish Melodiet. 

Collection des Deux-Ponts 

[La). A collection of the Latin classics 
published at Deux-Ponts, or Zwey- 
briicken in Bavaria, towards the close of 
the 18th and in the first quarter of the 
19th cent. 

Colliberts. So the Cagots {q.v.) are 
called in Poitou, Maine, and Anjou. 

Colloquy of Poissy (The), 15G1. 
A synod of Catholics and Calvinists held 
at Poissy to settle the religious contro- 
versies by which France was molested. 
The end of this colloquy was to make 
each party more fiercely hostile than 
before, and their animosity broke out 
into a desolating religious war. 

Collyrid'ians (The), or 'Collyridian 
Christians,' A.D. 373. Heretics abundant 
in Arabia, who invested the Virgin Mary 
with the name and honours of a goddess. 
They were so called because they offered 
to the goddess virgin a icoAAvpa or cake. 
The heresy was carried from Thrace to 
Arabia by some women. 

Colonisation of Ulster (TJw), 
1610. A measure introduced in the reisrn 
of James T. for the pacification of Ire- 
laud. It was a vast measure of spolia- 
tion. Two-thirds of the north of Ireland 
was confiscated to the crown, and the 
land was allotted to Scotch and Eughah 



186 



COLOQUINTIDA 



COLUMN 



settlers. The Corporation of London 
undertook the colonisation of Derry. 
Without doubt this ' plantation of Uls- 
ter 'was a brilliant success; but its in- 
justice has not even yet been condoned 
by the Irish. 

An attempt was made, In 1889, to 'colonise' 
evicted farms, in Ireland, by English and Scotch 
tenants. 

Coloquint'ida (St.). So Charles I. 
was called. Coloquintida is colocynth 
(or ' bitter apple '), which is extremely 
bitter and nauseous. To say Charles 
was to the Levellers a Coloquintida is 
about equivalent to saying he was to 
them 'a very bitter pill.' See Claren- 
don's ' Rebellion,' book iii. p. 91 (Oxford 
edit. 1839). In 2 Kings iv., 'Death in 
the pot,' or * wild gourds,' is in the 
old versions translated ' coloquintida,' 
whence the Levellers obtained their 
comparison. 

The Levellers styled him [Charles I.] an Ahab 
and a Coloquintida, a man of blood, and the ever- 
lasting obstacle to peace and liberty.— HowiTT, 
Hmi. u/ Eng. (Charles I., chap. vi. p. 284). 

Colora'do (U. S. America). So called 
from Rio Colorado or coloured river 
(Red River) which falls into the Vermi- 
lion Sea. The inhabitants are nick- 
named Bovers. 

Colossus of Danish Literature 

(The). Baron Ludwig Holberg (1081- 
1754). One of the greatest authors of 
comedy that ever lived. He was also 
an historian and satirist. 

Colossus of the 19th cent. {T7ie). 
Napoleon Bonaparte (17G9-1821). 

Colours for Church Decora- 
tions. 

White for festivals of our Lord, for 
Easter, and for all saints except martyrs. 

lied for martyrs, for Ash Wednesday, 
the last three days of Holy Week, and 
Whitsuntide. 

Blue for all week days after Trinity 
Sunday. 

Blue or green, indifferently, for ordi- 
nary Sundays. 

Violet, brown, or grey for Advent and 
Lent. 

Black for Good Friday. 

Colours for the Days. An effort 
was made in France to introduce letter- 
paper of a special colour for each day of 
the week. 

For Sunday, a delicate mauve. 



Monday, pale green. 
Tuesday, pink. 

Wednesday (an unlucky day), sombra 
grey. 

Thursday, blue. 
Friday, white. 
Saturday, straw-colour. 

Colours in China. 

Yellow is the imperial colour, restricted 
to the emperor and his sons. Symbolical 
of faith. 

Purple is the colour worn by the em- 
peror's grandsons. 

Bed is the symbol of virtue, truth, and 
sincerity. 

Verviilion is the colour in which im- 
perial edicts are written. 

Black denotes guilt and vice. 

White denotes moral purity. The 
colour of mourning indicative of hope. 

Colours. See ' Military Colours.' 

Colston's Day, or 'The Colston 
Day,' 13 Nov. The anniversary of the 
birth of Edward Colston (163G-1721), 
merchant, and M.P. for Bristol (1710). 
He founded and endowed schools and 
almshouses in Bristol, and on the anni- 
versary of his birthday the four follow- 
ing societies dine together : — 

The Colston, established 1726. 

The Dolphin, established 1749 (the 
Colston crest is two dolphins). 

The Grateful, established 1758. 

The Anchor, 17G9. 

Large sums of money are collected 
at these dinners for annuities to aged 
persons, relief for lying-in women, ap- 
prenticing boys, and money gifts. In 
188G the subscription amounted to 3,534Z. 

Columbia. America is so called 
from Columbus, who discovered it. A 
part is still called British Columbia. It 
was called America from Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, the pilot who accompanied Alonzo 
de Ojeda in 1499 and published an ac- 
count of the voyage. This book first 
made the New World popularly known. 

Columbia, Columbia, to glory arise, 
The queen of the world, and the child of the skies. 
Dr. T. DwiGHT. 

Hail, Columbia, happy land ! 

Joseph Hopkinson, 1789. 

Column of Antoninus (T/ie). At 

Rome ; made of marble, 176 feet high, in 
memory of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius 
Antoninus. Like that of Trajan, this 
column is covered externally with spiral 



COLUMN 



COMMEND AM 



187 



bas-reliefs representing the wars carried 
on by this emperor. As Sixtus V. caused 
the original statue of Trajan to be sup- 
planted by that of St. Peter, so he caused 
the original statue of Antoninus to be 
supplanted by that of St. Paul. 

The spiral staircase has 106 steps, and the 
column has so windows to lot in light. This pillar 
Is very inferior to Trajan's Column. The column 
in the Piazza Colonna at Rome, called the Pillar 
of Antoninus, is really one raised by the senate 
to Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the 
Marcomanni. 

Column ofJuly(TM, 1832. Paris. 
Made of bronze, erected on the Place de 
la Bastille, to commemorate the Revolu- 
tion of July iq.v.), 1830, when Charles X. 
abdicated. It is surmounted with a 
statue of Liberty standing on one foot. 
In 1840 the bodies of the victims of that 
revolution, which had been thrown into 
a ditch, were disinterred. A monster 
hearse being provided, 50 coffins (each 
containing ten bodies), drawn by 24 black 
horses, were buried in the vault under 
this column. 

Column of the Place Venddme 

(T/ie), 1806-1810. Paris. Made of bronze, 
erected in honour of Napoleon I., and 
containing, in a spiral, pictorial repre- 
Bcntatious of his victories in a series of 
bas-reliefs, 900 feet long, and terminating 
with the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. This 
jnagnificent column, made of cannons 
taken from enemies, the facsimile of 
Trajan's famous column, was surmounted 
with a statue of Napoleon himself. 

On 17 May, 1871, it was hurled to the ground by 
the Communists out of hatred to Napoleon III. 
It was re-erected in 1874, but the statue of Napo- 
leon was replaced with another standing on one 
leg, infinitely inferior in every respect to the ori- 
ginal one. 

Columns. See * Pompey's Column,' 
• Trajan's Column.' 

Columns of Hercules {The). Two 
large pyramidal columns set up by the 
Phoenicians as lighthouses and land- 
marks, dedicated one to Hercules (the 
Bun) and the other to Astarte (the moon). 
By the Greeks and Eomans the two 
pyramidal mountains at the Straits of 
Gibraltar, viz. Calpe and Abyla, the 
former in Europe and the latter in Africa, 
were termed ColumncB Herculis from 
their resemblance at a distance to the 
Phoenician columns. 
Calpe (2 syl.), Ab'-y-lah, i.e. Ce-u'-ta. 

Combat of the Thirty {The). 
' Le Combat des Trente,' 1351. Thirty 



Bretons against thirty Englishmen. It 
was the defiance of Jean sire de Beauma- 
noir to the English chatelain of Ploer- 
mel. Eight of the English being slain, 
the combat was brought to a close. It 
is said that Beaumanoir, exhausted by 
fatigue and heat, drank the blood which 
flowed from his wounds. See ' Battle.' 

Combative Kings {The). The 
dynasty of Tcheou-kue of China, from 
the tenth to the third cent. B.C., when 
China was broken up into a multitude of 
minor states alwaj^s at war with each 
other. In B.C. 247 Thsin-chi-hoang-ti (of 
the dynasty of Tsin) united all the states 
under one sovereign ; pushed back the 
Moguls ; and built the Great Wall. 

Combination Laws {The), 1860. 
The Statute of Labourers enacted ' that 
all alliances [combinations] of masons, 
carpenters, and other artificers,' be an- 
nulled and declared unlawful. Abolished 
in 1824, since which times Trades-Unions 
{q.v.) have become very general. See 
' Criminal Law Amendment Act.' 

Comedy {Father of French). Moliere 
(1622-1673). 

Comity de Surveillance, 1792. 

A committee in the French Revolution 
whose function was to examine the de- 
nunciations received by the Committee 
of General Safety. After the butcheries 
of 2 Sept. this committee drew up an 
address, recommending all the communes 
in France to follow the same example. 
See under ' Committee.' 

This address was signed by Duplain, Panis, Ser- 
gent, Lenfant, Marat, Lefort, Jordeuil, adminis- 
rators of the Coniite de Surveillance, constituted 
at the Mairie, 2 Sept. 1792. 

Commandery {A). A district con- 
taining estates with a revenue annexed, 
belonging to a military order, and go- 
verned by a knight-commander, or the 
whole body of knights subject to a knight- 
commander, as the Commanderies of 
Malta, of St. Lazare, of Calatrava, of 
Alcantara, of St. Bernard, and of St. 
Antony. Till 1267 Commanderies were 
called Preceptories. 

Commenda, or * Ecclesia Commen- 
data.' A living commended by the 
crown to the charge of a clergyman to 
hold till a person is duly provided for it. 
It may be either temporary or perpetual. 

Commendam (In). A living is held 



188 



C0MMENDAT0R3 



COMMISSIONERS 



•in commendam' when (to prevent its 
becoming void) it is committed {commen- 
datur) to the charge of a clergyman till 
it can be conveniently provided with a 
pastor. Thus when a rector or vicar is 
made a bishop his benefice becomes void 
from the moment of consecration, but, 
being ' commended ' to a commendatory, 
the bishop retains the income till his suc- 
cessor is provided. 

Commendators. A Scotch term 
meaning secular persons upon whom 
church benefices are bestowed. The 
livings are commended, i.e. entrusted to 
their care and keeping. They are, ^ro 
tempore, trustees of the priories, abbeys, 
or dioceses committed to them. The 
living thus held in trust was called a 
commendatory. 

Commendatory Abbot (^). Was 

a secular clerk provided by the pope to 
enjoy the fruits of an abbey, generally 
for life, without being saddled with clerical 
duties. 

ComLmendatory Letters. Letters 
written by one bishop to another on be- 
half of a clergyman or layman going to 
the diocese. 

Commenda'tus [pi. Commendati]. 
In baronial times was a person who 
lived under the protection of some great 
man. He was a voluntary vassal, and 
paid voluntary homage for the sake of 
protection. 

Commerce {Father of English). 
Edward HI. (1312, 132G-1377). 

Commissaires de la Commune 

[Les), 10 Aug., 1792. A title assumed by 
Danton, Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and 
Collot d'Herbois, who usurped on this 
day the municipal functions of Paris. 

Comm.issary {The). In the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. An executive officer 
appointed by the chancellor by letters 
patent to hold a court of record for all 
privileged persons and scholars under the 
degree of M.A. 

Commission {The Farnell), 1889. 
See ' Parnell,' &c. 

Commission of Innoeency 

{The), 16G3. A commission appointed by 
the Duke of Ormond, lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, to inquire into the guilt or inno- 
cency of those Cathohca whose estates 



had been forfeited by Cromwell. Tho 
cases were so numerous that the session 
was limited, and only a fourth of the 
cases were adjudicated. The other three- 
fourths (about 3,000 in number) were 
stripped of their estates whether they 
were innocent or not. 

Commission of Inquiry {The), 
1623. A commission appointed by James 
I. to examine into the titles of holders of 
land in the province of Leinster and the 
adjoining districts. The commission ad- 
judged 82,500 acres of land to be crown 
land, and James tried to plant it with 
Englishmen and Scotchmen, as he had 
done Ulster. 

Commission of Twelve {The), 
1793. An extraordinary board appointed 
by the National Convention to watch 
over the commune, arrest those who in- 
terrupted the business of the house, and 
to judge traitors. It forthwith arrested 
He'bert; whereupon a riot ensued, and 
the Convention was obhged to dissolve 
the commission. 

Commissioners of Delinquen- 
cy, 1650. Commissioners appointed after 
the rebellion of Ireland to decide what 
lands were forfeited by the rebellion, and 
what Catholics were entitled to receive 
compensation. Those Catholics who in the 
lifetime of Charles I. had served the king 
against the rebels, and would be entitled 
to retain any part of their estates, were to 
iresign that part and receive an equivalent 
in the waste lands of Connaught ; but no 
Catholic, under any condition, was to re- 
side in any town or within a certain fixed 
limit of a town. There were commis- 
sioners to decide on the qualifications of 
Catholics, others to arrange the details of 
those to be transplanted to Connaught, 
and others to receive and hear claims. 
The first sat in Athlone^ the second in 
Loughrea, and the third in Dublin. 

Commissioners of Innoeency. 

See ' Commission of Innoeency.' 

Commissioners of National 
Education {The). In Ireland. 1833. 
The board appointed to carry out the 
plan of national education introduced by 
Mr. Stanley, chief secretary. See ' Na- 
tional Schools, Ireland.' 

The first commissioners were the Duke of 

Leinster, Archbishop Whately, Archbishop Mur- 
ray, Rev. Dr. Sadlier, Rev. James Cirlile {Pn-sby- 
ti'iian), A. R. Blake (CatkoHc), and liobert Holmes 
{Unitarian). 



I 



COMMISSIONERS 



COMMITTEE 



189 



Commissioners of Parliament. 

Part of the civil government of Cromwell, 
appointed to grant commissions by letters 
patent, and to examine into the legality 
of those holding any public office. In 
Ireland their chief duty was to adjust and 
apportion among the claimants confis- 
cated estates. 

Commissioners of Trust {The), 
1647. Twelve persons appointed by the 
general assembly of confederates and 
Protestants in Ireland to guard the treaty, 
and vested with powers to levy soldiers, 
raise money, and perform all acts of su- 
preme authority in Ireland. The arrange- 
ment fell through because the king was 
beheaded before he had signed it. 

The Catholics were granted by the treaty free- 
dom of religion, seminaries for the education of 
their children, admission to Parliament, and an 
amnesty for the late rebellion. 

Committee of Estates (The), 
1640. A committee appointed by the 
Scotch Parliament which had been pro- 
rogued by Charles I., but which refused to 
obey, declaring the warrant to be informal. 
They instantly voted a tax of 10 per cent. 
on rents, and 5 per cent, on interest of 
nionej'', and appointed a Committee of 
Estates to act in the place of the king in 
giving assent to their measures. 

Committee of Evils (The), 1625. 
A committee of the House of Commons in 
the second year of the reign of Charles I. 
for the remedy of giuevances and abuses. 
The Committee of Grievances brought 
forward to the notice of the house what 
were national grievances, and the Com- 
mittee of Evils suggested remedies. Thus 
the Committee of Grievances complained 
of purveyance [collecting provisions at a 
Bet price], tonnage and poundage, and so 
on ; and the Committee of Evils, attribut- 
ing these grievances to the Duke of Buck- 
ingham, insisted on his being punished. 

Committee of Grievances (T/te), 
1626. A committee of the House of Com- 
mons to check the encroachments of the 
young king Charles I. It was especially 
directed against the Duke of Bucking- 
ham, the king's favourite, whose inso- 
lence, extravagance, incapacity, and 
licentiousness were a great scandal. 

Committee of Murder (The), 

1690. A committee appointed by the 
Whigs, in the reign of William and Mary, 
to uaquire into the concern of euudry in- 



dividuals in the deaths of Lord Russell, 
Algernon Sidney, and others of the Whig 
party. John Hampden (grandson of the 
great patriot) and John Howe were the 
most violent, and would have inundated 
the nation with blood if William had not 
stoutly resisted the persecution. 

Committee of Nine (The), 6 April, 

1793. The Committee of Public Safety 
iq.v.) in the French revolution. It con- 
sisted of nine members. 

Committee of Public Safety 

[The). ' Le Comite du Salut Publique,' 
formed in the French revolution, 6 April, 

1793, by a decree of the Convention. 
For a year it was omnipotent, and had 
under it the ' Revolutionary Tribunal,' 
the ' Revolutionary Committees,' and the 
Committee of General Security.' It ori- 
ginally consisted of nine members chosen 
from the Convention, the leaders being 
Danton, Barere, and Cambon. Three 
more were added in June ; and, after the 
fall of the Girondists, Robespierre and 
Carnot belonged to the committee. It 
was this committee which inaugurated 
the Beign of Terror, and filled France 
with scaffolds. It was broken up 27 July, 

1794. See ' Committee of the Two 
Kingdoms.' 

Revolutionary committees and Committees of 
General Safety were .-ilso appointed in every com. 
mune of France. The former to receive denun- 
ciations and the latter to look after the police. 

Committee of Purchases, 1792. 
A committee of Frenchmen, under Bider- 
mann, the banker, and consisting of Jews 
and speculators, whose function was to 
make bargains for the array under Du 
mouriez and pay the soldiers. The sol- 
diers were paid in cash, but all bargains 
were paid for in assignats. All emigrants 
were plundered of their money, jewels, 
furniture, and works of art ; and the 
peoi)le of Belgium were treated as aris- 
tocrats. Plunder and robbery- were thus 
made a very profitable trade. 

Committee of Religion. 1. 1626. 
A committee of the House of Commons, 
in the second year of Charles I., to put 
down the growth of popery, which had 
become aggressive from the large suite 
of Roman Catholics introduced by the 
queen. The committee presented its 
report 25 Feb., 1629. It complained that 
the bishops licensed the circulation of 
books favourable to popery. It advised 



190 



COMMITTEE 



COMMITTEES 



that such books as those of Mainwaring 
and Montague should be burnt; that 
candlesticks should be removed from 
communion-tables, now impiously called 
high-altars; that pictures, lights, and 
images should be removed from churches ; 
that crossing and turning to the east in 
prayer should be forbidden ; that better 
and more learned men should be preferred 
to church livings ; and better provision 
be made for the supply of holy ministers 
to the several parishes. 

II. 6 Nov., 1640, a committee of the 
whole house appointed by the Long Par- 
liament for providing preachers, and re- 
moving ministers of scandalous character. 

Committee of Safety. I. In the 
civil wars of Charles I. was a supreme 
council which sat in the Painted Cham- 
ber, Westminster. Pym was president, 
and amoiig the members were Lord Saye 
and Sele, Sir Harry Vane, Harry Marten, 
Selden, St. John, and others. 

11. Oct. 1775. A committee formed 
from the congress convened by Governor 
Gage at Salem, and adjourned by the 
' patriots ' to Concord, a town about 25 
miles from Boston. Here a standing 
committee was appointed, which assumed 
the name of ' The Committee of Safety,' 
with authority to call out the militia 
when they thought it necessary for the 
defence of the province. The French 
afterwards adopted the same idea in 
their Comite du Salut Publique. 

Committee of Seeresy (The), 
6 Jan., 1721. A committee appointed by 
the House of Commons to examine into 
the South Sea Company's failure. The 
committee was appointed merely to 
soothe the angry feelings of the public. 
The directors in the service of the crown 
were discharged 11 Jan., and the rest were 
examined before the House of Lords. 
Knight, the coii^pany's cashier, ab- 
sconded 22 Jan., wag imprisoned at Ant- 
werp, 3 Feb. ; escaped, and was pardoned 
18 Oct. the same year. It was not till 
1 June, 1733, that an inquiry into the 
conduct of the company was made in the 
House of Lords. Broderick was chair- 
man of the committee, and Jekyll, Moles- 
worth, &c. were members put upon it. 

Committee of Supplies (The), 

1774. To purchase ammunition, ordnance, 
and other military stores, when the Com- 
mittee of Safety Igi'V.) thought it advis- 



able to call out the militia in defence of 
the province of Massachusetts. 

Committee of Twelve (The), 
1793. A committee appointed by the Con- 
vention, through the influence of the 
Girondists, to watch over the designs of 
the commune and to arrest those persons 
who were dangerous to the public peace. 
The Twelve were the sworn enemies of 
the Jacobins. 

Committee of the Protestant 

Interest ( The), 1780. Formed to resist 
any relaxation of the penal code against 
the Catholics. The synod of Glasgow 
was especially rancorous, but the synod of 
Edinburgh favoured measures of relief. 

Committee of the States, 1777. 
Appointed by Congress to sit during their 
recess. It consisted of one delegate from 
each state ; nine to form a quorum. This 
committee exercised such powers as 
Congress thought fit to vest thenr with. 

Committee of the Two King- 
doms {The), Dec. 1843. So the Com- 
mittee of Public Safety was called, when 
Scotland joined the Parliamentary party. 
This was after the death of Pym. It was 
again called into active service in 1647. 

Committee of the -whole 
House {A). All the members of the 
House of Commons in attendance, pre- 
sided over by a chairman for the nonce 
instead of the Speaker. After a public bill 
has been printed and distributed to the 
members, it is read for the second time 
and then 'committed.' When the day 
for ' committing ' has arrived, the Speaker 
moves ' that I do now leave the chair,* 
and the bill is read clause by clause, and 
line by line, till every part has received 
the approval of the house, and then the 
Speaker resumes his chair to receive the 
report. 

Committees of Correspond- 
ence, 1779. To carry out reform in Par- 
liament ; organised in twenty-one counties, 
and in the towns of York, Bristol, Cam- 
bridge, Nottingham, Newcastle, Reading, 
and Bridgwater. The chief promoters 
of these committees were Lord Rocking- 
ham, in Yorkshire ; Lord Shelburne, in 
Buckinghamshire ; Lord Mahon (son-in- 
law of Chatham), in Kent ; the Duke of 
Richmond, the Marquis of Carmarthen, 
Sir George Savile, Edmund Burke, and 
Charles James Fox. 



COMMITTEES 



COMMORANTES 



191 



In 1780 Committees of Correspondence were 
ortranised by the Protestant Association in 
numerous towns to resist any relaxation of the 
penal acts against the Catholics. The anti- 
Catholic furore culminated in the Gordon riots. 

Committees of General Se- 
curity, or ' Comite de Surete Generale ' 
(1793). Appointed by the Convention to 
act under the Committee of Public Safety 
to look after the police. 

Common Good {The). A Scotch 
phrase meaning the public funds of a 
burgh. 

Common Prayer Book [The). 

Was drawn up chiefly by Goodrich 
bishop of Ely, and Ridley bishop of 
Rochester. Their coadjutors were Skyp 
bishop of Hereford, Thirlby bishop of 
Westminster, Day bishop of Chichester, 
Holbeach bishop of Lincoln, Dr. May 
dean of St. Paul's, Dr. Taylor dean of 
Lincoln, Dr. Haynes dean of Exeter, 
Dr. Redmayne dean of Westminster, Dr. 
Cox the king's almoner, and Dr. Robert- 
son archdeacon of Leicester. In the 
communion office there were added the 
Archbishop of York and the Bishops of 
Durham, Worcester, Norwich, St. Asaph, 
Lichfield, Salisbury, Carlisle, Bristol, and 
St. David's. 

Common Recovery. A legal 
fiction practised in the reign of Ed- 
ward IV. for cutting off entails. The 
estate being forfeit to the crown was 
granted to a person by private agreement. 
This person brought an action against the 
grantor for unjustly claiming such estate. 
Of course the suit was pennitted to go by 
default, and the entail, being declared 
lost, the fee simple of the property re- 
curred to the possessor, to be disposed of 
as he thought proper. 

Common Sense, 1776. A pamphlet 
by Thomas Paine, then living in Phila- 
delphia, urging the Americans to claim 
independence. It ridiculed the idea of a 
small island, .8,000 miles off, ruling the 
immense continent of America, and 
threatening thi'ee million men, more 
vigorous and more virtuous than their 
would-be enslavers. This spark was 
sufficient to rouse the Americans, who 
at once signed their Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. 

Commoners. The ordinary students 
of the University of Oxford, called ' pen- 
sioners ' in the University of Cambridge. 

In the University of Cambridge 'Fellow Com- 
moners ' are pensioners who dine at the Fellows' 



or Masters' table. They are generally married 
men, noblemen, and elderly men. They wear a 
gold tassel on their cap instead of a silk one and 
have the privilege of paying higher fees. 

Commons* King {The). The Com- 
mons' King of Rome was King Servius 
Tullius, sixth king of Rome. His mother 
was a captive taken at Comubium, and 
became the female slave of Tanaquil, wife 
of Tarquin I. Servius was by birth a 
slave also, but married the king's daugh- 
ter and succeeded to the throne. 

Louis Philippe of France was caUed ' Le ro! 

citoyen.' 

Commons Spiritual {The). The 
Proctors of Convocation, who, in the 
reign of Richard II., were elected aa 
knights of the shire were. 

Commonwealth, or Free State, 
19 March, 1649. So the government of 
the United Kingdom was called, as soon 
as it was constituted after the execution 
of Charles I. 

Commonwealth (TAe). Lasted in 
England eleven years (1649-lGGO). Dur- 
ing which period, Cromwell was Lord Pro- 
tector for about four and three-quarter 
years (16 Dec, 1653, to 3 Sept., 1658), and 
was styled 'his highness.' During the 
Commonwealth, the recognised govern- 
ment superscription ran thus : ' Keepers 
of the liberties of England by the au- 
thority of Parliament.' 

Commonw^ealth of Babina 

{The), 16th cent. A society founded in 
Poland in the time of Sigismund Au- 
gustus, last male heir of the house of 
Jagello (1548-1572), so called from Ba- 
bina, the place of meeting. They had a 
regular mock government, under king, 
senate, and magistrates. "The executive 
was elected from something which ap- 
peared ridiculous in the member elected. 
Thus, an officious man was made arch- 
bishop, a disputatious one was made 
speaker, a boaster was made commander- 
in-chief. To decline to serve was to be 
outlawed. Thus every foible was held up 
to observation, and Babina was a word of 
terror. Without doubt the society did a 
vast amount of good. It gradually died out. 

Commorantes in Villa. Gradu- 
ates of the University of Cambridge, not 
on any of the college staffs, but members 
of the Regent's House (called the White 
Hoods). When the university was re- 
organised in 1858, the term was abolished 



192 



COMMUNE 



COMPAQ NIE 3 



and the Begent's House formed part of 
the Senate. 

Commune of Paris {The), 14 July, 
1789. A municipal revolutionary board, 
which took the place of the ' Conseil de 
Viile ' and held its sessions in the Guild 
Hall (Hotel de Ville). It had the supreme 
government of the city, the appointment 
of the civil officers, and the magisterial 
duties. It was presided over by a pro- 
vost — Chaumette was the first provost, 
and the next was Bobespierre, at whose 
fall the commune was abolished (27 July, 
1794). 

Com.'m.UlieS (2 syl.). Chartered 
towns were so called in France. The first 
was the commune of Mans, in 1066. 

Com.m.u'nes (3 syl.). A supplement, 
in five books, to the Corpus Juris Cano- 
nici, being the Extravagantes of popes sub- 
sequent to John XXII. Not unfrequently 
called ' Extravagantes Communes.' 

Communion Service {The First), 
1548. By a committee of bishops and other 
clergy, appointed by Cranmer. It made 
auricular confession optional ; appointed 
that the eucharist should be given in both 
kinds ; that the Host should not be ele- 
vated ; that the chief part of the service 
should be in English ; that the ,bread 
should be of the same form and kind as 
heretofore; and that the words used 
should be those printed in our Common 
Prayer Book, now in use. 

Communism. A scheme for asso- 
ciating men and women together without 
recourse to the laws of social and political 
economy, usually resorted to. The repre- 
sentatives of communism are Bobert 
Owen, St. Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, and 
Enfantin. 

(1) Owen published his scheme in 1813, 
and tried it in 1825, at Orbiston, in Lan- 
arkshire. This scheme failed, and in 
1843 he opened his ' Harmony Hall,' in 
Hampshire ; but this also was a failure. 

(2) St. Simon established a corporate 
society at Menilmontant, but Louis 
Philippe charged it with immorality and 
irreligion. The readers were imprisoned 
and the commune dissolved. 

(3) Fourier established his 'phalans- 
tery' at Bambouillet, but it proved a 
total failure. 

(4) Proudhon is noted for his axiom, 
• La proprie't^, c'est le vol,' 1848, and for 



his Banqtie du Peuple, 1849, which had 
for its object the suppression of carsital. 
It was closed by authority, and Proudhon 
fled to Geneva. 

(5) Enfantin, a partisan of St. Simon, 
advocated the abolition of marriage ties, 
and was prosecuted on the grounds of 
public decency. See ' Socialism,' ' St. 
Simonianism,' ' Supreme Father.' 

Communists {The). A secret so- 
ciety, which the report of the Government 
of Ziirich, 1844, says was then in exist- 
ence in Switzerland. Its object was ' the 
enfranchisement of all humanity ; the 
abolition of property, of heritage, of 
money, of wages, of laws, and of punish- 
ments.' They also insisted on an equal 
distribution of labour and enjoyment. 
See 'Communism.' 

Commutation Act. See 'Tithes 
Bill.' 

Comneni {The), or 'The Comne- 
nians.' A family of Boman origin which 
furnished six Byzantian emperors, one 
Heraclean, and three of Trebizond. The 
six of Constantinople are : Isaac (1057- 
1059), Alexis L (1081-1118), John (1118- 
1143), Manuel (1143-1180), Alexis 11. 
(1180-1183), and Andronicus (1183-1185), 
who was dethroned. 

The one of Heraclea was David, grand- 
son of Andronicus. 

Alexis III., who founded a dynasty at 
Trebizond, which lasted from 1204 to 
1462. 

The rest of the Comneni migrated to 
the Morea and Corsica. Napoleon used 
to claim descent from these Comneni. 

Comorbans, or Corbes. Lay 

dignitaries who held in Ireland church 
lands. If not dignitaries, they were called 
Erenachs. Like lay- abbots, they appro- 
priated to themselves the revenues, leav- 
ing the clergy the fees and tithes. (From 
the 9th to the 17th cent.) , 

Compagnacci {The). A set of 
foolish youths in Florence, during the 
palmy days of Lorenzo de' Medici ; who, 
laying aside all sense of shame, gave 
themselves up to every sort of wicked- 
ness, emulating each other in the depths 
of naughtiness to which they could attain. 

Compagnies {Les). Often called 
'Les grandes compagnies.' Bands of 
troops composed of different nations, and 
led by a general whose device was * L'ami 



COMPANION'S 



COMPUEGATOnS 



193 



du Dieu et I'ennemi du tout le monde.' 
See ' Companions' League,' ' Condottieri.' 

One of them called himself ' The enemy of God, 
of pity, and of mercy.' 

Companions' League {The), 

1360. A confederacy of the mercenary 
troops disbanded by Edward III. after 
the battle of Poitiers (1356). The league 
mustered 40,000 soldiers, and fought 
several pitched battles with the French 
troops. In 1366 they joined Duguesclin's 
army levied to aid Henry da Trastamare 
against his brother Pedro the Cruel. 
This league was a confederacy o'f Lea 
grandes compagnies {q.v.). 

Companions of Jehu (TAe). The 
Chouans, a royalist faction in France in 
1800. Louis XVIII. being Jehu, whose 
* companions ' were bound to aid him in 
' cutting off, root and branch, all who had 
taken part in the assassination of his royal 
brother' (Louis XVL). See 2 Chrbn. 
xxii. 7. . 

Company of 1789 (The). The 
club of the Feuillants was originally so 
called. Its platform was the support of 
the constitution against the ultra party. 
They took the constitution of England for 
their model. On 28 March, 1791, the club 
was forcibly dispersed by a raging mob. 

Company of St. George {The), 
1379. A company of adventurers under 
Alberic di Barbiano. This company was 
a most famous school of great generals 
from its formation to the 16th cent. 

Compassionate Allowance. A 

government gratuity to the widows and 
children of those in the British army 
slain in the Crimean War (1855-1856). 

Compassionate Brothers {The), 
1540. Founded at Seville, in Spain, by the 
Portuguese John di Dio, who had served 
in Africa under Charles V. They ob- 
tained their funds by begging. Their 
chief functions were nursing the sick and 
reforming inunoral women. The brothers 
were laymenunder no rule till 1572, when 
the pope subjected them to the rule of 
St. Augustine. 

Competitive Examination for 

the Civil service, introduced in 1855. 
Every candidate is required to pass first 
a preliminary examination. 

Compitalian Lares. Gods who 
presided respectively over the several 
9 



quarters of the city (Rome). Compltum 
was the place where two or more roads 
met, as Trivium was the place where two 
or more streets met. It was customary 
with the Romans to erect altars, shrines, 
and small temples at these spots, as 
Roman Catholics used to erect on such 
spots crucifixes. The Lares CompitaUs 
were the deities who presided over cross 
roads (Prcpertius, iv. 3, 54). Varro 
tells us the word compHuvi comes from 
the verb competo, to agree in one. 

Complaint {The), 1450, or, in full, 
* The Complaint of the Commons of Kent.' 
The petition of grievances presented by 
John Cade, calling for administrative 
and economical reforms, a change of 
ministry, a more careful expenditure of 
the royal revenue, and the restoration of 
freedom of election, which had been 
broken in upon both by the crown and 
by the great landlords. 

Compline. The last of the eight 
daily services of the Catholic Church and 
of the four gi'eater ones. At bed-time. 
The word means complete. See ' Canoni- 
cal Hours.' 

Complutensian Polyglot 

Bible {The), 1502-1517. Printed under 
the patronage and at the expense of 
Cardinal Ximenes at Compliitum {i.e. 
Alcala de Henares in New Castile, about 
nineteen miles from Madrid, in Spain). 

Comprehension {A), 1670. A 
decree by Leighton to pacify the Scotch 
clergy irritated by the Act against Field 
Conventicles {q.v.). It required that they 
should attend presbyteries as they were 
established before the year 1638. The 
bishops were required to waive their 
claim of a negative voice, and all who 
pleased were to be at liberty to protest 
against it. {See Lingard, ix. 4.) 

Compromise {The), 1567. The 
league between the Protestants and 
Catholics of the Netherlands, headed by 
the Prince of Orange, the Count Egmont, 
and the Count Horn, to put down the 
Inquisition, introduced into their country 
by Philip II. of Spain. The Duchess of 
Parma, who governed the country, gave 
way to the storm, and abolished the In- 
quisition ; by which wise concession she 
broke up the league. 

Compur'gators. Twelve persons 
who swore that they believed an accused 

O 



194 



COMTE 



CONCOEDAT 



person who pleaded ' not guilty ' to be 
innocent of the crime charged against 
him. The finding was called ' compur- 
gation.' This basis of our common jury- 
system existed in the Saxon times, and 
is generally placed to the credit of Alfred 
the Great. 

Conite's Three States. The theo- 
logical state, the metaphysical state, and 
physical state. ' Chacun de nous, en 
contemplant sa propre histoire, ne se 
souvient-il pasqu'ilaete successivement, 
quant a ses notions les plus importantes, 
theologien dans son enfance, metaphysi- 
cien dans sa jeunesse, et physicien dans 
sa virilite ? ' In the infancy of thought the 
mind attributes changes in phenomena to 
the overruling will of some divinity which 
shapes them. In the next stage the mind 
attributes changes of phenomena to some 
hypcthetical abstract principle. In the 
third, or mature stage, the mind clings to 
facts, and attributes jjhenomena to those 
agencies which experience or experiment 
teaches us to have been in operation. 

Comuneros, 1520-1521. A Span- 
ish party opposed to the appointment 
of Karl V. of Germany to the Spanish 
crown. Padilla, a young nobleman of 
Toledo, was at the head of the insurgents. 
They were defeated by the royalists at 
Villalar in 1521, and Padilla was executed. 
This civil war is called the * Guerra de las 
Comuniades.' 

Conacre System {The). The sys- 
tem of subletting small patches of land, 
consisting of from 1 to 5 acres, for a single 
potato crop. Thus, in Ireland, a landlord 
of, say, 100,000 acres, would farm it to a 
middleman, and live in England or 
abroad. The middleman will divide this 
large tenement into several smaller ones, 
which he will let out to tenants, say from 
100 to 500 acres each. These tenants will 
sublet a part (say in parcels of from 10 
to 50 acres) to other tenants ; and, lastly, 
these farmers will ' conacre ' small patches 
to some peasant to grow on it a crop of 
potatoes for the current year. So that 
sometimes six or eight persons under the 
landlord make a profit of the land, and 
the last occupant pays at the rate of 8Z. 
or 101. per acre for his little patch of 
land. 

Conception of the Virgin 
Mary (T/ie), or 'Festum Beatfe Mariae 
de Adventu,' 8 Dec. Instituted 1356. 



There is an order of nuns, which was founded in 
1484, entitled ' The Conception of Our Lady.' Their 
dress is a white gown, a blue mantle, and a scapu- 
lary. 

Conceptualisni. Abelard's ter- 
tiuni quid [q.v.]. 

Concord of Madrid {The), 1526. 
Extorted by Karl V. from Francois I., his 
captive. Fran(;ois consented to give u]3 
all claims to Flanders and Artois, the 
possession of Naples, Milan, Genoa, and 
all other Italian territories, to deliver the 
dauphin and Due d'Orleans into the 
hands of Karl as hostages, and bound 
himself to return into captivity if these 
conditions were not fulfilled within four 
years. Francois also promised to marry 
Queen Eleonora (sister of Karl V.), to re- 
store Bourbon and the rest of the rebels 
to their estates and honours, to pay 
Henry VIII. all the money which Karl 
owed him, to lend Karl his whole navy, 
with 500 men-at-arms and 6,000 foot 
soldiers, to put down the princes of Italy, 
and to use his influence with the' King of 
Navarre and Duke of Gueklres to get 
Karl appointed heir to their dominions. 
The pope absolved Francois from his 
obligation to observe this scandalous 
exaction. 

Concordat of 1801 (TAe). Between 
Pius VII. and NajDoleon Bonaparte, then 
first consul. It put an end to the anarchy 
introduced by the revolution in the 
Galilean Church, and re-established the 
French hierarchy. The appointment of 
bishops was left in the hands of the tem- 
poral power, but their institution was 
reserved to the pope. 

A new division of the dioceses of France was 
made. The appointment of cures or vicars was 
left to the bishops. Napoleon said to Cabanis : 
' Do you know what this Concordat really is ? It 
is the vaccination of religion. In fifty years there 
will be no more religion in France than small-pox.' 

Concordat of 1855 (T/je). Between 
Pius IX. and the Emperor Francis Joseph 
of Austria. This concordat was abrogated 
in 1870. 

Concordat of Francois I., a.d. 

1515. A repeal of the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion, which the pope had condemned, and 
the substitution of a compromise. By the 
Pragmatic Sanction the independence of 
the Galilean Church was secured, and its 
freedom from all papal encroachments; 
by the Concordat the pope and king made 
a partition of the spoil. The king ap- 
pointed to vacant bishoprics within six 



CONCORDAT 



CONFEDERATES 



195 



months ; if the nominee was objected to 
by the poj)e, three months more were 
allowed, and if then the appointment 
was objected to, the pope made the ap- 
pointment. By this foolish arrangement 
annates or first fruits were again rendered 
to the pope. Of course the French par- 
liament and council greatly objected, but 
the king carried his point. 

Concordat of Vienna (T7ie), 1448. 
Drawn up by Kaiser Friederich III., and 
approved of by Czar Nicholas V., esta- 
blishing the canonical election, abolishing 
the Acts called ' Provisiones ' for curbing 
the arbitrary power of the crown, abolish- 
ing pontifical expectatives, determining 
in what cases the pope could dispose of 
German benefices, and substituting a tax 
spread over two years for annates. 

Concordat ofWorms (The), 1122. 
Between Pope Calixtus II. and Hein- 
rich V. of Germany. This instrument 
put an end to the long contention about 
investitures. The pope recognised the 
right of the monarch to give temporal 
investitures, and reserved to himself the 
right of spiritual investitures. 

A concordat is a contract between the pope and 
a temporal potentate to fix their respective 'rights 
in matters pertaining to the Church and State. 

Condignitism. A doctrine taught 
by Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), who 
contended that man in his natural state 
cannot so live as to merit or earn God's 
grace ; but that with Divine assistance he 
could do so, and render himself worthy 
(condignus) of salvation. This sort of 
merit is called the ' merit of condignity.' 

The 'merit of congruity' is the possibility of 
BO ordering our lives as to di'.tcrve grace, and with 
the desert, of course, follows the grace. Hee 
'Congruism.' 

Condottie'ri. Either free-lances, 
or bands of adventurers, who for hire 
entered the service of anyone who would 
pay them. Hawkwood's condottieri hired 
themselves into the Venetian service in 
the 14th cent., and were called the Eng- 
lish condottieri. A condottiere is not a 
captain or leader of a band, but a free- 
lance, or a company of free-lances under 
a leader. Thus Hawkwood collected a 
band of condottieri, and made the best 
bargain he could with those who were 
willing to pay for their services. At the 
same time Francesco Sforza was a con- 
dottiere; so also Angelo de la Pergola, 



Nicolo Piccinino, and Guide Torello were 
noted condottieri. 

Of course the word condottie're means a captain 
or leader, and condottieri those under a leader. 

Confarrea'tion. A species of mar- 
riage in ancient Rome ; so called because 
the chief ceremony was partaking of the 
panis farreus (bread made of spelt) in the 
presence of ten witnesses. This was 
the highest form of marriage ; and certain 
offices in the state, such for example as 
the Flamen Dialis, could be held only 
by those who were born of parents thus 
married. 

Our bridecake is a relic of the pants farreus. 

Confederacy of Delos {The),-B.c. 
477. A league to place Athens, instead 
of Spai'ta, at the head of Greece, chiefly 
brought about by the treason of Pausa- 
nias. Called the Confederacy of Delos, 
because the deputies of the allies were to 
meet annually in Delos in the temple of 
Apollo and Artemis. 

Confederate Catholics {The), 

1641. An Irish secret society formed in 
Ulster, where 50.000 Englishmen were 
assassinated. 'Husbands were cut to 
pieces in the presence of their wives ; 
children's brains were dashed out be- 
fore their parents ; women were brutally 
violated, and driven naked to perish in 
the woods. Some were burned ; others 
drowned for sport; many were buried 
alive. The contest was that of Catholic 
against Protestant ; and the rebels, believ- 
mg that Charles I. really befriended them, 
called themselves ' the king's army,' and 
claimed to be acting on the king's commis- 
sion. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Confederates {The), 1861-18^55. 
The Southern States of North America, in 
the American civil war, consisting of 
South Carolma, Georgia, Florida, Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana, and Texas. These 
states were utterly opposed to what 
was called the Garrison school, which 
considered American slavery a scandal. 
Sumner and Seward took up the question, 
and organised an anti-slavery party. The 
Southerners confederated, and resolved 
to separate from the Union, the federalists 
or unionists armed to preserve the Union. 
As the war went on the slavery question 
was thrust to the forefront. The South- 
erners were vanquished, slavery was abol- 
ished, and the Union was preserved. 
o2 



lOG 



CONFEDERATION 



CONFESSION 



Confederation {The Irish), 1846, 
Formed by the Young Ireland party 
when it separated from the old Repealers, 
led by Daniel O'Connell. The meetings 
were held in the Music Hall, Abbey Street, 
See * -Irish Associations.' 

Confederation of Bar [The), 1768. 
Formed by the Catholics of Poland against 
the dissidents [q.v.]. It was dissolved in 
1778. 

Bar is a town of Podolia. The confederation was 
Bupported by Russia. See ' National Confederacy 
ol Poland.' 

Confederation of the Rhine 

(The), 1806. The Gennan states confede- 
rated by Napoleon. As allies of France 
each state was bound to furnish a con- 
tingent to the French army. In 1808 
the number of Germans yielded 120,000 
men to Napoleon's call. Bavaria and 
Wiirtemburg allied themselves to France 
in 1805, and in reward of this unpatriotic 
conduct these electorates were raised into 
kingdoms. In 1806 fourteen other Ger- 
man princes signed an act of alliance, and 
in 1808 other princes did the same. After 
the disaster of Moscow in 1813 the con- 
federation broke up, and the German 
princes allied themselves against their 
common enemy. 

The fourteen were, the Elector (now called the 
Grand-Duke) of Eaden, the new Grand-Duke of 
Cleves (Napoleon's brother-in-law), the Laiidgraf 
(now called G rand-Duke ) of Hessen-Darmstadt, the 
Prince of Nassau-Usinges, the Prince of N:>ssau- 
Weilburg, the Prince of HohenzoUern-Hechingen, 
the Prince of Isenberg-Birstein, the Prince of 
Liechtenstein, the Duke of Aremberg. the Count of 
Lagen. Subsequently, the Duke of Wiirzburg, the 
King of Saxony, the King of Westphalia, the Duke 
of Mecklenburg, and some other small princes. 

Conference [The), 1661. Held at 
the Savoy, in the residence of the Bishop 
of London (Dr. Sheldon). Four months 
were awarded to it (2.5 March-25 July). 
Between twenty-one Episcopalians and 
twenty-one Presbyterians. After long 
dispute, the nonconformists reduced their 
gi-ievances to these eight : The sinfulness 

1. Of wearing a surplice. 

2. Of the cross in baptism. 

8. Of calling the baptized regenerate, 

4. Of kneeling at the Lord's Supper. 

5. Of administering the Lord's Supper to the sick 
and impenitent. 

6. Priestly absolution. 

7. Returning thanks promiscuously in the Burial 
Service. 

8. Subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles- 

Conference of London {The), 
1826. A diplomatic congress held in 
London to determiae on the fate of 
Greece. 



Confession of Augsburg {The), 
1530. A summary of faith drawn up by 
Melanchthon, and presented to the Em- 
peror Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg. 
This confession is based on ' The Articles 
of Torgau' (g.u.), and contains twenty-one 
articles on doctrine, and seven on prac- 
tical matters. They very much resemble 
the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of 
England. 

Torgau, pronounce Tor-gotD. 
The last 7 are these :— 22 : of both kinds, see Art. 
XXX. ; 23 : of the marriage of priests, see Art. xxxii. ; 
24 : of the sacrifice of the mass, see Art. xxxi. ; 25 : of 
oral confession ; 26 : of distinction of meats ; 27 : of 
conventual vows ; and 28 : of the authority of 
bishops. Compare also the 21 Articles of the Con- 
fession with the Articles of the Church of Eng- 
land, viz. : 1 : of God with Art. i. ; 2 : of original sin 
with Art. ix. ; 3 : of the Son of God with Art. ii. ; 4 ; 
of justification with Art. xi. ; 5 : of prpaching with 
Art. xxiv. ; 6 : of obedience ; 7, 8 : of the Church with 
Art. xix. XX. ; 9 : of baptism with Art. xvii. ; 10 : of 
the Lord's Supper with Art. xxviii. xxix. xxx. ; 11 : 
of confession ; 12 : of penance ; 13 : of the use of the 
sacraments with Art. xxvi. ; 14 : of church govern- 
ment with Art. XX. ; 15 : of church order ; 16 : of 
secular government with Art xxxvii. ; 17 : of 
Christ's second coming ; 18 : of free will with Art. 
X. ; 19 : of the cause of sin with Art. ix. ; 20 : of faith 
and good works with Art. xii. xiii. ; and 21 : of the 
worship of saints. 

Confession of Bale {The), 1534. 
The first Helvetic confession of faith, 
drawn up by Zwingli in 1530, was so 
called because it was ratified at Bale. 

Confession of Brandenburg 

{The). The confession of faith drawn 
up in the city of Brandenburg by order 
of the elector, with a view of reconciling 
the tenets of Luther with those of Calvin, 
and to put an end to the disputes occa- 
sioned hj the Confession of Augsburg. 

Confession of Bullinger {The). 
The Expositio Simi^lex of Heinricli 
Bullinger, the successor of Zwingli, at 
Cologne, 1566. 

Confession of Emden {The)y 
1562. By the Belgian reformers. 

Confession of Wiirtemburg 
{The), 1551. A Lutheran confession of 
faith. 

Confession of Zwingli. In 1523 
the government of Ziirich invited the 
Protestants and Catholics to a con- 
ference, in the hope of adjusting their 
religious difficulties. Zwingli drew up 
his arguments under sixty-seven heads, 
and the council gave their vote in 
his favour. These sixty-seven articles 
he afterwards submitted to Francois I. 
of France, and called them his Coti- 
fession. They are worthy to be com- 



CONFESSION 



CONGREGATION 



107 



pared with the twenty-eight articles of 
the Confession of Augsburg, drawn up 
by Melanchthon, or the Thirty-nine 
Articles of the Church of England. 

Confession of the Druses {TJie), 
11th cent. (1) The Unity of God. He 
manifested himself to man seven times, 
the last being in the person of Hakim ; 
(2) there are five superior ministers who 
have all manifested themselves to man — ■ 
the chief of them were Hamza and 
Christ ; (3) the transmigration of souls ; 
(4) Hiikim shall by-and-bye reign on 
earth, and all its kingdoms shall be sub- 
ject to him ; (5) the seven points are 
truth, mutual aid, renunciation of all 
other religions, belief in one Hakim (as 
God), contentment, submission, and se- 
paration from heretics. 

Confessions of the Reformed 
Churches, (l) The Helvetic Con- 
fessions, as that of Basel in 1530, and 
that of Bullinger, called Expositio Sim- 
plex, in 15GG ; (2) the Tetrapolitan Con- 
fession in 1531 ; (3) the Gallic Confession 
in 1559 ; (4) the Palatine, or Heidelberg, 
Confession in 1575; and (5) the Belgic 
Confession in 1559. See each of these in 
loco. 
See also ' Westminster Confession of Faith.' 

Confessor of the Household. 

One of the twelve royal chaplains, whose 
office it is to read prayers every morning 
to the family, to visit the sick, to prepare 
conmiunicants, and give advice on points 
of religion to those who desire information. 
Confirmatio Charta'rum, 25 
Edw. I. A.D. 1257. By which Magna 
Charta was directed to be allowed at the 
common law, all judgments contrary 
thereto were declared void, copies of the 
charter were directed to be read in all 
cathedral churches tvv^ice a year, and 
sentences of excommunication were de- 
nounced against all those who infringed 
the charter. 

Conflans(rrea//yo/), 1465. A treaty 
of peace after the battle of Montlhe'ry 
[q.v.). 

Confreres de la Congregation de 
Notre-Dame de Mise'ricorde, 1223. A 
religious order instituted in Barcelona 
by Pierre de Nolasque, a Frenchman, for 
the redemption of slaves. Till 1308 it 
was chiefly supported by the laity. The 
members went barefoot. 



Confucianism. Called 'Yu,' the 

orthodox, or state, religious system of 
China, devised by Confucius. 

The other two systems are rrrrn'swKRationalism), 
and Fo or Buddhism. Confucius is h'uiij-fu-tsa, 
Kung thej)hilosoplier. His three cliiof books are 
(1) The Luni/ii or sayings; (2) the Ta-hio or Great 
Lesson; and (S) the Chu,ag-yutig,oi doctrine of tlio 
mean. 

Congd d'^lire {A\ 25 Hen. VIII. 

c. 20, A.D. 1534. A licence sent to the 
chapter to elect one of the persons 
named by the crown to a vacant bishop- 
ric. If the chapter refuses to elect 
within twenty days, it incurs the penalty 
of prasmunire. 

Pronounce conjay day-leer', 

Congesta Mendve'dii. A collec- 
tion towards the history of Denmark by 
Eric VI. or VIII. (Mendvedius), 1274, 

1288-1319. 

Congested Districts of Ireland. 

Those parts of Donegal and Kerry which 
are mere mountain or bog lands. The 
population is so thick that, even if cabins 
and holdings were free, the people could 
not earn a living. 

Dillon says he ' would include Leitrim, Galway, 
Roscommon, and western hall of Cork also ' (April 
I'^itO). A line drawn down the map fifteen miles 
from the sea would about enclose this area. 

Congregation {The), 1559. A 
name assumed by the Protestants of 
Scotland in the regency of Marie de 
Guise. The leaders, called the 'Lords 
of the Congregation ' {q-v.), pledged 
themselves to see the ' Solemn League 
and Covenant ' {q.v.) carried out. 

The Duke of Chatelherault abandoned the con- 
gregation [reform party]. In this predicament 
the Lords of the Congregation made still more 
impassioned appeals to Cecil.— HowiTT, Hist, of 
Eng., vol. ii. p. 405. 

Congregation de Propaganda 
Fide {The). A Board of high church 
dignitaries in the Catholic Church which 
consult on the propagation of the Catholic 
religion throughout the world. 

Congregation of France. Sea 

* Genovefains.' 

Congregation of Relics {The). 
A board of high Catholic dignitaries 
whose duty it is to enquire into the 
genuineness of supposed relics. 

Congregation of St. 'Ma,VLr{The)f 

1G21. Reformed Benedictines. 

Congregation of the Holy 
OiliCe [The). The congregation at Roma 



198 



CONGREGATION 



CONGRESS 



to which the direction of the tribunal of 
the Inquisition is subject. It was estab- 
lished in 1542 by Paul III., and consists 
of twelve cardinals, a commissary, several 
'theologians,' 'consulters,' and 'quali- 
fiers ' whose duty it is to report on each 
case for the information of the cardinals. 
See ' Holy Office.' 

Congregation of the Index 

{The). A committee appointed by Pope 
Pius V. to read books and state which 
should be prohibited to Catholic readers. 
Those prohibited were published from 
time to time in what was called the 
' Index.' "We find the following pro- 
hibited: Milton's 'Paradise Lost,' Gold- 
smith's 'History of England,' Bacon's 
' De Augmehtis Scientiarum,' Locke ' On 
the Human Understanding,' Cudworth's 
'Intellectual System/ Whately's 'Logic,' 
' Little Henry and his Bearer ' (a child's 
tale), Gibbon, Robertson, Sismondi, 
Hallam, J. S. Mill, Addison, Kant, parts 
of Descartes, Malebranche, Fleury, Fene- 
lon, Dante ; all Calvin's Luther's and 
Voltaire's works ; all works of heresiarchs 
on any subject whatsoever, and every book 
which threw doubt on Catholicism. 

Congregation of the Lord (r/ze), 

Scotland, 1557. Consisted of a band of 
Protestants who met r.t Edinburgh. 
They were led by the Earls Argyll, 
Morton, and Glencairn. They covenanted 
to stand together in mutual defence of 
faithful ministers,, gospel truths, and the 
holy sacraments. The Established Church 
was styled ' The Congregation of Satan.' 

The Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI. was 
ordered to be used iu the paribh churches of Scot- 
land. 

Congregation of the Oratory 

{The), 1558. Founded by Philip de Neri. 
Confirmed by the pope in 1575. Estab- 
lished in France in 1611 by Father de 
Berule. Introduced by Newman into 
England in 1847. 

Congregation of the Univer- 
sity of Oxford {The), 1854. Consists 
of the heads of colleges, professors, ex- 
aminers, and university officials, with all 
members of the Convocation who have 
resided 140 nights within a mile and a 
half of the university. Duties are, to 
deliberate and vote on statutes proposed 
by the Hebdomadal Board {q.v.), and to 
submit their deliberations to the House 



of Convocation {q.v) to be accepted or 
rejected as the case may be. 

Congregation of the Visita- 
tion {The), IGIO. Under the rule of 
St. Augustine, founded by the Baronesa 
of Chantal at Annecy. Confirmed by 
Urban VIII. in 1020. 

Congregations of Aids {i.e. ' de 
Auxiliis '). Began 2 Jan., 1598. Polemical 
consultations or conferences between the 
Dominicans and the Jesuits. The fourth 
was held in 1601, opened in Jan. and closed 
in July. The last began 14 Sept., 1605, 
and went on to 1 March, 1606. Paul V., 
in Aug. 1607, prohibited its renewal. 

Congregationalists or • Inde- 
pendents,' 1580. Those dissenters who 
maintain the right of each separate con- 
gregation to choose its own minister and 
lay down laws for its own government. 
They are all trinitarians and pajdo- 
baptists, and thus differ from the Uni- 
tarians and the Baptists. 

Called Independents because each congregation 
is independent, and admits neither bishops, elders, 
nor any other board, not of their own choosing, to 
interfere with their choice of ministers or church 
government. Mr. Bobinson or Mr. Jacob founded 
the sect. 

Congregationists, 1557-1638. The 
Scotch reformers. The whole body was 
called the Congregation ; but from 1638, 
when they bound themselves by oath 
to adhere to the Solemn League and Cove- 
nant {q.v.) the reformers were called 
Covenanters. Not unfrequently the Con- 
gregationists are called Covenanters 
also, but this is not strictly correct. 

In the spring of 1562 Elizabeth became engaged 
to the supiiort of the Huguenots . . . against their 
government as slie had suuported the Covenanters 
of Scotland.— HowiTT, History oj' England, vol. ii. 
p. 418. 

Congress. The American Senate 
and House of Representatives. The Se- 
nate is elected for six years, the President 
for four years, and the Representatives 
for two years. 

Congress of Carlsbad (r7ie),1819. 

For regulating the affairs of Germany. 

Congress of Laybach {The), 1820. 
For deliberating on the condition of Spain, 
Portugal, and Naples. 

Congress of "Vienna (r/ie),2 Oct., 
1814, to 23 March, 1815, at the close of the 
great war. By this congress the Cape 
of Good Hoi^e, the Mauritius, Malta, and 
Corfu were assigned to England ; Finn 



CONGRESS 



CONSEIL 



199 



Ian ct and Poland to Russia; Lombardy 
and the Venetian States to Austria ; 
Saxony, Franconia, and Swedish Ponie- 
rania to Pr^ssm; Tuscany to the Arch- 
duke Ferdinand ; Genoa to the King of 
Sardinia ; Parma and Placentia to Marie 
Louise, the wife of Napoleon ; Norway 
to Sweden ; and the Two Sicilies to Fer- 
dinand VI. of the Bourbon dynasty. 

Congress of the United Colo- 
nies {The), 10 May, 1775. The style 
assianied by the second congress of Phila- 
delphia, in revolt from Great Britain. 
They issued a prohibition of the export 
of provisions to any British colony or 
fishery, or of any supply to the British 
soldiers in Massachusetts, or of the nego- 
tiation of any bill drawn by a British 
officer. See ' Thirteen United Colonies.' 

Congress's O'wn, 177G. Hazen's 
Canadian regiment, kept up by recruiting 
in the States. It was on ihe side of the 
Americans in the War of Independence. 

Congruism. A doctrine taught by 
Duns Scotus (12G5-1303), who maintained 
that man in his natural state can so regu- 
late his life as to deserve God's grace, 
and this natural fitness or congruity for 
grace obliges the Deity to grant it. See 
* Condignitism,' 

Molinism (q.v.) is a modification of this. 

Conjuration de I'Epingle Rose 

{Tia), 1816. A French secret society 
which ' prit pour signe de ralliement une 
epingle rose.' See ' Society of the Black 
Pin.' 
Pronounce : Con-ju-rah'-se-on'g dla-imhn-gl, &o. 

Connecticut (U.S. America). So 
called from its river of the same name, 
which enters the state about twenty miles 
north of Hartford. The nickname is ' the 
Wooden Nutmeg State,' or ' Nutmeg 
State,' from a trick played by one of its 
'cute ones, who sold imitation nutmegs 
made of wood as real nutmegs, and real- 
ised by his dishonesty a pot of money. 

Conn^table [Lord High Constable 
of France]. First appointed by Henri I., 
from which reign to that of Louis XIII. 
he was the highest dignitary of the 
crown. In times of war he was com- 
mander-in-chief of the army, with abso- 
lute power; even the king himself at 
Buch times was Avholly under his com- 
mands. In peace he was war minister, 



and took precedence of all other ministers 
of the crown. The office was abolished 
in 1C27, but was nominally restored by 
Napoleon I. in favour of his brother 
Louis. The most noted of the Conne- 
tables were : — 

Chatillon (1250-1329) under Phihppe 
le Bel and Louis X. 

Du GuESCLiN (1314-1380) under 
Charles V. 

Clisson the Butcher (1320-1407) under 
Charles VI. 

BouEBON (1489-1527) under Francois I. 

MoNTMOBENCY (1493-15G7) under 
Henri II., Francois II., and Charles IX. 

Lesdiguieres (1543-1626) under Henri 
IV. and Louis XIII. 

Conqueror {The), 1027, 10G6-1087. 
In English history means William I., 
duke of Normandy, who conquered 
Harold II. in the battle of Senlac, and 
obtained the English crown thereby. 

Conqueror of the Danes. Brian 
Boru, monarch of Ireland. It was in the 
battle of Clontarf, 1014, that the Danes 
in Ireland were so utterly defeated that 
they never more made head in that 
island ; but such as remained mixed with 
the natives and became one people with 
them. Brian was assassinated on the 
day of conquest, aged 88. 

Brian has been made a parallel to our Alfred 
the Great, but in moral greatness never king 
equalled our Alfred. 

Conrad. See Konrad. 

Con's Half, and Mogh's Half. 

Con of the hundred battles was king of 
Meath, and Mogh Nuad was king of the 
province of Leinster. Mogh overcame 
Con in ten fights, and claimed half of 
Con's kingdom. 

Conscript Fathers. ' Patres Con- 
scripti.' After the expulsion of Tarquin 
a new element was introduced into the 
Roman Senate. The new senators were 
called conscripti, while the original 300 
patricians were still called patres. So 
that the senate then consisted of patres 
et conscripti, and was addressed by 
speakers as patres, conscripti, or con- 
scripts, fathers, perverted into the com- 
pound word Conscript Fathers. 

Conseil des Anciens {Le), 23 
Sept., 1795-10 Nov., 1799. In French 
history. Consisted of 250 members, whose 
function was to elect the directors, and 



200 



CONSEIL 



CONSIGLIO 



to ratify or reject the resolutions of tlie 
'Conseilsdes Cinq-cents '(g-.w.). One-third 
of the council retired annually. Both 
these councils were created by the con- 
stitution of Year III. {q.v.). Each mem- 
ber must be at least forty years of age, 
married or a widower, and have been 
a householder for fifteen years. They 
sat in the Tuileries. 

Conseil des Cinq-eents (Le), 
23 Sept., 1795—10 Nov., 1799. One of 
the two councils created by the constitu- 
tion of Year III. [q.v.]. It consisted 
of 500 members, elected for three years. 
Each member must be at least thirty 
years of age, and have been a house- 
holder for ten years. This assembly 
proposed the laws, which were then sub- 
mitted to the ' Conseil des Anciens ' 
iq.v.). They held their sessions in the 
Salle de Manege (rue Kivoli). 

Conseil d'Etat (Le), of Year 
VIII. (1799). Modified in 1814, 1815; 
reorganised by the law of the 19th July, 
1845; greatly modified by the constitu- 
tion of 1848 and by the law organic of 
1849 ; but in 1852 it was restored to its 
original state. It is an assembly of 
magistrates to prepare the laws and give 
advice on all questions of national im- 
portance. It consists of councillors, 
masters of requests, and auditors; and 
is divided into six sections, viz. the 
legislative section, the section of foreign 
affairs, the section du contentieux, de 
I'interieur, de I'instruction publique, and 
the section des cultes. 

Conseils des Prud'horaines 

(Les). Municipal tribunals to arbitrate in 
disputes between masters and workmen. 
The council is composed of merchants, 
master-workmen, common workmen, and 
manufacturers, all elective except the 
president, who is named by the govern- 
ment. In all disputes not exceeding 
200 francs (81.) their judgment is final. 
There was such a Council at Marseilles 
m 1452, called the Prudliommes FS- 
cheurs, Louis XI. in 1464 established 
such a council at Lyons. In 1806 was 
established a modern council at Lyons, 
and similar ones have since been insti- 
tuted all over France. In 1844 a council 
of Prud'hommes was organised for the 
metal trade, and in 1847 for manu- 
facturers of all sorts of tissues, chemists, 



and all other trades. In 1853 these 
councils were recognised by law. 

Prud'hommes, according to Boiiillet, is from the 
Latin prudcns homo, but Scheler disputes this. 

Conservative and Radical. 

These terms were substituted in 1832 for 
Tories and Whigs ; it was soon after the 
passing of the Reform Bill. The parti- 
sans of Sir Robert Peel adopted the 
appellation, and gave out that their plat- 
form was to conserve or maintain the 
constitution against the inroads of de- 
mocracy, which were ' destructive.' Radi- 
cals are those who would eradicate, or 
pull up by the roots, the monarchy, and 
establish instead a democracy, or republic. 
The term ' Radical ' is older than that of 
Conservative, being applied in 1818 to 
the party headed by Henry Hunt and 
Major Cartwright, who advocated a racZi- 
cal reform ; but since 1832 its meaning 
has been changed. The Tories were 
averse to change, the Conservatives were 
willing to amend, the "Whigs would pre- 
serve the monarchy, the Radicals would 
convert it into a democracy. 

Lord Eldon always manfully adhered to the old 
■word Tory ; the word respected, time honoured 
of his party, under which for near two centuries 
they had so gallantly defended the altar and the 
throne— talking rather contemptuously of the 
upstart appellation of ' Conservatives,' among 
whom, he foretold, would be introduced some 
very lax notions of religion and politics.— Lord 
Campbell, Lives of the Chancellovs, xvii. p. 580. 

Conservatoire, or * Conservatorio.* 
An Italian school for the study of music, 
its advancement, and purity. In Naples 
there was at one time three such schools, 
and in Venice four. In 1818 the Nea- 
politan conservatoires were reduced to 
one, called the Real Collegio di Musica, 
and the Venetian schools were similarly 
reduced. In 1808 a grand Conservatorio 
was founded at Milan. In 1842 a school 
for music was established by Mendelssohn 
at Leipsic; and one was founded at 
Cologne in 1849. 

In 1784 was established a similar school called 
L'Ecole Royale de Chattt, d-c.; and in 1793 was 
founded the InstiUit National de Musique, which 
in 1795 was changed into the Conservatoire de 
Musiqtie. 

Consiglio Maggiore {The). The 
lower house of legislature in the re- 
public of Florence, which in the time of 
Savonarola consisted of 3,200 members, 
divided into three sections, each of which 
held office for six months. This council 
did not originate laws, but had the 
power of veto, and voted without dis- 



CONSISTOIRES 



CONSPIEACY 



201 



cussion. All laws were proposed by the 
Signoria, were discussed by the upper 
chamber, called the Ottanta, and were 
then sent to the great council to be 
accepted or rejected. 

Consistoires Isra'61ites [Les), 

15 March, 1808 (France). Reorganised 
5 May, 1844 ; distinguished into the 
Consistoires Departiyientaux and the 
Consistoire Central, which sits in Paris. 

Consistorial (.4). In the Protest- 
ant communion of France means an 
assembly for the regulation of all things 
bearing on the discipline and temporali- 
ties of the Protestant churches. It ap- 
points pastors and supplies vacancies. 
In the Calvinist communion a synod 
consists of five consistorial churches. 
In the Lutheran communion five con- 
sistorial churches constitute an In'-jJec 
Hon. In Strasburg there is a General 
Consistory, which has authority over all 
other consistories and inspections. In 
Paris, since 1852, has been instituted a 
' Conseil Central ' of the two churches. 

Consistorial Phrases. Certain 

Bible phrases learnt by Catharine de 
Medicis with which to beguile the Con- 
sistorials who had joined the Huguenots. 
These were common in her mouth : To 
ajyjJ't'ove of the counsel of Gamaliel; 
Beautiful are the feet of those icho 
preach the Gosjjel of Peace ; the king 
she called the Lord's anointed, or tJie 
image of the living God; I call the 
Eternal to witness; Before God and 
His angels. 

Consistorialists, 1574. French 
malcontents of the tradesmen and mer- 
chant class, as opposed to the nobles, 
magistrates, and councillors of towns. 
Many of the clergy were Consistorialists. 
These malcontents were very unwilling 
to take up arms, but once in the battle- 
field they insisted on sufficient guaran- 
tees for the liberty of the reformed 
church. The nobles, on the contrary, 
were ever ready for a compromise if they 
benefited thereby. The malcontents were 
Catholics, but many joined the Hugue- 
nots so long as they found it to their 
advantage to do so. 

Consistory [A). In Roman history. 
A secret council of the Roman emperors 
{Cuiisistorium), 



Consistory (The). In Church his- 
tory, the college of cardinals or council 
of the Pope. There is a public and a 
secret consistory. The public consistory 
meets in the great room of the palace of 
St. Peter, and the pope in his pontifical 
robes, seated on a throne, and attended 
by his court, presides. In this court 
judicial causes, the canonisation of saints, 
&c., are determined. The secret con- 
sistory is held in the chamber called the 
' Chamber of Papogay ' (q.v.), and only 
cardinals are admitted. In this court 
the election of cardinals and bishops is 
determined. 

Consistory Court. The prseto- 
rium of a diocesan bishop, held in his 
cathedral, for the trial of ecclesiastical 
matters arising within his jurisdiction. 
The judge is the bishop's chancellor, or 
his commissary, and the appeal is to the 
archbishop of the province. 

In Scotland a large portion of the Consistory 
Court of Edinburgh was transferred to the courts 
of the sheriffs by 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 69. 

Consolati. The Consoled, a name 
by which the Waldenses {q.v.) are some- 
times called, on account of the consolation 
and peace of mind which they derived 
from their views of gospel Christianity. 

Consolidated Fund (The), 1787 
(27 Geo. III. c. 13). The union of the Ag- 
gregate, General, and South Sea Funds. 
In 1816, that of Ireland was combined 
with it. This fund is pledged for the 
pajonent of the whole interest of the na- 
tional debt of Great Britain and Ireland. 

Consolidation Acts. Acts of 
Parliament which combine dilferent pro- 
visions of separate clauses into one act. 
Thus we have — 

The Companies' Clauses Consolida- 
tion Act of 1845 (8, 9 Vict. c. 16). 

The Lands' Clauses Consolidation 
Act of 1845 (8, 9 Vict. c. 18). 

The Railways' Clauses Consolidation 
Act of 1845 (8, 9 Vict. c. 20). 

This is done to save the repetition, in 
each special act, of the clauses intro- 
duced. 

Consols. The different government 
stocks consolidated into one fund. The 
Consolidated Annuity Act was passed in 
1757. 

Conspiracy of Pazzi {The). The 
Pazzi was the rival power of the Medici 
in Florence. Lorenzo de' Medici used 



202 



CONSPIEACY 



CONSTITUTION 



all his efforts to keep his rivals out of 
power, and Sixtus IV,, the pope, who 
hated the Medici, leagued with Francesco 
Pazzi and Salviati (archbishop of Pisa) 
to murder Lorenzo and his brother, and 
place the Pazzi in the chief offices of 
Florence. The plan was to murder the 
two brothers while bent in adoration at 
high mass. The elevation of the host by 
the Archbishop of Pisa was to be the 
secret sign of the attack. Bandini was 
to murder the younger brother, and two 
ecclesiastics were to despatch Lorenzo. 
The younger brother, Giuliano, was mur- 
dered, but Lorenzo escaped, and the con- 
spirators were all put to death. 

Conspiracy of 1618. Well known 
to English readers by the tragedy of 
* Venice Preserved ' by Otway (1682). The 
Abbe St. Real says that the Duke d'Os- 
suna, the Marquis de Bedmar, and Don 
Pedro di Toledo, governor of Milan, con- 
certed a plan for the destruction of Venice, 
and entrusted to Pierre and Renault the 
chief execution. On the eve of its 
maturity, Antoine Jaffier, a French cap- 
tain, one of the conspirators, peached, 
and the conspiracy was dissolved. Pierre 
and forty-five of his accomplices were 
drowned, and Jaffier, being found to hold 
communications with the conspirators 
whom he had denounced, was drowned 
also. 

Belvidera is a wholly imaginary character. 
Pierre was not stabbed by JatUer, and Jaffier did 
not kill himself. Breaking on the wheel was a 
punishment wholly unknown in the Kepublic of 
Venice. Probably the whole conspiracy was 
altogether a mare's-nest. 

Constance {Treaty of), 1183. A 
model of future treaties between the 
German empire and the North Italian 
states. By this treaty, signed by Frede- 
rick Barbarossa, after his defeat at Leg- 
nano in 1176, the Italian cities were 
confirmed in their independence; they 
had the right of declaring war, of coining 
money, &c. See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' 
voh i. p. 355. 

Constantine of Gaul [The). Clo- 
vis was sometimes so called, as Gibbon 
informs us (465, 481-511). Constantine 
was the father of the Christian Church in 
the East, and Clovis was the father of the 
' Orthodox ' Church in Gaul. 

Constantine Cross {A). 

The inhabitants of Dakota were treated to a sub- 
Uii.o . . . display on the morning of 9 January, 



18R0, at nearly the time of sunrise. Three gorgeous 
prismatic columns . . . shot up from the verge of 
the prairie into the heavens in intense brilliancy, 
equalling the light of the sun itself. . . . These 
prismatic columns extended one-third of the way to 
the zenith, and at the upper end gradually blended 
with the sky. What made the phenomenon re- 
markably striking was that the centre column 
assumed the form of a cross, from a small cloud 
which hung directly athwart the centre, and was 
illuminated by the light of the sun, still below the 
horizon, and forming the transept of the figure of 
the cross,.— The Leeds Merciirv (quoted in ' Notes 
and Queries,' 22 Jan., 1889, p. im). 

Constantinople [Convention of), 
1784. Between Catherine II. of Russia 
and the Porte, confirming to Russia the 
sovereignty of the Crimea. 

Constituent Assembly [The), 
27 June, 1789. ' L'Assemblee Constitu- 
ante.' The name assumed by the Na- 
tional Assembly [q.v.) after it was joined 
by the Duke of Orleans and forty-seven 
other members of the aristocracy, with a 
large number of the clergy. So called 
because the work they set themselves to 
perform was to get France a constitution. 

In 1848 the Legislative Assembly of 
France was again called L'Assemblee 
Constituante, because it set itself to give 
France a.nother constitution, a democratic 
republican one, with a four-years president 
and universal suffrage. It met 4 May, 
finished its labours 4 Nov., on 12 Nov. 
proclaimed the republican constitution, 
and gave place to the Legislative Assem- 
bly. 

In the first of these were three parties, the 
right, the left, and the centre. The rigiit were tho 
ministerial party, the left the republican party, 
the centre the moderate party, or trimmers. 

Constitution [A). The cudgel car- 
ried by a Muscadin [q.v.). 

Constitution de la R^publique 

[La). I. 26 Feb., 1848-14 Jan., 1852. The 
Second Republic of France. This constitu- 
tion was even more democratic than that 
provided by the Acte Constitutionnel 
[q.v.). Every Frenchman in France, who 
had attained the age of 21, was an elector, 
and everyone who was 25 years old was 
eligible to be a deputy in the National 
Assembly, which consisted of 900 mem- 
bers. There was only one assembly, the 
members of which were elected by uni- 
versal suffrage, the age of 21 being the 
one and only restriction. The motto of 
this constitution was ' Liberty, Fraternity, 
and Equality.' 

II. 13 Feb., 1871. This was the fifteenth 
change since the reign of Louis XVI., 



CONSTITUTION 



CONSTITUTION 



203 



SO Sept., 1791. Represented by a presi- 
dent and National Assembly. 

The National Assembly Tiomlnally consists of 
700 members, but as any deputy can represent 
more than one constituency, the number docs not 



Constitution Fran^aise (La), 30 
Sept., 1791. Decreed by the National 
and Constituent Assembly, and accepted 
by Louis XVI. It was monarchical and 
representative. The previous form of 
government was thenceforward called 
the 'Ancien Regime.' In 17i)3 the 
Acte Constitution7iel {q.v.)intvodnced a 
purely democratic crovernment, called the 
* Constitution of '93 ' (q.v.). 

Constitution of »83 (The). The 
constitution given to France by the ' Acte 
Constitutionnel ' presented to the nation 
by the Convention 21 June, 1793, and based 
on the sovereignty of the people, and the 
indivisibility of the republic. On the 
death of Robespierre inl79ithe Thermi- 
dorians had the chief power, and set 
about abolishing the Constitution of '93, 
and on 24 June, 1795, they created an 
executive director, assisted by two 
councils. 

Constitution of the Prasident 

(The), 14 Jan., 1852. See ' Constitution of 
the Second Empire.' 

Louis Napoleon was elected president of the 
French Republic 10 Dec, 1848; he re-establishod 
universal suffrage 2 Dec, 18ol ; he v/asmade presi- 
dent for ten years, by plobiscito. 20. 21 Dec. Is.'il ; 
the Second Empire was established 7 Nov., 18J2; 
Louis Napoleon was elected emperor by plebiscite 
21, 22 Nov., 1862; and ha assumsd the title of 
Napoleon III. Dec. 2, 1852. 

Constitution of the Second 

Empire (T/ie). Much the same as that of 
the president, 14 Jan., 1852. It consisted 
of an emperor, a senate, and a legislative 
chamber. The senate consisted of 150 
members chosen by the emperor, and each 
member had a stipend equal to 1,200L a 
year. Tha deputies of the corps Ugislatif 
were elected for six years by uui verssil suf- 
frage, and received a salary equal to lOOZ. 
a month during the time of session. In 
case of a dissolution, a new coi'ps le'gis- 
latif was to be in sessions within six 
months. The number of deputies fluctu- 
ated with the population, each of the 
eighty-nine departments having one re- 
presentative for every 35,000 inhabitants. 
There was also a council of state com- 
posed of the emperor, all members of the 
imperial family, a president, vice-presi- 



dent, and about 150 councillors; acting 
as a high court of appeal. In 1870 the 
emperor resigned the right of proposing 
laws, and made himself a ' constitutional 
emperor.' 

Constitution of the Second 
Republic [The), 13 Feb., 1871. M. 
Tillers being the first president and 
minister of war, with a stipend of 2,000Z. 
a year. See ' Constitution de la Re'pub- 
lique,' II. (Thiers, pronounce Tear.) 

Constitution of Year III. {The), 
24 June, 1795—24 Dec, 1799. This 
form of government was adopted in 
France after that called ' The Constitu- 
tion of '93,' which after the reign of 
terror was impracticable. The legisla- 
tive power was vested in two houses, 
called the Council of Elders ai\d the 
Council of 500. The former contained 
250 members. The executive was en- 
trusted to five directors, called the 
Directory. All laws were to emanate 
from the 500, the elders rejected or 
ratified them, and the directors saw 
that they were carried out. 

Constitution of Year VIII., 

24 Dec, 1799—2 Aug., 1802. It vested the 
power of government, in France, in 3 
consuls, 60 senators, 100 tribunes called 
the tribunate, and 300 legislators called 
the corps liyislatif. 

The 1st and 2nd consuls were to hold ofiBce for 
10 years, the 3rd for only 5. The 1st consul was 
almost absolute. In 1802 the consular ollice was 
for life. In 1814 the conservative senate became 
tiie ■ Chamber of Deputies." In 1807 the tribunate 
was suppressed, and the corps legislatif was 
addressed by the Cornell d'Etat. 

In 1814 the corps legislatif was replaced by the 
Chamber of Deputies. During the 'Hundred 
D -.ys ' the Chamber of Deputies was called the 
' Gil xmber of Representatives ;' In 1S15 it was 
atfain called the 'Chamber of Deputies;' and in 
l8oi it resumed its name of the corps legislatif, 

Conctitution of Year X. {The), 

2 Aug., 1802—18 May, 1804. Bona- 
parte was made consul for life, and the 
entire executive power was vested in his 
hands. The act which established this 
constitution was the Senatus-consulte 
organique de la constitution {YearX). 

Constitution of Year XII. 

{The), 18 May, 1804—4 June, 1814. Con- 
ferring on Napoleon I. the title of em- 
peror. The act which created this con- 
stitution was the Senatus-consulte or- 
ganique de VEmvire Francais (Year 
XII). 



204 



CONSTITUTIONS 



CONTINENTAL 



Constitutions were the edicts of 
the Roman emperors. The first com- 
pilation of these edicts was by Theodosius 
the younger, from Constantine to a.d. 
438 ; but tlie great compilation was the 
Imperial Constitutions of Justinian, 
A.D. 529. 

See ' Apostolical Constitutions.' 

Constitutions {The). That is, the 
Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.). 

The pope advocated the side of the primate 
[i.e. Becket], and condemned 'the Constitutions.' 
— PiNNOCK, A7ialijsis of the Early Church, p. 82. 

Constitutions of Clarendon 

{The), 1164. Sixteen ordinances agreed 
to in the General Council assembled by 
Henry II. at his palace of Clarendon, "Wilt- 
shire. The objects of these ordinances 
were to define the limits between civil and 
ecclesiastical jurisdictions, to abolish the 
abuses arising from the encroachments of 
the popes, and to limit the papal patron- 
age and jurisdiction in the realm. 

These enactments provide that the clergy shall 
be amenable to the king's courts ; that no appeal 
shall in any case be carried from the king s 
courts to the pope ; that no dignitary of England 
shall quit the kingdom without the king's per- 
mission ; that no officer or tenant of the crown 
shall be excommunicated without the king's 
sanction ; that presentations to all royal livings 
shall be with the king; that the revenues of 
vacant livings still accrue to the crown ; that all 
bishops shall be made by the king's writ ; and 
before consecration every nominee shall pay 
homage and fealty to the crown. 

Constitutions of King Half 

{The). Regulations for pirates : (1) No 
one to wear a sword more than an ell 
long; (2) each pirate must be able to 
encounter twelve ordinary men ; (3) no 
boys or women to be made prisoners ; 
(4) no wounds to be bound till after the 
lapse of twenty hours. (Bartholinus, 
' De Causis Contemptse a Danis Mortis,' 
book ii. 9.) 

Constitutions of Otho {The), 
1287. Passed by a council held in Lon- 
don by Otho, the papal legate, forbidding 
the clergy to keep concubines * openly in 
their houses,' or to visit them ' openly, 
to the great scandal of religion.' The 
same constitutions forbade the clandes- 
tine marriages of priests, which were 
declared to be very common. 

Constitutional Agitation Act 

{The), 1792. A mere mask to mislead 
the loyalists of Ireland, by giving out 
that Irish agitation should be carried on 
by constitutional means. 



It is a, plan that has proved eminently success- 
ful in preventing the Government from grappling 
with the bcs'inning of sedition ... it is a game of 
masked sedition. — Irish Seditions, 1792-1880, p. 34. 

Constitutional Assembly of 
Rome {The), 30 March, 1848. A re- 
publican assembly of deputies established 
in Rome by the triumvirate Mazzini, 
Armellini, and Suffi. 

Constitutional Charter {The), 
4 June, 1814. Given by Louis XVIII. to 
France. It established a representative 
government, composed of two houses, one 
of hereditary peers (a house of lords) and 
the other of elective depu ies (a house of 
commons). The franchise he restricted 
to persons above 30 years of age who paid 
annually at least 12Z. of direct taxes. 

He thus disfranchised about three and a half 
millions of his subjects. 

Constitutional Society {The), 
1709. A society founded by Horne Tooke 
and Wilkes for supporting the Bill of 
Rights. In 1775 Lord North commented 
sharply on the conduct of this society, 
and Tooke was prosecuted for circulating 
letters of the society denouncing the skir- 
mish of Lexington (America) ' as a bloody 
murder on our own part of British sub- 
jects.' The society voted the sum of lOOZ. 
for the relief of the widows and children 
of those who fell at Lexington on the 
American side. 

Constitutionalists The), 1814, of 
Spain. The Exaltados or radicals were 
so called, because they wanted to restore 
the constitution given to Spain in 1812, 
but abolished by Ferdinand VII. in 
1814. 

In 1S20 Ferdinand swore adherence to the con- 
stitution, and for two years matters went on more 
smoothly ; but then civil war broke out afresh, 
Louis XVIII. interfered, and for many years Spain, 
from one cause or another, was in almost cease- 
less broils. 

Consubstantialists(rM- Those 
who maintained what was palled the 
homO'Ousion, i.e. that the Father, Son, 
and Holy Ghost are all of the same na- 
ture. Aristotle says the stars are con- 
substantial or homo-ousian. So men are 
consubstantial or homo-ousian. 

Consulate {The), of France, from 
10 Nov., 1790-18 May, 1804. See * Conr 
stitution of Year VIIL' 

Continental System {The). A 
pet system of Napoleon's to ruin England 
by ruining her trade. He prohibited any 



CONTINENTAL 



CONVENTION 



nation over which he had control or in- 
fluence to trade with Great Britain ; he 
enjoined that every subject of the British 
kingdom who set foot on the continent 
•should be accounted a prisoner of war, and 
all British merchandise be considered law- 
ful prize. The folly of boycotting England 
was this : as Great Britain was the best 
customer of these continental nations, 
they ruined their own commerce in seek- 
ing to ruin that of England. 

The first announcement of this system was made 
9 Feb., IHOI ; the ' Berlin decree ' was made 21 Nov., 
1807. Austria acceded to tlie system 24 Nov., 1807 ; 
Sweden 17 Sept. 1809 ; the Eoman States in Dec. 
Eussia relaxed 31 Dec, 1810. Strenuous efforts were 
made by France to enforce the system in 1812, but 
after the Moscow expedition in the autumn of that 
year the system was wholly abandoned. 

Continental Troops {The), 1775. 
A body of men maintained by the 
united colonies of North America, in 
the War of Independence, and placed 
under George Washington. The conti- 
nental troops must not be confounded 
with the provincial militia. 

Continual Council (The). Certain 
great prelates and lords, who combined 
together in the reign of Edward I. to 
control the king and overpower the par- 
liament. Edward II. tried to oust them 
by choosing his council from men of in- 
ferior rank, but the ' continual council ' 
then formed themselves into a standing 
committee of bishops, earls, and barons, 
for the government of the realm, and 
drew up certain 'articles of reform,' 
which transferred the power of the crown 
uito the hands of the ' Lords Ordainers,' 
as the committee called themselves. Ed- 
ward 11. resisted for a time, but was 
ultimately compelled to take some of the 
most powerful of the barons into his 
privy council. 

Contra-Remonstrants, or ' Anti- 
Eemonstrants,' 1611. The Calvinists, or 
Gomarists(g'.y.), who opi)osed the Remon- 
strants or Arminian party. This party 
became more violent after the Synod of 
Dort, 1619. 

It is said that the Socinian bias of Vorstius 
greatly weakened the Arminian party. 

Conventicle Acts [The). I. The 
First, 16 Car. II. c. 4 (1664). By this act, 
every person found at any dissenting meet- 
ing, where more than five persons were 
present, was punishable by fine, or three 
months' imprisonment. For a thud 



offence a person might be transported for 
seven years. 

In 1670 (22 Car. II. c. 1) this act was 
enlarged. Children above 16 j-ears of age 
were to be fined 5s. each for attending 
such meetings for the first offence, and 
10s. for every subsequent offence. The 
preacher was to be fined 201. for the first 
offence, and 40Z. for every subsequent 
one. The master of the house where the 
meeting was held was to be fined 201. for 
each offence. Repealed by the Toleration 
Act, 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1689). 

IL The Second, 1670 (22 Car. II.). By 
which it was furthermore enacted, that 
all incumbents who had been admitted 
by the kirk-sessions and lay-elders during 
the interregnum in England must receive 
a jpresentation from the patron of the 
living, and be instituted afresh by the 
bishop of the diocese, under pain of de- 
privation. In consequence of this law 
350 parishes were declared vacant. 

Convention Rationale (La), 10 
Aug., 1792. Succeeded the ' Assemble'e 
Le'gislative.' The first sessions held 
21 Sej)t., when royalty m France was 
abolished, and France was declared a re- 
public. 17 Jan., 1793, they condemned 
Louis XVI. to death. 1 Feb., 1793, they 
declared war against England, Spain, and 
Holland. 5 Oct., 1703, they introduced the 
Revolutionary Calendar. 16 Oct., 1793, 
they condemned to death Mary Antoin- 
ette. 81 Oct., 1793, they condemned to 
death twenty-one of the Girondin depu- 
ties. 5 April, 1794, they condemned to 
death Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and 
several members of the club of the Cor- 
deliers. 27 July, 1794, they outlawed 
the two Robespierres and their chief 
partisans. 31 May, 1795, the" .-^iippressed 
the Revolutionary Tribunal. 22 July, 
1795, they concluded peace with Spain. 
26 Oct., 1795, they passed a decree of 
general amnesty, and declared its ses- 
sions terminated. They met in the 
Tuileries. Chief members were Brissot, 
Collot d'Herbois, Condorcet, Couthon, 
Danton, Gensonne, Marat, Pethion, 
Robespierre, St. Just, Tallien, and 
Vergniaud. 

Convention Parliament {The). 
I. 1660. The first parliament after the 
restoration, consisting of both houses. It 
was not called together by order of the 
sovereign, but was merely convened by 



CONVENTION 



CONVOCATION 



Monk. Passed an act restoring the an- 
cient general constitution of kings, lords, 
and commons, and was legalised by 
Charles II. The Convention Parliament 
was certainly the most bloodthirsty and 
mfamous of all the parliaments in the 
annals of English history. Even John 
Milton, the immortal poet, was con- 
demned by it to death ; but the fame of 
his great genius saved him, and Eng- 
land was si)ared the scandal of so great 
a shame. First met 25 April, 1660 ; dis- 
solved 29 Dec, 1660. 

II. 22 Jan., 1689, dissolved 29 Jan., 
1691, under William III. (prince of 
Orange). Conferring the crown on Wil- 
liam and Mary. See ' Parliament ' and 
' Geneva Convention.' 

Convention of Cintra (The), 30 
August, 1808. This was really the conven- 
tion signed at Torres Vedras, when Junot 
agreed to quit Portugal ; but the despatch 
of Sir Hew Dalrymple, inclosing a copy 
of the treaty, was dated from Cintra, 13 
miles from Torres Vedras. Sir Arthur 
Wellesley was so disgusted with the treaty 
that he requested to be recalled. 

The French ought to have been made to disgorge 
all their spoil. The llussian fleet ought to have 
been given up to England ; and Junot, with his 
army, ought to have been forbidden to take any 
further part in the war. 

Convention of Estates. The 

Scottish Parliament was so called be- 
tween the removal of a king from Scot- 
land and the Union. Convention is a 
word applied to a parliament not sum- 
moned by the king. Sometimes spoken 
of as ' The Estates,' and sometimes as 
* The Convention.' 

Convention of St. Cloud (The), 
5 July, 1815. A military convention 
signed at St. Cloud by Davoust, Welling- 
ton, and Bliicher, to put an end to further 
hostilities. The next day the allies 
entered Paris for the 2nd time, and 
Louis XVIII. foUowed on the 8th. 

Convention of Sempach (The), 
1393. The act of confederation between 
the Swiss and the Austrians. The two 
memorable battles of Morgarten and 
Sempach, won by the Swiss, had lowered 
the pride of Austria, who concluded peace 
with Switzerland for twenty years. 

Convention of the Irish Eule 

{The). According to their own circular, 
the object of tlu& association was 'to 
promote the confederation of every body 



in America, and, if possible, in the whole 
world, to advance the welfare of a 
wretched, oppressed, plundered, and mis- 
governed people [the Irish], and to awaken 
the long-suspended conscience of a power- 
ful and brutal foe [the English].' 

Converters, or 'Propagators of 
the Faith,' 1630. Missionaries, or rather 
ambulating controversialists — monks, 
Capuchins, and Recollets (q.v.) — with 
others of meaner sort, paid for every 
convert they made to the Catholic faith. 

Fenelon says many were cordwainers, brokers, 
tailors, itinerant grinders, and little shopmen, 
who, without any study, abandoned their trade 
to convert the Huguenots ; but they drew down 
upon the Converters universal contempt by their 
ignorance and fanaticism. 

Convertisseur. A title given to 
Pe'lisson, the great converter of the 
French Huguenots in the reign of Louis 
XIV. In 1677 Louis devoted a secret 
fund for the conversion of these ' heretics,' 
the price paid per head was about 5s. 
(6 livres), and Pelisson was the chief in- 
strument in distributing this fund. 

The French livre = a franc. The livi-e tourvoia 
was a little less, but in each case 20 sous = 1 livre. 
The exact deficit of the livre tournois was : 81 such 
livres were equal to 80 francs. 

Convocation, 12th cent. An as- 
sembly of the archbishops, bishops, and 
canons, summoned by the king's writ 
for the purpose of assessing themselves 
in levies of taxes. Subsequently other 
church questions v/ere discussed in these 
meetings, but the crown had the power 
of proroguing and dissolving them. In 
10i)5 the clergy gave up the power of 
taxing themselves, and Convocation lost 
its7'aison d'etre. Now, Convocation con- 
sists of two houses ; in the upper house 
sit the prelates; in the lower house 
deans, archdeacons, canons, and proctors. 
Both are mere debating societies without 
one jot of authority. 

In the Convocation of York the same distinction 
exists, but the business has generally been con- 
ducted in one assembly (1890). 

Convocation. In England. A synod 
of clergymen dating from 8 Hen. VI. c. 1, 
A.D. 1429. Reconstituted by 25 Hen. VIII. 
c. 19, A.D. 1533, but greatly changed in 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a.d. 1600. 

The Convocation of Canterbury was 
then made to comprise all the bishops of 
the province, who compose the upper 
house. While the lower house con- 
sists of 22 deans, 53 archdeacons 24 
proctors of chapters, 44 proctors of the 



CONVULSIONISTS 



CORINTHIANS 



217 



parochial clergy, and one precentor (of 
St. David's). 

The Convocation of York is of much 
smaller extent. Occasionally the two act 
together. See ' House of Convocation.' 

In 1870 the Convocation of Canterbury ap- 
pointed the Committee of Revisers of the Autho- 
rised Version of the Bible. 

Convulsionists, 1632. I. The con- 
vulsion epidemic broke out in whole 
nunneries about Bordeaux, especially in 
the convent des Ursulines of Loudun, an 
educational establishment. In 1G86, the 
French refugees, driven from house and 
home in the infamous dragonnade expedi- 
tions, were affected by the same epidemic. 
See ' Convulsionnaires ' and ' Plagues,' 
&c. 

II. 1882. An extreme democrat or 
radical, whose f)latform is convulsion, or 
plucking up the established order of all 
things by the roots. 

Convulsionnaires, 1730. Certain 
Jansenists of France who met in St. 
Medard's churchyard, in the suburbs of 
Paris, where was the tomb of the Abbe 
Fran(^ois de Paris, who had died in 1727, 
where numberless miracles were alleged 
to have been done. These fanatics 
' threw themselves into the most violent 
contortions of body ; rolled about on the 
ground, imitated birds, beasts, and fishes; 
and when utterly exhausted .went off in 
convulsions or a swoon.' Louis XV. 
ordered them to be imprisoned in 1733, 
but it was not possible to stamp out the 
fervour altogether. In the revival meet- 
ings in the last quarter of the 19th cent, 
similar exhibitions have been recorded 
m the daily papers. 

When the king commanded the cemetery gates 
to be closed, a wit wrote over them : 



Henceforth the king forbids God's grace 
To show His wonders in this place. 

Co-operative Stores. Retail 
stores for the sale of groceries, draj)ery- 
goods, shoes, and even butcher's meat 
and poultry, of the best quality at the 
lowest profitable price. The movement 
began at Rochdale in 1813. In London 
the Civil Service Co-operative Store does 
an enormous business, insomuch that an 
original IZ. share is worth 2001. (1890), 
and the capital of the stores is worth 
seven millions sterling. The next largest 
is the Army and Navy Stores. Every 
customer must be a member by the pay- 



ment of 20.S., and all sales are strictly for 
ready money. A member may hold as 
many as 200 shares. 

Copenhagen {Peace of), 10 June, 
1660. Between Denmark and Sweden, 
effected by the Swedish Government on 
the death of their king Carle X. By 
this treaty the district of Trondhjem and 
the island of Bornholm were restored to 
the Danes. See ' Treaty of Roskilde.' 

Trondhjem, pronounce Tron-yem. 

Copley Medal (The), 1709. Insti- 
tuted in the Royal Society of London 
by Sir Godfrey Copley for scientific dis- 
coveries. 

Copts, or * Copti.' Egyptian Chris- 
tians of the Eutychian heresy. They 
continue the practice of circumcision. 
Their patriarch lives in Cairo, and is 
called the Patriarch of Alexandria and 
Jerusalem. 

Copyright. See 'Lord Mahon's 
Act.' 

Coqueluehe (The Great Plague of), 
1580. Was so called in France ' parce que 
les malades a I'agonie rendaient des sons 
enroue's, comme le fait un coq.' A sort 
of catarrhe convulsif, or hooping-cough. 

Cordeliers. I. The French name 
for the strictest branch of the Franciscan 
friars, who wore a girdle of knotted cord. 

II. 1790. A republican club which 
held its sessions in the convent of the 
Cordeliers, Paris. It was opposed to the 
Jacobins (q.v.), and affected extreme 
poverty. It was this club which de- 
manded the abolition of royalty and the 
institution of a free republic. Closed 
by the Convention at the death of Danton 
in 1794. 

The chief members were the giant Danton ; the 
scarcely less notorious Camille Desrnoulins, He- 
bert, the editor of ' Ptre Duchene,' and Marat, the 
bloodtliirsly young surgeon. Camille Desmoulins 
was the editor of a popular journal called Le I'ieux 
Cordelier. 

Corinthians. I. Prize-fighters. Fal- 
stafE calls himself ' a Corinthian .... a 
lad of mettle ' (1 Hen. IV. act ii. 4). So 
called from the Isthmian games held by 
the Greeks on the Isthmus of Corinth 
every alternate spring. In these games 
boxing formed a j)rominent part, and St. 
Paul, in his first epistle to the Corin- 
thians (ix. 26), alludes to the racing and 
boxing so famous in Corinth, when he 
says, ' I, therefore, so run, not as uncer- 



203 



COEK 



CORONA 



tainly ; so fight I, not as one that beateth 
the air,' 

A Corinthian, a swell of the first water. 

Brave Tom, the champion, with an air 
Almofct Corinthian took the chair. 

Crib, Memorial. 

II, In the days of the Regency, Corin- 
thians meant London bloods, or, more 
strictly speaking, members of the Pugi- 
listic Club, in Bond Street, London, of 
which both George the prince regent 
and his brother Frederick duke of York 
were distinguished members. The Prince 
Regent was the chief champion of the 
Bristoleans (Belcher, Cribb, and Moli- 
neux), the Duke of York was leader of 
the Hebrew school, of whom Mendoza 
was the principal. Thomas Cribb was 
actually attached to the household of the 
Prince of Wales, much to the annoyance 
of the general public. 

Cork, in Ireland, is the Irish corcah, 
a marsh. 

Cork -boys, 17C2. A political Irish 
association, a Cork branch of the White- 
boys (q.v.). Their especial grievance 
was the payment of tithes. See ' Irish 
Associations,' 

Corn Importation Bill (The), 
184(5. When wheat is 48s. the duty shall 
fall by Is. with every shilling in price 
till it touches 53s., when the fixed duty 
shall be 4s, This scale to last for three 
years, and to disappear on 1 Feb., 1849, 
leaving from that date only a normal 
rate of duty. All colonial wheat and 
flour to be admitted at once at a nominal 
rate. 

Corn-law Rhymer {The). Ebe- 
nezer Elliott (1781-1849) ; born near 
Rotherham, in Yorkshire. His Corn-law 
Rhymes were published in 1831. 

Corn Laws (The). Laws to regu- 
late the exportation and importation of 
corn date as far back as 1300, which pro- 
hibited the exportation of corn except to 
Calais and Gascony. In 1393 the right 
to export was granted. In 1436 the right 
to exj)ort was granted only when wheat 
did not exceed 6s. Sd. a quarter. From 
that time sundry laws were made, till 
1828, when the sliding scale was 'pcT- 
fectcd.' By this law, if wheat was sell- 
ing at 02s. a quarter, a duty of 24s. 8d. a 
quarter was imposed on imported corn ; 
for every shilling less than 62s. a quarter 



an extra shilling was added to the im- 
port duty ; but when corn exceeded that 
price, the import duty rapidly decreased, 
till the price of coin reached 73s. a 
quarter (famine price), when a minimum 
duty of a shilling was imposed on im- 
ported corn. 

Cornage. A kind of tenure in grand 
sergeanty. The service in this tenure 
was the blowing of a horn to warn the 
subjects of the king when any invasion 
of the Scots was detected or apprehended 
(Latin, cornu, a horn). 

Corn-cracker State (The). The 
State of Kentucky, The inhabitants are 
called Corn-crackers, 

Corneille du Boulevard (Le). 
Guilbert de Pixe're'court (1773-1844), 

Cornwallis (A). A sort of Guy 
Fawkes procession once held in the U.S., 
to commemorate the struggle for inde- 
pendence, typified by the surrender of 
Lord Cornwallis at York Town in 1781 to 
the united American and French army. 
Prior to this he had rendered himself 
formidable to the Americans in the 
battle of Brandywine, by the reduction 
of Charleston, and his victories at Cam- 
den and Guilford, Now obsolete. 

Coro'na {The Eoman). 1. ' Corona 
Castrensis,' or ' Corona Vallaris,' a gold 
crown, ornamented with palisades [valla), 
bestowed on the soldier who first sur- 
mounted the stockade, and forced his 
way into an enemy's camp, 

2, Corona Civtca (a civic crown), a 
chaplet of oak-leaves and acorns,' be- 
stowed on the Roman soldier who saved 
the life of a comrade in battle and slew 
the antagonist, 

3. Corona Classtca, or Corona Nava- 
lis, or Corona Eostrdia, a gold chaplet 
designed to imitate the beaks of ships 
{rostra), presented to the admiral who 
had destroyed an enemy's fleet {classis). 

4. Corona Longa, a festoon of flowers 
hung round the neck on festive occasions, 
as on the feast of Bacchus, &c, 

5, Corona Murdlis (or mural crown) 
decorated with the towers and turrets of 
a battlement, and bestowed on the soldier 
who first scaled the walls of a besieged city. 

7. Corona Natalitta, a wreath of 
laurel, ivy, or parsley, hung over a door 
to announce the birth of a child. In 



COr.ONA 



COEPOEAL 



209 



Holland a rosette of lace is the natal 
symbol. 

8. Corona OhsidiondUs, a garland of 
grasses and wild flowers presented to a 
commander who came to the relief of a 
besieged army. The least in value, and 
highest in honour, of aU crowns. 

9. Corona Oleaglna, a wreath of olive- 
leaves, presented to all those by whose 
counsel or instrumentality a triumph 
was obtained, whether present or not in 
the action. 

10. Corona Ovdlis, a chaplet of myrtle 
won by a general in an ovation. 

11. Corona PactUis, or Pleclilis, a 
wi-eath of natural flowers with their 
leaves and stalks, worn on festive occa- 
sions. 

12. Corona Badidta, for gods and 
emperors. A band of gold set round 
with conical rays, tapering upwards. 

13. Corona SutUis, a wreath of roses 
without their stalks, worn by the Salii at 
their festivals, 

14. Corona Triumphdlis, worn by a 
general in a triumph. Some were laurel 
leaves without their berries, some were 
gold leaves in imitation, and some were 
of gold, not worn, but presented as a 
valuable gift. 

Corona never meant a royal crown. No. 12 
vas worn by emperors not as impc rata r but divus. 
Ihe royal head-dress was a white band tied 
beiiind the head in a bow with long ends. Asiatic 
taonarchs wore a blue and white fillet. 

Besides the corona mentioned above, there were 
others not honorary, but only emblematical, such 
as the Corona Saccrdotdlh, worn during sacritice, 
both by priests and people. 

Corona Fiinebiis, or ScpulchrSlis, with which the 
dead were crowned. 

Corona Convividlis, the Corona NnpHdlis, and the 
Corona Kntntilia over the door of the vestibule 
\vhere a child was born. 

Coro'na Sacerdotalis. A crown 
of flowers worn by the clergy on certain 
high festivals, when they walked in pro- 
cession from the monastery to the parish 
church. Thus, in the fifteenth century, 
Eoger de Walden went to St. Paul's to be 
enthroned bishop, crowned with a wreath 
of red roses. Poiidore Vergil (sixteenth 
.century) refers to the same custom at the 
feast of St. Paid. Stow speaks of ' the 
dean and chapter issuing from the west 
door with roses on their heads.' 

The tonsure was called the ' corona clericalis,' 
meant to symbolise the crown of thorns.— BEDE, 
V. 22, 

Coronation of English Queens 

{The). The queen of William I. crowned 
two years after the coronation of the 



king ; the queen of Henry I, ditto ; the 
queen of John not crowned with him, but 
alone ; the queen of Henry III, not 
crowned with him, but afterwards alone ; 
the queen of Edward III. crowned alone ; 
the queen of Henry IV. not crowned 
with him, but alone ; the queen of Henry 
V. ditto ; the queen of Henry VI. ditto ; 
the queen of Henry VII. crowned long 
after him; the queens of Henry VIII. 
some crowned and some not crowned; 
the queen of Charles I, never crowned ; 
the queen of Charles II, ditto ; the queen 
of George I. ditto ; the queen of George 
IV. never crowned. 

Coronation of the Ass {The). 

An important ceremony in the Festival 
of Vesta, to commemorate the following 
incident: Vesta was once brutally as- 
saulted by some Eoman ruffians, who 
would have offered her indecent violence, 
but were alarmed by the sudden braying 
of an ass. See ' Feast of the Ass.' 

Coroners, 1079, were originally state 
officers with authority to determine felo- 
nies; but now they only take inquisitions 
of death. They are elected for life, and 
have authority to assemble juries, "When 
a jury is assembled, it is charged and 
sworn by the coroner to inquire, upon 
view of the dead body, how the party 
came by its death. Eecently, the coroner 
has been empowered to order the attend- 
ance of a legally-qualified medical at- 
tendant to make a post-mortem examina- 
tion if required. The fee is one guinea 
for attendance without a post-mortem, 
and two guineas for attendance with 
post-mortem examination. 

Corporal D'Eprd, 1814. A sobri- 
quet under which the imperialists toasted 
Napoleon while he was in Elba. D'Epre 
is a pun on the word depre, parted [from 

us]. 

Corporal Violet, 1814, The sobri- 
quet under which Napoleon was toasted 
during his stay in Elba. The violet is 
and was the floral emblem of the French 
empire. Napoleon left for Elba in May, 
but it was generally thought by the im- 
perial party that he would return the 
spring following 'with the violets,' and 
so he did. 

The Government of Louis XVIII. never paid the 
moncv promised to the ' Emperor of Elba,' and 
therefore broiie the contract which bound the exile 
to his abdication of the throne of Franca. 



210 



CORPORATION 



CORRUPT 



Corporation Act (T7ie), 1661. This 
act, i^assed in the reign of Charles II., 
coniijelled everyone, before being admit- 
ted to any office in any municipal corpo- 
ration, to take the sacrament in the 
Established Church, to subscribe the de- 
claration abjuring the Solemn League 
and Covenant, and also that against the 
lawfulness of taking up arms against the 
ruling sovereign on any pretence what- 
soever. See ' Test Act ' and ' Municipal 
Corporation Act.' 

Corporation and Test Act Re- 
peal Bill {T}ie\ 9 Geo. IV., May 1828. 
To repeal the * Corporation ' and ' Test ' 
Acts {c[.v.). See 'Municipal Corporation, 
&c.' 

Corporation Oath {The), 1661. 
Passed by the Pension Parliament {q.v.) 
to this effect : ' I do declare and believe 
that it is not lawful upon any pretence 
whatever to take arms against the king; 
and I do abhor that traitorous position of 
taking arms by his authority against his 
person, or against those commissioued by 
him.' 

Corps Ldgislatif {Le), of the Con- 
sulate, 24 Dec, 1799. Consisting of 300 
deputies. The Tribunate acted as a 
legislative grand jury, deciding what 
laws and bills were to tae laid before the 
Corps Legislatif. In 1807 the Conseil 
d'Etat took the place of the Tribunate. 
In 1814 this body was reiDlaced by the 
' Chamber of Deputies.' During the 

• Hundred Days ' the ' Chamber of I)ei)u- 
ties ' was called the Chamber of Bepre- 
sentatives. In 1815 it was again called 
the ' Chamber of Deputies.' In 1852 it 
resumed the name of the Cor^s Legis- 
latif. 

Pronounce Cw lay-jis-lah'-ieef. 

Corpus Christi College. I. Cam- 
bridge [C. C. C. C], 1352. Founded by 
the guilds of Corpus Christi and of the 
Blessed Virgin Mary, assisted by Henry 
duke of Lancaster, and originally called 
'Benet College.' The head is called 

• master.' 

II. Oxford, 1516. Founded by Fox, 
bishop of Winchester. The head is called 
' president.' 

Corpus Christi Festival {The). 
Called by the French Fete Dieu, 1264, in 
honour of the consecrated host or wafer. 
It is held on the Thursday following 



Trinity Sunday, and is the most splendid 
festival of the Catholic Church. 

Corpus Juris Canon'ici. A sum- 
mary of the legal responses and papal 
rescripts respecting the jurisdiction of the 
Church of Rome. It contains three parts : 
viz. (1) The Decretals, in 5 books ; (2) The 
Text, in 5 books ; and (3) The Extrava- 
gantes Communes. — The Decretals, com- 
piled by Raimond de Pennafort, by order 
of Gregory IX., contain the rescript of 
the popes Alexander III., Innocent III., 
and Gregory IX., and was published in 
1234. The Text was compiled by order 
of Boniface VIII., and continued the De- 
cretals to the reign of the living pope. 
The Extravagantes Communes contained 
the ' Clementines,' or constitutions of 
Clement V. and the Extravagantes Johan- 
nis (XXII.). 

Corpus Juris Civi'lis. The sum- 
mary of Roman laws made in the reign 
of the Emperor Justinian. It consisted 
of four parts : (1) The Code, in 12 tables ; 

(2) The Digest or Pandects, in 50 books ; 

(3) The Institutes, & ]?recis of the Digest 
to teach the rudiments of Roman law, 
in 4 books ; and (4) the Novels, contain- 
ing 16 edicts and 168 new laws by Justi- 
nian himself. The first three published 
A.D. 533, the last in 534. 

Correggio. The best pictures of 
Correggio were actually used in the royal 
stables in the North to keep the wind 
from the backs or tails of the horses. 

Well then, the Charles of Mb. West 
And Oliver, I do protest. 
And eke the witnesses of resurrection (Peter 
and John) 
Will stop a hole, keep out the wind, 
And make a properer window-blind, 
Than great Correggio, used for horse-protec- 
tion. 

Peter Pindar, Lyric Odes, li. 

Correggio of Sculptors {The). 
Goujon (1515-1572), slain in the massacre 
of St. Bartholomew. 

Corresponding Society {The), 
1792. A society in London in strong 
symj)athy with the French revolutionists, 
whicli corresponded with the National 
Convention of France. The object of the 
society was to establish a republic in 
Great Britain. 

Corrupt Practices Act {The), 

1854 (21, 22 Vict. c. 87). Relating to 
bribery, treating, and undue influence at 
the election of members of parliament. 



COEEUPTIBLES 



COTEEIE 



211 



Numerous additions and amendments of 
the original act have been made. The 
New Act came into force in 1883. 

Corruptibles {The), or 'Corrupt- 
ibilists, 537. A party of the Monophj^sites 
of Alexandria, supported by Justinian, 
and led by Theodosius, a disciple of 
Severus. This party, favoured by the 
Empress Theodora, and the arms of the 
eunuch Narses, were called by their op- 
ponents Imperialists or Melcliites. It 
was opposed to the ' Corruptibles ' {q.v.), 
and so bitter was the animosity that the 
streets of Alexandria were deluged with 
blood. It is said that 200,000 Christians 
were slaughtered in one day at the instal- 
lation of Apollinarius as patriarch of 
Alexandria. This, of course, is a gross 
exaggeration. 

The Corruptibles -were Nestorians, who insisted 
on the perfect manhood of Clirist. Tlie Incor- 
ruptibles were Eutychians, who insisted tliat tlis 
body of Christ was not, like ours, corruptible, but 
was a celestial body. 

Corse Present. An oblation made 
at funerals. See ' Soul-shot.' 

Corsica Paoli. Pasquale de PaoH, 
a native of Corsica, leader of the war in 
Corsica against Genoa. When the island 
was conquered by the French, Pasquale 
de Paoli took refuge in England. 

Corsican Ogre(T/?e). Napoleon I., 
who was a Corsican by birth and family 
(1769, 1804-1814 ; died 1821). 

Corsican Sesostris (r7ie). Napo- 
leon Bonaparte (1769-1821, reigned 1804- 
1814). 

Cortes (2 syl.). The representative 
assembly of the estates of Spain and of 
Portugal. 

Corvee. Gratuitous work enforced 
by feudal tenure. It consisted either of 
personal labour or the gratuitous loan of 
horses and oxen. The usual work was 
to cut down and stack the lord's hay, to 
lop and cut his firewood, to dig and 
plough his land, to keep his ditches and 
hedges in order, and to sweep and repair 
his chimneys. Turgot, the French min- 
ister, abolished much of this enforced 
labour, 27 June, 1787, and the rest was 
abolished by the Constituent Assembly 
and the Convention. 

Still used in Egypt, &c. 

Corvi'nus. J^nos Hun'yadi was so 
called (1400-1456). The tale is that his 



mother, Elizabeth Morsiani, was a par- 
amour of the Emperor Sigismund, who 
gave her a ring, and j)romised to load her 
child with honour if she presented this 
ring. Elizabeth was on her road to the 
king's palace when a crow snatched the 
ring from her son's hand and flew up 
with it to a neighbouring tree. Her 
brother shot the bird and restored the 
ring. When her son, who was named 
Janos, was grown to man's estate, the king 
bestowed on him the domain of Hunj-ad, 
with 00 villages, and gave him as coat-of- 
arms a crow carrying a ring in its beak. 
Whence his name, John of Hunyad, Cor- 
vinus. 

Coryp'hsBiis of the Interpre- 
ters of Law {The). Bartolus of Sasso- 
Ferrato, in Umbria (1313-1356). He 
practised law in Pisa and Perugia, and 
is known for his commentaries on the 
Corpus Juris Civllis. A French proverb 
runs thus : ' He knows his Bartolus as 
well as a cordelier knows his Dormi.' (II 
sait son Bartole comme nn cordelier son 
Dormi.) 

The Dormi was a celebrated recueil of sermons 
of the fourteenth century. The words ' Dormi 
secure ' are the first two words of the book. 

*,* The coryplaeus was the leader and chief 
speaker of the chorus in Greek dramas. Houce, a 
leader, chief, best of the kind. 

Cosherers. Irish vagi-ants who 
lived by preying on their neighbours. 
There were always in Ireland a number 
of ' young gentlemen ' who lived by ' cosh- 
ering ' on the country with their horses 
and hounds, preying on the farmers, 
drinking, gambling, and running into 
debt. 

Coshery. An Irish custom which 
entitled the chief lord or dynast to exact 
from his tenants provisions and lodging 
for himself and his retinue. 

These dynasts used to come with a great multi- 
tude of people to monasteries and gentlemen's 
houses, and there continue for two days and two 
nights, tailing meat and drink at their pleasure, 
while their horses and servants were quartered 
upon the poor farmers of the neighbourhood, and 
nothing was paid for their entertainment. — T. 
Moore, Hist, of Ireland, ch. xlv. 

Coterie, 1770. The first English 
female club. Amongst other members 
were the Duchess of Bedford, Lady Betty 
Delme, the Countess of Pembroke, Mrs. 
Fazakerly, Lady Molyneux, Miss Pelham, 
&c. Play was both deep and constant. 

Though called the Female Coterie, 'Ladles might 
ballot for gentlemen ; ' hence Sir T. Tancred was 
a member, so was George Augustus Selwyn. 

r2 



212 



COTTEREAUX 



COUNCIL 



Cottereaux {The). A band of bri- 
gands organised in 1792 by John Cotte- 
reaux, a cobbler of Laval. He rallied his 
men by screeching like an owl, and hence 
these desperadoes were nicknamed 
Screech-owls or Chouans. John Cotte- 
reaux was slain in 179-4 in an encounter 
with the French Republican army. See 
* French Brigands.' 

Pronounce Cot'-ro', and Shicdn. 

Lescoteraux, ou Routiers, ou Brabanijons, etaient 
des miserablos de la secte de Pierre de Bruys, es- 
pece de Manicheens, qui avait surtout intecte de 
BBS erreurs le Languedoc et la Gascogne. lis 
faisaient protossion da ne craindre ni Dieu ni les 
hommes. lis se mettiient aux gages de tous ceux 
qui voulaient commettre quelque crime, et ils se 
signalaient par toutes sortes de brigandages. 
Henri II., roi d'Angleterre, les avait pris a son 
service en 1174 pour combattre son flls llichard. — 
Les Petits Bnllmuiisics, vol. vi. p. r,50. ' 

(The word coteraux in this extract is an ana- 
chronism, as John Cottereaux died in 1794.) 

Cottssmore Pack (The). Rutland- 
shire. One of the three packs of the old 
' Melton-Mowbray Hunt,' established in 
1759. They were the Earl of Lonsdale's 
hounds. The other two packs were the 
Duke of Rutland's and Mr. Osbaldiston's, 
called the Quorn pack, of Leicester. 
The 'Melton-Mowbray Hunt ' is now a 
thing of the past, but the Duke of Rut- 
land's hounds, the Quorn, and the Cottes- 
more hounds are still celebrated (1890). 

Cottonian Library (The), 1753. 
In the British Museum, but purchased 
for the use of the public in 1700. It was 
collected by Sir Robert Cotton (1570- 
1634), and consisted originally of 958 
volumes ; but part was burnt by a fire 
which broke out in Ashburnham House, 
and the present collection consists of 746 
entire volumes and 98 defective ones. It 
is rich in historical documents, from the 
Saxon times to the reign of James I. It 
also contains numerous registers of 
English monasteries, the charters of 
Edgar and of Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, 
near Winchester, written in gold letters, 
and the MS. called the ' Durham Book,' 
which is a copy of the Latin Gospels, 
with an interlinear Saxon gloss, written 
before the year 800, and reputed to have 
belonged to the Venerable Bede. 

COUNCIL OB COUNCILS. 

A complete list of the 2,730 Church councils, wi th 
•* brief summary of the subjects of debate in each, 
v.-ould fill at least fifty pages of this Dictionary. 
Those here given require to be known by all 
students of Church history. See p. 218, col. 2, 
'Councils (.contradictory),' and ' General Councils.' 

Council, Parliament. In the 



early times of parliaments we frequently 
meet with the word ' council,' especially 
in the reigns of Edward III. and 
Richard 11. After the Leicester Parlia- 
ment iq.v.), a parliament was an assembly 
of the commons with* the clergy and 
barons. A great council was an assembly 
to which the commons were not sum- 
moned. Strictly speaking, a parliament 
had the power of granting taxes, and a 
council was called merely to consult with 
the king on matters where taxes were 
not concerned. 

Council (A Civic). 'Concilium 
Civile,' in which a local bishop meets 
the clergy of his diocese. 

Council {A Great). 'Concilium 
Magnum,' an oecumenical council or great 
synod. The Council of Nice is called 
' Magnum et Universale Concilium.' 
The whole college of bishops dispersed 
throughout Christendom ought to be 
convened to an CBCumenical or general 
council. 

CoMncil [The Palace). 'Concilium 
palatlnum,' 859. These councils were 
held biennially in the royal palace of the 
Carlovingian kings, and were conventions 
of the bishops — ' generales episcopormia 
conventus.' 

Council [A Plenary). 'Concilium 
Plenarium ' is one to which a metropoli- 
tan invites all the bishops under his 
jurisdiction. 

Council [A Provincial). ' Concilium 
Provinciale.' 

Sunt et provincialia Concilia quae post ilia uni- 
versalia necessario recipere debemus, quia et in 
illis multa ecclesiasticis negotiis necessaria re- 
perimus. — Bernaldus Constantiensis Pres- 
byter, De Reconciliatione lapsorum, p. 267. 

Council {Privy). See ' Privy Coun- 
cil.' 

Council for the Propagation 
of Faith and th3 Extirpation of 

Heretics (The), 31 May, 1050. At Turin. 
Designed for the extirpation of the Vau- 
dois. If the council could not convert 
the Vaudois to the ' Catholic ' faith, they 
were to extirpate them as heretics. 

Council of Aix-la-Chapelle 

{The), Nov. 809. An ecclesiastical 
council, held at Aix-la-Chapclle, on the 
' Procession of the Holy Ghost.' The 
' Filioque ' controversy, which long dis- 
turbed the church, was this: Did the 



i 



COUNCIL 



COUNCILS 



213 



Holy Ghost proceed from the Father 
only, or from the Father and the Son 
(Jilioque) ? The Greek Church main- 
lamed the former, the Eoman Church 
the latter dogma. The Council of Aix- 
la-Chapelle condemned the Greek dogma. 
Council of Albi [The], in Lent 
1255. That is the Council held at Albi, 
in France, for the final extirpation of the 
Albigensian heresy. 

Council of Ariminium {The). 

That is, Eimini, in Italy, a.d. 359 ; con- 
vened by the Emperors Constans and 
Constantius to decide upon the Arian 
controversy. 

This council condemned as heretics Arius, Ursa- 
Cius, Valens, and others. 

Councils of Aries {The). L a.d. 
314, assembled by Constantine against 
the Donatists {q.v.). _ 

II. A.D. 353. Against Athanasius and 
others. 

III.-VII. On discipline : viz. A.D. 442, 
452, 521, 554, 813. 

VIII A.D. 1059. Against the Arch- 
bishop of Narbonne. 

IX. a.d; 1205. Kespecting church 
government. 

X. A.D. 1211. To excommunicate the 
Count of Toulouse, the great defender of 
the Albigenses. 

XI. A.D. 1234. Against heretics. 

XII. A.D. 1260. Against the followers 
of Joachim, abbot of Flores, called ' The 
Prophet.' It was his 'Everlasting 
Gospel ' which was condemned in the 
council. 

XIII. A.D. 1274. Ecspecting church 
discipline. 

Council of Basel {The), 1431-1443. 

The Ninth General Council of the 
Western Church (eighteenth), convened 
for the reunion of the Eastern and 
Western Churches, and for general re- 
form. It declared the authority of a 
general council superior to that of the 
pope, and that appeals lay from the pope 
to a general council ; it abolished annates 
or first-fruits, and wrested from the pope 
the right of electing to, vacant bishop- 
rics and benefices. Pope Eugenius was 
so disgusted that he set up an oppo- 
sition council ; whereupon the Council of 
Basel cited him to appear before them, 
but he refused, and declared the council 
dissolved. The council now deposed the 
pope, and elected Felix V. in his place, 



thus making a new schism. En?enius 
died in 1447, Felix resigned, and Nicho- 
las V. remained sole pope. 

Eighteenth if numbered from the Council of 
Nice, A.D., 325, when the Eastern and Western 
Churches were not divided. 

Council of Blood {The). So the 
council established in the Netherlands 
by the Duke of Alba was called by the 
Brabancjons, in consequence of the nu- 
merous executions which it ordained. 
The Counts of Egmont and of Horn were 
two of its victims. See under ' Conseil.' 

Councils of Carthage {The). I. 
A.D. 200. Eespecting the rebaptism of 
heretics. 

II. A.D. 251. To confirm the election 
of Cornelius as pope ; to regulate the re- 
admission of apostates ; and to condemn 
the schism of Felicissimus. 

in. A.D. 252. Respecting the treatment 
of apostates. 

IV. A.D. 253. Respecting the baptism 
of infants. 

V. A.D. 254. Respecting the deposition 
of Basilides and Martial, Spanish bishops. 

VI. A.D. 255. Respecting rebaptism. 

VII. A.D. 256. To confirm the previous 
council. 

VIII. 312. To elect Caecilianus as 
bishop of Carthage. He was deposed by 
the Donatists. 

IX. A.D. 397. To abolish love feasts. 
It declared the Apocryphal writings of 
equal authority to other scriptures. See 
* Laodicea.' 

X. A.D. 401-411. Respecting the Do- 
natists. 

XI. A.D. 412. Against Celestius. 

XII. A.D. 416-418. Against Pelagius 
and Celestius. 

XIII. A.D. 419-425. On the appeal of 
Apiarius to the pope. 

XIV. A.D. 484. A conference appointed 
by Huimeric between the Catholics and 
Ajrians. The Catholic bishops exiled. 

XV. A.D. 525. On the liberties of mo- 
nasteries. 

XVI. A.D. 535. For the restitution of 
the rights and possessions of the church 
usurped by the Vandals. 

Council of Chalce'don {The), 451. 
The Fourth General Cotincil, convened 
by the Emperor Marcian to condemn 
the heresy of Eutyches. This council 
confirmed the condemnation of the 
Nest orians. 



214 



COUNCIL 



COUNCILS 



The Eutychinn heresy merged the human nature 
of Christ in his divine nature. The Ni'stnrians 
divided the Godhead and manhood of Christ into 
two distinct persons and natures. 

The First General Council was held at Nice 325 
and condemned the Arian heresy. The Second 
General Council was held at Constantinople in 
880 and condemned the Macedonian heresy. The 
third General Council was held at Ephesus, and 
condemned the Nestorian heresy. The Fourth 
condemned the Eutychian heresy. Arius denied 
the divinity of Christ. Macedonius denied his 
humanity. Nestorius maintained that Mary was 
not the mother of God but of Jesus, for God could 
not be born. And Eutyches maintained that the 
human nature was merged in the Divine and there 
lost. See ' General Councils.' 

Council of Cloveshoo (The). In 
Kent, A.D. 747, Convened by Cutlibert, 
archbishop of Canterbury. It enacted 
that every bishop should visit his diocese 
at least once a year; that the people 
should be taught the Creed and the Lord's 
Prayer in English, and should have the 
nature of the sacraments explained to 
them in English. Other canons were 
passed for the correction of morals and 
discipline. 

Prayers for the dead were enjoined in this 
council. 

Councils of Constance (The). 

1. A.D. 1043. To establish 'public and 
universal peace ' in Germany. 

II. A.D. 1094. To reprobate simony and 
incontinence, and to regulate the time of 
Easter and Whitsuntide. 

III. A.D. 1153. For the divorce of Fre- 
derick Barbarossa and Adelaide, 

IV. The Eighth General Council 
of the Western Church (seventeenth ), 
A.D. 1414-1418. Against Wyclif, Huss, 
and Jerome of Prague, With impotent 
rage this council not only condemned the 
opinions of Wyclif, but ordered his bones 
to be exhumed and burnt. Thirteen 
years afterwards his bones were actually 
exhumed and burnt, and the ashes thrown 
into the river Swift. This council de- 
posed the three contemporary popes 
(Gregory XIL, Benedict XIII., and 
John XXIIL), and elected Martin V. 
pope. Gregory died first, and no other 
was elected in his place : then John, and 
then Benedict, leaving Martin V. the sole 
pope, and thus closing the Great Schism 
which had lasted from 1378 to 1429, 

Seventeenth it reckoned from the Council of 
Kice. A.D. 325, whon the Eastern and Western 
Churches were not divided. 

Councils of Constantinople 

{The). Those of 336, 339, and 360 were 
in favour of Arius, 

The Second General Council, May 



to July 381. Called by Theodosius, It 
condemned appeals to Eome, and deter- 
mined the limits of the Metropolitan 
provinces. It also condemned Mace- 
donius, who denied the divinity of the 
Holy Ghost, 

The councils of 382, 883, 394 were 
convened to pacify the schismatics, if 
possible. 

The council of 403 was in favour of 
Chrysostom, and that of 404 deposed him. 

The council of 448 condemned Euty- 
ches. See ' Eutychians,' 

The council of 450 condemned the 
dogmas of Nestorius and Eutyches. See 
' Nestorians.' 

The council of 459 condemned the 
Simoniacs, 

The council of 492 confirmed the Coun- 
cil of Chalcedon, 

The council of 495 or 496 deposed 
Euphemius, 

The council of 516 condemned the 
Council of Chalcedon, 

The council of 518 reversed the con- 
demnations of Euphemius and Mace- 
donius, and restored their exiled par- 
tisans. 

The councils of 520, 531, 532 were in 
favour of Euphemius, who was ordained 
patriarch. 

The council of 536 condemned ' hereti- 
cal ' bishops. 

The councils of 543, 547, 551 condemned 
Origen, 

The Fifth General Council, 553, also 
condemned Origen, So did the council? 
of Constantinople of 588, 626. 

The council of 638 was in favour of 
the Monothelites [q.v.). 

Sixth General Council, 680-681, con- 
demned the Monothelites {q.v.). 

The councils of 712, 715, 730 were 
in condemnation of the ' Sixth General 
Council,' 

The councils of 786, 806, 809, 812, 814 
condemned the Iconoclasts {q.v.). 

The council of 815 deposed Nicephorus. 
In this council the Iconoclasts had it all 
their own way. 

The councils of 821, 829 were called to 
reconcile the Catholics and Iconoclasts, 
but the Catholics refused to attend. 

The councils of 842, 847 condemned 
the Iconoclasts, 

The council of 858 deposed Photius 
(the fons et origo of the separation of the 
two churches). 



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215 



The council of 8G1 restored Photius 
and deposed St. Ignatius. 

The council of 8G7 reversed the decision 
of the previous council 861, and deposed 
Photius again. 

Eighth General Council, 8G9-870, de- 
posed Photius and condemned the Icono- 
clasts. 

The council of 1054 anathematised the 
pope's legates. 

The councils of 1066, 1067 were against 
incestuous marriages. 

The council of 1110 condemned the 
Bogomiles or Bogarmitae {q.v.). 

The councils of 1140, 1143, 1144, 1147, 
1157 condemned the works of Constantiue 
Chrysomale. 

The council of 1170 was to effect the 
union of the Eastern and Western 
Churches. 

The councils of 1277, 1280 excommu- 
nicated the opponents of the union. 

The council of 1283 condemned Veccus. 

The councils of 1284, 1285 reversed 
the judgments of 1277, 1280, and con- 
demned those who sought the union of 
the two churches. 

The council of 1341 condemned Bar- 
laara, the opponent of Palamas. 

The council of 1345 condemned the 
doctrine of Palamas, the opponent of 
Barlaam ; he was imprisoned 1346, but 
in 1349 was created patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, and in 1351 a synod in the same 
city confirmed his doctrine. 

The council of 1450 was also against 
the union. 

The councils of Constantinople give a lament- 
able picture of the Eastern Church, which seems 
to have had no fixed principle. 

Council of Eanham {The). In 
Oxfordshire, 1008, convened on the sub- 
ject of church government. It decreed 
that tithes of produce should be paid at 
AUhallows, but tithes of young at Whit- 
suntide. That Rome-shot should be paid 
at St. Peter's mass, soul-shot iimnediately 
the grave was opened, light-shot thrice a 
year, plough-alms a fortnight after Easter. 
That on Sunday no trade should be 
carried on. 

Council of Elders {The), or 'Con- 
Beil des Anciens,' 23 Sept., 1795. One 
of the two Legislative Councils of Year 
III. in French history. The other coun- 
cil was ' Le Conseil des Cinq-cents,' which 
had the sole right of initiating laws ; the 
Elders had the power of veto or approval. 



The executive was placed in a board of 
five directors called the Directory. 
Le Conseil des Anciens consisted of 250 members. 

Councils of Ephesus {The). I. 
A.D. 245. Condemned Noetus. 

II. A.D. 401. For the election of a 
bishop. 

III. A.D. 431. The Third General 
Council, condemned Nestorius and Pela- 
gius. It laid down this canon, that every 
diocese and province shall exercise the 
right of ordaining unmolested and in- 
violable, and no bishop shall occupy an- 
other's diocese. Each province is ' Auto- 
cephalus,' and each diocese independent. 

IV. A.D. 449. Called the Latrocinium, 
or ' Robber Sjoiod ' {q.v.). 

V. A.D. 476. Respecting Basiliscus 
and the Council of Chalccdon. 

Council of Holy Martyrs {A). 
' Concilium Martyrum Sanctorum,' a 
place where many martp's or holy men 
lie buried. 

Council of Laodicea {The), a.d. 

360. Excluded the apocryphal writings 
from the canon of Scripture ; but the 
Council of Carthage, in 397, declared 
them to be ' of equal authority with the 
other scriptures.' 

Councils of the Later an {The). 

I. A.D. 649. To condemn the Monothe- 
lites {q.v.). 

II. Nov. 864. To depose and excom- 
municate the Bishop of Porto. 

III. Aug. 900. To restore the Bishop 
of Langres. 

IV. Jan. 993. To canonise Udalric, 
bishop of Augsburg. 

V. Feb. 1111. Respecting investitures. 
Pope Pascal II. compelled by Kaiser 
Heinrich V. to concede the right. 

VI. March 1112. To revoke the con- 
cession of Pope Pascal II. 

VII. March 1116. To excommunicate 
Kaiser Heinrich V. 

Vm. A.D. 1123. The First General 
Council of the Western Church, held by 
Callixtus n. {Ninth). 

IX. A.D, 1139. The Second General 
Council of the Western Church, for the 
reunion of the Eastern and Western 
Churches {Tenth). 

X. A.D. 1179. The Third General 
Council of the Western Church. It 
placed in the cardinals the sole right 
of electing the pope. Decided on tha 



216 



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COUNCILS 



crusade against the Albigenses. Anathe- 
matised the Albigenses as heretics, and 
forbade their interment in consecrated 
ground [Eleventh). 

XL Nov. 1215. The Fourth. General 
Council of the Western Church. Held by- 
Innocent III. to deprive Kaymond count 
of Toulouse of his dominions for pro- 
tecting the Albigenses. To anathematise 
the English barons for forcing Magna 
Charta on King John, and declaring the 
charter null and void. To vote for the 
extermination of heretics. And to de- 
clare transubstantiation to be a tenet of 
the ' Catholic ' Church. 

XII. July 1511 (The Fifth General 
Lateran). The Tenth General Council 
of the Western Church. By Julius II. to 
declare void the Council of Pisa. 

XIII. March 1517. To abolish the 
Pragmatic Sanction. To confirm the 
concordat with Francois I. To impose a 
tax of one-tenth for war with Turkey. 
And to issue a decree against the print- 
ing of ' dangerous books.' (This was in 
fact a part of the preceding council.) 

If reckoned from the Council of Nice, when 
the Eastern and Western Churches were not 
divided, those general councils would be num- 
bered thus: A.D. 1123 (the Tenth), A.D. 1139 (the 
Eleventh), A.D. 1179 (the Twelfth), A.D. 1215 (the 
Thirteenth), and A.D. 1511-1517 (the Nineteenth). 

Council of Lyons [The), 1245. The 
Fifth General Council of the Western 
Church (Fourteenth), held by Innocent 
rV., to depose the Kaiser Friederich II. 

A.D. 1274. The Sixth General Council 
of the Western Church (Fifteenth), held 
by Gregory X. Eespecting the election 
of bishops, the reunion of the Eastern 
and Western Churches, the reduction of 
the Begging Friars, and the reformation 
of the clergy. 

The Council of 1528 was against 
Lutheranism. 

Fourteenth and Fifteenth, if reckoned from the 
Council of Nice, A.D. 325, v/hen the Eastern and 
Western Churches were not separated. 

Council of Mantua [The), 1536. 
Summoned by Paul III., who cited Henry 
VIII. to appear before it. Henry VIII. 
of course denied the authority of the 
council. 

Council of Nice, or 'Nicaea.' 
Called The First General Council, a.d. 
825. Assembled by Constantine against 
the Arians. The sentence runs thus : — 
*The Catholic and Apostolic Church 
anathematises all who say that there was 



a time when the Son did not exist ; that 
He had no existence previous to his birth 
in Bethlehem ; that He was created out 
of nothing; or who say that He was 
formed from another substance or es- 
sence ; or who say that He is capable of 
change.' It also condemned the Melesian 
schism iq.v.), and ' settled ' the Paschal 
or Easter Controversy {q.v.). 

The Nicene Creed, as it now stands, was not 
published by tliis Council, but by the Council of 
Constantinople in Ssl. It was drafted at Nice, 
approved of by the Council of Milan in 346, by the 
Council of Sardica in 317, and the Council of 
Rimini in 360 ; but it was completed by the 
Council of Constantinople. 

The SevetUk Ecumenical, Council was also held at 
Nice A.D. 7fc7. 

Council of Ofacers {T7ie), 1647. 
Officers elected from each of the par- 
liamentary regiments to examine into 
and rectify the ' distempers ' of the par- 
liamentary army. To this upper council 
was added a lower one, consisting of two 
privates or officers not higher in rank than 
ensigns, and called the adjutants or ad- 
jutators or adjuvants, and afterwards 
Agitators, because, like the Roman tri- 
bunes, they were ceaseless disturbers of 
the peace. This lower council soon be- 
came the Aaron's rod of all the other 
national assemblies, and dominated even 
the parliament itself. Charles I. called 
Cornet Joyce ' Mr. Agitator Joyce,* not 
by way of reproach, but as a usual 
method of address. 

Council of Peers (The), 24 Sept., 
1640, or ' Great Council of Peers.' Con- 
vened at York by Charles L, who was 
unwilling to summon a parliament, be- 
cause his parliaments always insisted 
on redress of grievances before they 
would vote supplies. The object for 
which the Council of Peers was convened 
was to grant supplies in order to raise 
an army against the Scotch, who had en- 
camped on Dunse-law hill, and threatened 
to advance. 

Council of Pisa (The), 1409. Con- 
voked by the cardinals of the rival popes 
(Gregory XH. and Benedict XIII.). The 
two popes were summoned to appear, 
but refused, and were declared contu- 
macious, schismatic, heretical, and per- 
jured. They were both deposed, and 
Alexander V. elected pope. The con- 
demned popes treated the decrees of the 
council with supreme contempt ; and all 
the council effected was to make three 



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217 



popes instead of two, all of whom hurled 
curses, calumnies, and excommunications 
at each other. Declared void by the 
Filth General Lateran Council. 

Council of Sar'dica (The), or 
'Sardia,' in Thrace, a.d. 347; to settle 
the controversy between the Arians and 
Athanasius. It condemned the Arians. 

Councils of Toulouse {The). 

I. 13 Sept., 1056. Against simony, 
the marriage of ecclesiastics, and other 
abuses. 

II. 10G8. Against simony. 

III. 1118. Against the Manichgeans. 

IV. Nov. 1229. To establish the In- 
quisition. 

Council of Trent (The), or *Tri- 
dentum,' 1545-1563. Assembled by Paul 
in., and continued under Julius III. 
and Pius IV., to fix what should be 
admitted as orthodox doctrine. Its main 
object was to condemn the Reformation. 

Council of Trouble (The), 1567. 
Tlie organisation, under Margaret, go- 
vernor of the Netherlands, under which 
18,000 jjersons in three years were put 
to death. Also called ' The Tribunal of 
Blood.' 

Council of Trullo (The), a.d. 692. 
The Fifth and Sixth General Council^ 
which conlirmed the decree of the Council 
of Ephesus, that every bishop shall ordain 
unmolested in his own diocese, and no 
bishop shall interfere in another's diocese 
or province. 

In the language of the council, each province is 
Autocephalous, and each diocese independent and 
Iree except to its own metropolitan. 

Council of War [A). A conference 
of officers on some matter in which the 
chief commander, pending war, wishes to 
state his own opinion upon some military 
or naval matter, and hear what his 
officers think about it. In the navy the 
council of war usually consists of flag 
officers, assisted sometimes by other 
officers of lower rank. In the army the 
commander-in-chief can call whom he 
thinks proi)er to confer with him. 

Council of the Earthquake 

{The), 1382. The council, held at Black- 
friars, and headed by Courtenay, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, to condemn Wyclif 
and his teachings. The archbishop sub- 
milted twenty-four allegations drawn 
10 



from Wyclif's works ; but an earthquake 
in the midst of the proceedings terrified 
every prelate present, except the pri- 
mate, who declared that the earthquake 
was a good omen, signifying that God 
would expel from the church the ill 
hmnours of heresy. 

Council of the Senate {The). 
University of Cambridge, established in 
1857 (19,20 Vict., c. 88), which must send 
a ' grace ' to the senate before that legis- 
lative body can move in any matter. 
The council consists of the chancellor 
and vice-chancellor, with eight other 
members of the senate chosen from the 
electoral roU {q.v.). The eight membera 
hold office in the council for four years. 

The eight members of the council consist ot 
2 heads of colleges, 2 of the professors, and 4 other 
members. 

Council of the Troubles {The). 
So the Spaniards called the ' Council of 
Blood ' {q.v.). 

Council of the 6 {The). For the 
exclusion of the Stuart dynasty and the 
restoration of Great Britain to a re- 
public. Of this council four were be- 
headed, viz. Russell, Algernon Sidney, 
Monmouth, and Argyll ; Essex died in 
the Tower by his own hand; and Howard 
of Escrick (a traitor and sad villain) 
perished in great poverty, deserted and 
hated by all men. 

Hampden said ' that the coming Into England of 
King William was nothing else but the continuing 
of the council of six.'— Howitt, HUt. of Eiiylatul. 

Council of the 10 {The), 'I Dieci; 
1310. A secret tribunal of the republic 
of Venice, armed with unlimited powers 
in watching over the safety of the state. 
It punished at discretion aU secret ene- 
mies of the republic. At first it was 
prorogued annually, but in 1325 it was 
made perpetual, and continued as long 
as the Venetian republic endured. 

Council of the 13 {The), 1658. A 
council of state, with Cromwell at the 
head, appointed after the dissolution of 
the Long Parliament. The council se- 
lected a parliament of 150 members; 139 
for England, 6 for Wales, 6 for Ireland, 
and 5 for Scotland. It was to last fifteen 
months, when they were to choose suc- 
cessors and disperse. It was called the 
' Little Parliament ' {q-V.), 

Some proposed that the council of state should 
consist of 10 members ; Bome of JOi^iter the model 



218 



COUNCIL 



COUNCILS 



of the Jewish eanhedrim ; others of 13, In imita- 
tion of Christ and his apostles. The last sugges- 
tion was adopted.— Dr. Lingakd, Hist, of Eng., 
viii. 6. 

Council of the 16 (The), 'Conseil 
des Seize,' 1585. A committee of sixteen 
members of the Catholic League of 
France to prevent the crown descending 
to Henri of Navarre, a Protestant, on the 
death of the reigning king, Henri III., 
who was childless. The plot was to pro- 
claim the old Cardinal de Bourbon king. 
This, however, was a mere bait, for if they 
had succeeded, they would have given the 
crown to Charles de Lorraine, due de 
Mayenne. 

On the death of Henri III. In 1589 the old cardi- 
nal was actually proclaimed Charles X., but Henri 
of Navarre, by his victories of Arques and Ivry, 
secured the crown to himself, and in the interim 
the old cardinal died. 

Council of the 38 {The), 1649. The 
government of England was vested in a 
council of thirty-eight members, with 
Cromwell at the head, after the execution 
of Charles I. 

Council of the 40 {The.) See 

♦ Forty.' 

In 1653 Cromwell intended to dissolve the Long 
Parliament, and substitute a ' Council of Forty,' 
with himself at the head. But after dismissing the 
parliament he appointed instead a ' Council of 
Twelve,' with himself at the head (making 13), in 
Imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. 

Council of the 100 {The). The 

great legislative and executive council of 
ancient Carthage, which concentrated in 
itself all the real power of the state. The 
two elective magistrates called ' Suffetes * 
were amenable to the council of the self- 
elected hundred, who held office for 
life, and so was the senate, which con- 
sisted of 300. Similarly in Venice the 
doge and senate were amenable to the 
Council of Ten. 

Council of the 400 {The),B.c. 594. 
Instituted by Solon of Athens. See 

* Government of the 400.' 

Council of the 500 {The). I. In 

Greek history. BouArj riov nevraKOvioiV. 

The Athenian Senate. Solon divided the 
people into four tribes, each of which 
chose a representative. Klisthenes in- 
creased the number to ten, and then the 
senate was increased to 500. 

11. In French history. 'Conseil des 
Cinq-cents,' from 27 Oct., 1795 to 14 Dec, 
1799, was one of the two councils, the 
other being called the * Conseil des 
Auciens,' consisting of 250 members. 



Both these were legislative bodies like 
our lords and commons. The executive 
was placed in a board of five directors 
called the ' Directory.' The 500 had the 
exclusive power of the initiative ; the 
elders only vetoed or confirmed the mea- 
sures. 

Councils {Contradictory Church). 

A.D. Council of : — 

810. Arles condemned Athanasius, so 
in 385 did the Council of Tyre, and 
in 354 the Council of Milan ; but in 
325 the Council of Nice confirmed 
the tenets of Athanasius, and so did 
the Council of Sardica in 347. 
825. Nice condemned Ariusas a heretic; 
but three Councils of Constanti- 
nople {q.v.), the Council of Aries in 
853, and the Council of Milan in 354, 
declared Arianism to be the ortho- 
dox faith. Eusebius, bishop of 
Nicomedia, sided with Arius. When 
Julius, in 336, succeeded Mark, he 
called a council at Sardica, but it was 
so divided on the subject that each 
party excommunicated the other. 

357. SiBMiUM condemned the dogma of 
Homoiousion {q.v.)] but the Coun- 
cil of Ancy'ra and that of Constanti- 
nople confirmed it. 

360. Laodicea excluded the Apocrypha 
from the canon of scripture ; but 
in 397 the Council of Carthage 
declared it to be equal in every 
respect to all other scripture. 

382. Constantinople confirmed the' 
Council of Calcium ; but in 516 
another Council of Constantinople 
reversed the previous decision. 

403. Constantinople was in favour of 
Chrysostom; but that of 404 de- 
posed him. 

492. Constantinople confirmed the 
Council of Chalcedon ; but in 516 
another Council of Constantmople 
condemned it. 

495. Constantinople deposed Euphe^ 
mius ; but that of 518 reversed tha 
decree, and restored him. 

638. Constantinople confirmed the 
doctrine of the Monothelites (4 syl.), 
as the true faith ; but in 680 another 
Council of Constantinople con- 
demned it as heresy. Three other 
councils condemned that of 680. 
The Lateran Council of 648 also 
condemned it. 



COUNCILLORS 



COUNTRY 



219 



712. Constantinople condemned the 

Sixth General Council. 
730. Constantinople approved of Icono- 
clasm ; but in 814 condemned it. In 
815 approved of it ; but in 842, 869, 
870 condemned it. In 787 it was 
condemned by the council held at 
Nice. 
754. Constantinople condemned the 
worship of images. In 766 the 
Council of Jerusalem favoured 
images, so did the Council of Nice 
in 787. In 829 the Council of Con- 
stantinople again condemned them, 
but in 842 another Council of Con- 
stantinople reversed the judgment 
of the previous one. 
852. Constantinople deposed Photius ; 
861 it restored him and deposed 
Ignatius; in 867 it reversed the 
judgment of 861. 
1112. Lateran revoked the 5th Lateran 

of the previous year, 
1284, 1285. Constantinople reversed the 

judgments of 1277, 1280. 
1341. Constantinople condemned Pala- 
mas; but in 1345 another council 
reversed the judgment. 
1511. IV. Lateran declared the Acts of 
the Council of Pisa null and void. 
N.B. — A complete list of all the Contradictory 
Councils would require several pages of this Note- 
book. 

Councillors (The). Since the Muni- 
cipal Corporations Act of 1835, every 
burgess is qualified to be elected who was 
of full age on the last day of August pre- 
ceding the election, provided (1) he has 
occupied premises within the borough 
continuously for three preceding years, 
and has for that time resided within seven 
miles of the borough ; (2) provided also 
he has been rated to the poor-rate, and 
has paid both poor-rates and borough- 
rates. In the council is vested the entire 
deliberative and administrative functions 
of the corporation. They appoint the town- 
clerk (q-v.), the treasurer {q.v.), the mayor 
{q.v.), and aldermen, all from their own 
body. They control the police, the 
watch, and the lighting ; make bye-laws, 
impose fines for nuisances, and are respon- 
sible for the government of the borough. 
They control the burgess fund, and ap- 
point the salaries of police magistrates. 

Counter-Remonstrance {The), 
1611. The counterblast put forward by 
Frans Gomar of Bruges against the 



Remonstrance (q.v.) of the Arminians, 
presented to the States of Holland in 
1610, and dogmatically laying down the 
dogmas of absolute predestination and 
reprobation. 

Counter-Remonstrants. Ultra- 
Calvinists or Gomarists who put forward 
the Counter-Remonstrance [q.v.). The 
States tried to reconcile the Remonstrants 
and Counter-Remonstrants in 1614, but 
wholly without effect, and so violent did 
the contest grow that the Remonstrants 
had to be protected by a military guard. 
In 1619 the Synod of Dort was convened, 
and the Arminians were excluded from 
pleading their cause. Since then the 
Remonstrants have become more tem- 
perate and less Calvinistic. 

Countess of Huntingdon's 
Connexion (The), 1770. A sect of 
Calvinistic Methodists founded by Selina 
countess of Huntingdon, widow of Theo- 
philus earl of Huntingdon. They use the 
English Prayer-book. 

Counties Corporate. Twelve 
cities and five towns in England with 
territories annexed, governed by their 
own sheriffs, who are quite independent 
of the county sheriffs. 

The twelve cities are Bristol, Canter- 
bury, Chester, Coventry, Exeter, Glou- 
cester, Lichfield, Lincoln, London, Nor- 
wich, Worcester, and York, 

The five toivns are Kingston-upon-Hull, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nottingham, Poole 
and Southampton. 

In 1889 London was erected into a 
county of itself. 

There are some In Ireland. 

Country (^;^e), 1620. The anti-Court 
party. The terms ' Court and Country ' 
to express the royalists and anti-royalists 
first arose in the parliament assembled 
30 Jan., 1620, by James I. 

In 1678 the ' Country ' was the opposi- 
tion party, bent on overturning the go- 
vernment of Lord Danby, and on the exclu- 
sion of the Duke of York from the succes- 
sion. After the death of Charles II., the 
Dukes of Buckingham and Shaftesbury 
(who were in the ' Cabal ') were its leaders. 

In 1692 they were often called the 
* Grumbletonians,' and were opposed to 
what was called the ' Patriot party.' They 
were the ' outs ' in Walpole's ministry. 
The ' ins ' or ' let alones ' were the Patriot 
party, called formerly the * Coui't party.' 



220 



COUNTRY 



COUP 



In the latter part of the reign of 
George I., and in the reign of George II., 
the Court party meant the Whigs, and 
the Country party the Tories. In the 
early part of George I.'s reign the Whigs, 
or Court party, were called the Hano- 
verians. 

Country Pastor (A). The pen- 
name of Archbishop Whately (1787- 
1863). 

Country of the Three Moun- 
tains (The), and of four rivers, Hun- 
gary. The mountains are the Tatra, 
Fatra, and Matra. The rivers are the 
Danube, the Theiss, the Drave, and the 
Save. The last three are tributaries of 
the Danube, which empties itself in the 
Black Sea. 

County Councils, 1889. 

1. They have charge of the public 
buildings, such as the shire-hall, the 
police-courts, the bridges, the lunatic 
asylums, &c. in the county. 

2. They appoint the public analyst, the 
inspector of weights and measures, the 
county surveyor, the county treasurer, 
and the county coroner, 

3. They have to keep up the highways 
{i.e. the disturnpiked roads). 

4. They carry out the regulations 
connected with the Contagious Diseases 
(Animals) Act, the compensation to 
those who have to destroy their infected 
animals, and the restrictions to be placed 
on the importation of cattle. 

5. They make regulations, &c. to pre- 
serve the purification of rivers. 

6. They, in union with the justices of 
peace, have the charge and appointment 
of the county police. 

7. They are bound to put in force the 
Allotment Act, and to enable labouring 
men, according to the council's discretion, 
to obtain allotments. 

8. They are, at their discretion, to 
assist emigrants from this country to other 
places of settlement. 

9. All local taxes are handed over to 
them, whether from probate duties or the 
consolidated funds. 

The councils are elected for three years ; and 
they appoint the aldermen who hold office for 
six years. 

Cotmty Courts, 1846. Originally 
established for the recovery of small debts 
under 20^., subsequently extended to 50Z., 
aaid in 1865 to 5001. They now take cog- 



nizance not only of debts to the amount 
stated, but of all personal actions, not 
criminal, where the amount does not ex- 
ceed 501. ; and exercise all the functions 
of the High Court of Chancery in suits 
by creditors, legatees, devisees, heirs-at- 
law, &o., in which the estate and personals 
do not exceed 500Z. They also take cog- 
nizance of the dissolution of partnerships ; 
but the vice-chancellor has the power of 
removing a suit from a County Court to 
the Court of Chancery. 

Coup de Bourguignon {Un). A 
blow given from behind ; a cowardly blow ; 
the blow of an assassin. The origin of 
this iDhrase is as follows : The Due de 
Biron, who was beheaded in the reign of 
Henri IV., was told by an astrologer, ' de 
se garder d'un coup de Bourguignon par 
derriere.' When brought to the block he 
asked who was to be his headsman, and 
was told ' a man from Burgundy.* Then 
the words of the astrologer flashed into 
his memory : ' Beware of the blow of a 
Burgundian,' and the words became pro- 
verbial. 

Coup d'etat. I. 23 de Juin, 1789. 
After the Seance Royale, the master of 
the ceremonies commanded the Tiers 
etat to retire as the other two classes 
had left and the assembly was over. 
Then Mirabeau, one of the deputies, 
told the Tiers not to leave : ' Nous 
sormnes ici ' (he exclaimed in a voice of 
thunder), 'noussommes ici par la volonte 
du peuple, nous n'en sortirons que 
par la force des baionnettes.' He then 
made the deputies swear not to part till 
they had given the nation a constitution. 
Finally he declared the person of a deputy 
inviolable. (This was carried by 493 
against 34 voices.) 

Pronounce Coo da-tah' de Ju'ah'n (n slight and 
nasal). 

II. De 18 Fructidor, 4 Sept. 1797. By 
the Directory. The royalists had made 
great head in the elections. They had 
returned 42 new deputies, and had suc- 
ceeded in getting Pichegru appointed 
president of the ' Five Hundred,' Barbe 
Marbois as chief of the Elders, and Bar- 
thelemy as the new director. At mid- 
night 12,000 armed men, with 40 pieces of 
cannon, were stationed round the Tuile- 
ries; 52 of the deputies, including Piche- 
gru, Barbe Marbois, and Barthelemy, were 
arrested and transported to Cayenne ; the 



COUP 



COURT 



elections of 48 of the departments were 
cancelled ; and 35 of the journals were 
suspended. 

Coup de Jarnac. A treacherous 
blow, a stab in the dark. In 1547, in 
the presence of Henri II. of France, La 
Chataigneraie, a favourite of the king's, 
and Guy Chabot, lord of Jarnac, fought 
a duel at St. Germain. After a few 
sword strokes Chataigneraie fell in a 
very suspicious manner, being wounded, 
it was supposed, by some secret emis- 
sary of the king, and not by his ad- 
versary. 

Coupe-tdte. Mathieu Jouve Jour- 
dan (1749-1794). So called because he 
boasted that he had cut off the head of 
De Launay, governor of the Bastille. 
He also cut off the heads of two of 
the body-guards at Versailles (6 Oct., 
1789), and stuck them on pikes, re- 
proaching the people because they had 
allowed him to cut off the heads of only 
two of the guards. 

Pronounce Coop-tait, 

Cour de Po^'son (Le), IGSO. A court 
of justice to try the poisoners Brin- 
villiers, La Voisin, and La Vigoureux. 

Court and Country {The), 1620. 
See ' Country.' 

Court Fools. A long list is given 
in the ' Readers' Handbook,' pp. 344, 345, 
346. The following have obtamed an 
historical reputation : — 

ARcniE Armstrong, jester to James I. axid 
Charles I. He died IG-ifl. 

Brusquet, 'who never had his equal in re- 
partee' (1512-1503). 

Chicot, jester to Henri III. and IV. of France. 

CouLON, ' prince of mimics." He died 18o8, and 
Was jester to Louis XVIII. 

DuFRESNOY, the ' Joi^, :\riller ' of France. Jester 
In the court of Louis XIV. 

Klaus Narr, jester in the court of the Elector 
Friedrich the Wise of Prussia, ilis jests have 
been frequently printed. 

ScoGAN, court fool to Edward IV. 

Triboulet, court jester to Louis XII. and 
Francois I. (14S7-15o6). 

Court-leet. The same as * Court of 
Frank-pledge ' {q,v.). 

Court-Martlal. A military tribunal 
for trying military or naval men for 
offences of discipline: such as mutiny; 
abandonment of a post, guard, or fortress ; 
desertion, &c. The president of the 
court should be a field officer, and in no 
case may be inferior in rank to a captain. 
It has even the power of life and death, 
but the offender is shot, not hanged. 



Court of Arches (The). The su- 
preme court of appeal m the archbishopric 
of Canterbury, formerly held in St. Mary- 
le-Bow. In 1567 it was removed to the 
Common Hall of Doctors' Commons, but 
since 1867 the sittings have generally 
been held at Westminster. 

The court used to be held in the church of St. 
Maryle -Bow (Sancta Maria de A rcubus), so called 
because the steeple was raised on pillars built 
archwise, like bent bows. 

Court of Audience {The), or 'Au- 
dience Court.' Belonging to each of the 
archbishops, and having the same autho- 
rity as the Court of Arches (q.v.), but 
inferior to it in dignity and antiquity. 
The Dean of the Arches was the official 
auditor of the Audience. 

Court of Augmentations (The). 
27 Hen. VIIL, c. 27, a.d. 1536, established 
for managing the revenues of the lesser 
monasteries given to the crown. 

The annual revenues of the 875 smaller monas- 
teries was 30,000(. The wages of an ordinary 
workman in the reiijn of Henry VIIL was M. a day, 
and of a master workman id. The wages in iHttO 
of a labourer is 2s\ Cd., and of a gardener 3s. 6d. 
That is, ten times the price of wages in the reign 
of Henry VII. So 30,OOOJ. would equal 300,000i. of 
money in 1390. 

Court of Cassation (The). An 
ancient French court of appeal, having 
the i50wer to quash (casscr) the judg- 
ments of all inferior courts. It was 
divided into three chambers, called La 
Chambre des Rcquetes, La Chambre de 
Cassation Civile, and La Chambre de 
Cassation Criminelle. In 1790 the court 
was replaced by the ' Tribunal de Cassa- 
tion,' but in 1804 the old title was 
restored. 

Court of Claims (The). I. A court 
established in the early part of the reigii 
of Charles II. to decide on the rival 
claims or titles of estates in Ireland con- 
fiscated by Cromwell. It will be remem- 
bered that Cromwell confiscated many 
of the estates of the ancient Irish no- 
bility who had joined the rebellion, and 
bestowed them on his own adherents. 
When Charles 11. Avas restored the evicted 
noblemen applied for the recovery of 
their estates, and this covirt was estab- 
lished to settle the rival claims. The 
restorable Irish were divided into Inno- 
cents, Ensignmen (q.v.), and Aiticlemen 
iq.v.). 

II. A court established in the reign of 
William III. to investigate the claims 
and dispose of the lands forfeited in 



223 



COURT 



COURT 



Ireland by the adherents of James II. 
The chief sufferer by this court was the 
Earl of Clancarty. 

Court of Commissioners of 
Ilevie"W {The). To revise the sentence 
of the court of ' Delegates ' {q.v.). Both 
this court and the High Court of Dele- 
gates are abolished. 

Court of Conscience. For the 

recovery of small debts. These courts, 
of which there were several in London, 
Westminster, and other trading districts, 
were superseded by county courts in 
1846. 

Court of Ecclesiastical Com- 
mission {The), 1686. Instituted by 
the lord chancellor under the advice of 
Jeffries. It had supreme power to de- 
cide dogmatically on all ecclesiastical 
matters, without restraint of laws, 
canons, or customs. The commissioners 
consisted of three divines and three lay- 
men. The archbishop (Sancroft) refused 
to sanction the commission, and was set 
aside by Cartwright, bishop of Chester. 

The three clerics were the archbishop of Can- 
terbury (SancrofVi, the bishop of Durham, and the 
bishop of Eochester. 

The three laymen -were the lord chancellor 
(J)'jYnes), the lord treasurer, and the chief justice 
of the King's Beach. 

Court of Exchequer {The), 1357. 
A court of appeal (31 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 12), 
consisting of a court of revenue and a 
court of common law. Its equity juris- 
diction was, by 5 Vict., c. 5 transferred to 
the Court of Chancery ; and by 19, 20 
Vict, the Court of Exchequer was abo- 
lished, and its jurisdiction transferred to 
the Court of Session {q.v.). 

A Court of Exchcque* was established in Scot- 
land by 6 Anne c. 26. 

Court of Faculties {The). Estab- 
lished by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 4, trans- 
ferring to the two archbishops certain 
fees and prerogatives previously claimed 
by the pope of Rome. The chief oiScer 
is called ' Magister ad facultates.' Of late 
years the court is mainly occupied in 
granting licence to marry without publi- 
cation of banns. 

By 25 Hen. VIII. this court was given dispensing 
power in regard to pluralities— eating meat in 
Lent, pew rights, monuments, modes of burial, 
erecting organs in churches, levelling church- 
yards, removing buried bodies, and so on. 

Court of Frank-pledge {The), or 
* Court-leet.' A court of record held 
annually within a hundred, lordship, or 



manor, which every resident freeholder 
was bound to attend in order to take an 
oath of allegiance. It took cognisance of 
all crimes committed within its juris- 
diction. The business is now performed 
by the quarter sessions and justices of 
the peace. 

Court of Hiorh Commission 

{The), 1559. Established by 1 Eliz. c. 1 
for the settlement of ecclesiastical of- 
fences. It became most obnoxious in the 
reign of Charles I., as it assumed un- 
warrantable proportions, almost all 
offences of a political tendency being 
construed as ecclesiastical. Established 
in Scotland by James I. m 1610. 
Abolished in 1641 (16 Car. I. c. 11). 

Court of Love {The), 12th to 14th 
cent. A tribunal of ladies established to 
decide metaphysical questions of gal- 
lantry. Andre le Chapelain has col- 
lected the rules of this court in his ' De 
arte amatoria et reprobatione amoris.' 

Court of Peculiars {The). An 
annex of the Court of Arches {q.v.), hav- 
ing jurisdiction over those parishes which 
are exempt from the jurisdiction of the 
Ordinary. Superseded by the Court of 
Probate. 

Court of Pie-powder. 'Curia 
pedis pulverizati,' so called from the 
dusty feet of the suitors ; is a court of 
record, incident to every fair and 
market. The steward of the owner of 
the market is ex officio judge, and has 
power to administer justice for all com- 
mercial injuries in that fair or market. 
See Stephen, ' Commentaries,' iii. 321 n 
(1830). 

Pipowdere est un Court qui est incident a ches- 
cune f aire, pour le determination de ditiorenccs sur 
contract et touts disorders en ceo commis. — Tentws 
de la Ley, p. 478. 

Court of Session {The), 1532. In 
Scotland, established by James V. of that 
nation. A central and supreme tribunal 
of justice. In 1808 the Court of Session 
was divided into two separate courts called 
the First and Second Divisions. 

Court of Tynwald (A). The 

Manx court of legislature, consisting of 
the Council and the House of Keys {q.v.). 
The court at Tynwald Hill was formed by King 
Orry, who gave the Manx their legislative govern- 
ment about the time of the emigration of Rollo to 
Normandv, and of Ingolf to Iceland, doting the 
reign gf Harald Harfager, 872-933. 



COURT 



COVENANTERS 



223 



Court of the Four Boroughs 

(The). In Scotch history, a high court of 
appeal, to which Edinburgh, Stirling, 
Roxburgh, and Berwick sent commis- 
sioners. When Berwick fell into the 
hands of the English, either Lanark or 
Linlithgow was substituted. 

Courts of Requests. Established 
by Cardinal Wolsey for the recovery of 
small debts. They were abolished in 
1846, when the Small Debts Act was in- 
troduced. 

There was a Court of Requests of the king in 
person ; but the court was virtually abolished by 
lb Car. I. c. 10. 

Courte-heuse. Robert, eldest son 
of William the Conqueror, was so called 
on account of the shortness of his legs. 

Courtenay {Peregrine). The pen- 
name of W. M. Praed (1802-1839). 

Courtenay Riots (The), 1832. 

One John Nicholls Thom, of Truro, as- 
sumed the name of Count Rothschild, of 
Rose Hill, Heme Bay ; and afterwards as 
Sir William Percy Honeywood Courtenay 
he laid claim to the old seats of Hales 
Place and Powderham Castle, He was 
now called ' King of Jerusalem ' and 
'Knight of Malta.' Being found to be 
insane, he was confined for a little time, 
but in 1838 made his escape, called him- 
self the ' Saviour of the World,' and with 
a large following, carrying a blue and 
white flag, surmounted with a rampant 
lion, proceeded to various farmhouses. 
At Bossenden three constables attempted 
to arrest the madman, but one being shot, 
the other two fled. A hundred and fifty 
of the 45th regiment were then sent 
against the rebels, when ten were shot, 
amongst whom was Courtenay himself. 

Cousin (Trusty and well-heloved 
cousin). So the monarchs of Great 
Britain address every peer of the degree 
of earl, in formal instruments such as 
writs, commissions, and so on. The style 
of address runs back to the time of 
Henry IV. ; and Blackstone tells us that 
this king, either by his wife, his mother, 
or his sisters, was actually related or allied 
to every earl in the realm, and, being a 
usurper, never ceased reminding his peers 
of their connection with the crown in his 
own person. The custom remains, though 
the raison d'etre has long since ceased 
('Commentaries,' i. 398). 



Cousinhood (The). The Grenville 
family, in the reign of George II., was so 
called from its 'many flourishing branches,' 
which have furnished in 150 years 3 first 
lords of the treasury, 3 secretaries of 
state, 2 keepers of the privy seal, and 
4 lords of the admiralty, all sons or 
grandsons of the first Countess Temple. 

In Pitt's administration, 1756, there were, four of 
the Grenville famiiy. Pitt was first lord ; his 
brother-in-law (Lord Temple) was first lord of the 
admiralty ; his next brother, George Grenville, 
was treasurer of the navy ; the tliird brother, 
James Grenville, was at the Treasury Board. 
Horace We.lpole sarcastically remarked, ' Tis a 
pity that Pitt has not Grenville cousins enough to 
fill the whole administration.' 

Covenant (The), 1643. An agree- 
ment between the English and Scotch 
parliamentarians, to do all in their power 
to bring the churches of the three king- 
doms into a uniformity of faith, church 
government, and form of worship ; to ex- 
tirpate popery, prelacy, schism, and pro- 
faneness ; to preserve intact the rights 
and privileges of the parliament, and the 
liberties of the kingdom ; to punish ma- 
lignants ; to unite England and Scotland 
in lasting union ; and to lead, both in pri- 
vate and public, lives consistent with a 
God-fearing and God-loving people. See 
' National Covenant,' ' Solemn League 
and Covenant,' &c. 

The first ' Covenant ' was subscribed 3 Dec, 1557, 
pledging the subscribers to ' mnintain and set for- 
ward the Word of God.' Another was subscribed 
In 15H0, abjuringthe tenets of the Church of Kome. 
The Covenant of 1638 was provoked by Archbishop 
Laud. See ' National Covenant.' 

Covenanters, 1557. Scotch re- 
formers, who subscribed to the Solemn 
League and Covenant {q.v.), or to the 
National Covenant (q-v.). It was first 
introduced in the reign of James V. In 
1581 the General Assembly of Scotland 
drew up a Confession of Faith, and this 
covenant was signed by James VI. of 
Scotland and I. of England. In 1590 and 
1596 it was again subscribed to. In 1638 
it was renewed, and the Covenanters 
bound themselves by oath to preserve 
religion in the same state in which it 
existed in 1580. Strictly speaking, the 
Covenanters date from the time of this 
oath (1638), but the ' congregation ' {q.v.) 
are sometimes called covenanters, be- 
cause they bound themselves to the 
Solemn League and Covenant. 

In the spring of 1562 Elizabeth became engaged 
to support the Huguenots against their govern- 
ment, as she had supported the Covenanters of 
Scotland.— HoAViTT, Hist, of Eng., vol. iL p. 4ia 



221 



COVENTKY 



CEANMER 



Coventry Act {The), 22, 23 Car. II. 
c. 1, making cutting and maiming a capital 
offence. So called from the ill usage 
of Sir John Coventry by some of the life- 
guardsmen, in revenge of something he 
said in parliament respecting the king's 
theatrical amours. 

The tale is that Sir John Coventry, Oct. 
3670, rose in his place in parliament, and 
asked a question which was considered to 
be a reflection on the king's amours. 
Charles was furious, and Sir John was 
attacked one night in the streets, when 
his nose being cut to the bone, he ever 
after wore a patch. It became a common 
jest for courtiers to put a patch on their 
nose, and strut about in mimicry of Sir 
John, in order to divert the king. 

I will have his nose slit as wide as Coventry's.— 
Sir W. Scott, Peveril of tlie Peak, chap. 37. 

Coverd ale's Bible, 1535. This 
translation of the Bible by Miles Cover- 
dale, afterwards Bishop of Exeter, was 
dedicated to Henry VIII., and was the 
first English Bible sanctioned by royal 
authority. See ' Bibles.' 

Coxians and Knoxians, 1556. 
The followers of Dr. Coxe, dean of Christ 
Church (Oxford), and John Knox, who 
left England during the reign of Mary, 
and retired to the Continent. Dr. Coxe 
insisted on the use of the English Liturgy 
and made a point of repeating the re- 
sponses aloud ; but Dr. Knox (backed by 
Calvin) objected to the Common Prayer- 
book, and insisted on the use of the 
Genevan service. The altercation be- 
came so noisy that the magistrates had 
to interfere. Coxe retired to Strasburg, 
and settled there; Knox retired to 
Geneva. 

C. P. pricked against a sailor's name 
in the muster-roll of a man-of-war stood 
for ' civil power,' meaning that the man 
had been sentenced by the civil power to 
serve in the fleet. It was equivalent to 
rogue or vagabond. Such men were nick- 
named 'Newgate birds,' i.e. they had 
flown out of prison aboard ship. 

Craeovia. Avoir ses lettres de 
Cracovie, to be recognised and pro- 
claimed a liar. The Hotel de Cracovie is 
in ' Moncorbeau,' in the de'partement de 
Lot-et-Garonne. The master, who is a cafe- 
tier, ' delivre, moyennant quelques sous, 
des brevets de hableurs, que les mauvais 



plaisants envoient, par la voie de la poste, 
aux menteurs de leur connaissance.' 

Patent of Membership.— Nous ayant fait sa; 
voir que depuis longteraps vous vous etiez exerce 
dans le noble art de maltraiter toute sorte de 
verites, a. amplifier les recits, en augmentant et 
diminuant aux faits qui arrivent en ce monde 
terrestre, et que par des succes heureux, fruit 
d'une imagination feconde et brillante, vous etiez 
parvenu a inventer des verites qui n'ont jamais 
existe, a creer des histoires qui, sans vous, au- 
raient reste eternellement dans I'oubli. . . . Nous, 
toujours zeles a maintenir et accroitre la haute 
reputation de notre ordre . . . avonsjuge apropos 
de vous incorporer dans notre diete, et vous re- 
cevoir en frere bien-aime. . . . Fait et passe dans 
notre diete generale.— Signed by the secretary, 

Craeovia. L'arhre de Cracovie. 
A tree in the garden of the Palais Koyal 
was so called ' a cause des menteries de- 
bitees sous son ombrage, ou parce que 
les nouvellistes se reunissaient la pendant 
les troubles de Pologne ' {Quitf\xd.,Dictiorh- 
naire des Proveries Frmiqais, p. 273). 

,Te donne sept-mille livres . . . . au baron da 
Kniran, a condition qu'il se rendra, tous les lundis 
et vendredis . . . . au Palais Royal, sous larbre 
de Cracovie, et que la il lira des nouvelles sup- 
posees a cette multitude dc faux politiques et da 
vrais descBUvres, qui gobent tout ce qu'on leur dit. 
— Le Livre des Quatre Couleurs, p. 109. 

Craft-gilds. Clubs of tradesmen 
in contradistinction to merchant-gilds. 
These gilds were all-powerful with ap- 
prentices, who were required to carry 
their work to the craft-box to be inspected 
by the committee of masters, bad work 
being punished by fines. Any work- 
man who proved refractory might be 
expelled, in which case he was not allowed 
to exercise any trade within the limits of 
the gild. Our ' Livery Companies ' are 
relics of the craft-gilds. 

Edward III. was a member of the Armourers' 

craft-gild. 

Craftsman (The), 1724. A very 
celebrated journal planned and esta- 
blished in the reign of George I. by ' the 
Patriots,' in opposition to the ministry 
of Walpole. Bolingbroke and Pulteney 
were the chief organisers of this j)aper. 

Crane's Charity. For the relief of 
sick scholars. To pay nurses, medicine, 
medical attendance, and give money 
grants to sick scholars in the University 
of Cambridge, or one of the following 
grammar-schools, that of Wisbeach, Cam- 
bridge, Lynn, and Ipswich. The pro- 
ceeds of the gift received in order by the 
five aforestated institutions. Founded 
by John Crane in 1654. 

Cranmer's Bible, 1539. This was 
Coverdale's Bible (q.v.), examined and 



CRANMER 



CREED 



2:5 



corrected by Archbishop Cranmer, who 
also wrote the preface. It was printed 
by Grafton in 1540, and every parish was 
obliged by royal proclamation to have a 
copy in the parish church under a penalty 
of iOs. a month. See ' Bibles.' 

Cranmer's Catechism was not 
composed by Cranmer, but only adopted 
by him. It was originally written in 
German for the youth of Niiraburg; was 
translated into Latin by Justus Jonas, 
the friend of Luther ; was brought to 
England in 1548, and translated by Row- 
land Taylor, one of Cranmer's chaplains. 
It insists on Three Sacraments — baptism, 
absolution, and the eucharist — and states 
that those who have heathen parents 
and die without baptism are ' damned 
eternally.' Our Church Catechism is 
quite another thing, probably the work 
of Nowell or else of Poinet. 

It was not originally written in question and 
answer. It contained a third sacrament, called 
the ' Sacrament of Keconciliation.' 

Crannoges (2 syl.), or 'Crannogs.' 
Fortified islands in the Irish or Scotch 
lakes, in common use as dwelling-places 
among the ancient Celtic inhabitants. 
Herodotos (v. 16) speaks of the lake- 
dwellings of Lake Prasias. A crannoge 
was generally approached by a boat. In 
the Irish annals frequent mention is 
made of these lake-dwellings between the 
9th and 17th cent. That at Lough Lynch, 
in Antrim, was the birthplace of Colkitto ; 
and that of Roughan Lake was the last 
retreat of Sir Phelim O'Neil in 1641. In 
1853-4 similar dwellings were found in 
Lake Ziirich (Switzerland), in Lake Con- 
stance, and at Morges, on the Lake of 
Geneva; and since 1857 lake dwellings 
have been discovered in Savoy, Hanover, 
Denmark, Borneo, New Guinea, Burmah, 
and Siam. 

Craven Fund. For researches in the 
languages, literature, history, archasology, 
and arts of ancient Greece and Rome, or 
for the comparative philology of the Indo- 
European languages. Value 40Z. a year. 
Left to the University of Cambridge by 
John lord Craven, and founded in 1886. 

Craven Scholarships. For 

classics. I. Two for undergraduates in 
the University of Cambridge. Present 
value 50Z. a year, tenable for seven years. 
Founded by John ' lord Craven. See 
' Regius Prof, of Greek.' 



In 1861 new rules were made for these scholar- 
ships. 

II. Six in the University of Oxford of 
the value of 80Z., and tenable for three 
years. Founded by Lord Craven in 1647. 

Craven Studentship. Philology. 
Value '2001. for one year, but the holder 
eligible for re-election. The funds for 
this studentship were left by John lord 
Craven, but it was not founded till 1886. 
Cambridge University. 

Subjects : Languages, literature, history, arch- 
seology, and arts of .ancient Greece and Rome, 
or else the comparative philology of the Indo- 
European languages. 

Crazy Jane. Joanna la Loca, 
daughter and heiress of Isabella of Spain. 
She was born to vast dominions, but was 
imbecile, and spent her time in watching 
the coffin of her husband Philip, who 
she believed would come to life again 
(1479-1555). 

Crazy Poet (The). Nathaniel Lee, 
the dramatic poet, who was confined four 
years in Bedlam (1657-1690). 

Cream-coloured Parasite (The), 
1770. Bradshaw, one of Bute's agents 
with the king (George III.). 

Credenza di Sant' Ambrogio, 

1198. The House of Conmions in the 

Milanese republic. 

S. Ambrogio, i.e. St. Ambrose, patron saint of 
Milan. 

Credit Foncier, 1852. A French 
method of borrowing money on real pro- 
perty. Its peculiarity is that the repay- 
ment of the loan is by an annuity ter- 
minable at a certain date — the date and 
annuity being so calculated that when 
the last payment is made, the loan and 
interest are both extinguished. 

In England, loans advanced from the Queen 
Anne's bounty are of a similar character. A 
clerg^Tnan borrows a sum of money on the se- 
curity of his ' living,' and either he or his succes- 
sor pays annually a sum of money equal to the in- 
tei-est and part of the principal, so that in twenty 
years both are extinguished. 

Creed of Pope Pius IV. (The). 
In Latin, ' Professio Fidei Tridentlna,' 
A.D. 1504 : (1) the seven sacraments ; (2) 
the Trent doctrine of justification and ori- 
ginal sin ; (3) the propitiatory sacrifice of 
the mass ; (4) transubstautiation ; (5) com- 
munion in one kind only ; (6) purgatory ; 
(7) invocation of saints ; (8) veneration of 
relics ; (9) image worship ; (10) the Ro- 
man Ch'irch is the mother of all Christian 



226 



CKEMERA 



CROMNYO-MANTIA 



churches ; (11) oheclience to the pope is 
obligatory ; (12) the decrees of all synods, 
Trent included, must be accepted. This 
oath is to be taken by all priests and all 
members of a monastic order. ' Hanc 
veram catholicam Fidem, extra quam 
nemo salvus esse potest, voveo, spondeo, 
et juro.' See ' Confession ' and ' Symbol.' 
Crem'era (The). A river which flows 
into the Tiber below Veii. It was here 
that the Fabian clan marked out their 
place of abode when they quitted Rome. 

Creole State {The). Louisiana. 
The original settlers were French and 
Spanish. 

Crescent and the Cross (The). 
Mahometanism and Christianity. The 
Saracenic symbol is a crescent; the 
Christian symbol is the cross. 

The battle of Tours was to decide -whether or 
not the Cross was to sink under the Crescent. — 
Chroniqucs de St. Denys, book v. 26. 

Crescent as a Turkish Symbol 

(The). The Sultan Othman (1259-1326), 
founder of the Othman or Ottoman 
dynasty, saw in a vision a crescent moon 
which went on increasing till it reached 
from furthest east to furthest west. This 
led him to adopt the symbol which had 
been in use by the Janissaries at least 
half a century previously, and he took 
for his motto ' Donee totum compleat 
orbem.' 

Philip, father of Ale-Jtander, meeting with great 
difflcuUies in the siege of Byzantium, set workmen 
to undermine the walls; but a crescent moon 
discovered the design, which miscarried. Conse- 
quently, the Byzantes erected a statue to Diana, 
and the crescent became the symbol of the state. 
This legend reminds us of the Thistle of Scotland. 

Crespi {Treaty of), 17 Sept., 1544. 
Between Karl V. and Francois I., bind- 
ing the two sovereigns to unite for the 
defence of Christendom against the 
Turks, and to unite their families by the 
marriage of the second son of Francois 
with a daughter of Karl. 

Henry VIII. was allied with Karl in an inva- 
Bion of France, but while Henry was besieging 
Boulogne Francois broke up the alliance by a 
separate treaty. 

Crests of the Kings of Eng- 
land {The). 

Richard I., a lion, assumed in the cru- 
sade. The same was borne by Edward 
III., Henry VII., Edward VI., James I., 
and has since been recognised as the 
crest of the royal family of England. 

Edward III. sometimes bore a white 
raven crowned. 



Alexander the Grea,t assumed a ram's head undei 
pretence of being sprung from .Jupiter Aminon. 

Julius Caesar adorned his helmet with a star to 
denote his descent from Venus. 

Crime'an War {The), 1853-1856. 

In 1852 Napoleon III. demanded that 
the protectorate of the Holy Places in 
Turkey should be restored to the Latin 
Church, according to the treaty of 1740, 
called ' The Charter of the Latins.' The 
Greek Church, supported by Russia, had 
gradually ousted the Latin Church ; and 
Turkey, wholly indifferent to the religious 
question, but fearing to offend either 
France or Russia, swayed backwards and 
forwards according to the pressure made 
to bear upon her. Threatened by Russia, 
the sultan at last declared war in Oct. 
1853, and, being supported by England 
and France, hostilities were carried on 
till 1855, when Russia sued for peace, 
and a treaty of peace was signed by all 
the belligerents 30 March, 1856. The 
secret object of Napoleon III. was to 
divert the attention of the French from 
home politics. 

Criminal Law Amendment 

Act {The), 1871. Provides 'that no 
person shall be liable to punishment for 
doing any act on the ground that it tends 
to cripple or restrain the free course of 
trade.' 

Crimson and White. In the 

Valois-Angouleme dynasty, the Catholic 
soldiers wore crimson jackets and scarfs; 
but the soldiers of the Protestant faction 
wore white jackets and scarfs. The Swiss 
guard wore a giey livery. 

Crofters. Descendants of the High- 
land clansmen dwelling in the Western 
Isles, and the counties of Ross, Argyll, 
Sutherland, Inverness, and the islands 
of Orkney and Shetland. They occupy 
small farms or crofts. In 1745 the chiefs 
claimed the ownership of the lands, and 
during the present century have made 
large clearances for sheep-walks. 

Crofters' Act {The), 1886. Provides 

(1) security of tenure for the crofters; 

(2) fixed reasonable rents ; (3) compen- 
sation for improvements; (4) enlarge- 
ment of holdings; and (5) bequest of 
holdings. 

By this Act a crofter Is a yearly tenant of a hold- 
ing not rented at more than SOI. a year. 

Cromnyo-mantia. A kind of 
divination with onions laid on the altar 



CEOMWELL 



CROSS 



227 



on Christmas Eve. 
tomy of Melancholj^ 



See Burton, ' Ana- 
vol. ii. p. 341. 



Cromwell Grandison. So La- 
fayette was called by Mirabeau. The 
Grandison referred to was Sir Charles 
Grandison, the hero of a novel by Samuel 
Richardson, so faultless a gentleman that 
Sir W. Scott wrote of him as ' the fault- 
less monster that the world ne'er saw.' 
Lafayette was as dogmatic and dictatorial 
as Cromwell, and assumed all the French 
Buavity and finesse of a Sir Charles. 

Cromwell of France (The). 
Francois Maximilien Joseph Isidore 
Robespierre (1759-1794). Both were main 
instruments in bringing their respective 
kings to the block, and both after the death 
of their king rose to supreme power ; but 
in other respects there was very little 
resemblance between them. 

Tallien was one of the first to denounce him 
[Robespierre] from the tribunal ; and the whole 
assembly shouted, ' Down with the tyrant ! Down 
with the Cromwell ! —Pbince, Parallel History, 
vol. iii. p. 98. 

Cromwell of the Jews (The). 
Judas Maccabseus, died B.C. 160. 

Cromwell's Mad Chaplain. 

Hugh Peters (1599-1660). His favourite 
text was Psahn cxlix. 6-9, ' To bind their 
kings with chains, and their nobles with 
fetters of iron.' 

Cromwell's Trench. A woody 
dell about half-a-mile from Lathom, in 
Lancashire. So called because the par- 
liamentary army made their camp there 
when they besieged the Countess of Derby 
in her castle. 

'Cromwell's Stones' are two circular holes In a 
large stone which evidently once contained 
nodules of iron. It is said that the parliamentary 
besiegers used these holes as moulds for casting 
balls during the siege. 

Cromwellians. Tlie partisans of 
Oliver Cromwell (1599, 1653-1658). 

Cronbane Halfpenny, 1789. A 
token of the Associated Irish Mine Com- 
pany, payable at Cronbane Lodge, Wick- 
low. It had on one side the head of a 
mitred bishop (perhaps meant for St. 
Patrick), with the legend croncane 

HALFPENNY. 

Croppies (The). So the Irish in- 
Burgents were called in derision, when, 
in 1796-97, soldiers and yeomanry 
marched over the country to put down 



the various societies which kept the 
island in continual terror. They were 
so called because of their short-cut hair. 
In 1798 Ireland was in revolt. Some 
15,000 * rebels ' mustered on Vinegar 
Hill, near Enniscorthy ; the camp was 
stormed by English troops under General 
Lake, and the revolt stamped out. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

Croppers, 1812. The tag-rag of 
' General Lud,' who went about destroy- 
ing the new frames for the finish of 
woollen goods. These Croppers were 
the men hitherto employed to finish the 
woollen goods; and the new frames, 
which did the work better, faster, and 
cheaper, threw them out of employ. The 
chief ringleader was a man named Mellor. 
These riots broke out from time to time 
for four or five years. 

Croquants (Les). Peasants of 
Guyenne, who revolted in the reign 
of Henri IV. and in that of his sou 
Louis XIII. They were reduced to 
submission in 1595, and again in 1636, 
by the Due d'Epernon. 

It is said they were so called from the town 
Crocq (Creusc). The w ord is used as a verb : ' Lea 
gens de guerre qui de toutes parts croquaiont le 
peuple.' — Bor.DiER and Chaeton, Uistoire dt 
France, vol. ii. p. Iu7, col. 2. 



Cross. 



Agnus Dei 9. 
Altar cross 5. 
Austral cross 18. 
Cardinal s cross 13. 
Constantine s cross 16. 
Croix de Bourgogne, 10. 
Cross crosslet l>. 
Cross patonee 6. 
Cross pattce 8. 
Cross pendant 5. 
Cross potent 4. 
Cross of the Passion 12. 
Cross of the Resurrec- 
tion 9. 
Cross of Victory 9. 
Crux decussata 10. 
Crux immiasa 12. 
Egj-plian cvobs U. 
Fiichee 17. 
Fleury cross 3. 
Greek cross 1. 



Holy Rood 1-2. 
Lambeaux 15. 
Latin crosr, Ii. 
Maltese cross 7. 
Marking cross 11. 
Moline cror,8 2. 
Patriarch 8 cross 13. 
Pectoral cross 4. 
Pope scrobS 14. 
Reliquary cross 10. 
Rood 12. 

St. Andrsw^s cross 10. 
St. Anthony's cross 11. 
St. Georgo s cross 1. 
St. Patricks cross IJ. 
Saltire 10. 
Southern cross 13. 
Spire crofaB 8. 
Tau cross 11. 
Teutonic cross 7. 
Triumphant cross 12. 



(1) mkm Greeh cross. The basis of all 

others. Two straight lines 
bisecting each other at ri^ht 
angles. St. George's cross, red 
on white. 

(2) jT^j Cross moline. A Greek cross 

■*• with the ends turned round 
both ways. 

(3) .^ Cross fleury. A Greek cross 

with afleitr-de-Us on each end. 
Q2 



228 



CEOSS 



CROSS 



(6)*.> 



(9) ►'I' 



(10) X 

(11) T 

(12) -J- 

(13)4- 

(14)4- 
(15)^ 

(16) I 

(17) f 



Cross potent. A Greek cross 
with each end crutched. The 
Fectoral cross. 

Cross patonee. A Greek cross 
with three points at each ex- 
tremity. The cross pendant 
or Altar cross. 

Cross crosslet. A Greek cross 
with a cross at each extremity. 

Maltese cross. A Greek cross 
narrowing towards the centre, 
with two points at each ex- 
tremity. The Teutonic knights 
wore a black Maltese cross. 

Cross pattee. A Maltese cross 
without the points at the ex- 
tremities. The Spire cross. 

Agnus Dei. A Spire cross on 
the top of a blunt spear. The 
cross of the Resurrection. 
The cross of Victory, 

St. Andrew^s. The capital let- 
ter X. White on blue. St. 
Patrick's cross, red on white. 
Crux decussdta. The Be- 
liquary cross. In heraldry 
called a Saltire. Croix de 
Bourgogne. 

Tau cross. A Greek letter T. 
St. Anthony's cross. An Egyp- 
tian cross. The Marking cross, 
or Crux AnsCita. 

Lati7i cross. A Greek cross with 
the stem length eued. Crux 
immissa. Cross of the Passion. 
The Triumphal cross. When 
placed on the chancel screen 
and made large, it is called the 
Bood or the Holy Bood. 

Cardinal's cross, carried before 
a cardinal. A double Greek 
cross. A Lorraine cross. The 
Patriarch's cross in the Greek 
Church. 

Pope's cross, carried before the 
pope. A triple Greek cross. 

The Lamheaux. A Maltese 
cross on a Latin stem, set on a 
lambel with three pendants. 

Constantine's cross. ^ A cross 
with a Greek P [RJ = Chr, i.e. 
ChrListos]. 

A cross crosslet with the lower 
stem pointed, technically called 
fitchee. 



(18) The Austral or Southern cross. 

A constellation con- : -j- : 

sisting of four bright ! * ! 

stars disposed in a - : : 

cruciform fashion, i ,„. ^ \ 

the upper and I " i 

lower stars point- ' i i 

ing to the south • i 

pole. i ^ i 

Cross {The sign of the). This is 
made by carrying the right hand to tLj 
forehead, the stomach, the • 

left shoulder, and the right i 

shoulder, thus forming the • ; c 

four points of a Latin cross. It j 

is said that this was a secret ; 

sign practised by Christians • 

for mutual recognition, and 
that it maybe traced back to the 2nd cent. 

Cross of Christ (The). The Em- 
press Helena, mother of Constantine, is 
sui^posed to have found the cross hidden 
in a cave, near the Temple of Venus, at 
Jerusalem. We are told that slie cut it 
up into three unequal pieces, one of which 
she enshrined in a silver casket, and gave 
it to Macarius, patriarch of Jerusalem ; 
another part she sent to Constantinople, 
and the rest she sent to Rome, where it 
was deposited in the church of the Holy 
Cross. This part is now enclosed in one 
of the four pillars which support the 
dome of St. Peter's Church. The part 
sent to Constantinople was given by 
Baldwin II. (king of Jerusalem) to St. 
Louis [IX.] of France, and it is ke^Dt in 
Notre-Dame de Paris. The part sent to 
Jerusalem was, in 636, subdivided into 
nineteen pieces, four of which were kept 
at Jerusalem, and the rest were sent, three 
to Antioch, three to Constantinople, two 
to Cyprus, two to Georgia, and one 
to each of the five following places : 
Alexandria, Ascalon, Crete, Damascus, 
and Edessa. See ' Crucifixion,' Belies of 
the. 

Macarius was the person who suggested to 
Helena that the true cross of the three discovered 
should be tested by touching with the crosses a 
woman readj' to die. The two crosses of the two 
thieves produced no elfect, but the moment she 
felt the touch of the true cross she leaped up, 
restored to perfect health. As Helena was eighty 
years old at the time, one is rather surprised that 
she parted with so valuable a treasure. 

Calvin says that * fifty men could not carry the 
wood of what is called the true cross.' Luther 
thinlts there was wood enough ' to build an im- 
mense house." Cyril of Jerusalem tells us the 
wood was multiplied 'like the loaves and tishea 
when Jesus fed the multitude In the desert ' • 



cr.oss 



CEOWN 



229 



and St. Paulinus tells us that, although chips 
t^ere cut from it daily, ' yet the wood never 
BuUered diminution.' 

By a diligent search I find the follow- 
ing places are said to possess parts of the 
cross : — Aix-la-Chapelle, Amiens, Angers, 
Aries, Arras, Autun, Avignon, Bauge, 
Bernay, Besan^on, I3ologna, Bonifacio, 
Bordeaux, Bourbon-Larchambault, Bour- 
ges, Brussels, Chalinargues, Chalons, 
Chamirey, Chatillon, Chelies in Anjou, 
Chelles, Compiegne, Conques, Cortona, 
Courtray, Denmark, Dijon, Donawert, 
England, Faphine, Fiume, Florence, 
Gand, Geneva, Grammont, Jaucourt, Je- 
rusalem, Langres, Laon, Libourne, Lille, 
Linibourg, Longpont, Lorris, Lyons, 
Macon, Maestricht, Marseilles, Milan, 
Mount Athos, Montepulciano, Naples, Ne- 
vers, Norway, Nuremberg, Padua, Paris, 
Pisa, Poitiers, Pontigny, Ragusa, Riel- 
les-Eaux, Rome, Royaumont, St. Die, 
St. Florent, St. Quentin, St. Sepulchre, 
Sens, Siena, Tournay, Treves, Troyes, 
Turin, Valcourt, Vamback, Venice, Ven- 
loo. These I have traced, but doubtless 
there are several others. 

Mount Athos has 878,300 cubic millimetres of the 
cross ; Kome has 537,587 ; Brussels 51C,0D0 ; Venice 
445,5«2 ; Ghent 436,450 ; and Paris 237,731. 

Cross of Shame (The). The ♦ Fiery 
Cross ' (q.v.) was so called, because dis- 
obedience to its summons was deemed 
infamy. 

Crosses on Tombs. 

Seven crosses designate the tomb of a 
bishop, who alone can administer all the 
seven sacraments. 

Five crosses designate the tomb of a 
priest, who can administer five out of the 
seven sacraments. 

Otie cross marks the tomb of an ordi- 
nary Christian, to indicate his faith in 
the cross as his one hope of salvation. 

Crosse Scholarships. For Theo- 
logy. Tliree in the University of Cam- 
bridge for Bachelors of Arts ; value 20Z. a 
year each, and tenable for three years. 
Founded by the Rev. John Crosse, vicar 
of Bradford, Yorkshire, 1832. See ' Re- 
gius Professor of Divinity.' 

Crossing the Line. The first 
authentic account of the ordeal observed 
on board ship dates 1702. One sailor 
represents Neptune and another his wife 
Amphitrite ; another his barber, and the 
rest his suite. All dress in the most 



grotesque raiments they can obtain. A 
tarred topsail is formed into a bath, and 
a throne is provided for Nej^tune and 
his wife. Those midshipmen who have 
never crossed the line are then brought 
forth, while the men pour over them 
buckets of water, or play the fire hose 
into their faces. Their faces being 
tarred are scraped by the barber, and 
the victims are then soused into the bath 
provided. Here they are left to struggle 
out and make their escape as they best 
can. This horse-play is now almost 
entirely, and in most cases wholly, 
abolished. 

Crossman's Catechism. This is 
Robert Nelson's ' Whole Duty of a 
Christian,' edited and abridged by-Cross- 
man. Nelson lived 1656-1715, and was 
a non- juror, but the intimate friend of 
Tillotson. 

Crouchback. Edmund Plantage- 
net, 2nd son of Henry III., and first earl 
of Lancaster. Next brother to Edward 
I. (1241-12D6). 

Cvown (The). It was Walter Walker, 
grocer, at the sign of the Crown, who 
said he would make his son heir of the 
crown. When Edward IV. was told of 
this merry jest, he ordered Walker to 
be arrested and put to death for treason 
(1461). 

Crown. A crown is the circlet of 
gold, &c., ornamented, placed over the 
cap represented in England by a border 
of ermine and a silk or velvet loose cap. 
The crown of the sovereign and Prince 
of Wales has a jewelled diadem of gold 
arched over the cap, surmounted with a 
ball and cross pattee. Cap velvet, turned 
up with ermine. 

The sovereign's crown has two dia- 
dems crossed at right angles. The crown 
of the Prince of Wales has only one 
diadem. The coronet has a fleur-de-lis, 
and 4 crosses pattee, alternately. A 
cross patte'e stands in full-front midway 
between the spring of the diadem. 

The robe of state of the Prince of Wales is of 
purple velvet, lined with ermine, and trimmed 
with a deep ermine cape reaching to the elbows. 
Its speciality is five rows of ermine tails. 

Baron's crown. A velvet cap with er- 
mine border similar to that of other peers, 
but the coronet differs from that of a vis- 
count by having only 8 round pearls on 



2C0 



CPvOWN 



CROWN 



the upper rim instead of 14. In France 
' une torsade en perles.' 

His robe of state is similar to that of a viscount, 
but the cape has only 2 rows of black spots. A 
prince has 5 rows, a duke 4 rows, a marquis half 4 
and half 3, an earl 3, a viscount hall 3 and half '2, 
a baron 2. 

A prince's coronet bears on the upper rim 
t fleurs-de-lis and 4 crosses pattee, a duke's 
8 strawberry leaves, a niarc|Uis's 4 strawberry 
leaves alternating with 4 golden balls, an e.irl s 
4 points surmounted with balls alternating with 
4 strawberry leaves, a viscount's with 14 golden 
balls, a baron's with 8 golden balls. 

Duke's crown consists of a velvet cap 
■with a border of ermine, and the coronet 
over it is a circle of gold -with jewels, the 
upper rira being set with 8 gold straw- 
berry leaves. In France the leaves were 
' fleurs de persil.' 

His state robe is a crimson velvet mantle lined 
vrith white taffeta (not ermine), but the cape is 
ermine, reaching to the elbows, having 4 (instead 
of 5) rows of ermine tails. 

His parliamentary robe is scarlet cloth, lined 
vith white taffeta, and the ermine cape. 

Earl's crown. A velvet cap with a 
border of ermine, with a circlet of gold 
enriched with jewels, from the upj)er 
rim of which rise 8 points, each sur- 
mounted with a round pearl, towering 
somewhat above the cap, and between 
these points 8 small gold strawberry 
leaves. In France the leaves were 
omitted. 

His robe of state Is crimson velvet, like that of 
a duke, but the cape has only 3 rows of black spots 
instead of 4. 

Marquis's crown. A velvet cap with 
a border of ermine, and a coronet of gold 
jewelled like that of a duke, but with 
this difference, instead of eight straw- 
berry leaves on the upper rim, the rim is 
surmounted with 4 strawberry leaves and 
4 round pearls. In France they were 
parsley leaves. 

His state robe is a crimson velvet mantle, and 
the cape has 4 rows of black spots on the right 
Bhoulder, and only 3 rows on the li'ft. 

Prince's crown (except the Prince of 
Wales). A velvet cap turned up with 
ermine and surmounted with a gold ball. 
The gold and jewelled circlet has 
4 crosses pattee and 4 fleur-de-lis alter- 
nately, but there is no diadem, nor ball 
and cross. 

The princesses* crown is like that of 
the princes'. 

The nephews and nieces have straw- 
berry leaves in the place of fleurs-de-lis 
and crosses pattee. 

Viscount's croum. The cap is the same 
as that of a duke, marquis, or earl; but 
the gold and jewelled coronet has 14 



round pearls on the upper rim, quite 
close together. In France the pearls 
were arranged in sets of three. 

His state robe is the same as that of an earl, 
with this difference, instead of 3 complete 
rows of black spots, there are 3 rows on the riyht 
shoulder and only 2 on th6 left. See 'Marquis,' 
above. 

Crcwn {A). In the Catholic Church 
is the subjective recognition of superior 
Christian merit : as the crown of virginity, 
the crown of humility, the crown of learn- 
ing, the crown of martyrdom, &c. St. 
Peter of Piavenna received the ' triple 
crown of virginity, doctorate, and martyr- 
dom.' St. Angelus, in 1225, received ' the 
triple crown of virginity, preaching, and 
martyrdom.' St. Cecilia received the 
double crown of -virginity and martyr- 
dom. 

Crown {The English). It is said 
that Alfred, in 872, was the first English 
sovereign to wear a symbol of regal 
authority. 

In 929 Athelstan wore a coronet not 
unlike that of our earls. 

William the Conqueror added a coronet 
with points to his ducal cap. 

In 1483 Richard III. introduced the 
crosses, and Henry VII. the arches in 
1485. 

The oldest crown now existing in 
England is that of Charles II., 1000. 

The present crown was made in 1838, 
the jewels being taken from old crowns 
broken up. It contains a large ruby and 
a large sapphire. 

The smaller stones are 1,363 brilliants, 1,273 rose 
diamonds, 273 pearls, 147 table diamonds, 16 sap- 
phires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, and 4 drop pearls. 

In l:^S6 Richard II. pawned his crown and re- 
galia for a loan of 2,0OOJ. 

Crown [The Papal). In 593 Pope 
Hormisdas wore a cap of state. 

In 1053 Pope Damasus II. followed the 
same example. 

Hildebrand (1073-1083) wore a royal 
crown, with the legend, Corona regni de 
manu Dei. 

In 1160 the papal cap was encircled 
with a crown. 

Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) added a 
second crown, with this legend, Diadema 
imperii de manu Petri. 

It is very doubtful who introduced the 
third crown. Some say it was John XXII. 
(1816-1334), some say it was Benedict 
XII. (1334-1342), and some ascribe it to 
Urban V. (1362-1370). It indicates su- 



CEOWN 



CRUSADES 



231 



preraacy in temporal power, in spiritual 
power, and in ecclesiastical power, in 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. 

Crown and Anchor Associa- 
tion (T/^e), 1795. For the 'protection 
of liberty and property from republicans 
and levellers.' The chairman was Mr. 
Eeeves, M.P. 

Cro-WTi and Government Se- 
curities Bill {The), 1848. To facilitate 
prosecutions for political ofTences. The 
bill was especially directed against the 
war party of Ireland urged on by Mr. 
Mitchel, M.P., editor of the 'United 
Irishman ' {q.v). 

Crown Oration {The), b.c. 330. 
Soon after the battle of Chaeronea, Ctesi- 
phon proposed that Demosthenes should 
be presented with a golden crown in the 
theatre, during the great Dionysiac 
festival, for his services to Athens, 
^schines uidicted Ctesiphon for this 
proposal, and Demosthenes spoke in his 
defence. The oration of ^schines is 
called the ' oration against Ctesiphon ' ; 
that of Demosthenes is called his oration 
* on the Crowu,' or his ' Crown oration.' 
jEschincs failed to secure a fifth part of 
the votes, and quitted Athens to live in 
Rhodes. 

Crown of Thorrs {The). Placed 
on the head of Jesus ; was not found in 
the cave with the cross, and there is no 
record extant of its discovery. In the 
thirteenth century Baldwin II., king of 
Jerusalem, gave it to St. Louis [IX.] of 
France, who built in Paris a holy chapel 
for its depository. It is devoid of thorns 
now, for they have been given away to a 
vast number of churches, and parts have 
been set in rings. I myself have seen 
and handled one of these rings. This 
relic and fragments of the Cross are borne 
in procession by twelve canons at 8 o'clock 
every Good Friday night through Notre 
Dame de Paris. At least this was the 
case when I lived in Paris. See ' Cruci- 
fixion,' Belies of the. 

In the Hotel de Cluny, Paris, Is a ring said to 
contain a small part ol one of the thorns. 

Crowns. The kaiser-kings of Ger- 
many received tlaree crowns. I. The 
silver crown, as king of Germany. II. 
The iron crown of Lombardy, as king of 
Italy; and III. The imperial crown as 
k user of the Holy Roman Empire. The 



first he received at Aix-la-Chapelle, the 
second at Monza, and the third at Rome ; 
but Karl V. (Charles-quint) was the last 
kaiser-king who received the imperial 
crown at the pope's hands. 

The imperial crown was a small mitre, cleft in 
the front instead of at the sides. 

Crown of St. Stephen {The). The 
crown of Hungary. Stephen I. (979, 997- 
1038), called ' the Apostle of Hungary,' 
received a crown from Pope Sylvester II., 
with which the emperor of Austria is 
still crowned as ' king of Hungary.' See 
' Corona.' 

If Hungarian independence should be secured 
through the help of Prince Napoleon, the prince 
himself should accept the crown of St. Stephen. — 
Kossuth, Memoirs of my Exile (1880). 

Crucifixion {Belies of the). See 
under 



The Bandage. 


The Robe. 


„ Blood. 


„ Spear. 


„ Cross. 


„ Spontra. 


„ Crown of Thorns. 


„ Stai lease. 


„ Cup. 


„ Table. 


„ Grave clothes. 


„ Title. 


Handkerchief. 


„ Tunic or Shirt. 


„ Nails. 


„ Whipping-post. 


„ Reed. 





Crusades, from 11th to 13th cent. 
Expeditions to recover Palestine from the 
Moslems. So called because the soldiers 
wore a cross on the shoulder or breast as 
a badge of their religious faith. 

1st, in 109G-1099; decreed by Urban 
II. It ended in the capture of Jerusalem 
by the crusaders. 

2nd, in 1147-1149 ; led by Louis VII. 
and Konrad III. Its object was the 
relief of Christians oppressed by the 
Moslems. It was a complete failure. The 
Christians had to surrender Jerusalem. 

3rd, in 1189-1192. This crusade was the 
most heroic. Frederick Barbarossa of 
Germany, Philippe Augustus of France, 
and Richard Coeur de Lion of England 
were among the crusaders, while the re- 
nowned Saladin was on the other side. It 
was brought to an untimely close, on 
Saladin's agreeing to allow pilgrims free 
access to the Holy Sepulchre. 

4th, in 1198-1204. Constantinople was 
taken. 

5th in 1216-1221. The sultan recovered 
Damietta. 

6th, in 1215-1229. Kaiser Friederich II. 
proclaimed King of Jerusalem ; but in 
1244 Jerusalem was retaken by the Turks. 

7th, in 1248-1253. A truce of ten years 
concluded. (Led by St. Louis of France.) 

8th, in 1270-1272. Nazareth taken, truce 



232 



CHUSCA 



CUMEAN 



of ten years concluded. (Led by St. Louis, 
who died at Tunis, on his way, 25 August, 
1270.) 

CruS3Ca [Accademia della), 1582. The 
famous Florentine Academy, instituted to 
enrich the literature and improve the 
language of Tuscany. So named be- 
cause it discarded as hran all words not 
purely Tuscan. The great Italian dictio- 
nary was produced by this Academy, 
1612. See ' Delia Crusca.' 

Crusoe's Island. Juan Fernandez 
is so called by sailors, from a persuasion 
that it was the island of Defoe's famous 
story. 

Crusty diristopher. So Tenny- 
son called Professor Wilson, who noticed 
the works of the young poet in ' Black- 
wood's Magazine ' with praise not un- 
mixed with censure, 1830. 

Crystal Palace {The), 1851. A 
large building almost entirely of iron and 
glass constructed in Hyde Park, London, 
as an exhibition room for all nations in 
the world. It was 1,818 feet long, 408 feet 
wide, and 66 feet high, crossed by a tran- 
sept 108 feet high and 408 feet long, 
enclosing several noble elms. It was 
nearly four times the length of St. Paul's 
and twice the width. It contained 84 
miles of gutter to carry off the rain, 
900,000 feet of glass, and covered over 18 
acres of ground. The designer .was 
Mr. Joseph Paxton, and the contractors 
were Messrs. Fox and Henderson ; their 
contract being 79,800Z. and the material, 
or 150,000^. without it. The actual cost 
was 176,030Z. It was begun 26 Sept., 1850, 
and opened 1 May, 1851. It realised a 
profit of 150,000^. in 144 days. 

Cuckoo Ale. Ale drunk the first day 
one hears the cuckoo. In Shropshire it 
was atone time customary for the labour- 
ing classes, as soon as the cuckoo was 
heard by them for the first time in the 
year, to leave off work, and spend the 
rest of the day in merry-making, a main 
part of which was drinking cuckoo ale. 
This was drunk out of doors to welcome 
the cuckoo. 

Cuckoo Day, 14 April. The birthday 
of the Princess Beatrice. The tradition 
is that the old woman let the cuckoo out 
of her bag at Heathfield Fair. 



Cuentas del G-ran Cdpitan. A 

ridiculous pretence of an account of 
money spent. Gonsalvo, the great cap- 
tain, was accused by Ferdinand of mis- 
appropriating the public money, and was 
commanded to produce his accounts. 
Gonsalvo read aloud: 'Item the first, 
200,703 ducats and 9 reals to friars, nuns, 
and mendicahts, to offer up prayers for 
the success of his majesty's arms. Item 
the second, 700,494 ducats and 10 reals to 
spies.' Here Ferdinand, who had never 
sent Gonsalvo money enough to pay the 
soldiers, seeing the jest, and fully ashamed 
of the accusation, interrupted the captain 
by a burst of laughter which was echoed 
by the whole court. 

Cuirassiers. Heavy horsemen wear- 
ing, in the time of Queen Mary, body- 
armour over their buff coats. They carried 
sword and pistol. Napoleon had twelve 
regiments of cuirassiers. The Russian 
cuirassiers are armed with lances. In 
England, at the present day, the Life 
Guards and Horse Guards wear cuirasses. 
Pronounce Eue-ras-saeah. 

Culdees. Secular clergy attached to 
cathedrals and performing the office of 
dean and chapter to the episcopate. They 
were pretty numerous, and made their 
first appearance in the 9th cent. No- 
thing is heard of them after the 14th 
cent. The word seems to be Irish, and 
to mean ' Attendants of God ' {ceile De). 

Cum Occasione {The Bulls), 1653. 
By which Innocent X. condemned the five 
famous propositions of Jansen. In 1665, 
Alexander VII. prescribed a formula for 
the condemnation of Jansen and the 
Jansenists, which all ecclesiastics were 
required to sign. 

Cumean Sibyl. Amalthsea offered 
9 vols, of x3roj)hecie3 on the future of 
Rome to Tarquinius Superhns, who re- 
fused to purchase them. Having de- 
stroyed three of them, she returned the 
following year, asking the same price for 
the remaining six. Tarquin again refused 
to purchase them ; whereux^on Ajnalthsea 
destroyed three more, and demanded the 
original price for the three left. The books 
were bought, placed in a coffer, and stowed 
away in the crypt of the capitol under the 
charge of two patricianf:. The custodians 
were afterwards increased to ten. and then 
to fifteen. In the reign of Honoriua 



CUP 



CURTMANTLE 



233 



they were burnt by StilTco, his master of 
the horse. (Varro, ' Aiitiqaities,' vol. ii.) 

It is rather remarkable tnat Tarquinius Su- 
porbus died at Cumee, the home of the famous 
. Bibyl. 

Cup or Chalice (The) used by oiir 
Lord at the Last Supper has been pre- 
served, according to tradition ; but there 
are two cups which profess to be the 
genuine one. Some affirm that it is the 
silver chalice at Valencia, in Spain ; but 
others insist that it is the green glass cup 
at Genoa, which was taken to Paris in 
1816, and broken in the transit. This 
cup has two handles and is of hexagonal 
form. Its diameter a-top is 326 milli- 
metres, and it will hold three litres of 
liquor. See ' Crucifixion,' Relics of the. 

The ' SacroCatino ' is sometimes identified with 
the ' Holy Graal ' of the romances of the middle 
ages ; but many consider the Holy Graal to be the 
paten and not the cup. In Arthurian romance it 
eeems to be a golden vessel, not silver or glass, and 
suits the idea of a paten with the consecrated 
bread tar better than that of a chalice. Thus v.-e 
read ipart iii. chap. 3, 4, 85, 102), ' immediately the 
bread had been distributed the graal vanished.' 

Cupid's Gardens. A corruption 
of Cuper's Gardens. Public gardens laid 
out byBoydell Cu]per, gardener to Thomas, 
earl of Arundel. Boydell Cuper, when 
Arundel House was taken down, obtained 
numerous mutilated marbles, which he 
erected in these gardens. They were op- 
posite Somerset House, were opened to 
the public in 1678, and ceased to exist 
in 1753. These gardens were famous for 
fireworks, but no less notorious for licen- 
tiousness. 

Curfew Bell {The' A corruption 
of couvre-feu, ' put out tlie fire.' William 
the Conqueror ordered the bell to be rung 
at eight o'clock every night in every city 
and town in En.^/and, when every fire 
and every lamp and candle was to be put 
out. This was not to annoy the English, 
but to prevent fires and conspiracies. 
William had enforced the same in Nor- 
mandy as an act of police before the 
battle of Hastings. 

Curia Hegia [The), 1860. The 
supreme court of judicature in Hungary. 

Curia Regis, or Council of the 
Realm, 1172. A sort of parliament held 
by Henry II. at Lismore for the purpose 
of conferring with the prelates and mag- 
nates on tlae government of Ireland. 
Henry determined to extend to his 
English subjects in Ireland the laws and 



usages they were accustomed to while 
they lived in England. These laws and 
usages extended over what was called the 
Pale iq.v.), but all the rest of Ireland con- 
tinued to observe their own laws and 
usages. 

Sir John Davies informs us that no legislative 
council was held in Ireland for 140 years after the 
council at Lismore, but that Irish representatives 
attended the English parliaments. 

Curlew Mountains [The). The 
county of Leitrim was so called even in 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

Curop'alate. One who had charge 
of the palace in the Eastern Empire, 
called in the Prankish kingdom ' Maire 
du Palais,' by the Romans ' Major domus,' 
and in English ' Steward of the House- 
hold.' Michael I. was called ' Curopala- 
tus,' because he was Mayor of the Palace 
to Stciuracius, whom he deposed and suc- 
ceeded 2 Oct., 811. Being himself de- 
posed by Leo, he turned monk and died 
about 845. 

Curry-powder Duke [The). The 
Duke of Norfolk, who, during the corn- 
law agitation, said in a speech he was 
surprised that the poor did not put a 
pinch or two of curry-powder in their 
stews, as it gave the meat such a piquant 
flavour. 

I remember Sir Robert Harvey saying in a public 
speech that he was surprised the poor did not 
more frequently eat a red herring at breakfast, as 
it gave such a piquant flavour to bread and butter. 
In ridicule of this speech, a red herring was often 
carried on a pole in political elections. The re- 
mark of the I'rincess Lamballe was of a similar 
character. She was surprised the poor did not 
ent briochen, as bread was so dear. And our 
Princess Cliarlotte said she would rather eat beef 
than starve. 

Curse of Cromwell (The), 1650. 
His campaign in Ireland, which certainly 
was stained with revolting cruelty. Wit- 
ness the massacres of Drogheda and 
Clonmel. He was lord-lieutenant at the 
tune. 

This bloody campaign has always been remem- 
bered in that countrv as the ' Curse of Cromwell.' 
— HowiTT, Hist, oj Eny. (Commonwealth, p. 315), 

Curse of Scotland {The). The 
Nine of Diamonds is so called from i(;3 
resemblance to the nine lozeng'js in tlje 
heraldic bearing of John Dalryn pie, first 
earl of Stair, so scandalously concerned 
in the massacre of Glencoe {q.v.). 

CUitraantle. The surname of 
Henry II. of England. He wore the 
Anjou mantle, which was shorter thaa 



234 



CUEULB 



DACTYLS 



the robe worn by his predecessors (1133, 
1154-1189). 

Curule Magistrate {A). A Roman 
state officer, such as dictator, consul, 
prsetor, &c., who sate on an ivory chair 
at the head of public assemblies. All 
the children of such a magistrate became 
nobles [nohiles]. The Curule chair was 
like a camp-stool, which could easily be 
moved about, and was placed in the 
chariot of the magistrate when he rode 
in state. 

Curulis is connected •with currus, a chariot; 
hence equus curulis (a carriage-horse), friumphus 
ewulis (a carriage triumph', in contradistmction 
to an ovation which was made on foot. 

Gustos Rotulo'rum. The chief 
officer of the court of Quarter Sessions 
ig.v.), who has custody of the records or 
rolls ; he must be a justice of the peace 
of the county, nominated by the crown, 
and appointed by the commission. 

Cynic Philosophers {The) of 
ancient Greece. Founded by Antis- 
thenes the Athenian (b.c. 440-376). 
Cynic is an adjective from kv^os (gen. 
of Kvvoiv, a dogj ; so called because Antis- 
thenos taught in the gymnasium called 
Cynosargtis {tlie White Dog). He was a 
censor of public morals and manners. 
Diogenes of Sinope (b.c. 412-323) af- 
fected to be surly like a dog, and like a 
dog snarled at every one. The Athenians 
raised to his memory a pillar of Parian 
marble surmounted with a dog. The 
substance of the mscnption being — 

Say, dog, I pray, what guard you in that tomb ? 

' A dog.' His name ? ' Diogenes.' From far ? 
' Sinope.' He who made a tub his home ? 

' The same. Now, dead, among the stars a star.' 

Cyclic Poets (T/te). Theepicpoets 
who sprang up after Homer, and con- 
fined themselves to the same cycle of 
events, viz. the Story of Troy. Staslnos 
of Cyprus chose for his subject events 
immediately preceding the Trojan war. 
Arctinos of Miletus related the story of 
the wooden horse. Agias of Troezene 
took for his subject the return from Troy. 
And Eugamon of Cyrene made a con- 
tinuation of the Odyssey. 

Nee sic iucipies, ut scriptor cyclicus olim. 

HoKACE, Ars Poeiica, 137. 

Cy-pr6s Process {The). The pro- 
cess of approximation. Where a literal 
execution is inexpedient or impracticable, 
the court will execute a devise as nearly 
as it can, according to the spirit of the 



devisor's words, or, to speak technically, 
cy-pres. For example : if there are no 
objects remaining to take the benefit of 
a charity, the court will dispose of the 
revenues by a new scheme on the prin- 
ciples of the original trust. 

As in law, a cy-pres or approximate administra- 
tion of an obsolete devise is admissible, so in re- 
ference to the Bible, is it not incumbent upon you 
to apply what seems obsolete to cases analogous 
to those originally intended ?— Dr. Hessey, Moral 
Difficulties connected with the Bible (1871), p. 112. 

Cyrena'ic Sect {The). Founded at 
Cyrene, in Africa, by Aristippos, who 
studied under Socrates. He taught that 
pleasure is the ultimate object of human 
pursuit, but that virtuous motives and 
virtuous conduct are indispensable to 
true pleasure. Aristippos died B.C. 880. 

Cyzicenus. Antiochus IX., king of 
Syria, who was educated at Cyzicos (b.c. 
112-9G). 

Czar (Caesar or Kaiser), 1237. A 
title first conferred on Dimitri I., son of 
Yaroslaf, by the Greek emperor. Before 
then the sovereign was called Kniaz 
(grand-duke) or Welik Knez (great 
prince), a title which ran on concurrently 
with czar till 154 !>. After the battle of 
Pultowa, in 1709, the head of the Russian 
empire was also styled emperor and 
autocrat. 

The monarch of Casan was called tzar. This 
monarchy was conquered, in 1545, by Ivan Vassi- 
livich (the Terrible) ; and it is said that Ivan then 
dropped the titles of Kniaz and Welik Knez, and re- 
tained only that of ' tzar ' or * czar.' 

D. By the Mutiny Act, 21 Vict. c. 9 
(1858) it was enacted that, ' on the first, 
and on every subsequent conviction for 
desertion, the court-martial . . . may order 
the offender to be marked on the left 
side, two inches below the armpit, with 
the letter " D " (deserter), not less than an 
inch long, with some ink, or gunpowder, 
or other preparation not liable to be ob- 
literated.' 

For other brands, see * F ' (' Diet, of 
Phrase and Fable,' p. 281), ' V,' and ' S.' 

DacoitS. Brigands, so called in 
Oude, Burmah, &c. But sometimes the 
Dacotah Indians of North America are 
incorrectly called Dacoits. 

Dacoity. Brigandage. 

Dactyls, or ' Idean Dactyls.' Priests 
of Cybele, Saturn, and Jupiter, dwelling 
in Crete, on Mount Ida. 



DAGGER 



DAME 



23R 



Baid to be called ' Dactyls ' from the Greek word 

toKJvXoi, a finger, because iheywere ten in number. 

Dagger-ale. A very celebrated ale 
Bold at ' The Dagger ' ordinary, in Hol- 
born. The dagger refers to the City 
arms. 

Dagger-money. A tax to provide 
arms and police, when judges entered a 
town, to prevent their being molested or 
attacked bji highwaymen. 

Dagger-scene in the House of 
Commons {The). During the French 
Kevolution, Edmund Burke on one occa- 
sion threw a dagger on the floor of the 
house, vociferating ' There is French fra- 
ternity for you ! Such is the poignard 
which French Jacobins would plunge into 
the heart of our sovereign.' Canning 
spoilt this bunkum by saying : ' The 
gentleman has brought his knife with him, 
but where is the fork ? ' 

Dague de la Mis^ricorde {La), 
or the ' Mercy of God.' A broad strong 
poniard, which was hung on the right side 
of the Scottish-French archers. See Sir 
W. Scott, ' Quentin Durward,' chap. v. 

Daguerreotype {TJie), 1825. The 
production of permanent pictures on 
plated copper by Louis Jacques Mande 
Daguerre (1789-1851). 

Daibutsu. The great statue of 
Buddha, in Japan. It is about 600 years 
old, 50 feet in height, and 100 feet in 
girth ; it is made of bronze and silver, but 
the eyes are of gold. The proportions are 
exquisite, and probably it is the finest 
idol in existence. 

Daily Courant {The), 11 March, 
1702. Called the first daily newspaper in 
England. 

Daily iN'e'WS {The). Commenced 
21 Jan., 1846, London. 

Daily Paper {First English), 11 
March, 1702. The ' Daily Courant.' See 
* English Mercurie.' 

Daily Paper {First French), 1777. 
Called the ' Journal de Paris.' 

It contained an article on the ' Almanach des 
Muses,' a short letter by Voltaire, the advertise- 
ment of a library, two or three miscellaneous 
articles, and a pun ; the pun was the chief attrac- 
tion, and continued so for some time. 

Daily Telegraph {The). A Lon- 
don newspaper, commenced 29 June, 
1855. 



Daisy League {The), 1887. A league 
formed at Belfast for the promotion of 
women's rights, and for Home Rule in 
Ireland under imperial control. Not in- 
dependent Home Rule or separation from 
Great Britain. The badge of the league 
is a daisy, and the motto is ' Faith, Hope, 
and Charity.' Of course the idea was 
suggested by the Primrose League {q.v.) 

Dalcassians,orDalgais. The people 
of North Munster, including Clare, Lime- 
rick, and the country about Cashel as far 
as the mountains of Sliablama, in Ossory. 
The people of South Munster were called 
Eugenians (Eoganachts, or sons of 
Eogan). 

Dalreudi'ni. Natives of Ulster, 
same as Dalriads {q.v.). 

Dalriada. Antrim in Ireland is so 
called from Cairbre Riada,on one of whose 
descendants the country was settled by 
the arbitration of St. Colman, a.d. 572. 

Carbre, or Cairbre, was generally called Carbre 
'of the Long Arm.' 

Dalriadie Rulers (T^e). The kings 
of Argyllshire. Dalriada is the ancient 
name of the northern half of Antrim, in 
Ireland. Cairbre (of the Long Arm) of 
the race of Riada, who lived in the 3rd 
cent., planted a colony on the shores of 
Argyllshire, in Albany, and in 50G some of 
his descendants founded there the king- 
dom of ' Dal-riada in Albany.' In 843 
Kenneth MacAlpin united the Dalriads 
and Picts under one sceptre, and became 
the first king of Albany. 

About two centuries afterwards Albania began 
to be known as Scotia, or Scotland. 

' Hector Boece added by i nter polation from forty 
to forty-five Scotch kings to the authentic Irish 
list of Dalriadic rulers.'— T. MoOEE, History oj Ire- 
land, chap. viii. p. 137. 

Dalriads {The). The Irish-Scots, 
who possessed themselves of a part of 
Argyllshire, in the middle of the 3rd 
cent. 

Damage-cleer {i.e. damna clenco- 
rum). A fee paid to the clerks of courts 
before judgment was executed. It was 
the tenth part in all Common Pleas, and 
a twentieth part in the King's Bench and 
Exchequer courts, of all damages exceed- 
ing five marks. Abolished in 1665. 

Dame de Beaute {La). Agnes 
Sorel, the mistress of Charles VIL of 
France (1410-1450). So called from the 
' Chateau de Beaute,' on the banks of the 
Mame, given her by the king. 



236 



DAMIANISTS 



DANE 



Damianists. Those nuns of the 
Order of St. Claire who followed the 
most austere rule of St. Francis. Those 
who followed the modified rule introduced 
by Urban IV. in 12G4 were denominated 
"UThanists. 

Damien (Father). A Belgian Catho- 
lic missioner (1839-1889) who devoted his 
life to the care of the lepers at Molokai. 
He caught the disease, and speedily fell 
a victim, at the age of 49. 

Damiens [Bobert Franqois), Jan. 
1757. Attempted the life of Louis XV. as 
he was stepping into his coach to return 
to the Trianon, by stabbing him between 
the fourth and fifth rib. The devilry of 
the French in torturing this creature is 
wholly without precedent. First incisions 
were made in his arms and thighs, into 
which boiling oil was poured. He was next 
chained on an iron bed, and the torture 
again applied. On 28 March, amidst a vast 
crowd of people, he was taken to the 
Place de Greve, and being fastened by 
iron gyves to a scaffold, one of his hands 
was burnt in liquid flaming sulphur. His 
thighs, legs, and arms were then excori- 
ated with red-hot pincers, and boiling oil, 
molten lead, hot resin, and sulphur were 
poured over the wounds. Next, tight liga- 
tures being tied round his wrists and 
ankles, four young horses were fastened 
to the ropes to pull the limbs asunder. 
This lasted an hour, when the medical 
attendants ordered the tendons to be cut. 
Again the horses were lashed, and one 
arm and leg were severed. After a few 
more pulls the other members were pulled 
off, and the man expired. In 1704 Gold- 
smith published his ' Traveller,' and at 
the conclusion alludes to ' Damiens' bed 
of steel.' See Smollett's ' History of Eng- 
land,' vol. v., chap. 12, p. 3. 

Dan. So Daniel O'Connell was lov- 
ingly designated by the Irish. 

Danaanian Dynasty ( TJie) . A dy- 
nasty said to have reigned in Ireland, and 
to have been succeeded by the Milesians. 
They were descendants of Tuatha na 
Danaan {q.v.), who had migrated to Scot- 
land, and had been led back by Nuad of 
the ' Silver Hand.' See ' Silver Hand.' 

Danans {The). Invaders of Ireland 
in prehistoric times, who overthrew the 
Belgse settlement in one great battle and 
the ' Irish ' in another, and made them- 



selves masters of the island. The Belgsa 
were allowed by them a free territory in 
Connaught. 

By the ' Irish ' must be understood the Fomo- 
rians and Partholanians (.q.v.). 

Dance of St. Guy [The), 1378. An 
epidemic in Germany ; also called the 
' Dance of St. Witt.' It was supposed 
that the v'ctims of this disease were pos- 
sessed, and therefore they were exorcised 
by the priests. 

Pausanias tells us that the daughters of Proa- 
tus and the •women of Argos fancied they were 
cows, and ran about the meadows under this 
hallucination. Compare Daii. ii. 32, 33. 

Dancing Mania [The), 1374. A 
strange disease, which pervaded different 
parts of Germany, and first broke out in 
the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Persons would join hands, forming large 
circles, and dance like mad people till they 
fell exhausted to the ground. The magis- 
trates of the Rhenish cities were obliged to 
put down the mania by an armed force. 
In the French Revolution a similar mania 
prevailed, the ' Carmagnole ' being the 
name of the dance and song which then 
moved men, women, and children -to a 
temporary frenzy. 

Called in Holland ' St. John's Dance ; ' in Ger- 
many ' St. Witt's Dance; ' in Strasburg ' St. Guy s' 
or ' St. Vitus's Dance." 

Dancing-masters [Father of all). 
Beauchamps, who died 1G95. Louis XIV. 
took lessons of him for twenty years. 

Dando {The), Sept. 1427. A kind of 
influenza which affected nearly everyone 
in France. It began with pains in the 
shoulders and loins, shivering fits fol- 
lowed, and then a tearing cough. It 
lasted fifteen or sixteen days. A chro- 
nicler says during the dando not a man 
or woman could be found who had not a 
large pimple either on the mouth or on 
the nose. 

Dandy. For the different names of 
French dandies, see ' Incroyables.' 

Dandy King (T7ie). Joachim Murat, 
king of Naples, called by Napoleon ' Un 
roi de theatre.' He used to parade the 
streets of Paris dressed like a stage king 
in silks and satins (1771-1815). 

Egan says the word ' dandy ' was first used in 
1820; this requires confirraation, for velocipedes, 
invented in 1779, were called 'dandy-horses,' and 
were common in 1618. I myself rode one at the 
time. 

Dane Territory. In England. At 
the Peace of Nottingham, 868, Alfred the 
Great divided England into two parts, 



DANEBKOG 



DARIEN 



237 



the larger of which he assigned to the 
Danes ; but he kept London in his own 
portion. The boundary ran along the 
Thames to the mouth of the Lea ; then 
by Bedford and the river Ouse to the old 
Roman road called ' Watling Street.' See 
' The Five Burghs.' 

Danebrog {The Order of), 1219. In- 
stituted in Denmark by Waldemar the 
Victorious. Revived in 1671 by Chris- 
tian V. To recompense services rendered 
to the state, whether military or civil. 
The decoration consists of a cross of gold 
pattee, enamelled with white, and sus- 
pended with a white ribbon edged with 
red. 

Brog = flag. The order is in honour of the na- 
tional rtag of Denmark. 

Danegelt. A tax first levied in 991 
by Ethelred the Unready to bribe the 
Danes, who had invaded the kingdom, to 
quit it. Several times during the reign 
of Ethelred the Danes returned, and re- 
ceived fresh bribes. It is said that he 
paid them altogether 150,000^. (fully four 
and a half millions according to Me 
•present value of money). The tax was 
from tune to time levied by subsequent 
kings, under pretence of fortifying the 
kingdom or maintaining a fleet or army 
against the Danes. Edward the Con- 
fessor abolished it ; but it was again col- 
lected, under the name of ' Heregeld ' 
(army tax), in the reigns of William I., 
William II., Henry I., and Stephen. 

In 991 the tax was Is-, for every hide of land, but 
the ta>. was soon doubled. 

Danelagh. Means the * Danes' law,* 
but the word is apjilied to the ' Five 
Burghs' given by Alfred to the Danes 
at the Peace of Nottingham in 868. The 
• Five Burghs of the Danes ' were Derby, 
Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and 
Stamford. 

According to the ' Bromton Chronicle," the 
Danelagh contained fifteen counties mot five), viz. 
Essex, Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Hertfordshire, 
Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Lincoln, Notting- 
hamshire, Derbyshire, Northamptonshire, Leices- 
tershire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordsliire, and all 
that vast territory called Northumbria. 

Danish Butler (The). Baron 
Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754), author of 
the heroi-comic Hudibrastic poem en- 
titled ' Peder Paars.' 

Danites {The). Sometimes called 
'Destroying Angels.' The more violent 
raembers of the Mormon community 
who carried out the decrees of the Elders 
on recalcitrant brethren. A number of 



them, disguised as Indians, massacred a 
party of Mormons withdrawing from the 
Utah settlement. Brigham Young was 
accused of complicity. 

' P'r'aps you've heard tell of Danites?' I had 
heard ... of that spiritual police of Mormon- 
dom, of those fierce zealots who obey their pro- 
phet blindly . . . Seth's right ; we don't want to 
set up any chaps to paint Injun on our account, 
as Angel Brown, and young Harris, and the 
Danites did.'— Charles Dickens, Christmas Num- 
ber, 1861, ^U the Year Rowui, p. 41 (Xom Tiddler's 
Ground). 

Dante of Philosophy {The). 
John Baptist Pico, professor of rhetoric 
in Naples (1688-1740). 

Danton of the Gironde {The). 
Isnard, son of a perfumer at Grasse ; a 
literary man, formed on the old Grecian 
and Roman model. He was a thorough 
republican of very im]Detuous character. 

Dantonists. The followers of Dan- 
ton, one of the three leaders in the Reign 
of Terror, the other two being Hebert 
and Robespierre. When Danton thought 
that blood enough had been shed, he 
halted and advised moderation, but was 
trampled in the dust by those less scrupu- 
lous than himself. Robespierre accused 
him of monarchical proclivities, and he 
was condemned to death by the Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal. 

Danubian Principalities {The). 

Moldavia and WaUachia, constituted 
into independent states by the Conven- 
tion of Paris, 19 Aug., 1858. They were 
united provisionally by a firman of the 
Sultan, 12 Nov., 1861. United under tho 
title of Roumania 23 Dec, 1861. 

Darbyites (Dar^-by-ites), Darby- 
ism, 1832. A split from the Plymouth 
Brethren on the doctrine of the humanity 
of Christ. So called from. John H. 
Darby. 

Darg. The regulation enforced by 
the trades union among colliers, that no 
workman shall raise in a day more of the 
mineral than could be easily raised by 
the most inexperienced and unskilful of 
the colliers. 

Dajg =. day : contract work by the day. 

Darien Scheme (T/ie). TheDarien 
Company was projected by William 
Paterson (founder of the Bank of Eng- 
land) in 1694. Incorporated by Act of 
Parliament in Scotland, 1695. Settle- 
ment abandoned in 1699, and finally in 
1700. The scheme was to colonise the 
Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, 



238 



DARK 



DAY 



in order to form a commercial entrepot 
between the eastern and western hemi- 
spheres ; and a monopoly of all the trade 
of Asia, Africa, and America was granted 
to the company. The ground, however, 
belonged to Spain, and the climate was 
fatal to the colonists. Many having died 
and more sickened, a Spanish force was 
sent against the new-comers, which broke 
up the company entirely. 

Then there were malcontents [in Scotland] 
created by the government opposition to the 
Darien scheme. . . . The Darien malcontents 
■were for the most part revolutionists.— Ho WITT, 
History of England (Anne, p. 182). 

Dark Ages [The). From the fall of 
the Roman empire, a.d. 475, to the re- 
vival of literature on the discovery of the 
Pandects at Amalfi in 1137. Not to draw 
the limits too finely, say 700 years (450 
to 1150). The Middle Ages {q.v.) may be 
extended to about 1550, covering from 
ten to eleven centuries. 

Darling of Mankind (T/ie). Ves- 
pasian the Roman emperor (9, 70-79). 
Titus was called the ' Delight of Man- 
kind ' (40, 79-81). 

Darvel G-atheren. A great wooden 
idol in "Wales, held in great veneration. 
There was a legend that one day Darvel 
would burn a forest. When Friar For- 
rest, in 1538, the confessor of Queen 
Katharine, was burnt for denying the 
king's supremacy, this image was cast 
on the pile. 

David Darvel Gatheren, 
As saith the Welshmen, 

Fetched outlaws out of hell ; 
Now is he come, ■« 1th spear and shield, 
In harness to burn in Smith field. 
For in Wales he may not dwell. 
And Forrest, the friar, 
That obstinate liar, 

That wilfully shall be dead, 
In his contumacy 
The gospel doth deny 
The king to be supreme head. 

Dar-winism. So called from Charles 
Darwin. Is the theory that species owe 
their origin to natural selection, or the 
survival of those best adapted to the 
surroundings, &c. 

Evolution is the development of new species of 
animals and plants by a natural process, of which 
the chief factors are heredity, variation, and 
adn.ptation. Hence Darwinism and evolution are 
quite distinct ideas. 

Daughter of Jerusalem. Mount 
Zion, the fortified part of Jerusalem. 
Here David had his palace, and hence it 
was also called ' The City of David.' 

Dauphin of France (The), 1349. 
Heir apparent of the crown, like our 



* Prince of Wales.' Humbert II. count 
of Dauphiny, by the Treaty of Vincennes 
(30 May, 1349), ceded Dauphiny to the 
crown of France, and from that time to 
the first Revolution the eldest son of the 
reigning king was entitled ' The Dauphin.' 
The wife of a dauphin was entitled Dau- 
phine (2 syl.). 

The Grand Dauphin means the eldest 
son of Louis XIV., named ' Louis de 
France' (16G1-1711). The son of the 
Grand Dauphin also died before his 
grandfather (1GB2-1712). 

David Dale's People. Scotch 
Independents. So called from David 
Dale of New Lanark, the philanthropist 
(1738-1806). 

Davidians, or the ' Family of Love.' 
So called from David George, who made 
himself sometimes Christ and sometimes 
the Holy Ghost. See Strype, ' Cranmer,' 
p. 291. Their tenets are touched upon in 
the preface to the ' Ecclesiastical Polity,' 
and a short account of them is given in 
Sir W. Scott's ' Woodstock,' ii. p. 218. 

David George published an account of his 
visions in 1542, under the title of the ' Book of 
Wonders." He died in lots. 

Davies Scholarship. For Classics. 
Value about 30Z. a year, tenable for seven 
years. Founded in the University of 
Cambridge by the Rev. Jonathan Davies, 
D.D., provost of Eton, 1804. See ' Regius 
Professor of Greek.' 

Davis Chinese Scholarship. 

Tenable for two years. Founded in the 
University of Oxford by Sir John F. 
Davis, F.R.S. 

Davis Strait. So called from John 
Davis, an English navigator of the 16th 
cent. 

Day of Adoration (The). ' Dies 
Adoratus,' 14 Sept. Called also ' L'exal- 
tation de la Sainte Croix,' ' en mcmoire de 
ce qu' Heraclius rapporta sur le Calvaire 
en 642 la vraie croix que Chosroes, roi des 
Perses, avait enlevee 14 ans auparavant.' 

Day of Federation {The), 14 July, 

1790. The anniversary of the storming 
of the Bastille, when the people swore 
' to defend the liberty of France.' 

Day of Ferdinand (The), 27 May, 
1800. By a most disgraceful trick, 
Napoleon Bonaparte persuaded the old 
king of Spain to abdicate, and then he 
set his own brother Joseph on the vacant 



DAY 



DAY 



239 



throne. The Spaniards, disgusted at 
this treachery, rose as one man, massacred 
the French garrison at Madrid, and cut 
to pieces the squadron at Cadiz. This, 
of course, led to reprisals, and the result 
was the long Peninsular "War {q.v.), so 
glorious to the Duke of Wellingtcm, end- 
ing with the battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 
1H15, and the banishment of Napoleon to 
St. Helena. 

Day of July (The). 'Joumee de 
Juillet,' 14 July. Noted for the insurrec- 
tion of the people of Paris in 1789, and 
the taking of the Bastille. Between 
1790-1792 the anniversary was called 
the ' Fete de la Fe'de'ration. See ' Days of 
July.' 

Day of New Cloaks (The). 

Old Christmas Day was at one time so 
called in France, from the custom of giving 
on that day a new robe to each courtier. 

On Christmas Eve, 1245, the king [Louis IX.] 
bade all his court be present at early morning 
mass. At the chapel door each man received his 
new cloak, put it on, and went in. ... As the day 
rose, each man saw on his neighbour's shoulder 
the cross which betokened the crusading vow.— 
KITCHIN, History of France, vol. i. p. 828. 

Day of Poniards (The), 28 Feb., 
1791. The day of the attack on the 
prison of Vincennes (2 syl.), called ' the 
Second Bastille.' On this day a large 
number of courtiers rushed to the Tui- 
leries to defend the king and royal 
family. Lafayette with the National 
Guards disarmed them, and they were 
very roughly handled by the mob. This 
day was called 'the Day of Poniards' 
because Marat, in his journal, L'Ami du 
Petiple, declared that 5,000 poniards had 
been manufactured in Paris for the use 
of the aristocrats against the patriots. A 
diligent search was made by order of the 
National Assembly, but only thirty-five 
poniai'ds could be found, and those were 
for persons engaged in the slave trade. 

A number of the king's friends . . . had flocked 
to the palace, as on the Day of Poniards.— HowiTT, 
History oj England (George UI., p. 418), 

Day of Reason (The), 8 June, 
1794. When the bishops and clergy of 
Paris, decorated with caps of liberty, re- 
nounced their sacerdotal office and pub- 
licly declared : ' We now abjure the trade 
of superstition, and are resolved hence- 
forth to be men instead of Christians ; to 
own no temple but the sanctuary of the 
law; no divinity but liberty; no object 
of worship but our country ; and no 
gospel but the constitution.' 



The Bishop of Moulines trampled on his cross 
and mitre, and, taking up a pike and cap of 
liberty, preaclied to the people that ' death is an 
eternal sleep.' 

Day of Rest (The). 

Christians set apart 1st day of the week fSunday). 
Greeks „ 2nd „ „ (Hi'onday). 

Persians „ Srd „ „ (Tuesday). 

Assyrians „ 4th „ „ (Wednesday). 

^in^d Jesfda} " ''^ » " (Thursday). 

Turks „ 6th „ „ (Friday). 

Jews „ 7th „ „ (Saturday). 

See ' Sunday.' 

Day of St. Ferdinand {The). A 
repetition of the ' Sicilian Vespers.' See 
' Day of Ferdinand.' 

Day of the Barricades. See 

' Barricades.' 

Day of the Bastille (The), 14 July, 
1789. The day on which the Bastille 
was demolished by the French rabble. 

Day of the Burae {The). The 

first Sunday of Lent is so called by the 
Lotharingians, from the custom of carry- 
ing bandons or torches on that day, first 
observed in 1249. The day is known as 
the ' Burae; ' hence ive read such phrases 
as these : — ' Die crastina burarum,' or 
' Feria quinta post buras.' See ' Sunday.' 

Day of the Camel {Th^„ * Nov., 

A.D. 657. The famous battle of Bassorah, 
in which Ali defeated Ayesha, Telha, and 
Zobeir. It was the first civil war of the 
Moslems, and received its name from the 
following circumstance : Ayesha, the 
prophet's widow, who hated Ali (son of 
Fatima), went to the battle on a camel, 
with seventy men to hold her bridle. 
All the seventy men were slain, and the 
cage or litter in which Ayesha rode was 
struck with so many darts and javelins 
that, as Gibbon says, it was like a porcu- 
pine with its quills. 

Day of the Dupes {The), 11 Nov., 
1630. Marie de Medicis, the queen 
mother, hating Richelieu, induced her 
son, Louis XIII., to dismiss him ; and 
the king, unable to resist his mother, 
commanded the cardinal to resign his 
portfolio. The lady was triumphant, 
her friends were loud in their congratu- 
lations, and all thought the influence of 
the queen mother was paramount. Next 
day Eichelieu waited on the king to 
place in his hands the seals of office ; 
Louis relented, refused to accept the 
resignation, and Eichelieu became more 
powerful than ever. This day is called 



210 



DAY 



DEAD-CART 



in French history 'La Journde des 
Dupes.' The dupes were the queen 
mother, her younger son the Duke of 
Orleans, Michel and Louis de Marillac, 
and all their clique. 

Day of the Millers (^7^e). 'Jour- 
n^e des Farines,' 3 Jan., 1591. When 
some of the partisans of Henri IV., dis- 
guised as millers, attempted to get pos- 
session of the barrier de St. Honore', in 
Paris, with the view of making themselves 
masters of the city. Li this they failed. 

Days. See also 



Baronial days. 
Black days. 
Egyptian days. 



Eed-letter days. 
Scarlet days. 
Sundays. 



Days in Banc. Days appointed 
by the courts, or fixed by statute, when 
process must be returned, or when par- 
ties served v/ith writs are to make their 
appearance in full court. 

Days of Grace. The three days 
beyond the time at which a 'bill' is 
actually due. Sunday, Good Friday, 
and Christmas Day do not count. 

Days of Ill-name. ' Dies male- 
dicti,' also called ' Dies ^gyptiaci ' and 
* Dies ^gri.' Two days in every month 
held unlucky by the Egyptians, because 
they fancied ' quod in aliqua hora dierum 
illorum non erat bonum sanguinare (id 
est sanguinem minuere), nee aliquod opus 
incipere.' On these days they would 
commence no new work, nor start on a 
journey. St. Augustine refers to this in 
his ' Commentary on Epistle to the Gala- 
tians,' chap. iv. 

Days of July {Tlie). ' Joumees de 
Juillet,' the 27, 28, 29. When the people of 
Paris rose and drove Charles X. from 
the throne for suppressing the liberty of 
the press, 1830. See ' Day of J uly.' 

Days of Jnne {The), 5, 6. I. An 
^meute provoked in Paris by the Re- 
publicans at the funeral of Lamarque, 
deputy of the Opposition, 1832. Barri- 
cades were thrown up in the quarters of 
St. Antoine, St. Martin, St. Denis [Sahn 
Dnee], &c. The troops were called in, and 
on the 6th put down the disturbance by 
taking the church of St. Merry by storm. 

IL 23, 24, 25, 26. A bloody insurrec- 
tion by the party styled the ' Democra- 
tique et Sociale ' against the republic 
established in France 24 Feb., 1848. It 
»»as aroused by the dissolution of the 



ateliers naMonaux. St. Jaques, St. Mar- 
ceau, and St. Antoine were besieged, and 
it was only put down by calling out the 
soldiers under the direction of Cavaignac. 
Seven generals were killed, and Mgr. 
Affre (archbishop of Paris) was shot on 
the 25th, attempting to stop the slaughter. 
The loss of life was enormous, but the 
number of slain was not allowed to be 
published. 

DeDonis Conditiona'libus('8'^a- 

ttite). The statute of Westminster which 
established in England the power of 
creating an entail (13 Edw. I. c. 1). 

De Eminenti, 1642. The bull of 
Urban VIII. against Jansen and his book 
* Augustlnus.' 

De Hseretico Comburendo 

iThe),2 Hen. IV. c. 15, a.d. 1401. An Act 
forbidding all unlicensed preaching ; au- 
thorising bishops to arrest anyone sus- 
pected of propagating unsound doctrines ; 
and all persons arrested were to be kept in 
prison till they abjured their errors, or in 
default thereof were to be handed over to 
the secular power, which ' shall forthwith 
do them to be burnt.' Repealed by 
29 Car. II. c. 9, a.d. 1677. 

William Sawtrey, a London clergyman, was the 
first to suffer. He was arrested by Archbishop 
Arundel, and burnt alive for refusing to adore the 
cross. 

De Officiis. By Cicero, 1466. Printed 
by Fust and his son-in-law Peter Schasffer. 
The first secular book ever printed in 
moveable metal types. The three books 
previously printed were Bihlia Sacra 
Latina, Bihlia Latina, and Fsalviormn 
Codex. 

De Profundis. The first two words 
of the Psalm cxxx. in Latin, sung by 
Catholics in the funeral service. 

Deacon. A deacon must be 22 years 
of age. His duties in the Greek and 
Latin Churches are: (1) to administerthe 
alms to the poor, and to administer the 
Eucharist, but not to consecrate. 

Deacons were prohibited from celebrat- 
ing the Holy Communion by the Act of 
Uniformity (q.v.), 1662, 14 Car. II. c. 4. 

Dead-cart (The). A cart which tra- 
versed London from nightfall to daybreak 
during the plague. It was accompanied 
by two men, one with a bell, and the other 
with ft long pitchfork. The bell was rung 
fzom tijae to time to give notice that the 



DEAD 



DEANS 



211 



cart was at hand, and when the dead were 
pushed mto the street, they were tossed 
by the pitchfork into the cart, and carried 
to a great pit, where they were shot 
down wholesale (1665). 

The pit in Aldgate was 40 feet by 16 feet, and 
9 feet deep. Atiove 400 bodies were shot into it 
between the 6th and 20th of Sept. 

Dead Hand (The). Mortmain, i.e. 
the possession of lands and tenements in 
'dead hands,' or hands which cannot 
alienate. 

These may have been his reasons for seeking the 
protection of the 'dead hand.'— H. Hayman, D.D. 

A corporation is a ' dead hand ' because it can- 
not alienate. So is the Church. 

Dead's Part {The). That portion of 
the moveable estate of a deceased person 
which remains over, after satisfying the 
legal claims of wife and children. In 
Scotland the surplus is the only part which 
the deceased could dispose of by will 
or testament. Abolished by 19, 20 Vict. 
c. 94. 

Dead Reckoning. A term in navi- 
gation, signifying the calculation of a 
ship's place at sea, made independently 
of celestial observations. 

Dead Weight Annuity (The). 
4 Geo. IV. c. 22. Military and naval pen- 
sions, and pensions given to civil super- 
numeraries. They expired in 18:37. 

Dead Woman Crowned (4), 1357. 
Ines de Castro, wife of Pedro (I.) of 
Portugal. Pedro had clandestinely mar- 
ried Ines de Castro, and his father Affonso, 
king of Portugal, had her privately assas- 
sinated. In 1357 Affonso died, and Pedro 
succeeded to the crown. He then had the 
corpse disinterred, sumptuously arrayed, 
and crowned. Pedro stood beside the 
corpse, and the nobles did homage to it by 
kissing the hand. The ceremony being 
over, the dead body was restored to its 
sepulchre again. 

Dean. In Oxford University; the 
title of the master of Christ Church, 
which is a cathedral. 

Dean Ireland Exef^etical Pro- 
fessorship {The). In Oxford Univer- 
sity. Stipend 6001. a year. Founded by 
Dr. John Ireland, of Oriel College, dean 
of Westminster, 1847. 

Dean Ireland's Scholarships. 

Four for Latin and Greek, tenalsle for four 
years. Founded in the University of | 
11 



Oxford by Dr. John Ireland, of Oriel Col- 
lege, dean of Westminster, in 1825. 

Dean of Faculty (r/ie). President 
of the incorporation of advocates or 
barristers in Scotland ; elected annnally. 

Dean of G-uild. In Scotch burghs 
was head of the mercantile body called 
the ' Guild brethren.' At one time he 
was a judge in mercantile and maritime 
causes within the burgh, but is now a kind 
of city edile. 

Dean of University College, 

London. The principal or head of a 
faculty chosen for a limited period. 

Deans {Honorary). Without juris- 
diction, such as the dean of the Chape] 
Koyal, of St. James's Palace, &c. 

Deans {BuraT). Are deputies of the 
bishop, planted all round his diocese, to 
inspect the conduct of the parochial 
clergy, inquire into and report dilapida- 
tions, and armed with judicial authority 
in matters not of serious importance. 

Deans of Chapters. Are either of 
cathedral or collegiate churches. Such 
as the dean of Canterbury and the dean 
of St. Paul's, who are governors over the 
canons. It is a crown appointment, and 
the dean must reside eight months in 
the year, and may hold a living with his 
deanery. The office in Durham is worth 
8,000Z. a year ; of St. Paul's, of West- 
minster, of York, and of Manchester is 
worth 2,000Z. a year ; of most other 
cathedrals about 1,000?. a year; but from 
agricultural depression in the last ten 
years (1890) the value of all church bene- 
fices dependent on tithes has much de- 
preciated. 

Deans of Peculiars, or * Deans in 
Peculiar.' Have sometimes jurisdiction 
and cure of souls, and sometimes juris- 
diction only. Of this nature is the dean 
of Battle in Sussex, founded by William I., 
the dean of Westminster, the dean of the 
chapel of St. George of Windsor, and the 
dean of King's Chapel. The following 
have jurisdiction but no cure of souls, 
viz. the dean of Arches in London, the 
dean of Bocking in Essex, the dean of 
Croydon in Surrey, and the dean of Christ 
Church, Oxford. 

Deans of Provinces, or 'Deans 
of Bishops.' Like the bishop of London, 
who is ' dean of the province of Canter 



DEANS 



DECEMBER 



bury.' The archbishop sends to him his 
mandate for summoning the bishops of 
liis province when a convocation is to be 
assembled. 

Deans of the Chapel Royal 

(The). In Scotland there are three such 
deans appointed by the crown ; the duties 
are quite nominal, being limited to an 
occasional sermon before the sovereign 
when in the neighbourhood. 

Deasy's Act, 1860. An Irish land 
act, which reduced the question to a 
mere matter of contract. So that the 
tenant's house, the out-offices, the fences 
and drains, made or paid for by the 
tenant, were the property of the landlord. 
This continued till 1870, when an act 
was passed to provide compensation for 
improvements and prevent capricious 
evictions. 

Death Rate. The number of in- 
habitants at present on the earth is 1,300 
millions. 

The annual death rate is 33 millions ; 
92 thousand daily : nearly 4 thousand 
every hour,* 60 every minute, and 1 every 
second. 

Only 1 in 1,000 reach the age of 100, 
1 in 500 reach the age of 80, 6 in 1,000 
reach the age of 65. 

• In round numbers : More exact, 33,033,033 
die annually, 91,824 daily, 3,730 hourly. 

Death with Music. Leopold I., 
the kaiser (1658-1705), on his death-bed 
requested that the court musicians might 
be introduced, that he might die to the 
sounds of sweet music. Mirabeau's last 
words were ' Let me die to the sounds of 
delicious music' 

Deaths (Begistration of). See 
'Eegistration,' &q. 

Debarring. In the Scotch church, 
means excluding from communion all 
those deemed by the minister and his 
lieutenants unworthy to ' partake of that 
feast,' 

Debased Style [The], 1600. Ap- 
plied to architecture means that which 
followed the Reformation period. Called 
debased, because the designs were in- 
ferior to the previous styles, and the 
execution by no means good. There was 
no unity, but different schools and diffe- 
rent periods were mixed together. 

The first was the Early English oc Lancet style, 
the second the Decorated, the third t)ie Florid 
or Perpendicular, and tlio lourtk the Debased. 



Debateable Land {The). 'The 
space between the Esk and the Sark, 
bounded on the third side by the march 
dike. It seems properly to belong to 
Scotland, but having been disputed by 
both crowns, was styled "The Debate- 
able Land." In the reign of James VI. (I. 
of England) Sir Richard Graham, obtain- 
ing from the Earl of Cumberland a lease 
of this tract, bought it of James, and got 
it united to the county of Cumlaerland.' 
(Pennant, ' Tour in Scotland,' vol. ii. p. 82.) 

Decadence. In ancient art applied 
to works subsequent to the reign of 
Augustus. In modern art the term ia 
applied to the post-renaissant period, or 
the rococo style introduced in the reign 
of Louis XV. 

In Greece the term is applied to art subsequent 
to the time of Pericles, the turning point of Greek 
art. In England art reached its lowest point in 
the reign of George IV. 

Dec'adistS. Those who observed the 
new French Calendar introduced by 
Fabre d'Eglantine in 1793. So-called 
because the year was divided into decades 
(10 days instead of weeks), the 10th 
decade being called decadi. 

There were 360 decades in a year, and these 
made up 300 days, the odd 5 (to make up 36.5 days) 
■were called Sans-culottides, or holidays for the 
Bans-culottes or operatives. 

Decalcea'ti, 1570. The barefooted 
friars. They were Augustine and Fran- 
ciscan friars of the stricter rule, which 
forbade the wearing of boots or shoes. 

Deccan {i. e. the south). The country 
between the river Nerbuddah and the 
river Krishna. 

Decelsean War {The),^ b.c. 413. 
Decelea was a demus of Attica on the 
borders of Boeotia. In the nineteenth 
year of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 413) 
the Peloponnesians, under Agis, seized 
and fortified the demus, and thereby 
greatly annoyed the Athenians. It was 
held till the close of the Peloponnesian 
war (B.C. 404). 

December 25. The time of the 
winter solstice has been held in high 
festival by well nigh all the nations of 
the earth, and probably our festival of 
the Nativity was fixed to this day in 
order to divert a long and general pagan 
practice to the birth of Christ in Bethle- 
hem. The 25 Dec. was chosen for the 
festival in* the reign of Antoninus Piua 



DECEMBER 



DECLARATION 



243 



(138-161), and is attributed to Teles- 
phorus. 

China.— The birth of Buddha, son of Maya, Is 
celebrated 25 Dec— Bunsen. The Angel Messiah; 
LiLLIE, liuddha and Jlmhlhism, p. 73. 

Druids.— The festival called ' Nolagh ' was cele- 
brated at the winter solstice.— HiGGlNS, Anaca- 
lypsis, vol. ii. p. 99. 

Egypt.— Horus, son of Isis, is said to have been 
born at the close of Dec— M. Le Clekk de 
Septehenes, Kcligion of the Ancient Greeks, p. 
214 ; BONWICK, E.nipiian Belief, p. 157. 

Greece.— The birth of Demeter (Ceres), Dionysos 
(Bacchus), and Herakles (Hercules), were all cele- 
brated during the winter solstice. Just as that 
of Osiris was in Egypt. The Greeks called 25 Dec. 
' The Triple Night.'— Kchgioii of i)ie Ancient Greeks, 
p. 215 ; Anaealtipsis, vol. ii. p. 99. 

India.— Monier Williams (Hind^fan, p. 181) te'ls 
us that numerous Indian tribes keep Yule as a 
religious festival, decorate their houses with 
garlands, and make presents to their friends at 
this festal season. 

Mexico.— The festival called ' Capacrame ' was 
held in the winter solstice.— His( Indies, vol. ii. 
p. 354. 

Home.— The festival called 'Natalis Soils In- 
vlcti ' was celebrated on 25 Dec with public 
games.— Eev. J. B. GROSS, Tlie Heathen Religion, 
p. 287. 

Persia.— The great festival in honour of the 
birth of Mithras was at the same period — Celtic 
Druids, p. 1G3 ; GROSS, &c., p. 287. 

Scandinavia.— The festival called Jul, in honour 
of FrejT, son of Odin, was our Yule. 

Germany.- The Yule-feast; the French Noel, 
the Scandinavian Jul, the Druidical Nolagh. 

*,* On this day [25 Dec] the birth of Christ was 
lately fixed at Rome, in order that, while the 
heathen were busy with their profane ceremonies, 
Christians might perform their holy rites un- 
disturbed.— Chrysostom. 

December Laws (T/te), 1867, which 
gave to Hungary its present form of 
government. 

Decembrists (in Russian history), 
1825. Revolutionists who, at the death 
of Czar Alexander I., on 1 Dec, tried to 
introduce a constitutional government in 
Russia. This revolution was headed by 
some of the chief military and naval 
ofificers in the empire. It came to 
naught, and multitudes were imprisoned 
for long periods. Thus Colonel Batten- 
koff was imprisoned in the fortress of 
Petrojiavlovsk, in St. Petersburg, from 
Dec. 1825 to Feb. 1846, when he was 
exiled to West Siberia. 

Decemviral Tribunal (The). Of 
Venice. Called in English the ' Council 
of the Ten,' or * The Ten ' {q.v.). 

Decemvirs (The), or Council of Ten, 
B.C. 451, Appointed both to administer 
justice, conduct the government, and 
command the armies of Rome, as well as 
to draw up a new body of laws. Their 
code was called ' The Twelve Tables,' or 
Leges Duodecim Tabularuvi,ih.e Magna 
Charta of old Rome. Abolished B.C. M9. 



There were ten curators of the Sibylline Books 
called the Dcrcmviri. Originally the curators were 
only two. called the Duumviri, appointed by King 
Tarquin. The number was increased to ten by 
the Licinian Laws, B.C. 366. SuUa added five 
more B.C. 82, and Julius Coesar in about B.C. 46 
augmented the number to sixteen. 

Decided (The). A secret society 
sprung from the Carbonari after the un- 
successful outbreak of 24 June, 1817. 
They were the Guelphs of the papal 
states, the republican ' Brother Pro- 
tectors ' of France, the ' Adelphi ' of 
Piedmont, and the ' Society of the Black 
Pin.' 

DecimationTax(^/^e),1654. 'That 
all who had ever borne arms for the king, 
or had declared themselves to be of the 
royal party, should be decimated ; that is, 
should pay a tenth part of all the estate 
which they had left to support the 
charge which the commonwealth was put 
to by the unquietness of their temper, 
and the just cause of jealousy which 
they had administered.' 

The decimation tax was denounced as unjust, 
because it was a violation of the Act of Oblivion 
(3.t'.).— Dr LlNGARD, Hisi. of Eng. viii. 7. 

Declaration for refuting Four 
Scandals (^), 6 Dec, 1GG2. The four 
scandals which Charles II. abjured were 
these : — 

I. That the Act of Indemnity was in- 
tended to be merely temporary. 

II. That he intended to keep a largo 
standing army. 

III. That he was a persecutor. 

IV. That he favoured popery. 

Declaration at the Savoy, Lon- 
don [The), 29 Sept., 1658. A declaration 
of faith drawn up by the Independents 
in the Savoy, London; not unlike the 
Confession of Faith of the divines at 
Westminster. The chief difference is in 
the church government, which is wholly 
democratic 

The Church of England is governed by parlia- 
ment and bishops, assisted by the de-j ns and other 
ecclesiastics. The Presbyterian Church is go- 
verned by the presbyter and elders. The Inde- 
pendents leave all government to the discretion 
of each individual congregation. 

Declaration of Breda, in Hol- 
land {The), 1660. In which Charles II., 
then in exile, promised a general anxnesty 
to all concerned in the parliamentary 
wars, religious toleration, and satisfaction 
to the army. Sometimes called the ' De- 
claration from Breda.' There was this 
proviso — ' unless parliament in its wisdom 
sees fit to determine otherwise.' 

b2 



2U 



DECLARATION 



DECLAEATION 



Declaration of Cliarles II. 

(The). I. 25 Oct., 1660. A declaration 
having for its professed objects ' the pro- 
motion of godliness, the encouragement 
of public and private religious services, 
the observance of the Lord's day, and 
the holiness of ministers.' It promised 
that all holy offices should be filled with 
holy men, that confirmation should be 
carefully performed, that bishops should 
have no civil power, that the liturgy 
should be revised, that the cross in 
baptism and bowing at the name of 
Jesus should be left free, and that only 
the oaths of allegiance and supremacy 
should be required, without subscription 
and canonical obedience. 

11. For the Settlement of Ireland, 
28 Nov., 1660. Whereby soldiers and ad- 
venturers who had been planted on the 
estates of the Irish by the Common- 
wealth were to retain them, except 
they had belonged to persons who had 
remained entirely neuter in the civil 
war. In such cases the soldiers and 
adventurers were to give back thu estates 
to the Irish, and were to receive com- 
pensation from the ' fund of reprisals,' 

Declaration of Cromwell (The), 

1654. Forbidding any clergyman or fellow 
of a college to preach, be an instructor 
of youth, or administer the sacraments, 
under pain of imprisonment or exile. 
This prohibition continued in force till 
the Restoration. 

Declaration of Dunfermline 

(The), 1650. In this instrument Charles 
II. was called upon by the Scotch 
presbytery to lament his father's oppo- 
sition to the work of God and to the 
' Solemn League and Covenant ' (q.v.), 
which opposition had caused the blood 
of the Lord's people to be shed. He 
was called upon also to deplore the 
idolatry of his mother, the toleration of 
which in the king's house could not fail 
to provoke the anger of a jealous God, 
who visits the sins of the fathers on the 
children. He declared that he sub- 
scribed the covenant in sincerity of heart, 
and would in future have no friends but 
those who were friends to the covenant, 
and that such friends should in no wise 
be held his enemies. He acknowledged 
the sinfulness of the treaty with the 
bloody rebels of Ireland, which he now 
declared to be null and void. He de- 



clared his detestation of both popery and 
prelacy, as well as of idolatry and heresy, 
schism and profaneness. He promised 
to reform the Church of England and 
conform it to the Church of Scotland, ac- 
cording to a plan to be drawn out by the 
Assembly of the Divines of Westminster. 

Declaration of G-eorge I., in 

1728. George I. was a Lutheran, and in 
order to conform church and state to his 
own views, prohibited the clergy touch- 
ing on politics in their sermons, but 
allowed Convocation to transact eccle- 
siastical business and make church 
canons. 

Declaration of Independence 

(The). Signed 4 July, 1776, by the 
American Congress, declaring the * United 
States of North America' independent 
and separated entirely from the British 
crown. The Independence was acknow- 
ledged by France 16 Jan., 1778, and by 
Holland 19 April, 1782 ; provisional arti- 
cles of peace were signed by England 
S Sept., 1782. The Declaration waa 
drawn up by Thomas Jefferson, of Vir- 
ginia ; John Adams, of Massachusetts ; 
Roger Sherman, of Connecticut ; Robert 
R. Livingstone, of New York ; and Ben- 
jamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania. It was 
signed by eleven states, and the name 
American Colonies was changed into 
' The United States ' (of North America). 
Provisional articles of peace were signed by 
England at Paris 3 Sept., 1782; the definitive 
treaty was signed at Paris 3 Sept., 1783 ; and Joiin 
Adams was received by George III. as ambassador 
of the United States 2 June, 1785. 

Declaration of Indulgence 

{The). I. 26 Dec, 1672. PubHshed by 
Charles II. of England, ' by virtue of his 
ecclesiastical i)owers, suspending all penal 
laws against Nonconformists. The real 
object was to legalise the Catholic reli- 
gion. In virtue of this edict John Bunyaa 
left his prison at Bedford. The declara- 
tion was a mere political ruse whereby 
the ' traitor king ' hoped to play into the 
hands of Louis XIV., and it was imme- 
diately followed by a dissolution of the 
triple alliance against France, and a 
declaration of war with Holland. The 
Commons, suspecting the villainy of the 
king, passed the Test Act ; and the Duke 
of York, the Lord High 'Treasurer, and 
many high officers in the army, wera 
obliged to retire from public life. 

For the Declaration in the reign of James H. see 
p. 245. 



DECLARATION 



DECLARATION 



245 



II. 8 April, 1687, by James II. He 
removed the oaths and penalties from 
Dissenters, that Roman Catholics might 
be eligible to places of emolument and 
influence on his privy council, the two 
houses of parliament, the corporations, 
universities, the church, and even in the 
army and navy. It ran thus : — ' We 
have thought fit, by virtue of our royal 
prerogative, to issue forth this our De- 
claration of Indulgence, making no doubt 
of the concurrence of our two houses of 
parliament when we sliall think it con- 
venient for them to meet.' See ' Decla- 
ration of Indulgence 1G88.' 

III. 1688, by Jai7ies II. Commanding 
the bishops to instruct their clergy to 
read in their respective churches, in 
London on 20 May, and elsewhere on 
27 May, the Declaration of 1687, with 
this additional clause, stating the king's 
unalterable resolution to secure to his 
subjects 'freedom of conscience for ever,' 
and of rendering merit henceforth the 
sole qualification for office. See ' Seven 
Bishops.' 

Declaration of Jamesto-wn 

{Th-e), 1650. By ten Irish bishops and 
ten other clergymen, charging Ormond, 
the lord-lieutenant, with negligence, in- 
capacity, and perfidy. They protested, 
however, that although they were com- 
pelled to withdraw from the government 
of the king's viceroy, they had no in- 
tention of disputing the royal supremacy ; 
but under present circumstances the Irish 
were no longer bound by the articles of 
pacification. Next day they appended a 
form, of exconmiunication against all 
those who abetted either Ormond or 
Ireton, in opposition to the interests of 
the Catholic confederacy. 

Declaration of Liberty of Con- 
science {The), 27 April, 1688. Ordered 
to be read in all churches, 4 May. Seven 
bishops {q.v.) petitioned against the order 
May 18, and were committed to the Tower 
June 8. This Declaration, sometimes 
called a 'Declaration of Indulgence,' 
annulled the penal laws against Roman 
Catholics as well as against Nonconform- 
ists, and abrogated the Test Act. The 
object of James 11. was to introduce 
popery, and to appoint papists to all 
offices of state, magistracies, and mili- 
tary posts. 



Declaration of Rights {The). 
I. Tendered by the Convention to 
William and Mary, and accepted 13 
Feb., 1689. This Declaration set forth 
how King James II. tried to subvert 
the laws and liberties of the kingdom 
by levying money without consent of 
parliament, by persecuting those who 
petitioned him, by keeping a standing 
army in time of peace, by violating 
freedom of election, by returning corrupt 
jurors, by excessive bail, fines, and 
punishments. And ' they do claim and 
insist on all and singular the premises, 
as their undoubted rights and liberties.' 
The Declaration, being accepted, was 
formed into a ' Bill of Rights.' 

II. Sept. 1774. Passed by the first 
American Congress, which met in Car- 
penters' Hall, Philadelphia. It was 
attended by dei^uties secretly sent from 
twelve different states. The Declara- 
tion set forth that the colonists had lost 
neither the rights of nature nor the 
privileges of Englishmen by emigration, 
and consequently, that the late acts of 
the British Parliament were gross viola- 
tions of their rights, especially as affect- 
ing Massachusetts. They resolved, there- 
fore, to suspend all imports, or all use of 
imported goods, till harmony was restored 
between Great Britain and her American 
colonies. 

ni. May, 1776 (United States) :— 

I. All men are born equally free, possessing 
natural rights which no compact can deprive 
them of. 

II. All power is vested in the people, from whom 
it is derived. 

III. The people have an inalienable and inde- 
feasible right to reform, alter, or abolish any form 
of government at their pleasure. 

IV. The idea of an hereditury first magistrate is 
unnatural and absurd. [True, but popular elec- 
tions are great evils.] 

Declaration of Sports {The), 
1617. Issued by James I. of England, 
to signify his pleasure that on Sundays, 
after divine service, ' no lawful recreation 
shall be barred to his good people. Non- 
conformists and others not attending 
divine service at church shall be pro- 
hibited from taking any part in the 
sports, nor shall anyone be allowed to 
go out of his own parish.' The sports 
specified in the Declaration as fit for 
Sunday are 'dancing, archery, leaping, 
vaulting, May-games, morrice-dances, 
and the setting-up of May-poles ; ' but 
bear and bull baiting, bowling, and inter- 
ludes were forbidden. Charles L (looo) 



246 



DECLARATION 



DECRETALS 



also caused the Declaration to be read 
from the pulpit of parish churches. 
Declaration of Toleration 

{The), 15 March, 1672. Suspending all 
penal laws on account of religion ; pro- 
mising licences and places of worshij) to 
Protestants, provided they met together 
with open doors ; and granting liberty of 
private worship to all paj)ists. 

Declaration of Vienna (The), 
13 March, 1815. An act published by 
the allies declaring Napoleon I. an outlaw. 

Declaration of the Clergy. 
* De'claration du Clerge ' ' or ' Liberte's 
Gallicanes.' Lisisting on a distinction 
between spiritual and temporal power ; 
and placing infallibility not in the pope, 
but in the whole episcopal body united 
under the pope. This Declaration 
furthermore recognised the supreme 
authority of the general councils and of 
the sacred canons. As drawn up by 
Bossuet in 1682 it may be thus sum- 
marised : — 

Que I'eglise doit etre regie par les canons; que 
saint Pierre et sessuccesseurs n'ont re<;u de puis- 
sance que sur les Glioses spirituelles ; que les regies 
«t les constitutions adniises dans le royaume 
doivent etre maintenues, et les bornes posees par 
nos peres demeurer inebranlablcs ; quelesdtcrets 
et jugements du pape ne sont irreformables 
qu'autant que le consentement de I'eglise est iu- 
tervenu, &c. 

Declaration of the Rights of 

Man (T/ie). In French historj\ 1 Oct., 
1789. Adopted by the Assemble'e Consti- 
tuante of Paris, setting forth all the new 
liberties, equality of imposts, and the 
eligibility of anyone and everyone to 
public of&ces. Called in French, ' La 
DdclaraJion des droits de I'homme et du 
citoyen,' It was drawn up by Comte 
Emanuel Sieyes, better known as I'Abbe 
Sieyes. 

The Abbe Sieyes was a monarchist, and declared 
a monarchy to be more favourable to liberty than 
a republic. He opposed the licentiousness of the 
press, declined sitting in the Convention, opposed 
the Jacobins throughout, and declared that the 
Convention could not constitutionally try Louis 
XVI. for his life, because such a proceeding would 
make the Convention both accuser and judge. 
Sieyes was one of the few prominent men who 
survived the Bevolution, and died in his bed at the 
age of 88. 

Declaratory Act (The), 1766. An 

act declaratory of the supreme power of 
parliament over the colonies. This act 
the Americans objected to, although the 
Stamp Act was repealed. 

Decorated English, 1275-1375. 
In architecture ; succeeded the Early 
Euglish or Lancet style. It is more orna- 



mental, and the principal lines run pyra- 
midically rather than horizontally or 
vertically. 

Decoration or Memorial Day, 
30 May. An annual holiday in the 
United States of America to honour 
those deceased soldiers of the north 
who took part in the war between 
the Federals and Confederates. The 
cemeteries are visited and decorated 
with wreaths of flowers. 

In the extreme south, where Bprlng comes in 
earlier, an earlier day is taken. 

Decree of Berlin (The), 21 Nov., 
1806. Also called the Continental Sys- 
tem, which declared the British Isles in 
a state of siege, and prohibited all com- 
merce and correspondence with the hated 
nation. Every Englishman found in a 
country occupied by France was declared 
a prisoner of war. All merchandise be- 
longing to an Englishman was lawful 
prize. All trading in British goods was 
forbidden. And, by a subsequent addi- 
tion to this decree, all English goods, 
wherever found, were to be burnt. 

Decree of Fontainebleau(r7?e), 
18 Oct., 1810. Ordering that all English 
goods wherever found should be burnt in 
all countries directly or indirectly belong- 
ing to France. 

Decree of 3 Ventdse, Year III. 
(TJie), 21 Feb., 1795. The state under- 
takes to pay sa,laries to the Catholic 
clergy ; but any persons may freely exer- 
cise any other form of religious worship, 
provided they violate no law, and pay 
their own expenses. See the 'Law of 
Germinal,' 

Decretals. The second volume of 
the canon law, containing the respo.ises 
of sundry popes and church councils to 
questions put to them. The first collec- 
tion was made by Dionysius Exiguus 
somewhere about 550 ; but what is gene- 
rally understood by the word is the com- 
pilation made by Gratian, a Benedictine 
monk, in 1151. This was supplemented 
by Pope Gregory IX. about a century 
later, and the supplement was called 
Extra. Boniface VIII. supplied a sixth 
volume, called Sexte, and the letters of 
Clement V., called Clementines, make 
two more volumes. The last volume, 
called Extravagantes contains the deci- 
sions of the popes between Urban IV. 
and Sixtus IV. both included. See ' Falsa 
Decretals.' 



DECRETUM 



DEFEITr^'P.BS 



m 



Deeretum of Gratian (The), 1151. 
A compilation by Gratian, an Italian 
monk, of canons, papal epistles, and 
patristic sentences, arranged into titles 
and chapters, like the Pandects. 

This deeretum gives authority to the False De- 
cretals of Isidore. It was supplemented in l-2;34 
by the decretals of Raimond do Pciinafort, which 
consist almost entirely of the rescripts issued by 
the later popes, especially Alexander III., Inno- 
cent III., Honorius III., and Gregory IX. The 
deeretum is nearly obsolete. 

Dec'uman Gate (The). The rear- 
ward gate of a camp. The opposite or 
front gate was the prostorian gate. In a 
Roman camp there were always four gates. 
The prcetorian gate faced the enemy; 
the decuman gate was the furthest from 
the enemy, and was called dec'uman, be- 
cause the tenth legion were posted near 
it. The gate on the right side of the 
camp was the 2yort a principalis dextra, 
and the one opposite to it on the left side 
was porta principalis sinistra. 

Deciimus is another spelling of deciwMS (tenth), 
as maxumus is of maximus. 

Dee's Speeulum {Dr.). In which 
persons were told they could see their 
friends in distant lands, and how they 
were occupied. It is generally said that 
this speculum was a ' polished piece of 
cannel coal,' but this is a mistake, as it 
was a piece of solid pink-tinted glass 
about the size of an orange. It is now 
in the British Museum. 

Deed-bote. Amends for misdeeds, 
sometimes substantial and sometimes 
only chastisement or punishment ; satis- 
faction. {D(Bd-but, slth act oi atonement.) 

Confession, restitution, deed-bote, and penance 
were strictly enforced [by St. Dunstsui].— Early 
English Church. 

Deemsters. In the Isle of Man. 
There are t\yo judges so called, whose 
courts are held weekly, alternately at 
Douglas and Castletown, by the deemster 
of the soutJiern division, and at Ramsey 
and Peel (or Kirk Michael) by the 
deemster of the northern division. An 
appeal from the deemster's judgment 
may be made to the staff of government. 

In the Isle of Man and in Jersey, 
deemsters decide disputes without pro- 
cess or charge. They are chosen by 
the contending parties (Ang.-Sax., devia, 
an umpire). At one time there was a 
deemster, or demster, attached to the 
High Court of Justiciary in Scotland, 
who pronounced the * doom ' or sentence 



of condemned persons ; the office was 
attached to the executioner, but has 
been long abolished. 

Referred to in Scott's ' Old Mortality ' and ' Heart 
of Mid-Lothian." 

Deev-bend (devil-binder). Tah- 
Omars was so called from his victories 
over his enemies (deevs). A mythic 
shah of Persia placed B.C. 870-840. His 
successor was his nephew, the famous 
Jam-sched. 

Defenderof the Faith. I.John 
de Torquemada (1388-14G8). He was a 
Dominican, born at Valladolid, and re- 
ceived in 1437 the honour of ' Defender 
of the Faith ' from the Council of Basle. 
He denounced the heresies of Wyclif and 
of Huss. He was finally made a cardinal. 

II. 'Fidei Defensor,' 1521. A title 
conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of 
England in grateful acknowledgment of 
a book written in Latin against Martin 
Luther, entitled ' A Defence of the Seven 
Sacraments' [Assertio Septem Sacra- 
mentoruin adversus Martinum Luthe- 
rium). The pope subsequently withdrew 
the title, but in the thirty-fifth year of the 
king's reign the parliament legally con- 
firmed it, and it still remains. 

The title had been assumed by Richard 11. in 
his proclamation against Wyclif. Henry IV. in 
1411 had been styled ' The Chief Defender of the 
Orthodox Faith,' and Henry HI. was called ' De- 
fender of the Church.' The bull of Leo X. was 
preserved by Sir Robert Cotton, and is signed by 
the pope, 4 bishop-cardinals, 15 priest-cardinals, 
and 8 deacon-cardinals. Henry's book Is now in 
the Vatican, and contains this inscription in the 
king's handwriting: 'Anglorum rex Henricus 
Leoni X. mittit hoc opus et fidei testem et ami- 
citise.' 

*,* The title ' Defender of the Faith ' seems to 
have been given to advocates of ecclesiastical 
suits who defended the Church against those who 
opposed its doctrines, rules, and discipline. 

Defenders. I.a.d.407. Ecclesiastical 
history. Church officers. In 420 one or 
more were appointed to each patriarchal 
church. 

II. 1690. An Irish secret association 
formed after the battle of the Boyne in 
defence of the Catholics. Opposed by 
the Orangists. They were very active in 
the uprisings between 1798-1803. 

III. 1795. An Irish Roman Catholic 
association organised in self-defence 
against the Peep-o'-Day Boys, a Presby- 
terian association which arose in Ireland 
in 1790. In 1688 all the Catholic property 
of Ireland was confiscated. In the latter 
part of the 18th cent, some attempts 
were made to ameliorate this injustice, 



2d8 



DEFENESTRATION 



DELAWARE 



and the Protestants of the north clamour- 
ing for * Protestant ascendency ' associ- 
ated themselves into a society called 
' The Peep-o'-Day Boys,' whose object 
was to maintain the Protestant ascend- 
ency, and resist all Catholic encroach- 
ment. The Roman Catholics then or- 
ganised themselves into a society called 
' The Defenders,' and collisions became 
common, but the principal aggressions of 
the Defenders were nocturnal plunder, 
house-breaking, and murder. In 1795 a 
pitched battle was fought in the county 
of Armagh, attended with much blood- 
shed. Ultimately the Defenders amalga- 
mated with the United Irishmen {q.v.), 
and the great opponents were the Orange- 
men, a Protestant association. See 
* Irish Associations.' 

The battle of the Diamond, In -which the Catho- 
lics of Ireland sustained great loss, was fought 21 
Sept., 1725, and the first Orange lodge was formed 
later in the same day. 

Defenestration of Prague {The), 
23 May, 1618. That is, the ejection out 
of windows by the Bohemians. The 
Bohemians had two Protestant churches, 
one in the diocese of Prague, and the 
other in the territory of the abbot of 
Braunau. The archbishop of Prague 
and the abbot pulled down these re- 
formed churches, and when the Protes- 
tants remonstrated they were told it was 
the king's pleasure. So Count Thurn of 
Bohemia headed a deputation which went 
to the royal castle of Prague to lay their 
grievance before the king. Being ad- 
mitted into the council hall, they were so 
insolently received that they threw two 
of the councillors and the king's private 
secretary out of the windows into the 
moat. This was the beginning of the 
Thirty Years' War. 

Precisely the same thing occurred at Prague in 
1410, when someone from the royal castle threw a 
stone at a procession of Bohemian reformers. 
Instantly a rush was made into the council hull, 
and thirteen of the magistrates were thrown out 
of the windows into the streets. 

Degree of Meridian. First mea- 
sured by Eratosthenes between Syene 
and Alexandria, about B.C. 196 ; next by 
Posidonius between Alexandria and 
Rhodes, A.D. 112-150; then by the brothers 
Ben Shaku by order of the calif Al Ma- 
miin, on the plain south of Damascus, 
A.D. 813-833. It was measured from 
London to York by Norwood in 1633-1635. 
It was measured in France by the Abbe 
Picard, between Amiens and Malvoisine, 



in 1669-1671. It was measured in Lap- 
land by Maupertius, Clairaut, and others 
in 1735 ; in Peru by Bouguer and others 
in 1735 ; at the Cape of Good Hope by 
Lacaille in 1752. 

Dei Gratia. Introduced into English 
charters in 1106. It continued in the 
British coinage up to 1849, when it was 
discontinued in the florins, thence called 
the ' graceless florins.' These coins were 
recalled the same year, and the letters 
D.G. were restored. 

It is in reality a relic of the exploded doctrine ol 
the 'divine right of kings." Thus M.N. is king by 
divine right, or Dei gratia, and not by human 
appointment, or hominum gratia. 

Deilemites. See ' Di'-le-mites.' 

De'ipassia'ni or * Patripassionists.' 
Certain Unitarians who maintained that 
God is one and indivisible, and denied 
the three personalities of the Trinity. 
Hence, said they, the being crucified on 
Calvary was not God the Son (for there 
is no such being), but God the Father, or 
the one and only God. St. Augustine 
refers to these ' heretics.' 

Dek'abrist. A Decembrist, from 
Dekaber, the Russian for December. It 
denotes those persons who suffered death 
or captivity for the part they took in the 
military conspiracy which broke out in 
St. Petersburg in December 1825, on the 
accession of Czar Nicholas to the throne. 

Delaval Papers {The). A large 
collection of letters, state papers, and old 
records belonging to the Delaval family 
of Seaton Delaval, discovered by John 
Robinson in 1888 in certain store-rooms 
of the disused Royal Northumberland 
Glass Works, Hartley, near Seaton Dela- 
val Hall, and presented to the museum- 
of the Society of Antiquaries. See ' Notes 
and Queries,' 1889, May 25, pp. 415, 416. 

Dela^ware (Pennsylvania). The 
English name of an Indian tribe (the 
Lenilpe) with which William Penn chiefly 
negotiated. 

Delaware (U.S. North America). A 
river and a state so called from Lord 
Delaware, governor of Virginia under 
James I. He rendered the colony great 
services (died 1618). The nickname of 
the inhabitants of this state is Musk-rats, 
Visited by Lord Delaware in ICIO ; was settled by 
Swedes in 16'27 ; passed to the Dutch in 1655; was 
ceded to England in 1()()4 ; made into a separata 
colony in 1704 (but was attached to Pennsylvania); 
and became one of the United States n 1776. 



DELEGATES 



DEMOCEATIO 



219 



Dele^^ates [The High Court of), 
1533. Estal)iished by Act of Parliament 
(25 Hen. VIII. c. 19) as a tribunal of 
appeal from the Ecclesiastical and Ad- 
miralty Court. The jurisdiction was 
transferred to the Privy Council in 1832 
(2, 3 Will. IV. c. 92). 

Delegation (The), 18G7. A body of 
delegates in the Austro-Hungarian king- 
dom, in which both states ai'e equally 
represented; the house acts in matters 
which affect both the kingdoms, such as 
relations with foreign countries, army 
and navy, peace and war, &c. Besides 
this house each kingdom has its own 
legislative chambers, consisting of an 
upper and lower house. 

Delenda est Carthago. Carthage 
must be destroyed, or wiped out of the 
nations of the earth. The words with 
which old Cato used to finish his speeches. 
Alexander said to the same effect, ' No 
world two suns can bear ' — that is, Persia 
and Macedonia cannot both exist together. 
Napoleon said that London must be 
Btamped out. 

Delicate Investigation (The), 

1806. This was a closed-door investiga- 
tion by the four lords, Erskine, Grenville, 
Spencer, and EUenborough, into the 
conduct of the Princess Caroline, cousin 
and wife of George, prince regent of 
Wales, with the view of a separation for 
alleged adultery. The real cause of 
offence was the intimacy of the prince 
with Lady Jersey, whose dismissal, 
demanded by Caroline, was refused. The 
four lords gave a very unsatisfactory 
verdict of ' Undue levity,' and the princess 
was banished from the receptions at 
Windsor. A trial was afterwards ar- 
ranged, called * a Bill of Pains and Penal- 
ties,' 1820. Denman and Brougham 
undertook the defence, and the Bill was 
abandoned — i.e. the queen was acquitted 
— in November. She was refused admis- 
sion into Westminster Hall at the coro- 
nation of her husband (July 1821) and died 
the following August. 

Delight of Mankind (T/ie). Titus 
the Roman emperor (-iO, 79-81). 

Delinquents, 1641. Those pro- 
ceeded against for having exercised 
illegal powers in levying arbitrary taxes, 
nnd in the sentences of the Star Chamber, 
High Commission, and so on. 



There was an order of Parliament directing the 
coniiscation of their estates. In this order cer- 
tnin bishops and otiicr of the clergy are named. 
We constantly find them coupled with Papists. 

Delia Crusca {L'Accademia), or 

* Delia Cruscan School,' 1582. Instituted 
at Florence ; but in 1785 a number of 
English residents at Florence assumed 
the name of ' Delia Cruscans,' and 
amused themselves by writing verses 
which they published in the 'Florence 
Miscellany.' These verses were con- 
spicuous for affectation and insipidity, 
but got introduced into two daily English 
newspapers, 'The World' and 'The 
Oracle.' Gifford says the epidemic spread 
' from fool to fool ' ; but in 1794 Gifford's 

* Baviad,' and in 1796 his ' Ma9viad,' so 
mauled these simpletons that the name 
of ' Delia Cruscan ' became a by-word for 
literarj'^ puerility. 

Gifford's Delia Cruscan bookworm, who ' lives 
upon a uhiloine for a week,' has become proverbial. 

Delphine Classics (The), 1670- 
1680. ' In usum Delphini.' The chief 
Latin authors, edited by Pierre Huet for 
tiie French dauphin. They contain, in 
the margin of the text, the ' interpretatio ' 
in italic type, and at the bottom of each 
page a commentary which explains every 
allusion and difficulty. At the close is a 
verbal concordance of great value, added 
chiefly by the Daciers (husband and 
wife). 

They were republished by Valpy In 183 volumes. 
181.-1.S30. 

Delta of ' Blackwood's Magazine * 
was David Macbeth Moir, 1798-1851, 
He was author of ' Casa Wappy.' 

Deluge. See ' Flood.' 

Demagogische Umtriebe, 1817. 

An attempt of demagogues in Germany 
to stir up the people against the govern- 
ments. In 1819 a committee was ap- 
pointed to examine into it, and in 1834 a 
tribunal of arbitration was constituted. 

Democratic Labour Associa- 
tion, 1890. Organised by Michael 
Davitt in Ireland, in opposition to Mr. 
Parnell's notion of peasant proprietor- 
ship. Davitt insists that there should 
be neither landlords nor proprietors of 
land, under any kind of denomination, 
whether farmers or independent gentle- 
folk, but that the people of the soil have 
each a natural right to 'a man's full 
share ' of the land, which he has as much 
right to take from the farmer proprietor 



250 



DEMOCEITUS 



DEPOSED 



as from the landed proprietor. Mr. Par- 
nell's platlorm is that farmers should be 
proprietors, not tenants. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

D^mocratique et Sociale. See 

' Days of June, II.,' p. 240. 

Democritus Junior. Rev. Robert 
Burton, author of the 'Anatomy of 
Melancholy ' (1576-1640). 

Demon of the South {The). 
Philip II. of Spam (1527, 1555-1598). 

Demosthenes [The High-horn). 
William the Silent, prince of Orange. 

The High-born Demosthenes electrified large 
assemblies by his indignant invectives against 
the Spanish Philip, 1568.— Motley, The Dutch Re- 
public, pt. iii. 2. 

Demosthenes of America (T/^e). 

Daniel Webster, the statesman. Like 
Demosthenes, he was neither florid nor 
impassioned, but he reasoned with irresis- 
tible force, and his language was terse, 
well chosen, and telling. He had the 
power of sarcasm, but seldom used it. 
His face, figure, and voice made him 
master of his audience. 

Demosthenes of France {The). 
Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1791); also 
called ' The Hurricane,' from the over- 
powering force of his eloquence and 
irresistible audacity. He was so corpulent 
that he was jocosely called the Tub. 

Demosthe-ies of the Pulpit. 

Dr. Thomas Rennell, dean of Westmin- 
ster, was so called by William Pitt (1753- 
1840). 

Demy' (plu. Demies). A ' scholar ' of 
Magdalen College, Oxford. 

Denmark, i.e. dain-mark. Dain 
means fiat, hence the Gennan danieder, 
on the ground, &c. The Danskir occu- 
pied the flat or low lands between Goth- 
land hills and the sea. 

Denyer and Johnson Scholar- 
ships. Two for theology. Value 50/. a 
year each, tenable for one year. Founded 
in Oxford University from the revenue 
of the scholarship founded by John 
Johnson, D.D., fellow of Magdalen Col- 
lege, and the prizes offered by Mrs. 
Denyer for two theological essays. In- 
corporated in 1878. 

Denys {St.). Martyred 251. The 
tradition is that after being beheaded he 



walked from Paris four miles to found 
an abbey, where now stands the town of 
St. Denys, carrying with him his head 
under his arm, and resting seven times 
on the way at equal distances to bless 
and console his followers. Crosses were 
erected at these seven places, and it was 
long customary to lay the dead which 
passed by on one of these crosses for a 
few minutes. 

St. Denys, prononnce Sahn dnee. 

Deodand. A chattel or chattels 
forfeited as a peace-offering to God for 
causing the death of a human being, as 
when a brick or tile falls on him, or the 
wheel of a cart runs over him. When the 
forfeit was transferred from the church to 
the crown, instead of the chattel being 
forfeited, a money-fine was imposed. 
Abohshed 18 Aug., 1846 (6, 10 Vict. c. 62). 

Deontology, 1830. Jeremy Bent- 
ham's system of the science of morality 
or Maxima felicUas doctrine. Deon, a 
Greek word, means ' right ' or ' fit,' and the 
great aim of deontology is to secure the 
' greatest happiness to the greatest num- 
ber.' There can be no doubt that Bent- 
ham was in advance of his age, and many 
points once considered Utopian are now 
established by law. 

Departments, 1790. Territorial 
divisions of France made by the Consti- 
tuent Assembly. 

The ' Departements Maritimes ' (8 syl.) are the 
five great ports, viz. Lorient, Brest, Toulon, Cher- 
bourg, and Rochefort. 

Deposed Kings of England. 

I. Before the Conquest. 
Sigebert of Wessex, a.d. 755. 
Alcred of Northumbria, 774. 
Ethelred I., 779. 
Eardwulf and Ethelwulf, 857. 
Edwy, 957. 

Ethelred II., 1013. 

Hardicanute, son of Canute, 1037. 

II. Since the Conquest. 
Edward II., 1327. 
Richard II., 1399. 
Henry VI., 1460. 

James II., 1688. Euphemistically 
called his ' abdication.' 

Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for 

treason against his parliament and beheaded ; 
Ch irles II. was not exactly deposed, but ho waa 
kept from the crown during the Commonwealth. 
The most absolute and tyrannical of our sove- 
reigns have been the Welsh and Scotch dynasties, 
but Wales and Scotland are eminently democratic. 



DEPOSED 



DETERMINIST3 



251 



The Stuarts claimed the 'right divine " of kiivjs, 
buc James I. and Charles II. did no honovir to tue 
claim. 

Deposed Kings of France. 

Louis XVI., like Ciiaries I., was not 
only deposed but executed, 1793. 

Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice de- 
posed, 1814, 1815. 

Charles X. (l^^oO), like James 11., is 
said to have ' abdicated.' 

Louis-Philippe (1818), also said to have 
'abdicated.' 

Napoleon IIL, 1872. 

I>eprdtrisation, 7 Nov., 1793. 
When Mgr. Gobel, archbishop of Paris, 
and hundreds of the clergy appeared at 
the bar of the Convention, and declared 
they would henceforth acknowledge no 
master, in heaven or earth, except the 
sovereign people. They renounced their 
ministry, and abandoned the Christian 
religion. 

Derby Day. The Wednesday of 
the great spring meeting which takes 
place at Epsom, in Surrey, in the month 
of May. The Derby week is the week 
succeeding Trmity Sunday, and Derby 
Day, which is the second day of the 
races, is the most important horse-race 
day in the kingdom and 'the greatest 
English holiday. 

Derby is generally pronounced Dar'-be. 

Derby Scholarship. In Oxford 
University. The recipient must have 
highly distinguished himself either in the 
final examination or as the wimier of 
university scholarships and prizes. 
Founded in honour of Edw. Geoffrey S. 
Stanley, earl of Derby, chancellor of the 
university, by subscribers in Lancashire. 
Value, the interest of 4,300Z. Founded 
1870. 

Derbyites or * Darbyites.' A split 
from the Plymouth Brethren, under a 
Mr. Darby, on the subject of the human 
nature of Christ. 

Derbyshire Hudibras {The). 

George Eyre. 
Derbyshire Insurrection (The), 

1817. Stirred up by Jeremiah Brand- 
reth, a framework-knitter of Nottingham 
who induced 300 Derbyshire and Notting- 
ham men, chiefly miners, to march with 
him to London' and overturn the govern- 
ment. At Eastwood, some three miles 
from Nottingham, they were overtaken 



by a troop of horse-soldiers, and fled in 
all directions. Several were taken pri- 
soners and three executed at Derby, one 
of whom was Brandreth the leader. 

Derbyshire Neck (The). Goitre 
or swelling in the throat produced, some 
think, by excess of lime in the water 
used for drinking. 

Dervises, i.e. paupers, a.d. 759. A 
species of Moslem monk, of which there 
are thirty-two sects. They live in con- 
vents, the principal establisliment being 
at Konieh, in Caramania. They fast 
•every Thursday. They are great opium 
eaters and are given to strong drinks. 
The dancing dervises twist themselves 
round with extended arms for hours to- 
gether, all the while repeating the name 
of Allah. Persia is noted for its dervises. 

Descartes. See ' Cogito, ergo sum.' 

Despairing Shepherd (The). 
Addison is meant, and the lady was the 
dowager Countess of Warwick. The 
ballad is by Nicholas Eowe (1716). 

Despard's Conspiracy, 1803. A 

very foolish plot devised by Colonel Ed- 
ward Desi^ard of Ireland to assassinate 
the king (George III.), and establish in 
Great Britain and Ireland a republican 
form of government. Despard and six 
others were executed on Kennington 
Common. If Despard was not partly 
insane, this silly plot was out of revenge 
for being superseded in office on the 
Mosquito Shore in consequence of having 
got into some squabble with the colony. 

Destroying Prince (T7ie). Tamer- 
lane or Timur the Tartar (1336, 1370- 
1405). So called in India because in 1396 
he made in Delhi a general massacre -o.^ 
the inhabitants. It is said that 100,000 
were put to death in a single hour (!) 

Destructionists. Those Christians 
who believe that after the wicked have 
suffered in hell in proportion to their 
sins they will be destroyed. The Rev. 
Mr. Bourne of Norwich is the founder 
of this sect. 

They deny that they teach the doctrine of 
annihilation ; assert that (U'straction is the scrip- 
ture term, and say they are not bound to be wise 
above what is written. 

Determinists. Those who believe 
that the actions of men are not pre- 
determined by God, but are determined 



252 



DETROITS 



DEVIL'S 



by the nature which they mherit and 
surrounding circumstances. 

Detroits {Treaty of), 13 July, 1841. 
Between England, Austria, France, 
Prussia, Bussia, and Turkey ; by which 
the sultan engaged to close the Bospho- 
rus and the Dardanelles to all nations 
without distinction or favour ; revoking 
the privilege accorded to Bussia by the 
treaty of Unkiarskelessi. 

Deus Vult. The war-cry of the first 
crusade (1096-1099). At the Council of 
Clermont in France, after Pope Urban 
had finished his address in favour of a 
crusade against the Saracens, the as- 
sembly shouted Deus vult (God wills it), 
the crowd outside took up the cry, and 
Urban, crossing his arms over his breast, 
and bending to the rails of the altar, said 
with deep emotion, ' God wills it, God's 
will be done.' 

Deux-Ponts [The Dynasty of the). 
*Deux-Ponts' is the French form of 
Zweibriicken in Bavaria. After the abdi- 
cation of Christina, last of the dynasty 
of Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden, Charles X., 
of the principality of Deux-Ponts, was 
elected king of Sweden. The dynasty 
lasted from 1054 to 1751. Charles X. 
was cousin of Christina, but is generally 
called Charles the Aggressor. The suc- 
cessor of Charles X. was Charles XI. 
(16G0-ir,97), 'The Golden Era of Art.' 
Then followed Charles XII., surnamed 
the Warlike, or ' Brilliant Madman.' 

Deux-Ponts pronounce deh po'n, ' n ' very slight 
and nasal. 

Devadassi (The). Indian girls at- 
tached to the temples. They prepare 
the garlands, dance and sing before the 
idols, and take part in all public pro- 
cessions. See * Bayaderes.' 

Devil (The). I. * Le Diable.' Olivier 
Ledain, the tool of Louis XI., and once 
the king's barber. So-called from his 
malice and mischief-making. He was 
executed in 1484. 

II. John Hunyades, surnamed Corvin 
(1400-1456), called 'The Devil' by the 
Turks, from the terror of his name. 
Called Corvinus from his crest, which was 
a crow with a gold ring in its beak. 

Hunyades pronounce Hu' -ne-a-dee. 

III. Giovanni de' Medici was called 
Le Grand Diable iUd8-152(i). So-called 



by the French on account of his horrible 
cruelties at Caravaggio and Biagrasso in 
1524. 

IV. A noted public-house (No. 2, Fleet 
Street), purchased in 1788 by Child's Bank 
firm. Here the original Apollo Club was 
held, and here lawyers of the neighbour- 
hood used to dine, sticking up a notice 
on their doors ' Gone to the Devil,' that 
those who wanted them might know 
where to find them. See the ' Heaven.* 

Devil {Bohert the). 1. Bobert of 
Normandy, surnamed the Magnificent, 
father of William the Conqueror (1028- 
1085). 

II. Bobert Francois Damiens, who 
attempted to assassinate Louis XV. 
(1714-1757). (See 'Damiens.' 

Devil {Son of the). Ezzelino, chief 
of the Ghibellins, governor of Vicenza. So 
called on account of his diabolical cruel- 
ties (1215-1259). 

Devil {The French). Jean Bart, an 
intrepid French sailor born at Dunkirk 
(1650-1702). 

Devil ( The Wliite). George Castriot, 
called 'The White Devil of Wallachia' 
(1404-14G7). 

Devil Dick. Bichard Porson, the 
Greek critic (1759-1803). 

Devil of Arras {The). Cardinal 
d'Alibi, sent in 1418 to negotiate a peace 
between the ArmagnacsandBurgundians. 
The cardinal offered fair terms, but while 
the Count of Armagnac was signing the 
treaty the soldiers of Louis XL mas- 
sacred both him and his followers. 

Devil of Vendue (T/ie). J.Antoine 
Bossignol, the commissioner in the Ven- 
dean War (1759-1802). 

Devil*S Bible (TAe). An exquisite 
MS. Bible, inscribed on 300 asses' skins, 
and taken to Stockholm after the 30 years' 
war. The tradition is that a poor monk 
was condemned to death, but was told 
that the sentence would be commuted if 
he would copy out on asses' skins the 
whole Bible in a single night. At night 
he made a compact with the devil to 
exchange his soul for the required tran- 
script. The writing is exqijisite, and every 
letter is a model. See ' Bibles.' 

Each of the many editions of Tyndale's New 
Testament possesses some distinct cbaracterislio 



DEVIL'S 



DIALOGUE 



253 



by -which it may be recognised. The edition of 

lijo'i has a woodcut of the Devil with a wooden leg, 
Bowing tares.— DoRE, Early English Bibles. 

Devil's Bridge {The). L Over a 
precipice of Mount St. Gothard. It has 
only one arch. 

II. In Cardigan, Wales. Over a preci- 
pice at the base of which flows Monk's 
brook. 

Devil's Parliament {The). The 
parliament assembled by Henry VI. at 
Coventry, in 1459. So called because it 
passed attainders on the Duke of York 
and his chief supporters. See 'Parlia- 
ment.' 

Devil's Staircase {The). General 
Wade's road up the Corry Arrack, con- 
structed after the rebellion of 1715. It 
wound up the mountain by seventeen 
zigzags, or traverses, and down the other 
side. 

If this road you had seen before it was made, 
You'd hold up your hands and bless General Wade. 

Devil's Wall {The), in Germany, 
which extends from the Danube to the 
Ehine ; built by the Romans to preserve 
the possessions south of Germany from 
the incursions of the Teutons and Ger- 
mans. It was begun by Hadrian. 

Devoirs of Calais. Customs due 
to the king for merchandise brought to 
Calais or exported therefrom while our 
staple was there. 

A staple is a mart or place where goods are 
stored or exposed for sale. There were courts of 
staple, statutes of staple, and a mayor of the 
Btaple. 

Devolution {The War of). See 
'War of Devolution.' 

Dewanny Adawlut {Court of). 
An Indian court for trying revenue and 
other cases. ' Adawlut ' means a court 
of justice, and 'Dewanny' the jurisdic- 
tion of a deivan, a minister of the revenue 
department. 

Dey. The chief of Algiers before the 
French conquest. The Algerian militia 
was under a pacha sent from Constanti- 
nople, but in IGOO permission was ob- 
tained from the sultan to elect a dey, to 
counteract the tyranny of the pacha- 
governors. The power of the deys 
grew rapidly, and in 1710 the dey Baba- 
Aly actually deposed the pacha and 
obtained from the sultan the investiture 
of regency. As the deys wei'e always 
elected from Constantinople, they were 
always under the jjower of the sultan. In 



1732 six deys were installed and assas- 
sinated in one day. The last dey of 
Algiers was Hussein, who reigned twelve 
years, up to the occupation of the French 
in 1830. 

Dgelallian Era {The). The Per- 
sian era followed to this day, and begun 
in 1075. Dgel-al-Eddin, son of Alp- 
Arslan (the valiant lion), called Malek- 
Shah (1071-1092), appointed eight astro- 
nomers to reform the calendar. 

Dharina Subha {The), 1830. A 
Hindu society formed at Calcutta for the 
purpose of keeping up the ancient usages 
of the Hindu faith, and especially of the 
Suttee, which the ' Company ' had made 
illegal. 

Diadem. A diadem was anciently a 
fillet worn round the head, and tied be- 
hind with a bow having long ends. 

In Egypt, the diadem bore the symbol 
of the sacred serpent. 

In France, Clovis wore a diadem ; and 
Francois I. was the first to adopt a 
crown. 

In Greece, Alexander the Great 
adopted the Persian diadem. 

In Persia, the diadem was a blue fillet 
worked with white, and bound round the 
tiara or turban. 

In Borne, Julius Cfesar bound his head 
with a diadem of laurel leaves. Diocle- 
tian introduced the Persian diadem. 
Constantine the Great habitually wore it 
ornamented with precious stones. Sub- 
sequent emperors adorned it with single 
or double rows of pearls and precious 
stones. 

*^* What we now call a diadem is the 
gold and jewelled band springing from 
the coronet and arched over the cap. 
The Prince of Wales has one diadem to 
his crown, the sovereign has two crossing 
each other at ri-ht angles. 

Dialogue with Trypho. By Jus- 
tin Martyr, a.d. 156, in Latin. Trypho is 
a Jew supposed to be travelling in Greece, 
having been driven out of Palestine 
during the insurrection of Barchocab; 
and Justin Martyr is supposed to convert 
him. He shows from the Old Testament 
that Jesus Christ is the Messiah, and 
confutes the usual charges of the Jews 
against this theory. The disputations of 
the first and second day are lo:it. 



234 



DIAMONDS 



DIATESSARON 



Diamonds of note. (N.B. 151^ carats = 1 oz.) 



Carats 
(uncut) 


Carats 
(cut) 


Name 


Discovered 


Possessor 


1(180 (?) 


Never cut 


Braganza 


1741 


Kingof Porti-gal 


787.. 


367.«- 


Rajah of Mattan 


175G 


Rajah of Mattan (Borneo) 


— 


VHi 


Orloff 


— 


Czar of Russia (sceptre) 


— 


13Ji 


Florentine .^ 


— 


Emperor of Austria 


242 i 




Tavernier 


lOfiS 


Stolen in 1792 


loO 


1P8V 


— — 


1775 


King of Portugal 


410 


13(;| 


Pitt or Regent 


1702 


King of Prussia 


254 


1 7 , 


Star of the Soutli 


18J3 


A Brazilian diamond, 


186.i 


1-<!To 


Koh-i-noor 


B.C. 56 


Queen of England 


— 


6G 


Shah ^. 




Czar of Russia 


83? 


78J 


Nassac 


_ 


Lord [Marquis of] Westminster 


288| 




Lie/hi yellow . 


_ 


Stewart (diamond) 


150 


— 


Porter Rhodes 


1872 


Found in South Africa 


112 


67J 


Blue 






82 


63> 


Sancy 


15th cent. 


Czar of Russia 


— 


49 


Pigott 




Bought by Messrs. Rundell and 
Bridge 


83} 


46] 


Star of South Africa ... 


1837 


88i 


44 V 


Dudley 




Earl of Dudley 


— 


49 V 


Hope .. : 


— 


Mr. Henry Hope's family 





40 


Pacha of Egypt . 


— 


Khedive of Egypt 


— 


28 


Charles the Bold 


— 




TheGr 


jat Mogul is t 


he Koh-i-noor. 




The Brs 


ganza dianio 


nd was discovered in Brazil, and is now among the Portuguese State jewels. 


It is the si 


ze of a hen s 


3gg. and is valued at 58 million pounds sterling. It has never been cut, and 


many fane 


y it must be 


a, White Topaz ; if so, the diamond of the Rajah of Mat'tan is the largest 


known. £ 


4. W. Streeti 


ZR, in his ' Precious Stones and Gems ' (p 


111), says it is valued at S8,350,(W0i. 




%• Far the history of these diamonds see under the respective names. 



Diamond IS'ecklaee (The), 1785. 

A necklace presented through Madame 
de Lamotte by Cardinal de Rohan, as he 
supposed, to Marie Antoinette. It was a 
swindling transaction of the Countess 
de Lamotte. The fact is this. The 
Cardinal de Rohan, a profligate church- 
man, entertained a love passion for the 
queen; and the Countess de Lamotte 
induced him to purchase for 85,000^. a 
diamond necklace, made for Madame 
Dubarry, and present it to the queen. 
The cardinal handed the necklace to the 
countess, and when the time of payment 
arrived Boehmer, the jeweller, sent his 
bill in to the queen. Marie Antoinette 
denied all knowledge of the matter, and 
in the trial which ensued it was proved 
that the countess had sold the necklace 
to an English jeweller and kept the 
money. The trial lasted nine months, 
and created immense scandal. 

Diane de France. The Duchess 
of Angouleme (1538-1619). She married 
Francois de Montmorency, and in 1572 
contrived his escape from the massacre 
of St. Bartholomew. She exercised great 
influence over Henri HI. and Henri IV. 
of France. 

Diane de Poitiers (1499-1566). 
Married Louis de Bro'ze. Her influence 
in the court of Henri 11. of France was 



paramount. The king created her 
Duchesse de Valentinois. Even Catherine 
de Medicis, the queen, was under the 
thumb of the court favourite. At the 
death of Henri II. she retired to Anet, 
and disappeared wholly from public life. 

Diapason. See ' Musical Scale,' &c. 

Diapente (4 syl.). See 'Musical 
Scale,' &c. 

Diatessaron. <See ' Musical Scale,' 
&c. 

Diatessaron {Tatian's). An here- 
tical precis of Four ' Gosj)els,' ascribed 
to Tatian, and supposed to confirm the 
existence of four gospels, and only four, 
received by the church at the time. There 
were three or more Tatians in the first 
four centuries of some celebrity : 

I. The Platonic philosopher (bom in 
Syria, A.D. 130), a disciple of Justin the 
MartjT, author of ' Discourses to the 
Greeks' (published by C. Gessner in 
1546, and by Otto, le'na, 1851). He be- 
came a Gnostic and chief of the En- 
cratistes, or total abstainers. 

II. Tatian of Mesopotamia, who lived 
in the 5th cent., author of the ' Diates- 
saron ' in bad Greek ; a Latin transla- 
tion by Victor of Capua is inserted in 
the ' Library of the Fathers.' 

III. A martyr who suffered death in the 
reign of Julian. His day is 12 Sex^t., &c. 



DICKON 



DIET 



2-5 



Many erroneously ascribe the ' Diates- 
saron ' to the Platonic Tatian, but the 
Greek of the ' Discourses * is far better 
than that of the ' Diatessaron,' and the 
style of thought is widely different. 

Dickon of the Broom. Richard 
Cceur de Lion. So called from the 
genista or broom plant worn by his 
ancestors, as pilgrims, symbolical of 
humility ; whence the name Plantagenet. 
Strange as it may seem, never was there 
so proud and overbearing a line of princes 
as these self-styled ' humble ones.' 

Dictator. The first dictator of 
Rome was Titus Larti us, created dictator 
B.C. 498, about nine years after the expul- 
sion of the ' kings.' The cause was the 
fear of a domestic sedition. Cincinnatus 
was dictator B.C. 458; Mamercus ^milius 
in 437, 433, and 426 ; Quintus Servilius, 
B.C. 439 ; Camillus was five times dictator, 
B.C. 396, 390, 389, 368, 367 ; Papirius about 
820 ; and Fabius Maximus 315. After B.C. 
202 the ofSce fell into abeyance ; but in 
B.C. 82 it was revived by Sulla ; in B.C. 48 
Julius Caesar was dictator. The office was 
offered to Augustus B.C. 23, but declined. 

The office was formally abolished by Antony 
B.C. 44. 

Dictator of Letters [The). Vol- 
taire (1694-1778). 

Dictum of Kenilworth [The), 
15 Oct., 12G6. After the battle of Eves- 
ham and death of Simon de Montfort, 
Moritfort's younger son shut himself up 
in Kenilworth Castle, and there sustained 
for six months a siege by the royal forces 
of Henry III., but at the end of six 
months he surrendered. A decree was 
then enacted that hereafter all who took 
up arms against the ruling sovereign 
shall pay to the crown five years' value 
of all their lands and possessions. This 
is called ' The Dictum of Kenilworth.' 

Dido, niece of Jezebel. 

ITHOBAL I., king of Tyre (1 Kings xvi. 13) had 
for children, Bf.l[us], Margenus, and Jezel^el. 

Belus was the father of Pvgmalion and Dido (of 
Carthage). 

Hence Jezebel was Dido's aunt. 

Dies Fasti. Business days. On 
these days, marked F, the praetor adminis- 
tered justice, and assemblies of thepeoi^le 
might be held. Subsequently a law was 
passed forbidding the holding of a comitia 
upon certain of the dies fasti. 

Fasti dies, quibus certa verba legitima, sine 
piaculo, preetoribus licebat fari. Eraut h^ec tria, 



do [actionem], dico [jus], aMico [aliquid mea sen- 
teutia].'— VAiiRO. 

Dies Intercisi. Half-holidays. On 
these days it was lawful to administer 
justice one part of the day, but not for 
the other half. 

Dies Irse. A famous medieval hymn 
on the Last Judgment, beginning with 
the line ' Dies iraj, dies ilia,' supposed to 
be the work of Thomas of Cela'no, a 
native of Abruzzi, in Naples, who died 
about 1255. It forms a portion of the 
service of the mass. The first and third 
stanzas are : 

I. 

Dies irse, dies ilia, 
Solvet bseclum in favilla, 
Teste David cum Sibylla. 

III. 

Tuba mirum spargens sonum 
Per sepulcra regionum, 
Coget onines ante tlironum. 



That day of wrath, that fearful day, 
Shall melt both heaven and earth away. 
As David and the Sibyl say. 

III. 
The trumpet by the angel blown 
Shall wake the dead, bring bone to bone. 
And summon all before the throne. 

Dies Nefasti. Holidays. On these 

days it was unlawful to administer justice, 

and assemblies of the people could not 

be held. Marked N. 

Numa nefastos dies fastosque fecit.— LiVY. 
bk. i. 10. 

Diet {The). I. Of the old German 
Empire. It was summoned by the em- 
peror twice a year, and oftener if needful, 
and met usually at Ratisbon. The em- 
peror and his diet levied taxes, enacted 
laws, declared war, and made peace. 
The diet consisted of three chambers, 
that of the electors, that of the princes, 
and that of the Imperial cities. Each 
chamber deliberated separately, and then 
the electors and princes ratified or re- 
fused the proposition. If they ratified it, 
the emperor was asked to sign it, and it 
became law. 

Switzerland and Poland had their diets. Greek 
Si-aiTa, the diet of the ^taiTi^rat, or justices-in- 
eyre. 

II. Of the German Bund. A per- 
manent assembly containing the pleni- 
potentiaries of the thirty-five soverei.gn 
states. The place of meeting was the 
free city of Frankfort-on-the-Main. The 
diet might be either a plenum of seventy 
representatives, or a federative council 
of seventeen. Every state of the Bund 



256 



DIET 



DIET 



has at least one vote in the plenum ; 
Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Han- 
over, and Wiirtemberg had four votes 
each, five other states had tliree votes each, 
and three other states had each a double 
vote. In the minor or federative council 
the eleven principal states had one vote 
each, and all the rest of the states six 
votes amongst them. Austria always 
presided. Superseded in 1848 by the 
National Assembly. See ' Reichstag.' 

This -was all changed in ls7l. As to Hanover, it 
Is now only a geographical name. It was attached 
to Prussia in 18CG. 

Diet of Augsburg (T/ie). I. 1530. 
Convened by Karl V. to put an end to 
the Lutheran controversy. At this diet 
the Protestant party presented and read 
out their ' Confession,' or summary of 
their faith. This summary spread over 
twenty-eight chapters, and had been 
drawn up by Melanchthon. A confuta- 
tion on behalf of the Romanists was put 
in, and met the emperor's approval. It 
was therefore decreed that all Protest- 
ants shall forthwith return to their 
allegiance to the see of Rome on pain of 
the emperor's severe displeasure. This 
decision led the Reformers into an 
alliance, called ' The League of Smal- 
kald ' iq.v). See ' Augsburg Confession.' 

There were three other diets, so-called, in 1500, 
1518, 1548 (see ' Interim '); and 1555, which conceded 
to the Lutherans liberty of conscience. See next 
article. 

IL 26 Sept., 1555. Also called 'The 
Religious Peace of Augsburg.' Accord- 
ing to the treaty of Passau (1552) an 
imperial council was called for the 
autumn of 1555. Karl V. would take no 
part in it ; he was disgusted at the turn 
of affairs, and deputed his brother Ferdi- 
nand, ' king of the Romans,' to represent 
him. The diet was held at Augsburg, 
and full liberty of conscience was con- 
firmed. Lutherans and Catholics were 
declared alike eligible to all offices of 
the state, and to seats in the imperial 
diet. Every ruler in Germany might 
sanction in his own province whatever 
form of religion he chose, but all were to 
tolerate those who held different views. 

Diets of Compearance. Scotland. 
The days on which a party to a civil or 
criminal process is cited to appear in 
court. Till 1823 there were two such 
diets, because there were two summonses, 
but since then only one summons and 
one diet to a process. 



Diet of Hungary {The). Is com- 
posed of the king {i.e. Emperor of Austria) 
and two chambers. The upper chamber 
consisting of the higher clergy, the mag- 
nates, the two courts of apjjeal, and two 
representatives from each chapter, county, 
city, and privileged district. 

Diet of La Magione {The), 1502. 
The confederacy of Cardinal Orsini, his 
brother Paolo, Vitellozzo Vitelli, and 
other magnates, to assassinate Cesare 
Borgia. Cesare by craft managed to 
assemble all the lords of this conspiracy, 
apart from their troops, in the castle of 
Sinigaglia, where he had them all 
strangled. 

Diet of Roncaglia {The), 12 Nov., 
1158. It declared Italy to pertain to the 
empire of Germany. 

Diet of Spire or Speyer {The). In 
Bavaria. I. a.d. 1526. Called by the 
German princes to terminate the reli- 
gious differences stirred up by Martin 
Luther. It was resolved to request the 
Emperor Karl V. to call a general 
council, and in the interim each indi- 
vidual state in Germany was to regulate 
its own church matters. 

II. A.D. 1529. In which the decrees of 
the previous diet were revoked and de- 
clared to be illegal. The Edict of Worms 
was directed to be put in full force ; 
and the Gospels were not to be preached 
except in the sense approved of by. the 
Church. The Lutheran ■princes protested 
against this decision of the diet, and 
appealed to the emperor (Karl V.) 
and to the next general council. Hence 
arose the name of Protestants. See 
* Diet of Worms.* 

Diet of Switzerland (T/ie). Is 

composed of the representatives of the 
several cantons, and is held every two 
years, alternately at Ziirich, Berne, and 
Lucerne. Each canton has a vote. 

Diet of "Worms (T/ie). 1.1495. Maxi- 
milian asked for troops against Charles 
VIII. of France; but instead of troops 
the diet proclaimed a perpetual peace, 
by which decree private feuds were 
stamped out ; for instead of appeals to 
arms the angry barons were commanded 
to refer their grievances to courts of law. 

II. The Diet of 1521, to which Charles- 
quint (Karl V.) cited Luther, and com- 
manded him to recant. Luther made 



DIETRICH 



DIONYSIAN 



257 



answer : ' "Whatsoever can be shown in 
my writings contrary to the Word of 
God I will freely retract ; but he who 
fihall take away from that book or add 
thereto, God will take away his part from 
the Book of Life.' Luther was then 
dismissed. This is what is generally 
meant by the ' Diet of Worms.' 

The other diets of W^orms were those of 1547 and 
1578. 

Dietrich.. A German way of spell- 
ing Theodoric, the great Gothic hero. 

Dieu et mon Droit. Assumed as 
a motto by Richard Coeur de Lion (1189- 
1199). It was revived by Edward III. in 
1340. 

Diffusion of Useful Know- 
ledge {Society for the), 1825. Consist- 
ing chiefly of eminent public characters 
and men of distinguished literary and 
scientific merit. The object was the 
diffusion of useful knowledge to all 
classes of society, by periodical litera- 
ture. Mr. Henry (afterwards Lord) 
Brougham was the leader, and published 
the first book, on ' The Objects, Advan- 
tages, and Pleasures of Science,' in 1827. 

Digest. The Pandects of Justinian, 
in fifty books, containing the opinions of 
eminent lawyers on points of Roman law, 
digested or arranged in systematical 
oi'der by Tribonian and sixteen assist- 
ants. It was finished in three years, 
A.D. 533. Digesta is the Latin term ; the 
proper Greek title is Pandectce. The 
symbol is £f, a corruption of the Greek tt 
(p). A manuscript copy of Justinian's 
Digest was discovered at Amalfi in 1137, 
and was carried from Pisa to Florence in 
1411. 

Dilemee (The). The middle part of 
Ghilan, raised into a separate government 
by Abu Shujah ul Buiyah, a fisherman, 
while Persia was under the califs (10th 
cent.). The govermnent of the Dilemee 
included Irak, Ears, Kerman, Khuzistan, 
and Laristan. 

Dilemites (3 syl.) or 'Bouides,' (2 
syl.). A Mussulman dynasty (932-1055) 
in Ears, Kerman, Khuzistan, Laristan, 
and part of Irak, contemporary with the 
Samanides (q.v.), while Persia was a 
province of the califs. Founded by Abu 
Shujah ul Buiyah, a fishernmn of Dilem 
in Mazanderau. He had three sous, and 



an astrologer told him all his sons should 
be kings, and so it was : AH, his eldest 
son, was king of Ears and Irak Adjemi. 
Dying childless, he was succeeded by his 
brother Ruken u Dowlut Hussein Buiyah. 
The third of the fishei'man's sons was 
virtually king of Bagdad. Persia was at 
the time a province of the Califs. 

The Samanides (q.v.) were contemporary from 
902 to 999. 

Dilettanti Society (The). A so- 
ciety of some sixty gentlemen for the 
study of antique art, formed into a club 
in 1734, and holding its meetings in the 
Thatched-house Tavern, St. James Street. 
In 1764 three members were sent to the 
East to make drawings : they were Mr. 
Chandler for the literary part, Mr. 
Revett for the architectural part, and 
Mr. Pars to take drawings of bas-reliefs 
and views. They returned in 17GG, and 
published two magnificent volumes. In 
1811 another expedition was sent out, viz. 
Mr. Gill (Sir William), Mr. Francis Bed- 
ford, and Mr. John Gandy, who visited 
Asia Minor, and published two volumes 
of drawings, one in 1817 and the other in 
1835. These are all first-class works. 
The following gentlemen were members 
of the society : Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
Charles James Fox, the Duke of Norfolk, 
George Selwyn, David Garrick, George 
Colman, Lord Holland, Sir Joseph Banks, 
and Sir George Beaumont. 

Dinner Bell (r/ie). Edmund Burko 
(1729-1797), though a great orator, was, 
especially in the latter part of his life, 
most prolix. General Fitzpatrick said 
of him : — 

Ask any person In the house who is the best- 
informed man, and the answer will certainly be 
Mr. Burke. Ask who is the greatest wit, and the 
answer will be Mr. Burko. Who is tlTe most 
eloquent ? Mr. Burke. Who is the most tedious ? 
Mr. Burke. 

Dionysian Cycle (The). The cycle 
harmonising the Alexandrine and Roman 
usage. It was Dionysius Exiguus who 
constructed this table, which was in use 
till the reform of the calendar by Gregory 
XIII., in the latter half of the 16th cent. 

Dionysian Period {The), or 
* Great Paschal Period,' 532 years. The 
Ethiopians, who use the ' Era of Diocle- 
tian,' do not date as we do, consecutively 
from one period, but after the lapse of 
532 years begin again. This is called 
the ' Dionysian Period.' 





25d 



DIONYSIUS 



DISPERSION 



Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts 
xii. 34), The books called the ' Celestial 
Hierarchy,' ' Mystical Theology,' and the 
' Name of God,' ascribed to him, are 
spurious, and certainly are not earlier 
than the 5th cent. See ' Literary For- 
geries.' 

Diploma {A). A ' libellus duorum 
foliorum,' written on one side, granted 
by a magistrate either for a passport or 
to confer some privilege or favour on the 
person named therein. Greek SurAo'os 
double, StrrAoft) to double, fitVAwjaa. 

Diploma Leopoldin-um. The 

constitution of Transylvania, granted by 
Leopold I. — the Magna Charta of Tran- 
sylvanian freedom. It guaranteed reli- 
gious toleration, the existence of Hun- 
garian laws, and the reservation of offices 
and appointments of state to natives 
only, and a large number of minor 
immunities. 

Directions {The), 1695. For the 
unity of opinion in the doctrine of the 
Trinity, issued by command of William 
and Mary under the advice of Archbishop 
Tenison. It followed the l7ijunctions for 
the maintenance of church discipline. 

Directory {The). 'Le Directoire,' 
the executive of the Constitution of Year 
III. (27 Oct., 1795—9 Nov., 1799). The 
legislature consisted of two houses, the 
Council of Elders and the Council of 
500. The number of the directors was 
five, named by the two councils, and 
they were elected for five years, without 
power of re-election. They appointed 
the ministers and les generaux-en-chef. 
Abolished by Napoleon in Nov. 1799. 

The rrnlitary glory of France was never greater 
ihan in the Directory. It had for its commanders 
Bonaparte, Kleber, Desaix, Massena, andMoreau. 

Directory for Public Worship 

{The), or ' The Directory,' 1645. A book 
put forth by the Westminster Assembly 
of Divines {q.v.) to supersede the Book 
of Common Prayer. The Creed, the 
Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments 
were omitted ; the sign of the cross in 
baptism, private and lay baptism, and 
the use of the ring in matrimony were 
disallowed ; the Confession, the absolu- 
tion in the ' Visitation of the Sick,' the 
Burial Service, saints' days, and Christ- 
mas Day were dispensed with ; the 
Apocrypha, vestments, crosses, crucifixes. 



roodscreens were forbidden. For the 
use of the people the Assembly put forth 
their ' Larger a.nd Shorter Catechisms.' 
The Directory contained directions, but 
no prayers. It is almost obsolete. 

Disastrous Peace {The). 'La 
Pais Malheureuse,' 1558. Made after 
the battle of Gravelines. It was signed 
at Cateau-Cambresis. By this treaty 
Henri II. of France renounced all claim 
to Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. 
Thus ended the Italian war, which had 
lasted for sixty-five years (1483-1559). 

Discalceatl of the Augustine Order 
were reformed by Friar Thomas of Jesus, 
a Portuguese, in 1570. 

Disciples of Christ {The), or the 
' Disciples.' Members of the ' Church of 
Christ,' or ' Campbellite Baptists.' Or- 
ganised by Alexander Campbell, who 
emigrated to America early in the 19th 
cent. They are Baptists, and think all 
Christians have departed from the sim- 
plicity of the gos^Del. They ignore all 
creeds, and take the Bible as their only 
rule of faith and practice. 

Discipline {The First Booh of), 
1560. Was drawn up by John Knox and 
four other ministers, laying down rules 
for the Scotch, for the election of their 
church ministers by the congregation, 
for their examination by the elders, for 
the election of elders, the way of dealing 
with ecclesiastical offenders, and other 
matters of discipline. 

The Second Book op Discipline, 1578. An 
exposition of Presbyterianism by the Committee 
of the General Assembly, in which Andrew Mel- 
ville tool£ a leading part. It sets forth the line of 
demarcation between the civil and ecclesiastical 
powers, the platform being Presbyterianism. 

Discoverers, 1623. Agents em- 
ployed by the English government, in 
the reign of James I., to scrutinise Irish 
titles to estates, and to discover flaws if 
possible. Their reward was a part of the 
lands discovered to have faulty titles. 

The disturbed state of Ireland, and the law 
fluctuating between English and Irish tenure, 
caused great laxity in the enrolment of patents 
and rights of all sorts in Ireland, and full 500,000 
acres were added to the crown by the Discoverers. 

Dispersion {Day of the), 5 July. 
Instituted 1098, in commemoration of the 
dispersion of the apostles, each of whom 
then went to a specific field of labour. 



DISSENTERS 



DIVINE 



259 



Dissenters' Acts {The). In the 
rei^:!! of Charles II. 

The Corporation Act [q-v.), excluding 
dissenters from municipal offices, 16(31 
(13 Car. II. St. 2, c. 1). 

The Act of Uniformity {q.v.), 16G2 
(14 Car. II. c. 4). 

The Conventicle Acts {q.v) of 1664 
(16 Car. II. c. 1) and 1670 (22 Car. 11. c. 1), 
forbidding conventicle assemblies. 

The Five Mile Act {q.v.), 1665 (17 Car. 
II. c. 2). 

The Test Act {q.v.), 1673 (25 Car. II. 
c. 2), excluding dissenters from govern- 
ment offices. 

See also tho Toleration Act, exempting dissenters 
from certain penalties, l&Sy (1 Will. & Mary, e. 18) ; 
the Savoy Conference (.q.v.), IGOl ; and tho ' Seven 
Bishops.' 

Dissidents {The), of Poland, 1548. 
The Greek Church party, with the Cal- 
vinists, Arians, and other Protestants. 
In 1573 Henry of Valois, by the ' Pacta 
Conventa,' gave freedom of worship and 
equality of rights to all Poles, regardless 
of their religious creeds ; but still the 
Catholics persecuted and oppressed the 
dissidents. In 1736 the ' Pacta Conventa ' 
was repealed. Russia interfered on 
behalf of the dissidents (for Russia be- 
longed to the Greek Church), and was 
supported by England, Prussia, Sweden, 
and Denmark, but without success. In 
1767 the dissidents united into what was 
called the Confederation of Radom, and 
applied to Russia to support their cause. 
Next year the Catholics of Poland, calling 
themselves ' patriots,' combined into the 
Confederation of Bar. Poland was divided. 
Russia interfered, and this led, in 1772, 
to the partition of Poland. 

Dissidents. In Polish history. 
Originally the Polish Christians generally 
spoke of themselves as ' nos dissidentes 
in religione ' from the Catholic Church ; 
but in 1572 the Catholics called the 
Lutherans ' dissidents ' and the Greek 
Church ' schismatics.' 

Dissolution of Monasteries 

{The). The lesser monasteries, entirely 
dissolved in 153D (31 Hen. VHI. c. 13), 
were restored by Queen Mary, but again 
suppressed, and the property vested in 
the crown 1559 (1 Eliz. c. 24). 

Distinguished Service Order 

(The), Nov. 18: ij. A naval and military 
order founded by Queen Victoria for dis- 
tinguished merit in the United Kingdom. 



Ditch {The), 625, or 'Expedition of 
the Nations.' The great defeat of the 
Koreish tribe by Mohammed ; after which 
the tribe concluded a truce and then sur- 
rendered Mecca to him. 

Dithmarschen War {The). 
Count Gerhard VII. of Holstein at- 
tempted to subjugate Dithniarsch, but 
the mhabitants resisted, and defeated 
the count with considerable loss (1386). 
In 1500 John I. of Denmark resolved to 
subjugate the rebels, and marched into 
Ditlunarsch with an army of 30,000 men ; 
but he was utterly defeated, and the 
sacred banner called ' the Dannebrog ' 
became the trophy of the conquerors. 

Diversions of Purley {The). A 
philological treatise by John Home 
Tooke (Pt. I., 1786; Pt. n., 1805), to 
prove that all words were originally 
formed from objects of external i)ercep- 
tion. Called ' Purley ' from the residence 
of William Tooke, his benefactor. The 
title of the work is headed by the Homeric 

phrase sTrea nrepyevra. 

The persons of the dialogue are: JB (for Dr. 
Beadon, afterwards bishop oi Gloucester); H (for 
Home Tooke), and T (for VViiUam Tooke). 

Divine Aspasia. ' Whom to know 
is a liberal education.' (Steele, ' Tatler,' 
No. 49 ; Lady Elizabeth Hastings, 1082- 
1739). 

Divine Doctor {The), or the * Ec- 
static Doctor.' Johan van Ruysbroeck, 
the mystic, born at Ruysbroeck, near 
Brussels (1294-1381). 

Divine Legation {The), or, in full, 

' The Divine Legation of Moses demon- 
strated.' By William V/arburton, bishop 
of Gloucester (1738), to prove that the 
Pentateuch must be a divine revelation, 
because it is silent on the subject of a 
future state. This extraordinary pro- 
duction has laid under tribute such a 
parade of learning as was never equalled, 
except, perhaps, in Burton's ' Anatomy 
of Melancholy.' Everyone is aghast at 
the learning, but no one is convinced. 

Divine Right of Kings {The). 
A 17th cent, dogma, implying the belief 
that kings hold their office by divine 
appointment, and are the earthly repre- 
sentatives of deity. So they are in a 
theocracy like Judsea and the popedom. 
The dogma was sanctioned in the book 
of the Canons of Convocation, 1604 ; bub 



220 



DIVORCE 



DOCTOR 



in the Bill of Rights, 1GS9, the right of 
the people to depose the monarch, to 
change the order of succession, and to 
confer the throne on whom they think 
proper is distinctly set forth. In Great 
Britain the monarch has only parlia- 
mentary right, and the parliament that 
makes a sovereign can unmake also. 

In Russia the Czar still claims the ' divine right 
to govern wrong,' and, accordingly, in ias3, Alex- 
ander insisted on placing the crown on his own 
head. 

Divorce a mensa et thoro (Latin). 
A partial divorce, severing wife and 
husband ' from board and bed,' but not 
annulling the marriage. In this sort of 
divorce neither husband nor wife could 
marry again so long as both remained 
alive. Divorces a mensa et thoro were 
granted by the ecclesiastical court when 
man and wife could not, from incompati- 
bility of temper or ill-usage, live under 
the same roof. 

Now called ' judicial separation ' ; the court has 

Eower to order alimony for the wife. The new 
iw of divorce dates from iHol. In 1878, by the 
' Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act,' a wife can 
plead cruelty as a sulllcient cause for judicial 
separation. 

Divorce a vinculo matrimonii. A 
total divorce ' from the bond of matri- 
mony,' in consequence of some canonical 
impediment existing before marriage, 
such as bigamy, kinship within the pro- 
hibited degrees, &c. The children of 
Buch parents are illegitimate. 

By the law of 1857 adultery is made a valid plea 
for an entire dissolution of marriage; but the 
Council of Trent, which closed in isiiy, pronounced 
marriage to be absolutely indissoluble. 

Divorce Court, 1857 (23, 24 Vict. 

144). A court which takes the juris- 
diction of divorce out of the ecclesiastical 
courts. It is composed of a judge 
ordinary, the three chiefs in the courts 
of common law, and three present judges. 
After divorce the ofiendiiii^ party is free 
to marry again. 

Dix-huit Bru?r,aire. Tear VIII. 
The coup d'etat of Bonaparte, when the 
Directory was overthrown, and the su- 
premacy of Bonaparte established (9 
Nov. 1799). 

Dixie Professorship. Of eccle- 
siastical history. Stipend 500Z. a year 
and a fellowship at Emmanuel College. 
Pounded in the University of Cambridge 
by Sir William Dixie, of Emmanuel 
College, 18S4. 



Djezzar,«.e. Butcher. Achmed Pacha 
(1735-1804). He was originally a slave, 
and rose to the pashalic of Acre. He is 
noted for his dogged defence of Acre 
against Napoleon I. in 1799. His cruelty 
was a monomania, for at times he was 
both tender-hearted and charitable. See 
' Butcher.' 

Djoubanians (The). A dynasty 
which reigned in Irak and Khorassan 
from A.D. 1335 till 1378, founded by 
Djouban, tutor of Behader-Khan. He 
married the khan's sister and revolted. 
Tamerlane conquered this part of Persia, 
and made his son governor thereof. 

Doce'tss (The), or 'Docetes' (3 syl.). 
A sect ascribed to Simon Magus. They 
believed that the body of Christ was a 
sort of phantom body, like that which 
had appeared to Adam{ and Eve, Cain 
and Abel, Noah and Abr^nam, and there- 
fore that the sufferings and death of 
Christ were not real. Supposed to be 
referred to in 2 John vii. (Greek Soxew, 
to seem, to appear.) 

The Docetfe were a Gnostic sect, and, like the 
Gnostics generally, considered matter the oppo- 
site of spirit, and evil the opposite of good. As 
God is spirit and only good, evil must be resident 
in matter, and it would be no more possible for a 
divine nature to take a material body than for 
good to mix with evil. 

Doce'tlsm. The doctrine of the 
Docetae {q.v.), which was this, that the 
humanity, the actions, and the sufferings 
of Christ were only phenomenal and not 
real. 

Doctor Doetorum. Alexander of 
Hales, Gloucestershire, the * Irrefragable 
Doctor,' a friar minor, who applied the 
rules of Aristotle to school philosophy. 
His chief work is ' Summa Theologise.' 
He died in 1245. 

Doctor My-book. John Abemethy 
(17G4-1831). So called because he said 
to so many of his patients, ' I must refer 
you to my book ; there are only about a 
dozen pages you need read. Begin at 
p. 73, and you will soon find all that I 
can tell you or you need know.' He was 
not a physician, but a surgeon. His 
fundamental principle was that most 
ailments, whether of the legs or eyes, 
feet or head, are due to deranged diges- 
tion, and that a ' blue pill,' with 4 ozs. of 
food three times a day, will prove a 
panacea. 



DOCTOR 



DOCTORS 



261 



Doctor of Asia. Polycabp, bishop 
of Smyrna, in Asia ; or ' Doctor of the 
Holy Church of Smyrna ' (26 Jan.), 72- 
167. 



Doctor of Dancing {The). Beau- 
champs, of whom Louis XIV. took 
lessons for twenty years. Beauchampa 
died 1695. 



Doctors {Scholastic) who bear complementary titles. Those marked with a 
* are ' Doctors of the Church.' The rest are, for the most part, Medieval Schoolmen. 

* ^* Those without a date have been borrowed from a list sent J'rutii America to 
the publishers. 



Doctor Admirabilia ... ... 

Angelicus ... ... 

Authenticus 

Bonus 
Christianissimu3 

Collectivus 

Communis 

Difflcilis 

Divinus 

Doctorum... 

Dulcifluus 

Dulcissimus 

Ecstaticus 

Evangelicus 

Facundus 

Famosissimus 

Famosus 

Fertilis 

Fundatissimus 

Fundatus 

„ et Copiopus 

Illibatus 

llluminatus 

,, et Acutus... 
Illustratus 

Ingeniosissimus 

Inviiicibilis 

Irrefragabilis 

Marianus 

MelliHuus... ... 

Methodicua 

Wirabilis 

Notabilis ... „. 
Optimus ... ... 

Ordinatissimus . 
Perspicuus 
Planus et Clnrus 

,, et Perspicuus .. 

Profltabilis 

Profundissimus . 
Profundus^ 



Rcfulgidus 
Kesolutissimus 
Resolutua ... 
Sapiens 
Scolasticus 



Bi-COit (Roger) .. 
Aquinas (iVuww-s)* ... 

Gregory of Rimini 

BhinkeTj (Walter) ... 

G%Rson (John Out rlierdc) 

Caraccioi.1 (LardaipJio) 

Aquinas (Thomas)* 

John of Ripatransone 

RUYSBKOECK (Jan df) 

llAL,i:.S(AU'j:aiidero/) ... 

ANDRE.E or Andreas (Antonius] 

EUYSBROECK (Jan dc) 

"\VycLiF(/i)//;0 

Peter AuitEOLDS „ 

Innocent V. 

Torre (Bertmnd de la) 

Francis of Candia 

iEGiDius or Giles of Colonna 

\ A.B.RO (GulU'lnmx) 

Middleton (Richard) ... ... 

Alexander Alsmanicus 

LULLY (iia?/mond) 

JMairone (Francois de) (docteur eclairO 

Marca (Fra)i(ois de) ... 

Adam de Marisco (bishop of Ely) 

Alphonso de Novo Castro 

Occam ( IVilliam) (excommunicated by John XXII). ... 

l'OUK(Peter) 

Hales (.^i''.r(7?!<ter of) (GlouceEtcrshire) 

Duns Scotus (founder of the Scotibis) 

Bernard of Clairvaux* 

Bassol (John), a Scot 

Bacon (Roqer) 

Peter de 1 Isle 
Antony of Padua ... 

Bassol (John), a Scot 

BoNET (Nidiolas) 

Barley (IF.) 

BVRLEY (WnJter) 

Bonet (Nicholas) 

iEGiDius or Giles of Colonna 

Jacobus de Ascoli ... ... 

Bradwardine (Thomas) (bishop of Chichester) ... 

Middleton (Richard) „. _ 

Alexander V. (pope) 

DuRAND de St. Pour<;ain (Gxdllaume) (bishop of Meaux) 

Baconsthorp (John) 

Wessel (Jart iferjruinJ!) 

Alfred, the Philosopher 

Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury* m. 

AnSelm of Laon ... 

Buridan ... 

Castro Novo (Hugh de) (an Englishman) 

Odon (Gerard) ., 

[John of Antioch, Climacus (525 600), and Epiphanus were also surnamod ' Scolaoticu:.'] 



Seraphicus 

Singularis ... 

Soleranis _.. „. 

Solidus 

Sublimis et llluminatus 

Sublilis 

Subtilissimus 

Sufflcens 

Theologicus 

XJltimus Scholasticorum 

Universalis 

utiiis" ... ."; ;;; 

Venerabilio 



BONAVENTURA (Giovanni di Fidenza)* 

Occam (WiUinvi) (excommunicated by John XXII.) 

Goethals (Henry of Gheu;,) 

Middleton (Riduird) 

Tauler (Johann) „. „ 

Duns Scotus ... 

PlETRO Aquila *" "'. '." ''.'. Z^. ... 

Cz,EiJiEiiGKS(Matthieu Nicholas dc) 

Biel (GafcWt'O 

Aquinas (Thomas)* 

Alan de lisle 

Lyra (Nicholas de) 

Hildebert 

OcCAil (WUtiam) ^ 



1214-1202 
1212-1 -1274 
died 1357 



1204-1381 
died 1245 
died 1320 

1294-1S81 
1324-1384 
14th cent. 
1225-1276 



1247 1316 
13th cent, 
died 1364 

1235-1315 
died 1327 



1276-1347 

died 1245 

1265-1308 
1091-1153 
died 1347 
1214-1292 

1105-1231 
died 1347 
died 1360 

1275 1.S57 
died 1360 
1247 1316 

1290-1349 
died 1364 
1339-1410 
1267-1333 
died 1346 
1419-1489 
died 1270 
1033-1109 
1050 1117 
1295 1360 
died 1310 



1221-1274 
1276 1347 
1217 1293 
died 1364 
12:10 1361 
1265-1308 

1350-1420 
1360 1440 
1420-1495 
1224-1274 
1114-1203 
1270-1340 
1055-1133 
1276-1347 



262 



DOCTORS 



DOCTORS 



Doctor Venerabilis Pierre de Cluny 

[Bede the Anglo-Saxon historian (G73-735) is also called the ' Venerable.'] 

Doctor Venerandus Gregory of Fonts 

II. A Supplemental List. Other complementary titles. 

Aquila Doctorum AiLLY (Pierre (V) 

„ „ Aquinas (r;i()?)irts) 

[J. B. Bossuet, bishop of Meaux (1627-1704) was called the 'Eagle of Meaux,' and also 
Christian Eloquence. ] 

FULGENTIUS, bishop of Euspina 

PiETRO, bishop of Ravenna 

John, patriarch of Constantinople 

Ephrem, one of the Fathers of the Greek Church 

John of Salisbury 

Aquinas was so called by Pius V 

Hales (.itexajutcro/) 

Pierre, author of ' Historia Scholastica ' 

Mairone (Frain'ois de) 

Gkosseteste (Boberi) 

„ ,, excommunicated 

Lombard (Pie<j-o) 

Hilary, bishop of Poitiers (The Rhone of Latin 

Eloquence) 

[J. B. BossuetTwas called the ' Rhone of Christian Eloquence.'] 



Augustine of his Age (r;ie) 

Chrysologus (Golden Speech) 

Chrysostom (Golden Mouth) ... 

Deacon (T/ie) 

Desbcon (T)ie Little) 

Fifth Doctor of the Church (T/w) 

Fons VitiB 

Mangeur or Comeston 

Maglster Abstractionum 

„ Contradictionis ,„ 

,, Scolarum 

„ Sententiarum 

MaUeus Arianorum 



Malleus Hereticorum . 
Princeps Theologorum 
Scotus Minor 
Theologian (T/ie) ... 

Thorough Doctor '(flie) '. 



AiLLY (Pierre d') 
JliGiDius of Colonna 
PlETRO Aquila 
Gregory of Nazianzus 
Isidore of Seville ... 
Varbo (Gidielmus) ... 



1350 1420 
1224- 1274 
'Rhone of 

464-533 
433-450 
344-407 
320 379 
1110-1182 
1224-1274 
died 1245 
died 1180 
died 1327 
1174 1253 

1100-1164 

300-367 



1350 1420 
1247-1316 
1.850-1420 



Doctors ( TJhiquist). ' Docteurs Ubi- 
quistes ' are doctors not members of the 
Sorbonne, tbe college of Navarre, or the 
Cholets. 

Doctors of Reason {The). Mem- 
bers of the Chinese sect of Tao or Taou, 
a kind of rationalistic religious sect. 

Tao, one of the Chinese names of the Supreme 
Being, is identified by some missionaries with the 
' Logos ' of St. John's Gospel. Sec ' Tao.' 

Doctors of the Cliurcli. Certain 
canonised authors of the early and medi- 
seval Christian Church whose works have 
been accepted as authority on doctrine, 
dogma, and discipline. There have been 
hundreds and thousands of Theological 
Doctors, but the following list contains 
all those distinctively recognised by Ca- 
tholics as ' Doctors of the Church,' and 
must not be confounded with the ' Scho- 
lastic Doctors.' 

To make this list as correct and perfect as pos- 
sible, I have been carefully over all the many 
thousand names of the BoUandists, with those 
contained in the ' Dictionnaire Hagiographique ' 
of the Abbe Migne. 

(Greek, Latin, signify the language in which the 
■works were written). The wwjU/i shows the ' Saint's 
day.' 
Alfonso Maria of Liguori, Naples, 

Founder of the Order of Liguorians 

or Redemptorists. Called by Pius IX. 

' one gf the doctors of the Church ' 

(2 Aug.) Latin 1696-1787 

Ambrose, archbishop of Milan (7 Dec.) 

Latin 340-397 
Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury (21 

April) Latin 1033-1109 

Aquinas. See helow, ' Thomas.' 
A'iiianasius, patriarch of Alexandi-ii 
(2 May) ^ ' «. ... Urcnk 



Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa 
(28 Aug.) . .. Latin 

Basil the Great, archbishop of Caesarea, 
in Cappadocia (14 June) ... Grecii 

Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, ' the Mel- 
lifluous or Most Mellifluous Doctor ' 
(20 Aug.) ... Latin 

Bonaventura (Giovanni di Fidenza), a 
cardinal-bishop, 'the Seraphic doc- 
tor ' (14 July; Latin 

Chrysologus. See below, ' Pietro Chry- 
sologus ' 

Chrysostom. See helow, ' John Chrysos- 
tom ' 

Clemens or Clement of Alexandria 
(Titus Flavins Alezandrlnus) (4 Dec.) 

Greek 

Cyprian (Thascius Cacilius), bishop of 
Carthage, and one of the 'Fathers' 
(16 Sept.) ... Greek 

Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, and one 
of the ' Fathers ' (28 Jan.) ... Greek 

Ephrem, ' the Deacon ' of Odessa. One 
of the ' Fathers ' (1 Feb.) ... Greek 

Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia, in 
Cyprus. One of the 'Fathers' (12 
May) Greek 

Fulgentius (Fabius Claudius Gordina- 
nus), bishop of Kuspina, in Africa, the 
'Augustine of his age ' (1 Jan.) Latin 

Gregory the Great, pope (12 March) 

Latin 

Gregory of Nazianzus, in Cappadocia, 
'the Theologian.' One of the 
'Fathers,' and archbishop of Con- 
stantinople (9 May) Greek 

Gregory of Nyssa, brother of S. Basil 
(y March) Latin 

Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, 'Malleus 
Arianorum ' and the ' Rhone of Latia 
Eloquence.' One of the ' Fathers ' of 
the Church (13 Jan.) Latin 

HiPPOLYTUS, bishop of Portus, in Rome, 
author of the ' Refutation of all Here- 
sies ' (22 Aug.) Greek 

Isidore, archbishop of Seville, ' the 
Theologian ' (4 April) Latin 

Jerome, ' Father of the Latin Church ' 
(30 Sept.) Latin 

John Chrysostom (Goldi>n Mouth), pa- 
triarch of Constantinople, and one of 
the 'Fathers ' ^27 Jan.) ... ... 3feek 



1091-1153 
1221-1274 



210-258 
died 444 



464-533 
644-604 



died 238 
570-636 



344-407 



DOCTORS 



DODD 



2GS 



606-756 
390-461 



155-216 



died 450 

403-404 



J(5hn Damascenus or ' Joannes Damas- 

cenus (6 May) Gret'k 

Leo I. the Great, pope (11 April) Latin 

Manahen, propliet of Antiocli (24 May.) 

(.SV«! Abbe IMigne, ' Dictionnaire Ha- 

. giographique ') Greek * * 

Nil of Ancyra, of Galatia. A disciple of 
St. Chrysostom. (Sre Migne, ' Diction- 
naire Hagiographique ') (12 Nov.) 

Greek died 1005 

ORIGEN of Alexandria (22 April) Greek 185 247 

Pantenus or Pantsenus of Alexandria 

(7 July) ... Greek 

PiETEO Chrysol'ogus (Golden Speech), 

archbishop of Ravenna (2 Dec.) Latin 

Prosper Aquitanas (25 June) ... Latin 

Satyeus, brother of S. Ambrose (17 Sept.) 

Latin 

Thomas of Aquino or Thomas Aquinas, 
'Angel of the Schools,' 'Eagle of Di- 
vines,' ' Universal and Angelic Doc- 
tor,' ' The Fifth Doctor of theChurch," . 
• The Dumb Ox ' (7 March) ... Latin 1224-1274 
*«* The four preceding doctors of the Latin 
Church were — 

1. Ambrose of Milan 840-397 

2. Augustine of Hippo a54-4;?0 

8. Jerome, ' Father of the Latin Church ' 345-4-20 

4. Gregory the Great 544-604 

■VNTien Pius V. in 1567 declared Aquinas to be the 
'Fifth Doctor of the Church,' he did not ignore 
those between Gregory and Aquinas, but spoke of 

5. Thomas as we speak of the Tenth Muse, or 
Eighth Wonder of the World, meaning some one 
or some wonder of striking excellence. There 
may have been others more learned than Aqui- 
nas, as there are poets superior to Marie Lejars 
de Gournay, surnamed 'the Tenth Muse,' and 
buildings more marvellous than the palace of the 
Escurial of Toledo, called the ' Eighth Wonder.' 
Such phrases are merely complementary hyper- 
bole. 

Doctors of the Sorbonne. * Doc- 
teurs en Sorbonne.' The Sorbonne is a 
secular ecclesiastical college founded in 
Paris by Robert de Sorbon in 1252. The 
members live in common, and are pro- 
vided with everything necessary for life 
and well-being. The head of the college 
is called the Proviseur, and his assistant 
is called a Prior. The buildings were re- 
stored by Richelieu in the 17th cent. Since 
1821 these buildings have been the seat 
of the University of Paris, consecrated 
to humanity studies, the arts, sciences, 
and theology 

The following doctors of the Sorbonne 
are placed in the 'Petits Bollandistes ' 
among the saints. They were ' Martyrs 
of the Revolution ' (M. R.). 
BURTE (Jean Francois), -u-hose day is 2 Sept. 



'MEVR (Vincent de), 
Thorame (Jides (ie Pazery de) 



June 
2 Sept. 



Doctors' Commons^ A college of 
doctors in the civil law, London, wherein 
the Court of Admiralty and the princi- 
pal ecclesiastical courts were held. 
Founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, dean 
of the Arches. The original house was 
destroyed by the great fire of London in 
16G6. Building taken down in 1867. 



Doctrinaires. L or ' PrO^res de la 
Doctrine,' 1592. Founded by Caesar de 
Bus of Avignon, and confirmed by the 
pope in 1597. The object of the society 
was to instruct the poor, especially in rural 
districts, in religious matters. Many 
schools were under them. Caesar de Bus 
also established a female society for 
women called ' Filles de la Doctrine.' 

II. 1815. A political party in France 
favourable to a constitutional govern- 
ment, and hoping to combine perfect 
liberty with regality. Royer-Collard was 
the chief, or pere de la doctrine. See 
above. 

The following were eminent doctrinaires, viz. 
Camille Jordan, De Broglie, De Serre, Duchatel, 
Duvergier, De Hauranne, Guizot, Jaubert, and 
Remusat. 

Doctrine of Signatures (The). 
The doctrine that visible signs indicate 
the virtues and uses of natural objects. 
Thus white was cold, and red hot. Hence 
in fever red medicines, such as mulberries 
and pomegranates, were prescribed. For 
liver complaints yellow substances werj 
recommended. Malignant plants, says 
Coles, have a sad or evil appearance, 
either in their leaves, flowers, or fruit. 
Euphrasia, or * eye-bi'Ight,' has a spot 
like the pupil of the eye ; walnuts, which 
represent the human brain, are good for 
idiocy ; nettle-tea for the nettle-rash ; 
bilberry and turmeric, being yellow, are 
good for jaundice ; liver-wort, which is 
spotted like tubercles on the liver, is 
good for liver complaints. So through- 
out Nature puts her label on everything, 
if men were but wise enough to read her 
writing. 

Doctrines of Port Royal. The 

community of Port Royal, in Paris, were 
the most strenuous defenders of the 
famous book called ' Augustlnus ' by 
Cornelius Jansen, which was designed to 
show that St. Augustine was unsound on 
the clootrines of grace, free-will, predesti- 
nation, and universal redemption. Jan- 
sen's book was condemned by Pope 
Urban VIII., and the school of Port 
Royal was suppressed in 1660. 

[She] had adopted the tenets of the Jansenists, 
with ijerhaps a still further tendency towards the 
reformed doctrines than those of Port Royal.— Sir 
W. SCOTT, liedyauntlet, chap. xvU. 

Dodd, D.D. {William), 1753-1777. 
Hanged at Tyburn for forging the name 
of Lord Chesterfield to a'bond for 4,200Z. 



2G4 



DODO 



DOMESDAY 



Dodo {The). This bird, now extinct, 
was seen hj the Portuguese in the Mau- 
ritius in 1499 ; it was seen by the Dutch 
in 1598 ; it was figured by De Bry in 
IGOl, by Ckisin in 1G05, and by Bontius 
in 1658 ; the bones of a dodo were dis- 
covered in the Mauritius by Clark in 
1805. 

Thpre is a dodo's foot in the British Museum ; a 
head and foot in the Asbmolean Museum, Oxford. 

Dog, or ' Dog Steenie.' George Vil- 
liers duke of B'v.kingham. When first 
made the king's favourite [James I.], the 
queen said " Now you must be my watch- 
dog, and whenever the king is inclined 
to make a fool of himself, you must pull 
the old sow by the ear.' 

Buclsingham -wrote from Madrid to .Tames to 
send over jewels: 'first your best ha^'-^iid, the 
Portugal diamond, the rest of the pen iit dia- 
monds to make up a necklace to give the ^nfanta, 
and the best rope of pearls, with a rich chain or 
two for myself to wear, or else your dog will lack a 
collar ' (1623). 

Dog-days, or * Canicular Days.' The 
forty days beginning with 3 July and 
ending 11 Aug. So-called from Caniculus, 
the Dog-star, or Sirius, in the constella- 
tion called Canis Major, the brightest of 
the fixed stars. The Egyptians had the 
beginning of their year dependent on the 
heliacal rising of the Canicula, coinciding 
with the flood of the Nile. 

Dogs, or Barbets. So the Vaudois 
were usually called by the Catholics. The 
Vaudois employed by gentlemen as foot- 
men to stand behind a carriage were 
called barbets. 

The Marquises Fleury and Angrogna, fearing 
the bite of the dogs (barbets), were not the last to 
run away.— L^GER (quoted by Ant. Monastier, 
Hist, oftlie Vaudois Church, p. 304). 

Dogado. The territory of the doge 
of Venice, comprising the city of Venice, 
the isles of Malamocco, Chioggia, and 
Brondolo, with a narrow slip of coast be- 
tween the mouths of the Adige and the 
Musone. By a law in 1367 neither the 
doge nor any of his family could hold any 
estate beyond the dogado, and if before 
raised to the office any doge happened to 
have any estate or fief beyond this terri- 
tory, he was obliged to sell it. 

Doge, i.e. duke. The chief magis- 
trate of several Italian republics. In 
Venice (697) and Amalfi (897) the office 
was held for life ; in Genoa from 1528 
the office was limited to two years; in 
Kagusa from 787 it was monthly, so that 



there were twelve doges a year. The 
doge was both general and judge, ruling 
in concert with a representative council 
of the chief citizens. The first doge of 
Venice, 697, was Paulucci Anaferto; the 
last was Ludovico Marini, for in 1795 
Napoleon I. abolished the office. Marini 
was elected in 1789, and died 1803. The 
doge was ' rex in foro, senator in curia, 
captivus in aula.' 

The constitution of Venice was a pyramid, rest- 
ing on the basis of the grand council, and rising 
tlirough the senate and the college to the doge, the 
ornamental apex. In 1172 the election of doge was 
transferred from the people to the grand council. 

Dogget's * Coat and Badge,' 
1715. The prize of a rowing match on the 
Thames, instituted by Thomas Dogget, 
an actor. The race day is 1 Aug., the 
day of the accession of George I. The 
race is from London Bridge to the ' Old 
Swan ' at Chelsea, when the tide is 
strongest against the rowers. 

Dogmael's Stone (St.). A stone in 
Pembrokeshire with an inscription in 
Ogham. See ' Golspie Stone.' 

There Is another near Margam in Glamorgan- 
shire, and one near Crickhowel, in Brecknock- 
shire. The town is called St. Dogmell in Bartho- 
lomew's Gazetteer.' 

Dogmatists and Empirics. Two 

schools of medicine in Alexandria which 
prevailed during the three centuries pre- 
ceding the birth of Christ. The Dogma- 
tists or Methodists were those who fol- 
lowed certain prescribed rules; the 
Empirics were those who trusted to 
experiment and experience. The chief 
of the Dogmatists were Erastratos, The- 
mison, and Coelius Aurelianus. 

The chief of the Empirics were Philinos of Cos, 
Sextus Empiricus, and Heraclldes of Tarentum. 

Dom-Boc. A book of dooms or 
* Liber Judicialis.' A code of laws com- 
piled by Alfred the Great from the West 
Saxon collection of Ina, the Kentish col- 
lection of Ethelbert, and the Mercian 
laws of Offa. 

It begins, ' The Lord spake all these words, say- 
ing. . . .' Then follow the Ten Commandments, 
part of the Mosaic Law, and the Golden Bule ; 
then the ecclesiastical and civil laws. 

Dome of Chosroes (r7ie). A mag- 
nificent edifice in Modain, one of the 
wonders of the East, built in the 6th 
cent, by Chosroes the Great of Persia. 



DomesdajT Book. 
Book.' 



See ' Doomsday 



DOMICELLiE 



DOMINUS 



2G5 



Domicellae Camerae Reginee. 

Ladies of the bedchamber ; generally, if 
not always, married ladies. 

Domicellae Reginee. Maids of 
honour, and of course unmarried. 

Domiciliary Canons. Canons 
not in holy orders, and therefore having 
no right to any particular chapter. 

Domina Anglorum. Maud, 
daughter of Henry I., and mother of 
Henry 11., by Geoifrey Plantagenet, 
count of Anjou. 

Domingo {Bevolt of Santo) from 
the French yoke. 

(a) The revolt of the slaves broke out 
22 Aug., 1791, and Toussaint Louverture, 
a negro chieftain, was proclaimed gover- 
nor for life in 1801, but he died in 1803. 

{h) Another revolt, to expel the French 
from the island, broke out in 1803. The 
revolters put themselves under British 
protection ; D'Essalines (originally a 
slave) was appointed governor, and the 
ancient name of Hayti was restored. In 
1804 the governor declared himself em- 
peror of the whole island, but in 1806 he 
was assassinated, and the French part 
of the island was divided into two parts 
— a negro republic and a mulatto com- 
monwealth. In 1822 Peter Boyer, a man 
of colour, reduced the whole island under 
one government — a representative re- 
public — but he abdicated in 1843, and 
retired to Paris, where he died in 1850. 

(c) In 1844 the Spanish portion of the 
island was seized by the blacks, and 
formed into a republic under Santana, 
and in 1849 Faustin Soulouque, a negro, 
proclaimed himself Faustin I. emperor 
of Hayti, but he abdicated in 1861. Sal- 
nave was declared president 11 Jan., 1870, 
but was shot by the French on the 15th 
of the same month. 

At present (1R001 the island is divided into two 
republics : one (Hayti) French-speaking, and the 
Other (Santo Domingo) Spanish-speaking. 

Dominica Bran'donum. Pro- 
perly was the Sunday preceding Quadri- 
gesima Sunday (1st in Lent). See ' Sun- 
days.' 

Brandones appellabant Oalli primam quadra- 
gesimalis jejunii hebdomadam, quod hujus prima 
die snb vesperum pueri brandonihwi, seu facibua 
accensis februare solerent. Dominica brandonum 
Quadragesimam preBcedit. — Ducange, Glossary 
Urando). 

Dominica de Rosa, or 'Lastare 
Sunday' i^.v). The fourth Sunday in 
12 



Lent, when the pope blesses the golden 
rose. See ' Sundays.' 

Domin'ical Letters {The). From 
Dominica (dies), i.e. Sunday ; the Sun- 
day Letters. They are A B C D E F G, 
used in almanacs to mark the Sundays 
throughout the year. The 1st, 8th, 15th, 
and 22nd days are marked A ; the 2nd, 
9th, 16th, 23rd, &c., are marked B, and 
so on. Hence, on whatever day the first 
Sunday of the year falls, the letter which 
marks it will mark every other Sunday 
in the year. If it is A (the 1st of the 
month) every Sunday will be A, and so 
on, because there are seven days and 
seven letters. 

Dominicans, or Preachmg Friars, 
1215. A religious order of the rule of 
Augustine, founded by St. Dominic at 
Toulouse for preaching and the con- 
version of heretics. In 1233 the func- 
tion of Inquisitors was added. They 
had several houses in Italy, Spain, Por- 
tugal, France, Germany, and England, 
In 1218 the Dominicans of Paris were 
called Jacobins, because their convent 
was in the Rue St. Jacques. Among the 
most famous of the order were Albert 
the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, Ray- 
mond of Penafort, Vincent of Beauvais, 
Caietan, Dom Soto, &c. They sustained 
a long rivalry with the Franciscans, but 
were suppressed in France in 1790 by 
the National Assembly. Their outer 
dress is a black garment with a scapu- 
lary and capuchin of the same cloth. 
They also carry a rosary suspended from 
their girdle. 

By the Second Council of Lyons the Begging 
Friars were limited to the Dominicans or Black 
Friars, the Franciscans or Grey Friars, the 
Augustines (also Black Friars), and the Carmelites 
or White Friars. 

There are Dominican nuns and Dominican ter- 
tiaries, &c. 

Dominicans, 1793, &c. Those 
Frenchmen who observed Sunday after 
the introduction of the new French 
Calendar, which abolished the week of 
seven days and introduced a decade of 
ten days instead. The Dominicans had, 
of course, fifty-two weeks in the year, 
the Decadists had thirty-six decades. 

Dominion Day. Canada, 2 July, 

Dominus. Ds. on tombstones, in 
the middle ages, indicates either a 
clergyman or a knight. Clergymen were 
then addressed as knights. 



2G6 



DOMINUS 



DONATISTS 



Dominus ac Redemptor Fos- 
ter, 1773. The famous brief of Clement 
XIV. suppressmg ' for ever the society 
of the Jesuits, out of regard to the peace 
of the church.' 

Domitian Road (The), b.c. 122. 
Constructed in Gaul by Cnseus Domitius 
(Ahenobarbus). 

Don, Dom, Dona. Don is Do- 

[7ni]nus, Dom is Dom-inus, Dona is 
jDo[rn*]«a. Don and Dona are Spanish 
forms, Dom is Portuguese. At one time 
these were given only to princes, bishops, 
and seniors, then to hidalgos ; butnow-a- 
days they are very often mere polite 
forms of address, like our esquire. 

Donald Ballach, i. e. the Freckled. 
Cousin-german of Alexander lord of the 
Isles. 

Donati [The), 1293. A faction in 
Florence opposed to the Cerchi. So 
named from two powerful houses. Dante, 
the poet, was connected with the house 
of the Donati. See ' Donatists.' 

In Pistoia, an ally of Florence, there were two 
Bimilar factions, the Neri and the Bianchi. The 
Neri sided with the Donati, and the Bianchi with 
the Cerchi. The Neri were zealous Guelfs, and 
the Bianchi were of the Ghibelline party. When 
Dante was in Pistoia he joined the Bianchi, and 
his house was pulled down about his ears by the 
Neri zealots. (Cerchi pronounce Cher-he.) 

Donation of Constantine [The). 
The tale is that Constantine the Great 
(306-337) was healed of leprosy by the 
water of baptism under St. Silvester, the 
Roman bishop. In reward of this service 
the emperor withdrew from Rome, and 
founded a new capital in the East. The 
Roman capital he resigned to St. Sil- 
vester and his successors for ever (' pa- 
latiam nostrum, et urbem Romam, et 
totius Italiae civitates '). If this tale is 
accepted, the 'Donations of Pepin and 
Charlemagne ' were no donations at all, 
but simply restitutions of a part of Con- 
stantine's Donation. The deed has been 
proved to be a gross and impudent for- 
gery. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

In Ariosto we read that the Deed of Constan- 
ttne's Gift was found in the Moon with other 
rubbish— 

Di varil flori ad un gran moote passa, 
Ch' ebbe gia buono odore, or putia forte. 
Questo era il dono (se pero dir lece) 
Che Costantino al buon Silvestro fece. 

Orlando Furioso, xxxiv. 80. 

Donation of Pepin (The). By the 
liberality of Pepin and Charlemagne the 



ancient patrimony of farms and houses 
of the popes was transformed into the 
temporal dominion of cities and pro- 
vinces. This first-fruits of the conquests 
of Pepin, called his donation, was the 
germ of the temporal dominions of the 
pope of Rome (' Liber Pontificalis,' p. 
171). 

The 'donation' Included the territories of 
Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara, taken from 
Astolphus. THe donation was greatly enlarged 
by Charlemagne.— Cndf'j; Carnllnm. 

The ' Donation of Constantino ' was a forgery 
probably of the notorious Rlculfe, who is'supposed 
to have forged the ' Decretals ' (8th cent.). 

Donatism, a.d. 311. Tlae religious 
tenets of Donatus, the Numidian bishop, 
who insisted that personal holiness made 
a Christian ; and that the apostolic suc- 
cession of bishops did not of itself form 
the necessary medium of communication 
with Christ ; that, in fact, Christianity 
is a personal matter more than a matter 
of pedigree. At one time Donatism ran 
Catholicism very hard indeed, and at the 
present day there are not many who would 
not subscribe to this fundamental doc- 
trine of Donatus, ' that he who by faith 
and works shows himself an approved 
Christian, is to be accounted a Christian, 
whether that grace has been communica- 
ted by apostolic succession or not.' 

Don'atistS. I. a.d. 811. A religious 
sect founded by Donat, bishop of Casa 
Nigra, in Africa. Donatus declared that 
Ceecilianus, bishop of Carthage, was not 
duly elected, and that all those in his 
obedience were heretics. His heretical 
doctrines were these : that baptism ad- 
ministered by heretics is null and void ; 
and that the church is not infallible, 
seeing it had erred in the case of Coeci- 
lianus. The Council of Aries, held a.d. 
314, acquitted Csecilianus and condemned 
Donatus. Donatus and his followers 
now seceded from the church and formed 
a new sect which, in 380, had as many 
as 172 bishops. The fundamental doc- 
trines" of the new sect were these : (1) 
that the Son is inferior to the Father, 
and the Holy Ghost is inferior to the 
Son ; (2) that personal holiness is far 
more important than apostolic succession, 
and (3) when any member is excom- 
municated for offences, he must be re- 
baptized before he can be again admitted 
into church membership. 

II. A.D. 316. The followers of Donatus, 
bishop of Carthage, who, being con- 



DONNELLAN 



DORISLAUS 



237 



demned by pope and emperor as a schis- 
matic, revolted, and carried with him a 
large following of reformers, who lighted 
a civil war and desolated Africa in the 
reigns of Constantine and his successors 
till the Vandal invasion. St. Augustine 
combated these * sectaries.' 

Donnellan Lectureship {The), 
1794. Instituted in Dublin University 
under the will of Anne Donnellan. 

Dooms of Ethelbert {The\ a.d. 
597. Giving a legal status in England 
to the Chi-istian church. 

Doomsday Book, or 'Domesday 
Book,' 1085-1086. A statistical survey 
of that part of England which was under 
the sway of William the Conqueror. So 
called, probably, because it was of autho- 
rity in all dooms, i.e. judgments in dis- 
puted questions which afterwards arose 
on matters contained therein. It was 
anciently known as the ' Liber de Win- 
tonia ' (Book of "Winchester), because at 
one time it was preserved in the royal 
treasury of that city, under three locks 
and keys. It was printed and published 
in 1783 in two folio volumes. In 1816 
two supplementary volumes were pub- 
lished. See beloiv ' Supplementary 
Volume.' N.B. The counties of Durham, 
Northumberland, Westmoreland, and 
Cumberland are omitted. 

There are two volumes: one called the Great 
Domesday Book and the other the Little Domes- 
day Book. The great book contains S8'2 double 
pages of vellum, each page having a rfouhic column. 
Some of the capital letters are in red ink, and 
some passages are touched with red ink. It con- 
tains a survey of thirty-one counties. The Little 
Domesday Book contains 4o0 double pages of vel- 
lum in .ii)igle column. It contains the counties of 
Essex, Norfolk, Sufiolk, part of Rutland, part ot 
Lancashire, York, and Chester. 

Contents : The name of the place ; the present 
tenant ; the tenant in the time of Edward, 1041 ; 
how many hydes of land in the manor ; how many 
ploughgates in demesne (i.e. reserved in the lord's 
own hand) ; how many homagers or vassals ; how 
many villeins ; how many cottars ; how many 
serfs ; what freemen ; how many tenants in 
socage (i.e. by hereditary right) ; how much wood ; 
how much meadow and pasture ; what mills and 
fishponds ; how much has been added or taken 
away since 1041 ; what the present value. The 
return was three-fold : (1) As these details were 
In 1041 ; (2) As they had been given by William ; 
and (S) As they were when the survey was made, 

Doom.sday Book (Supplementary 
VoJunies). Vol. i. contains an introduc- 
tion by Sir Henry Ellis, and indices of 
the names contained in Doomsday Book. 
Vol. ii. contains (1) the E.xon Domesday 
{q.v.) \ (2) the Inquisitio Eliensis, or sur- 



vey of the lands of the monastery of 
Ely, i.e. of the counties of Cambridge, 
Hertford, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
Huntingdonshire ; (3) the Winton Domes- 
day, containing two surveys of the city 
of Winchester : one made between 1107 
and 1128, and the other made in 1118; 
and (4) the Bolden Book {q.v.), or survey 
of the see of Durham made in 1183. 

Dorian Mode {The). In music is 
our scale of D played entirely on white 
notes of the piano, with the minor 
seventh so characteristic of Greek music. 
Practically singers began their scale with 
A instead of D. 

Dorians. One of the four distinc- 
tive peoi)le of old Greece, who conquered 
Peloponnesus and settled there. This is 
called ' The Return of the Heraclldae.' 
There were also Dorian settlements in 
Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands. 
They were a sturdy unpolished race. In 
architecture it was the strongest, sim- 
plest, and plainest of the three orders ; in 
philosophy it was of the Pythagorean 
school ; in politics highly aristocratic ; 
in dialect harsh and rough. Scotch is 
often called the British Doric. 

The three orders were the Ionic, the most chaste 
and elegant ; the Corinthian, tlie most ornate ; and 
the Doric, the most plain and the strongest. 

Doric School of Greek Poets 

{The), Founded by Alcman and Stesi- 
choros. Alcman of Lydia (b.g. 660-600) 
was a Spartan slave, emancipated. He 
wrote in the Doric dialect ; most of his 
poems are erotic, but very few fragments 
remain. In one of his odes he exclaims, 
' Oh that I were a seamew, which wings 
its flight among the halcyons, and runs 
on the surface of the sea-waves. Bird 
of spring with radiant plumage, and 
heart that knows no sigh ! ' This is not 
unworthy to be compared with that 
beautiful verse of the psalmist, ' Oh that 
I had wmgs like a dove, for then would 
I flee away and be at rest ! ' 

Stesichoi'os (b.c. 632-552) was a native 
of Sicily, and was the father of the choral 
epode. His poems are in irregular verse, 
and the subjects are 'The Labours of 
Hercules,' the ' Return of the HeraclIdiB,' 
the ' Siege of Troy,' ' Return from Troy,' 
and the ' Calj^donian Hunt.' 

Alcman wrote in Old Doric ; but Theocritos, 
Bion, and Moschos wrote in New Doric. 

Dbrislaus {Dr.), in 1649. Was sent 
by the British parliament as envoy to 



263 



DORSETSHIRE 



DOVER 



the States of Holland, while Charles II., 
in exile, was holding his court at the 
Hague. The very evening of his arrival, 
while he sat at supper in the inn, six 
gentlemen with drawn swords dragged 
him from his chair, and murdered him 
on the floor. These assassins were 
Scotchmen, followers of Montrose, and 
Dorislaus had been recently employed 
* to draw the charge against the king.' 

As long as he (William II. prince of Orange) 
lived, no atonement could be obtained for the 
murder of Dorislaus.— Dr. Lingard, Hist, of Engl., 
viii. 5. 

It must be remembered that William II. had 
married a daughter of Charles I., and all the 
partisans of the stadtholder were rabid royalists. 

Dorsetshire Labourers (The), 
1884. At the Dorchester assizes six 
agricultural labourers were tried and 
convicted of being members of an illegal 
society, and for administering illegal 
oaths. They belonged to a trades-union 
in which those initiated were admitted 
blindfold into a room where was the pic- 
ture of a skeleton and a skull. These 
labourers were sentenced to transporta- 
tion for seven years. 

It was now proposed that, as the Orange leaders 
had violated the law as much as the Dorsetshire 
labourers, they should be dealt with in the same 
manner, and that if evidence could be obtained, 
the Duke of Cumberland [grandmaster], Lord Ken- 
yon, the Bishop of Salisbury [chaplain]. Colonel 
Fairman, and the rest should be prosecuted in the 
central criminal court.— HowiTT, Hist, of Engl. 
(year 1836, p. 273). 

Dort {Synod of). Held between 
13 Nov., 1618, and 25 May, 1619. It was 
an assembly of Protestant divines to con- 
sider the nature and tendency of the 
doctrines of Arminius, professor of 
divinity in Leyden. The synod decided 
in favour of Calvinism, and excommuni- 
cated Arminius and his adherents. 

Dotation of Pepin {The). See 
'Donation,' &c. 

Dotted Bible {The). An edition 
of the Bible printed in 1578, page for 
page with that of 1574. See ' Bible.' 

Douay Bible {The), 1581. A trans- 
lation made by the professors connected 
with the College of Douay, founded in 
1568 by Dr. William Allen for the educa- 
tion of English boys designed for the 
Romish priesthood. These students 
were to be sent into England as itinerant 
preachers, with the view of creating a 
reactionary feeling and upsetting the 
Reformed Church. Dr. Allen himself 
worked on the translation. See ' Bible.' 



Double Procession {The). That 
is the Filioque dogma. Did the Holy 
Ghost proceed from the Father and the 
Son, or from the Father by the Son? 
The former is the dogma of the Western 
Church; the latter is the belief of the 
Eastern Church. 

Doublement du Tiers {Le), 27 

Dec, 1788. When the commons or depu- 
ties of ' Le Tiers ' were made equal in 
number to the deputies of the noblesse 
and clergy both together. There were 
572 of the Tiers, 572 of the other two 
estates, and a chairman. 

Doubling Ordinance (T^e), 1662. 
A law that whoever advanced one-fourth 
more than his original share for land in 
Ireland should be entitled to double the 
quantity of land ; but if any ' adventurer ' 
refused to make such advance, any other 
person might reap the benefit, provided 
he repaid the ' adventurer ' the sum ori- 
ginally subscribed. 

Those who subscribed 2001. were to have 1,000 
acres in Ulster ; those who subscribed 3001. were 
to have 1,000 acres in Connaught; those who 
subscribed 4501. were to have 1,000 acres in Mun- 
ster ; and those who subscribed 6001. were to have 
1,000 acres of the forfeited land in Leinster. The 
Bubscribers were called ' The Adventurers." 

Douglas's Larder, 1307. * James 
Douglas penetrated into his own country 
in disguise, and, collecting some of his 
ancient followers, surprised the English 
garrison placed by Lord Clifford in 
Douglas Castle, and putting the garrison 
to the sword, he mingled the mangled 
bodies with a large stock of provisions 
which the English had amassed, and set 
fire to the castle. The country people 
to this day call this " Douglas's Larder." ' 
(Sir W. Scott, ' History of Scotland,' ix.) 

Having Bet fire to his castle, he fled to the 
mountains, saying that he liked better to hear 
the lark sing than the mouse cheep. 

Douglas Wars {The), 1572, 1573. 

Skirmishes in the regency of James earl 
of Morton, in which prisoners were re- 
lentlessly executed on both sides. 

Douloir {The). An instrument of 
death resembling the more modern guil- 
lotine. It was used in the reign of 
Henri IV. for the execution of his godson, 
the Duo de Montmorenci. 

Dover {Treaty of), 22 May, 1670. A 
secret compact between Charles II. of 
England and Louis XIV. of France, 
negotiated through Henrietta duchess of 



DOVES' 



DBAMA 



269 



Orleans, and providing that Charles 
should publicly announce his conversion 
to Romanism; and if any disturbance 
ensued, that Louis should send to his 
aid a French army and a subsidy of three 
million francs. 

Doves' Dung (2 Kings vi. 25). 
Sold in the siege of Samaria at the rate 
of half a pound for twelve shillings, does 
not mean the droppings of pigeons, but 
the plant called by botanists ' ornitho- 
gallum,' from two Greek words, optitfos 
■yaAa, bird's milk, and known as ' the 
Star of Bethlehem ' — i.e. the star-shaped 
flower of Bethlehem. The roots of these 
plants are white, edible, and in some 
English counties are sold for ' French 
asparagus.' They are much eaten in the 
Levant, where the plant abounds, roasted 
like chestnuts or boiled. The plant sold 
in Samaria would be better understood 
by the equivalent, ' A bunch of asparagus 
or half a pmt of chestnuts for twelve 
shillings.' 

Dow Purse. The money anciently 
given by the bridegroom to his bride on 
their wedding day. It was a Roman 
custom, but obtained among the Greeks, 
the Jews, and almost all the northern 
parts of Europe. 

The Greeks called it opSpiov Scopov. In Germany 
it is called Morgengabe, i.e. morning present. 

Downing College. In Cambridge 
University, founded by Sir George Down- 
ing, of Gamlingay Park, Cambridge, in 
ISOO, opened in 1821. 

Do-wning Professorship of the 

laws of England. Stirond 2001. a year. 
Founded 1800, in the University of Cam- 
bridge, by Sir George Downing, Bart., 
founder of Downing College, Cambridge, 
and of the Downing Professorship of 
Medicine. See ' Regius Professorship of 
Civil Law.' 

Downing Professorship of 
Medicine {The), in the University of 
Cambridge, 1800. Founded by Sir George 
Downing, Bart., the founder of Downing 
College, Cambridge, and of the Downing 
Professorship of the Laws of England. 
Stipend 2001. more than a Fellow of 
Downing receives. See ' Regius Profes- 
sorship of Physic' 

Doxology [The). In the reign of 
Constantine the Great there were four 
forms of the doxology in use :— 



1. Glory be to the Father, and to the 
Son, and to the Holy Ghost. 

2. Glory be to the Father, and to the 
Son, in the Holy Ghost. 

3. Glory be to the Father, in the Son, 
and in the Holy Ghost. 

4. Glory be to the Father, hy the Son, 
and in the Holy Ghost. (Philostorgius, 
Book III., chap, xiii.) 

Doyen des Rois {Le). So Louis 
XIV. used to style himself in the latter 
years of his long reign. He reigned 72 
years, and it will not be easy to find in 
history a reign of equal length. 

Dozen Peers (The). The 12 peers 
assembled at the instance of the barons, 
in the reign of Henry III., to be privy 
councillors, or rather conservators of the 
kingdom. 

Dozsa Rebellion {The), 1513-1514, 
Hungary. Also called the Kurucz Re- 
bellion, that is the rebellion of the Cru- 
ciferi, because the original insurgents 
were intended to be ' soldiers of the cross.' 
It was a peasants' uprising against 
the oppressions of the upper class. 
Of course the rebels were defeated im- 
mediately they came into conflict with 
the better trained, and George Dozsa waa 
put to death with the most savage cruelty. 
He was seated on a red-hot iron chair, a 
red-hot iron crown was placed on his 
head, and a red-hot sceptre in his hand, 
and to add to his tortures his flesh was 
then torn from his bones. See ' Damiens.' 

Draco Regis. The standard borne 
in war anciently by our kings. It had 
the figure of a dragon wrought on it. 

Dragonnades (3 syl.), 1685. An 
armed expedition to stamp out Protest- 
antism in France, Each expedition was 
led by a bishop, who demanded that every 
Protestant should abjure Protestantism, 
and those who refused to do so were left 
to the tender mercies of the dragoons 
who accompanied him. Hundreds were 
thrown into dungeons ; hundreds who 
fled were hunted down like wild beasts ; 
many were gibbeted or sent to the gal- 
leys ; and not a few were cut down by 
the sword. 

The persecutions were rene-wed in 1723 and 1724, 

Drama {Father of the French), 
JodeU (1532-1578), 



270 



DEAMA 



DEUSES 



Drama [Father of the modern Ger- 
man). Andreas Greif (1616-1GG4). 

Drama [Father of the Greelc). 
Thespis, 6th cent. B.C. 

Drama [Father of the Spanish). 
Lopd de Vega (1562-1G35). 

Drapier's Letters, 1724. A series 
of letters by Dean Swift on the halfpence 
and farthings coined for Ireland by- 
William Wood, iron and copper founder 
of Wolverhampton. Drapier is repre- 
sented as a poor but independent- spirited 
shoj)keeper, utterly unskilled in law, but 
who did not mean to be ruined if he 
could help it. In these letters the Irish 
were told that Wood's patent was in- 
iquitous, and that the contract had been 
infamously carried out. Wood was called 
a 'wood-louse,' and his copper was de- 
clared to be vile brass, 20 of which coins 
were not worth 10 honest ones. The 
Irish refused to take Wood's halfpence, 
and the government was compelled to 
withdraw the coinage. Swift became 
immensely popular in Ireland, but Sir 
Isaac Newton, master of the mint, ex- 
amined the coin, and declared it to be 
rather above the terms of the contract. 

Dreadful "Woman [The). Caro- 
line, the wife of George prince regent. 
Married 1795, separated the year her 
daughter was born, 1796, died 1821. 

The Whigs threatened to espouse in a body the 
cause of the Dreadful Woman, and bring her to 
the front again. — WiNGl'lELD, Abigail liou:e, vol. i. 
p. 169. 

Dresden [Treaty of Peace at). 2-5 
Dec, 1745, was signed at Dresden the 
treaty which concluded the second Sile- 
sian war between Maria Theresa of 
Austria and Frederick II. the Great of 
Prussia. By this treaty Silesia was 
again restored to Prussia. See ' Berlin,' 
treaty of. 

Drinking in Belgium. The Bel- 
gian labourer spends one quarter of his 
wages in dram-drinking. On ordinary 
days he requires six drams a day, and on 
festal ones more. The first, called a 
Worm-killer, is taken at 5.30 a.m. ; the 
second, called an Fi/e-opener, at 8 a.m. ; 
the third, called a Whip, at 11 a.m. ; the 
fourtS, called a Digester, at 2 p.m. ; the 
lifth, called a Soldier, at 5 p.m. ; and the 
sixth, called a Finisher, at 7.30 p.m. 



Drinks of Great Men. 

Braham, the singer— Bottled porter. 

Bye(jn— Port -wiiio. 

Chahles v.— Alicante. 

Ckumwell — Malvoisie. 

FkanC us I.— Sherry. 

FuELiiiRiCK THE Gheat— Tokay. 

Prederick William IV. of Prussia— Cliquot. 

Gladstone— Kgg beaten up in sherry. 

Goethe— Johannisberg hock. 

Henri IV.— Surenes. 

Humboldt— Sauterne. 

Kean (Edmund), the actor— Beef tea for break- 

fast, cold brandy. 
Napoleon I.— Chambertin. 
Peter the Great— Madeira, 
Rahelais -Old Chablis. 
Richelieu (Cardinal)— Romance. 
Richelieu (Marshal)— Medoc. 
Rubens -Marsala. 
Saxe (Marshal do)— Champagne. 
Talleyrand — Chateau-Marga,ux. 

Driving for Rent (Ireland). 
Driving the cattle of a defaulting tenant 
into a pound, there to be kept till the 
rent is paid, or sold by auction till the 
money due to the landlord is realised. 

Droits of Admiralty. Derelict 
ships and other property picked up at 
sea and unclaimed. These possessions 
at one time were the perquisites of the 
lord high admiral ; but by the Merchant 
Shipping Act of 1854 they were placed 
under the control of the Board of Trade. 

Droughty Year of '28 [The), i.e. 
1826. The prevailing wind was north. 
Corn ceased to grow, and grass was dried 
up. The hottest day of the year was 
28 June, when the thermometer in 
England stood at 90° in the shade. 

Drum [The Sacred). An object of 
religious veneration and instrument of 
magical incantations among the Lap- 
landers in former times. It was hollowed 
out of a piece of pine or birch, and 
covered with skin like a kettledrum. 
The drumstick was a reindeer's horn. 
Every family had its sacred drum, and 
the movement of certain rings attached 
to it was the domestic Urinx and 
Thummim. 

Drunken Pa,rliament(T72e). The 

parliament assembled at Edinburgh 
1 Jan., 1661, the members of which, says 
Burnet, ' were almost iDcrpetually drunk.' 
It annulled, in a single act, all the pro- 
ceedings of its predecessors during the 
last twenty-eight y ars. By this measure 
the whole church system of Scotland fell 
to the ground. See ' Parliament.' 

Druses [The) of the Lebanon. The 
seven heads of their religious creed are: 



DET 



DUCHOBORZES 



271 



1. Speak the truth to a Druse ; 2. Every 
Druse must stand fast to every other 
Druse ; 3. The rehgious creed of a Druse 
must be exckisive; 4. A Druse must 
believe in the unity of Hakem as God ; 

5. A Druse must be contented with his lot; 

6. he must submit his own will wholly ; 

7. he must eschew the devil and all false 
doctrine. 

Hakem (the sixth Fatimite calif of Ejtypt) taught 
tli-it he himself was the tenth and lasi revelation 
ot God to man. He was therefore a sort of Christ 
or God manifest in the flesh. The chief is always 
called the Hakem. 

Dry Mass. 'Missa Sicca,' mass 
without the elements. The Introitus, 
Collect, Epistle, Gospel, and Canticles 
constitute the entire service. This sort 
of mass was performed when * sacerdos 
non potest conficere, quia forte jam cele- 
bravit, vel ob aliam causam, potest, 
accepta stola, Epistolara et Evangelium 
legere, et dicere Orationem dominicam, 
et dare benedictionem.' This mass wa3 
not allowed in the Netherlands, and was 
vehemently objected to by the Jansenists. 
It is now quite obsolete. 

Dryden of Germany (The). 
Martin Opitz of Silesia (1597-1C39). No 
more like the Duke of Buckingham's 
poet ' Squab ' than Beau Brummel is 
like Dr. Samuel Jolinson. 

Duad. According to Pythagoras is 
the second mathematical quantity, viz. 
length. The point is the monad, length 
the duad, breadth the triad, and depth 
the tetrad. Physically, intellectual capa- 
city is the monad, scientific knowledge is 
the duad, opinion the triad, and percep- 
tiou by the senses the tetrad. 

Dualism. Same as Manichcism, 
So-called because it teaches the twofold 
nature of everything, one evil and the 
other good. Thus there is a principle of 
good and a principle of evil in soul and 
matter, male and female, and even in 
deity. The correlative of dualism is 
monism. 

Dublin Castle. I. A collection of 
public government offices, such as the 
Privy Council Chamber, the Chief Secre- 
tary's Office, the Prisons Office, the 
bureau of the Constabulary and Metro- 
politan Police, the Record Tower, &c., 
conjoined in one block of buildings, with 
the lord lieutenant's official residence, 
where he dispenses hospitality. 



II. 1880. A convenient but not very 
precise phrase to express the policy 
introduced in the Gladstone administra- 
tion of arresting men known to the agents 
of government ' for inciting to any act of 
violence or intimidation, and tending to 
interfere with or to disturb the main- 
tenance of law and order ' (in Ireland). 

Dublin University. In 1591 (at 

the especial direction of Queen Elizabeth) 
the first stone of Trinity College, Dublin, 
was laid. This university has a chan- 
cellor, vice-chancellor, provost, vice- 
provost, and nineteen professors. The 
students may, if they choose, take an ad 
enndem at either Cambridge or Oxford. 
That is a graduate of Trinity College, 
Dublin, may take the same degree at 
Cambridge or Oxford without being called 
on to pass an examination. 

Due de Roussillon {Le). A name 
and title assumed by Henri Cosprons of 
Perpignan, but not recognised in France. 
The man so-called was ' d'une famille 
tout-a-fait bourgeoise.' He disappeared 
suddenly into obscurity, and whether 
alive or dead in 1890 is not known. 

Ducal Towns. In feudal times were 
those built on the domains of dukes and 
other princes. They were inhabited by 
the duke's retainers, who were subject 
to just such laws and service as each par- 
ticular duke thought proper to impose. 
Generally the townsmen were obliged to 
ask their lord's permission even to marry 
or give in marriage, and the lord expected 
a fee for his permission. When license 
for a marriage was obtained, a herald 
announced it in the streets, and at one 
time the ceremony could not be per- 
formed till that day twelvemonth. See 
'Imperial Free Cities,' and 'Church Cities.' 

Duchess of Devonshire's Kiss 

{The). In 1784, the Duchess of Devon- 
shire, with Lady Duncannon, Mrs. Crewe, 
Mrs. Damer, and some others, dressed 
in blue and buff, the colours of the 
American Independents, canvassed per- 
sonally for Mr. Fox. In the purlieus of 
Westminster a butcher, in his sleeves 
and apron, stoutly refused his vote ex- 
cept on the condition that he might give 
her grace a kiss. The request was 
granted, and the vote secured. 

Duchoborzes {The), or 'Ducho- 
bortzi,' A sect of the Eusso-Grcck 



272 



DUDLEY 



DUNCES' 



church (18th cent.). They believe that 
human souls existed before the creation 
of the world, and, like the Swedenborg- 
ians, ascribe hidden mysterious mean- 
ings to Bible language, which only in- 
ward light can unfathom. They reject 
the use of pictures, and observe neither 
the rite of baptism nor of the eucharist. 
During the reign of Alexander I. an im- 
postor, named Kapustan, who called 
himself a prophet, taught them the trans- 
migration of souls. Disputes arose, 
many were burnt alive, many others were 
put to death in other ways, and in 1841 
almost all the residue were transferred 
to the provinces beyond the Caucasus. 

Dudley Diamond (The). A Cape 
diamond weighing 46 carats, triangular 
in shape, and of great brilliancy. It was 
bought by the Earl of Dudley, and has 
been set in a beautiful head ornament 
(1872). 

Duke, 1337. The first English duke 
was Edward the Black Prince, created 
by his father (2 Edward in.), 1327. 

Duke of Exeter's Daughter 
(The). The famous rack in the Tower of 
London is so called, because it was in- 
vented by the Duke of Exeter when he 
was high constable, 1447. 

Duke of Thunder {The). Horatio 
Nelson, in allusion to his Sicilian title 
' Duke of Bronte ' (in Sicily). 

Bronte is the Greek for thunder 

Duke of York's School (The). 
The ' Royal Military Asylum ' at Chelsea 
is so called because, in 1800, Frederick 
duke of York was the chief instrument 
in founding the soldiers' orphan asylum 
at Chelsea. In 1803 schools were opened 
for 700 boys and 300 girls, children of 
deceased soldiers. The girls' school is 
abolished. 

Duke -with the Silver Hand. 

Nuad, who led the tribe of the Danaans 
from Scotland back to Ireland. Having 
lost his hand in the great battle of Moy- 
tura, Cred a goldsmith made him a silver 
one, which the surgeon Miach, son of 
Dian Kect, fixed on his wrist. See 

* Golden Hand,' ' Iron Hand ' (Keating, 

* Ogygia,' part iii. chap. 10). 

In this phrase duke = king, as in dukes of Edom 
(1 Chron. i. 51-54). Shakespeare calla the king of 
Athens ' Duke Theseus ' ; Horace calls Laomedon 
king of Xroy, ' the fraudulent duke ' (Odes III. iii. 



24), because he borrowed money from the templeis 
and never restored it. Tlien we have the dukes 
of Parma, of Holatein, of Savoy, &c. ; and several 
grand-dukes. 

Dulceans or Dulcinists (The), 
1300. Heretics, so called from Dulcin 
(* — 1308), an Italian, who gave out that 
his was to be the third reign ; first, the 
Father, from the beginning to the com- 
ing of Christ ; then the son to the year 
1300 ; and then the reign of Dulcin, the 
Holy Ghost, when the authority of the 
pope was to cease. He and his wife were 
burnt to death, in 1308, by Pope Cle- 
ment IV. 

Dulcifluous Doctor (The). ' Doc- 
tor Dulcitluus ' or ' Dulcissimus,' Anto- 
nius Andreas or Andrea, a scholastio 
philosopher, who died 1320. 

Dulwich College, 1619. Founded 
by Edward Alleyne, a tragic actor. 

Pronounce Dul'-Htch. 

Dulwich Gallery (The). A col- 
lection of pictures in a gallery constructed 
by Sir John Soane, and connected with 
Dulwich College. It was opened to the 
public in 1812. The collection originated 
with M. Noel Desenf ans, a picture dealer, 
agent to Stanislaus king of Poland ; and 
bequeathed to Sir Francis Bourgeois, 
who left it to the trustees of Dulwich 
College. 

Dumas (Alexandre). A French 
novelist (1803-1870). According to the 
Times newspaper (13 Dec, 1870, j). 6) 
Alexandre Dumas wrote 1,200 vols. His 
memoirs take up thirty volumes. In hig 
heyday he made 30,000^. a year. 

Dumb Ox of Sicily {The). Thomas 
Aquinas (1224-1274), so called by his 
fellow-students at Cologne ; but Albertus 
Magnus, his tutor, said. The dumb ox 
will one day fill the world with his low- 
ing.' Longfellow, in ' The Golden Le- 
gend,' calls him ' the dumb ox of Cologne,' 
from the monastery of Cologne. He was 
born in Naples. 

Dunces' Day. In the University of 
Cambridge, Ash Wednesday, 18th cent., 
&c. Eight by-term men received their 
degrees as haccalaurei ad baptistam in 
the folloAving Michaelmas term ; and 
eight more as haccalaurei ad diem cine- 
rum on Ash Wednesday, or ' Dunces' 
Day' (W. W. Eouse Ball, ' Hist, of the 
Study of Mathematics,' &c., 1889). 



DUNKEES 



DUTCH 



273 



Dunkers, or 'Timkers.' A sect 
of German-descended Baptists founded 
in Pennsylvania in 1724. They are 
divided into several minor sections, 
chiefly differing in points of discipline. 
To this sect may be assigned the German 
Seventh-day Baptists. They believe that 
salvation is to be obtained only by pen- 
ance and mortification of the body and live 
in meditation. They deny the eternity of 
future punishment, and believe that the 
dead have the gospel preached to them. 
They are sometimes called * Pennsyl- 
vanian Baptists,' and dress like Domini- 
can friars, in black gowns. The word 
Dunker or Tunker is from tunken, to dip. 

Hannah Adams, in her ' Religious World Dis- 
played,' calls the Dunkers ' a medley of the Bap- 
tists, Universalists, Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews, 
Methodists, and Roman Catholics.' They are, 
however, distinguished for their piety and bene- 
volence. 

Dunmow Flitch (The). A custom 
of the manor of Little Dunmow, of un- 
certain origin, of giving a flitch of bacon 
to any married couple who would take 
oath that for a year and a day since they 
were wed they never once wished them- 
selves unmarried. During six centuries 
only seven persons have claimed the 
prize ; the last claimants were John and 
Susan Gilder, of Tarling, Essex, in 1772. 
Harrison Ainsworth tried to revive the 
custom, but without success. 

Dunse {Pacification of), 18 June, 
1639. Between Charles I. and the Scots. 

Dunse La'W. Is no legal enactment 
or legal custom at all, but a beautiful 
little hill close by the town of Dunse on 
'which the Covenanters encamped when 
Charles I. invaded Scotland with a view 
of forcing episcopacy and the Church of 
England Prayer-book on the people of 
Scotland. See ' Pacification of Dunse.* 

Durani Dynasty (T/ie). Founded 
in Afghanistan by Nadir Shah in 1747. 

Durham {University of). Patent 
granted by Cromwell, 15 May, 1657. 
Incorporated by royal charter, 1837. 

Durham Book {The). A copy of 
the Latin gospels with an interlinear 
Saxon gloss, written before the year 800, 
illuminated in the most elaborate style 
of the Anglo-Saxons, and reputed to 
have once belonged to the Venerable 
Bede. It is in the Cottonian collection 



of the British Museum Library. See 
' Lindisfarne MS.' 

Durham Letter {The), Oct. 1850. 

A letter written by Lord John Russell to 
the Bishop of Durham on the subject 
of ' Papal Aggression ' {q.v.), which con- 
tained these words : ' The Roman Catho- 
lic religion confines the intellect and 
enslaves the soul.' This letter caused 
great excitement for a few weeks. A 
bill passed through both houses with 
large majorities against the establish- 
ment of a Catholic hierarchy in England 
and Ireland, but it proved a dead letter. 
The hierarchy continued, and soon the 
angry feeling of the nation subsided. 

Duri Durani (Pearl of Pearls). 
The title assumed by Shah Ahmed, 
founder of the Kaubul empire. He died 
1773, after a reign of twenty-six years. 

Dutch School {The) of painting. 
The golden age was the 17th cent. Fault- 
less in drawing, arrangement, colour, 
and also for texture of garments, hair of 
the head and beard, skin, &c. 
CUYP, head of all animal painters ... 1605-1691 

DOVW (Gerard) 1613-1675 

Hals (From), unsurpassed in portraits 1584-16(i6 
HoBBEMA, famous for tree-foliage 

LlEKENS 

Ml^RIS 

Metsu (.Gabriel) 

OSTADE 

Paul Potter, famous animal painter 
Rembrandt, one of the greatest artists 

of all time 

Ruysdael 

Steen (.7(7n) 

Terblrg. called ' 'White Satin • 

Van DER Helst 

Van DEE Heyden, architectural artist 

VANDERWELDE(.-r(inVjn) 

,, ( fViUiam). in the service of Charles II. 1633-1707 
Weenix, famous for still life ... ... 1640-1719 

WOUVERMANS (Philip) 1620-16C8 

(Jan) 1624-1666 

■Wynants 



1607-1633 
16;55-1681 
1680-1680 
1610-1685 
1625-1654 

1607-1669 



1608-11181 
1610-1670 
1637-1712 
1629-1673 



Dutch Toys. Not toys made by the 
Dutch, but by the Germans {Deutsche). 
They are chiefly made at Sonneberg 
in Saxe Meiningen. 

Dutch War {The). I. 1652-1654. 
Carried on chiefly by Admiral Blake and 
the Dutch admiral Van Tromp in Crom- 
well's time. Several engagements took 
place with varying success, and at last 
the Dutch sued for peace. 

IT. 1666-1GG8. Carried on by Louis 
XIV., and terminated by the Peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, between Louis XIV. and 
Carlos II. 

III. 1672-1674. Carried on by Louis 
T 



274 



DUUMVIEI 



EAGLE 



XIV., and terminated by the Peace of 
Hyswick, signed by France, Austria, 
Spain, and Holland. 

Duumviri. The two chief magis- 
trates in Roman colonies who represented 
consuls. The two officers originally 
appointed in charge of the Sibylline 
books were also called duumviri. 

There were duumviri whose duty it was to dis- 
tribute corn to the people, duumvirs charged with 
the temple edifices and their services, as well as 
the colonial duumvirs, and many others. 

Dyeing. In the dark ages the Jews 
were the only dyers. Hume says that 
the English, in the reign of Henry II., 
wore their robes white because they knew 
not the art of dyeing ; but Hallam proves 
that woad was imported in the reign of 
John for dye. We also find allusions to 
a vegetable substance called ' folium,' 
used by the English for dyeing wood red 
or purple, in the 13th century. In 1628 
two dyers of Exeter were flogged for 
teaching the art of dyeing in the North 
of England. 

Dynamite Saturday, 24 Jan., 
1885. When great damage was done to 
the Houses of Parliament and the Tower 
of London by explosions of dynamite. 
The Law Courts and some other public 
buildings were to have been attacked, 
but were happily too well guarded. See 



Dynam.iters, 1882. Irish rebels 
who used dynamite to destroy the public 
buildings of the English and destroy the 
private property of those obnoxious to 
them. In 1883 t lese Fenians were espe- 
cially active, being urged to mischief by 
the money and encouragement received 
from the Irish in North America. 

Dynast. A provincial ruler of Ire- 
land, king in his own province, but sub- 
ject to the Ard-righ, or supreme lord of 
the island. From the 5th to the 12th 
cent. Ireland was a pentarchy. Roderic 
O'Conor, who died in 1198, was the last 
Ard-righ, or Milesian over-lord. In 
1175, by a treaty signed at Windsor, he 
became the liegeman of Henry II. See 
Rymer, 'Foedera,' vol. i. p. 31. 

Not one seventh part of the kings of Ireland, 
before its conquest by Henry II., died a natural 
death. This applies not only to the monarchs, 
but also to the dynasts and even to the heads of 
septs. Ireland was never so ill governed as when 
under the rule of Irishmen. 

Dynasty danced out {A), 1760. 
Mr. Hawkins Brown (aged 30), in his 



travels, danced one evening at the court 
of Naj)les. His dress was a ' volcano 
silk with lava buttons,' and his dancing 
was with ' such agility and vigour ' that 
the queen laughed till she was in convul- 
sions, which terminated in a miscarriage, 
and changed the dynasty of the Neapo- 
litan throne. 

D3rvour (Scotch). A bankrupt. 

Dzat and Bedagat. The sacred 
books of the Buddhists. 

Eagle {An). As an ensign. 

An eagle stripped of its feathers, em- 
blematic of the Nile, was the ensign of 
the ancient Egyptians. 

An eagle was adopted as an ensign by 
ancient Rome, B.C. 104. Marlus confined 
the golden eagle to the legions. It had 
wings displayed and a thunderbolt in one 
of its talons. 

The head of a white eagle, stripped of 
feathers, was the ensign of the Lagldcs. 

A gold or silver eagle at the end of a 
pike (with wings displayed), emblematic 
of the sun, was the Persian ensign in the 
time of Cyrus. 

The Teutonic knights in 1148 adopted 
an eagle as their cognizance. 

In Modern times: the eagle was 
adopted, as a Hussian symbol, by Ivan 
Vassilivich (who died 1584). 

It was adopted by the United States 
of North America in 1783. 

It was adopted in France by Napoleon 
I. in 1804 (superseded by the Fleur-de- 
lys in 1815), and restored by Napoleon 
III. in 1852. 

Eagle {The Double-headed). Appears 
on the arms of the Holy Roman Empire 
vmder Kaiser Siegmund or Sigismuiid, 
1433. See ' Eagle of Austria.' 

Eagle and Child in the eagle's 

nest {The). Crest of the Earl of Derby. 
The tradition is that Sir Thomas Lathom, 
in the reign of Edward III., had only a 
daughter by his wife, and, wishing for a 
son, had a natural son whom he wished 
to make his heir. His difficulty, of 
course, was his wife, and this difficulty 
he surmounted thus : he conveyed the 
infant boy to an eagle's nest, and leading 
his lady to the spot, she heard the cries 
of a child in the tree. Her pity was 
moved, and the child was adopted. This 
child was afterwards Sir Oskytel. The 
daughter Isabella married Sir John 



EAGLE 



EAST 



275 



Stanley, who adopted the crest of Eagle 
and Child, with the motto Sans 
changer (J. Roby, ' Traditions of Lanca- 
shire '). 

Eagle of Austria {The). Kaiser 
Ludwig V, (1311-1347) chose two black 
eagles for the national device ; but Karl 
IV. (1317-1378) changed the device into 
a black eagle with two heads. 

Eagle of Christ [The). St. John 
the Evangelist is called by Dante 
V aquila di Cristo (' Paradiso,' xxvi. 53). 
It was St. Augustine who changed the 
ancient symbolism of the Four Evange- 
lists derived from Ezekiel's cherubim. 

Irenseus says John was the lion, and 
Mark the eagle ; others make the lion sym- 
bolise Matthew, and the man sjanbolise 
Mark; but now the vian represents 
Matthew, the lion Mark, the ox Luke, 
and the eagle John. See 'Evangelical 
Symbols.' 

Unde mihi videntur qui ex Apocalypsi (iv.7) Ilia 
quatuor animalia ad intelligcndos quatuor 
Evangelistas interpretati sunt, probabilius all- 
quid attendisse, lUi qui leonein in Matthteo, 
hominem in Marco, vitulum in Luca, aquilam in 
Joanne intellcxcrunt, quani llll qui hominem 
Matthaeo, aquilam Marco, bovem Lucse, leonein 
Joanni tribuerunt.— De Consens. Evang. i. 6. 

Eagle of Divines {The). Thomas 
d'Aquinas, the 5th doctor (1221-1274). 

Eagle of Doctors, 'Aquila Doc- 
torum.' Pierre d'Ailly, called the ' Eagle 
of France,' and the * Hammer of Heretics ' 
(1350-1120). 

Eagle of Meaux {The). Bossuet 
(1627-1704), bishop of Meaux, a great 
pulpit orator, especially famous for his 
' Funeral Orations.' 

Meaux, pronounce Mo. 

Ear of Dionysius {The). The 
second of the ' latomlte,' or quarries of 
Syracuse, used as prisons. The Athenians 
were confined therein, and subjected to 
all the torments of hunger, filth, and foul 
air. Capt. William Henry Smyth (1824) 
describes this cavern, and says amidst 
its many grottoes is one resembling the 
tympanum of the human ear, which is 
remarkable for its echoes. It is 64 feet 
high, varies from 17 to 35 feet in breadth, 
and is 187 feet long. It is said that 
Dionysius the tyrant had it constructed 
'that its guardsman might overhear the 
conversation of the prisoners confined 
therein. 

At one time the grotto v.-as 72 feet high and 
219 feet long, but Capt. Smyth says a part of ib 



has been filled up, and that if two persons speak 
together the report is ' a confused clamour.' 
Without doubt the shnpe resembles the hollow of 
the human ear, and without doubt it was used at 
one time as a prison. 

Earl Marshal's Court {The). 
Abolished in 1041 by the Long Parliament 
{q.v.). The earl marshal used to preside 
(jointly with the constable) over the 
Court of Chivalry. The last proceedings 
of the court were in 1631. 

There is still an earl marshal, head of the 
College of Arms. 

Earl of Aberdeen's Act {The), 
1843. Determining questions respecting 
' calls,' and the election of pastors in the 
church of Scotland.' 

No legislation can possibly settle such questions 
finally. 

Earl of Flint {The). The inexorable 
chief justice, George Jeffreys, was so 
called by the people after James II. made 
him a peer (Baron Jeffreys of Wem), 1640- 
1689. 

Early English. Applied to archi- 
tecture 1190. Distinguished by the 
Pointed arch, which was either lancet- 
shaped, equilateral, or obtuse-angled. 
Merged in the Decorated or Geometrical 
in 1275. 

Early English Text Society 

{The). Established in London 1864. 

Earth Houses. Underground build- 
ings called ' Picts' Houses,' ' Weems,' 
and 'Caves.' Little stone houses built 
underground to hide people in time of 
war. Sometimes forty or fifty are found 
in Scotland clustered together. 

East Country Company {The). 
Called by Elizabeth 'The Royal East 
Company,' the company which traded 
with the Baltic. The woollen cloths 
were principally made in Suffolk and 
Yorkshire. Ipswich, having the noblest 
harbour on the east, was most prosperous. 
Laud ruined the company by his reli- 
gious dogmatism, and drove the workers 
in woollen goods to Holland, ' whereby 
the Dutch became instructed in a 
manufacture which before they knew 
nothing of.' 

East Hendred, Northstead, 
and Hempholme Manors. The 

stewardship of which serves the purpose 
of the Chiltern Hundreds when the 
Buckinghamshire office is not vacant. 
East Hendred is in Berkshire ; post to^-n 
' ' "" ' shire, ni.cj: 



Wantage. Hempholme is in Yorkshii 



12 



273 



EAST 



EATING 



Beverley. The Escheatorshlp of Muneter serves 
for a similar purpose. See ' Chiltern Hundreds.' 

East India Company (The), 1599. 

A company of merchants who sent out 
four ships to trade with the East Indies. 
In 1600 it was chartered by Queen Eliza- 
beth, and in 1624 was vested with powers 
of government. Other companies were 
chartered in 1657, 1688, 1698, &c. In 1702 
the companies were united. In 1773 a 
governor-general was appointed at Ben- 
gal. The charter ceased in 1833, but 
was renewed the same year. In 1858 
the government of India was transferred 
to the crown. 

In 1P53 the number ol directors was reduced 
from 24 to 18. 

East India Company {The 
Danish), 1616. Dissolved in 1634. New 
one formed in 1670, a third in 1686, and a 
fourth in 1731. In 1777 the rights of the 
company were purchased by the king. 

East India Company (The 
Dutch), 1595. Several companies united 
by the States in 1602. 

East India Company {The 
French), 1664. Dissolved 1770. A new 
company formed 1785, but dissolved in 
1790. 

East India Company {The Os- 
tend). Formed by Leopold in 1718, 
dissolved by Charles VI. in 1731. 

East India Company {The 
Sivedish), 1741. Reorganised in 1806. 

Easter Eggs (Serving one with). 
Pelting one in the pillory with rotten 
eggs. In 1565 a Catholic priest in Scot- 
land was seized in the service of the mass 
at Easter. Being seized he was dragged 
. to the market-cross of Edinburgh, and 
there pelted with mud, filth, and rotten 
eggs. This was called * serving him with 
his Easter eggs.' 

Easter Limit {The). 'Terminus 
Paschalis.' From 8 March to 5 April. 
It begins with the vernal full moon, or 
that which immediately follows it. The 
earliest possible Easter Sunday is 22 
March, and the latest possible is 25 April. 
Easter Sunday in 1943 will fall on 25 
April, as it did in the year 1886. 

The Easter new moon must fall somewhere be- 
tween 8 March and 5 April. If on 8 March Easter 
lay would be 21 March, if on 5 April it would be on 
18 April. Now if 21 March happens to be Saturday, 
Easter Sunday will be the next day (March 22), the 
»arIieBt possible. If, on the other hand, 18 April 



should happen to be Sunday, then Easter Sunday 
would be postponed a week, viz. to 25 April, the 
latest day possible. 

',* If the full moon fell on a Sunday, Easter day 
was postponed for a week, to prevent the coinci- 
dence of the Jewish passover and the Christian 
Easter being on the same day. 

Easter "Week. 'Hebdomada Pas- 
chalis.' The week beginning with Easter 
Monday, and ending with the following 
Saturday, and therefore containing only 
6 days. The next week following it was 
' Hebdomada in Albis' {q.v.), which con- 
tained 8 days; and the week before it 
was the Great Week or Passion Week 
{q.v.), which contained 13 days. 

Easterlings {The). 15th cent. 
Mariners of the Hanse-towns, as terrible 
at sea as the pirates of Algiers were after- 
wards. Spelman derives our word ster- 
ling [money] from these traders. 

In the time of Kichard I. monie coined In the 
east parts of Germany began to be of especiall 
request in England for the puritio thereof, and 
was called Easterling monie. Shortly after, some 
of that countrie skillful in mint matters and in 
all dies, were sent for into this realm to bring the 
coine into perfection. Which since that time was 
culled of them sterling, for Easterling.— Camden. 

Eastern Church {The). Separated 
from the Western or Latin Church about 
324-334, and a rivalry began in 341. In 
451 the Council of Chalccdon conferred 
on the bishop of Constantinople equal 
rank and power with the bishop of Rome. 
John in 588 assumed the title of ' (Ecu- 
menical Patriarch.' The bishop of Con- 
stantinople is now generally called ' the 
Patriarch,' or ' the Patriarch of Constan- 
tinople.* See ' Patriarch.' 

Eastern Empire {The). The 
eastern portion of the old Roman em- 
pire after its division by the brothers 
Valentinian and Valens, a.d. 364. Valens 
took the eastern part, with Constanti- 
nople for its capital ; and Valentinian 
the western part, with Rome for his 
capital. The Eastern empire ended in 
1453, when Mahomet II. warred against 
Constantine, who was slain, and the 
Eastern empire fell to the Ottomans or 
Turks. 

The Western empire fell much sooner, viz. in 
A.D. 476. 

Eating Fruit {Death from). An- 
acreon died from eating grapes. La 
Belle Gabrielle died from eating an 
orange. Kaiser Albert IT., Friedrich III., 
and Maximilian I. all died from eating 
melons. Gen. Knox (U.S.) from eating 
raisins. 



EAU 



ECCLESIASTICAL 



277 



Eau de Brinvilliers, 1718. A 

poison made by Godin de Sainte Croix, 
who lived in scandalous intimacy with 
the Marchioness Brinvilliers, and fur- 
nished her with the means of poisoning 
her father, her two brothers, and several 
others. The marchioness chiefly em- 
ployed a powder, called ' le poudre de 
succession.' 

Eb'ionites (4 syl.). Judaising Chris- 
tians of the 1st cent. They insisted on 
circumcision, despised the prophets, ac- 
cepted only the gospel of St. Matthew, 
and that they interpolated ; looked on 
Jesus only as a human being, but be- 
lieved that Christ descended on him at 
his baptism. Paul's Epistles they re- 
jected as antinomian. The Ebionites con- 
tinued to exist as a sect after 300. 

M. Guizot says the first Christians of Jerusalem 
■were called Ebionites, on account of their poverty ; 
called in Kom. xv. 20 ' the poor saints.' These 
'poor saints' were afterwards accused of the 
heresy of denying the divinity of Christ. (^jSaiot, 
poor, insigniiicant.) 

Eblana, i.e. Dublin in Ireland. 

EcelesiaApostolica. The Church 
at Rome, called ' Cathedra Petri,' as 
having been founded by St. Peter. 

Ecclesiastical Commission 

{The). 1. 1583. A permanent commis- 
sion, consisting of 44 members, established 
by Queen Elizabeth to decide on all 
questions respecting supremacy and uni- 
formity. It had power to deprive any 
clergyman of his benefice without appeal. 
Heresy, schism, nonconformity, and even 
incest and adultery, fell within the pale 
of this court. Practically the whole 
power of the court rested with the 
bishops, and as there was no code to re- 
fer to, each question as it arose had to 
be left to the private judgment of the 
court or bishop appealed to. Parker 
deprived a vicar of his benefice for deny- 
ing the verbal inspiration of scripture. 
Whitgift tried to force on the church the 
Calvinistic supralapsarian dogma. Ban- 
croft was hot for the divine right of 
bishops. Abbot had no mercy on Eras- 
tians ; Laud none for anti-Erastians. 

' Supralapsarlanism," the doctrine that the fall 
of Adam and Eve, as well as the salvation or 
rejection of every living being, was predestined 
from all eternity. 

' Er astianlsm, ' the dogma that the church is, and 
ought to be, wholly dependent on the State. 

II. 1686. Appointed by the advice of 
Jeffreys, the lord chancellor, with full 



authority, and without appeal, to decide 
on all ecclesiastical matters, without re- 
straint of canon, civil, or municipal law. 
The commissioners were three divines 
and three laymen, all tools of the king 
(James II.), and their first act was to 
suspend Compton, bishop of London; 
because he would not favour the Romish 
party. 

Ecclesiastical Comm.issioners 

{The), 1840. Amended from 1836. Ex 
officio the two archbishops and all the 
bishops of England and Wales, the deans 
of Canterbury, St. Paul's, and West- 
minster, the lord chancellor, the two chief 
justices, the master of the rolls, the chief 
baron, and the judges of the prerogative 
and admiralty courts, the president of 
the council, first lord of the treasury, 
chancellor of the exchequer, and one of 
the secretaries of state. Also nine lay- 
men, not ex officio, seven appointed by 
the crown, and two by the archbishop of 
Canterbury. Five commissioners make 
a quorum, the highest in rank or else 
the senior commissioner to take the chair. 

Ecclesiastical Courts. To de- 
cide on matters exclusively pertaining to 
the clergy and the established religion. 
Bacon enumerates ten such courts in his 
time : — 

1. Convocation (q.v.). 

2. The Court of Arches (q.v.), 

3. Prerogative Court (q.v.). 

4. Court of Audience (q.v.). 
6. Court of Faculties (q.v.), 

6. Court of Peculiars (q.v.)- 

7. Consistory Court iq.v.). 

8. Archdeacon B Court (q.v.). 

9. Court of Delegates. See ' Delegates.' 

10. Court of Commissioners of Review (q.v.\ 

*»* In ia57 the Prerogative Court was merged 
in the Court of Probate. 

In 1832 the Commission of Delegates was super- 
seded by the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
Council. 

II. In Scotland there have been three 
ecclesiastical courts — (1) the General 
Assembly ; (2) the Commissary Court ; 
and (3) the Court of Teinds. 

Ecclesiastical Er a of Antioch 

{The). This era began 1 Sept., B.C. 5492. 

Ecclesiastical Era of Constan- 
tinople {The). This era began 1 April, 
B.C. 5508. 

Ecclesiastical Titles Assump- 
tion Act {T?ie), 1851. To prohibit the 
pope of Rome from conferring on ecclesi- 
astics titles connected with the names of 
places in the United Kingdom, such as 



278 



ECCLESIASTICAL 



ECORCHEURS 



Westminster, Nottingham, and bo on. 
This act was provoked by what is called 
the ' papal aggression ' of the court of 
Rome, which, 30 Sept., 1850, had divided 
Great Britain into territorial bishoprics 
under the Catholic archbishop of West- 
minster. Lord John Russell introduced 
the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. Repealed 
1867. 

Ecclesiasticum Reservatum. 

A provision made in 1555 whereby it was 
stipulated that if any of the German 
clergy abandoned the Roman Catholic 
Church hereafter, his benefice should be 
forthwith filled up by a Catholic succes- 
sor. With this exception, the alienation 
of all ecclesiastical property, secularised 
before the Treaty of Passau, in 1552, was 
confirmed by the Diet of Augsburg in 
1555. 

Passau, pronounce Pas-sow, as In now. 

Eclectic School (The). 1. Of 
Italian painting, succeeded the cinque 
cento (q.v.). The Carracci headed the 
movement. Domenichino (1581-1641) and 
Guido Reni (1575-1642) were exponents 
also of the same school, 

II. Of French painting, founded by 
Paul Delaroche (1797-1856). He selected 
from the Classic and Momantic schools. 

Eclectics {The). Alexandrine philo- 
sophers. Potamon and Ammonios Saccas 
(2nd cent.) were the first who attempted 
to fuse Platonism and Aristotelianism 
into one consistent system. The Neo- 
Platonic school was founded by Plotinus 
(205-270). 

Modern eclecticism was foimded by 
Victor Cousin, the French philosopher. 

Ecole Polyteelinique {The), 1795. 
France. For the education of young men 
for the army, navy, civil engineering, and 
telegraphy. 

Ecoles Centrales, 2 Feb., 1795. 
Established by the National Convention 
for teaching sciences, arts, and letters. 
There must be 300,000 inhabitants in 
order to have such an institution. Iq 
1802 many of these schools were con- 
verted into ' grammar schools ' {Lycees), 
and in 1808 many ceased to exist. 

Ftonounce A -coal sen-trahl. 

Ecoles Chr^tiennes {Frires des), 
1681. Instituted at Reims by J. B. de la 
Salle for the gratuitous instruction of 
children in the elements of religion and 



in elementary instruction. ' Les Freres 
portent une grande robe de bure noire et 
un chapeau a comes.' This order was 
not suppressed at the Revolution, and 
still flourishes in France and other Chris- 
tian countries. 

Pronounce A -coal kra-te-en. 

Ecoles Pieuses {Les). The 'homes' 
of the waifs and strays brought under 
the care of the Piaristes {q.v.). 
Pronounce A -coal pe-uze. 

Ecoles Primaires, 1802. To give 
children elementary instruction, as read- 
ing, wi'iting, arithmetic, and the elements 
of French grammar. In some elementary 
schools geography and history are taught. 
They subdivide into ecoles puhliques (or 
communales), and ecoles privees ; the 
former are directed by laymen and the 
latter by ecclesiastics. They are under 
the inspection of the bishops, pastors, 
rectors, prefects, sub-prefects, and 
mayors. 

Pronounce ^-coaZ pre-mair. 

Ecoles Secondaires, 1802. For 
teaching ancient and modern languages, 
geography, history, and the elements of 
science. They include grammar schools 
{lycees), colleges, boarding schools {pe7i- 
sions), and so on. 

Pronounce A -coal skone-dair. 

Economists. Christians who take 
for their rule of life 1 Cor. ix. 20 : ' All 
things to all men.' In other words, ' Do 
as Rome does,' that is, adapt yourselves 
in every respect, as far as possible, to 
the society in which you are thrown. 

Economists (French economistes). 
A name given to certain French writers 
of the 18th cent., who maintained that 
agriculture is the only fountain of 
wealth, and therefore clamoured for a 
land-tax. They were usually called 
' Physiocrates ' {q.v.). 

Ecorcheurs {Les), 1437. A gang of 
adventurers who committed great ra- 
vages, chiefly in Hainault, during the 
revolt of the Low Countries against the 
Duke of Burgundy. The best known of 
their leaders were Villandras and Cha- 
bannes the bastard. They were called 
the Skinners {ecorcheiirs), ^ays Bouillet, 
' parce qu'ils se composaient pour la 
plupart de bouchers ou d'ecorcheurs de 
betes,' or else because they stripped those 
who fell into their hands of all their 



fiCRASEZ 



EDICT 



279 



clothes, even their body-linen. See 
' French Brigands.' 

Pronounce Lays a-kor-shure. 

lEJcrasez l'infd,ine. A party watch- 
word among the Encyclopaedists, meaning 
Down with superstition, or Down with 
senseless mummery. In full it would be 
J^crasez Vinfdme superstition (' Wal- 
poliana,' ii. 8y). 

Pronounce A -krah-zay lahn-fahm. 

Ecstasy of Plotinus. A rapture in 
which he lost his personal consciousness 
and became part of the ' universal mind.' 
Plotinus says this ecstasy may be attained 
by music, by love, or by meditation. 
Paul speaks of such rapture in 2 Cor. 
xii. 2. 

Ecstatic Doctor {The). See * Di- 
vine Doctor.' 

Ec'thesis of Heraclius. Published 
638. Heraclius was emperor of the East, 
and the Ecthesis was the famous edict 
in favour of the Monoth'elites (4 syl.), 
q.v. 

Ecumenical Bishop, a.d. 592. 
John, bishop of Constantinople, assumed 
this title, but Gregory I. of Rome induced 
Mauritius, emperor of the East, to insist 
on his di-opping the title. 



Councils {The 



Ecumenical 

Eight). 

I. At NiC.EA in Bithynia, hold S25, to condemn 
the doctrine of Arius. who denied the divinity of 
Christ. Present 318 bishops. 

II. At C0N3T.4^NTIN0PLE, held 381, to condemn 
the heresy of Macedonius, who denied the divinity 
of the Holy Ghost. Present 150 bishops. 

III. At Ephesus, held 441, to condemn Nesto- 
rius, who denied the divinity of the Virgin Mary. 
Present 200 bishops. 

IV. At Chalce'don, held 451, to condemn the 
Monophysite heresy, Present G;^0 bishops. 

(N.B.— The Anglican Church admits these four.) 

V. At Constantinople [the si'cond\ held 553, to 
condemn the Nestorians. Present 1G5 bishops. 

VI. At Constantinople {the third), held G80, to 
condemn the Monothelites. Present 170 bishops. 
See ' Synods." 

VII. At NiC.'Exahe second), held 787, to condemn 
the Iconoclasts and re-establish images. 

VIII. At Constantinople (the fourth), 869, to 
depose Phocius and reinstate Ignatius. In this 
council the Monoth'elites and the Iconoclasts 
were both anathematised. 

Monophysiies (Greek /iovoc, ^uo-ij, one nature), the 
human raised to the divine. 

NestorUins allow the co-existence of the two 
natures of Christ, but not their union. 

Monothelites, that is MofoeeXrjra,. (Greek aiwo?, 
eeXvt^a., one will), the human will of Christ being 
absorbed, as they supposed, in the Divine will. 

Edda. A collection of mythic and 
heroic songs of Scandinavia. The Poetic 
or elder Edda was compiled by Sasmund 



Sigfusson, and the songs compiled by 
him are supposed to belong to the 8th 
cent. ; the oldest copy of Sa3mund's Edda 
is of the 14th cent. It is from the 
original MS., and is preserved in the 
Royal Library of Copenhagen. Published 
by Resen in 1665, and edited by Rask in 
1818. 

The Prose or younger Edda was com- 
piled by Snorro Sturleson, the Scandi- 
navian Livy (1178-1241). It is supposed 
to have been compiled from posthumous 
papers left by Ssemund, Icelandic sources 
and traditions, and treats of Scandina- 
vian mythology. This is sometimes 
called the Resenian Edda, because it 
was translated by Resen, in 1640. 

Ssemund hinn Froda, Sigfusson, lived 1054-1133. 
Snorro Sturleson, 1178-1241. The elder Edd,t con- 
sists of two parts, the first mythological and 
the second heroic. The Siemund Edda contains 
the famous poems of the Nibelungen cycle. 

Edgar's Law. This was no law in 
the ordinary acceptation of the word, 
but the English constitution as it shaped 
itself in the hands of his minister 
Dunstan. 

When the people clamoured for Edgar's law 
they meant they wished to be governed in the 
same way as Edgar governed the nation (^59-975).— 
Fkeeman. 

Edict {The Perpetual). 1. Of Ha- 
drian, A.D. 132. A compilation of all the 
edicts of preceding ediles and praetors, 
made by Salvius Julianus. 

II. 1611. The forty-seven articles pub- 
lished by Albrecht, archduke of Austria, 
for the administration of justice in his 
dominions. 

Edict of Berlin {The), or 'Decree 
of Berlin,' 21 Nov., 1806. Issued by. 
Napoleon I., declaruig the blockade of 
the British Isles, and ' boycottmg ' the 
English. 

Edict of Chateaubriant {The), 
1551. By Henri II., against the Cal- 
vinists. 

Edict of Cr^mieu {The), 1536. By 
Francois of Cremieu, to regulate the 
jurisdiction of bailies, seneschals, and 
presidents {presidiaux). 

Edict of Grace {The), July 1629. 
A treaty granted ' by grace ' to the 
Huguenots soon after the capture of La 
Rochelle. By this treaty the reformers 
were reinstated in the possession of their 
places of worship, their cemeteries, and 
the exercise of their religion in the 



280 



EDICT 



EDICT 



places they had before used, 'pending 
their return to the Cathohc Church.' 

By -what has been said we may judge of the 
condition of the Reformed after the Jidict of 
Grace.— FISlice, Hist, of the Protestants of Fiance, 
book iii. 7. 

Edict of January (The), 1562. 
Provided that those reformers who had 
taken possession of churches and eccle- 
siastical property in France should re- 
store them without delay. It forbade 
reformers to destroy images or crosses, to 
meet within the walls of any town, or to 
go armed to any meeting (unless, indeed, 
they were of the privileged classes). 

Edict of July {The), 1561. Grant- 
ing toleration in France to domestic 
gatherings of reformers, but forbidding 
public meetings. See ' Edict of January.' 

Edict of June 20 (The), 1730. A 
confirmation of the edict of 1620, grant- 
ing to the church members of the three 
Vaudois valleys the right of working in 
their houses (with closed doors) on 
Catholic feast-days, of being employed on 
public works, and of acquiring real pro- 
perty. See * Edict of Pacification.' 

Edict of May 13 (The), 169L In 
favour of the Vaudois, recognising their 
lawful establishment in the land of their 
ancestors, from which they had been 
expelled, their right to their hereditary 
possessions, and the revocation of the 
edicts of January and April 1686. 

Edict of Melun (The), 1580. Re- 
dressing the complaints of the clergy. 

Edict of Milan {The), March, 313. 
Published by Constantine in favour of 
Christians. 

Edict of Nantes (The), 1598. An 
edict published by Henri IV. granting 
toleration to all Huguenots or Protes- 
tants, and placing them on entire equality 
with his Catholic subjects. Revoked by 
Louis XIV. (1685). 

Pronounce Nantes to rhjnne with aunt, can't. 

Edict of Pacification {The), 1694. 
Granting full toleration not only to the 
Vaudois who belonged to the reformed 
religion from birth, but also to converts 
from Catholicism. This edict, as far as 
proselytes were concerned, was revoked 
by Victor Amadeus, and at the beginning 
of 1730 the exiles went to Geneva. 

These edicts are very numerous in the ICth 
cent., with a view of putting an end to the reli- 
gious wars. The most celebrated are— 



The Edict of 19 May, 1563, by Charles IX., per- 
mitting Huguenots to assemble and worship ia 
tlieir own way. 

The Edict of Nantes. See above. 

Edict of Petites-Dates {The). 
'L'Edit des Petites-Dates,' 1550. By 
Henri II., for the repression of abuses 
introduced ' dans la collation des benefices 
ecclesiastiques.' 

Edict of Restitution {The), 1630. 
A foolish edict by Kaiser Ferdinand II. 
in the Thirty Years' War, after the re- 
tirement of the Danes. It enjoined re- 
storation to the Catholics of the two 
archbishoprics, the twelve bishoprics, and 
all the parish churches, lands, and other 
property, which had been confiscated by 
the Protestants since the Treaty of Passau 
(7 Aug., 1552, i.e. 78 years ago). CompU- 
ance with this edict was well-nigh im- 
possible, and at the Peace of Westphalia 
(24 Oct., 1648) the edict was cancelled. 
Passau, pronounce Pas-sow, as in note. 

Edict of Revocation {The), 1685. 
That is the Revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes {q.v.) by Louis XIV. 

It was he [Louis XIV.] who in 1685 signed the 
fatal Edict of Revocation.— FfiLlCE, Hist, of the 
Protestants of France, bb.. iii. 7. 

Edict of Romorantin {The), May 
1560. Proposed by the French chancel- 
lor, Michel de I'Hopital, restoring to 
the bishops the adjudication of the crime 
of heresy. This edict was prodigal of 
the most scandalous penalties, but it 
saved France from the establishment of 
the Inquisition which Cardinal de Lor- 
raine laboured hard to introduce. 

Edict of Theodoric {The), a.d. 
500. Promulgated in Italy, but super- 
seded by Justinian's laws in 554. 

Edict of Toleration {The), 1787 
(102 years after the Revocation). The 
Huguenots or Protestants are spoken of 
in this edict as ' non-Catholics.' It 
granted to non-Catholics the right of liv- 
ing in France and of exercising any 
vocation ; permission to marry before 
justices; and the right of interment 
without calling in a Catholic priest. As 
no penalty was mentioned for noncon- 
formity, of course perfect toleration was 
tacitly granted to all religionists. 

Edict of Union {The). I. a.d. 405. 
Published by Honorius against the Do- 
natists and Manichaeans, with a view of 
' uniting ' them with the Catholic Church. 



EDICT 



EDWARD 



281 



II. 21 July, 1588. The edict by which 
Henri III., who had been driven out of 
Paris, was supported by the League, and 
declared s'unir a elle. 

Edict of 1693 {The), 13 April. 
French history. This edict solemnly 
confirmed the Kevocation of the Edict of 
Nantes, and enjoined that new means 
should be employed for the better in- 
struction of the people in the true reli- 
gion. 

Kantea (1 eyl.), to rhyme -with aunt, Jaunt. 

Edict of 1724 {The), or • The Royal 
Declaration of 1724,' 14 May. By Louis 
XV. on the advice of Cardinal Dubois, 
This was the last law against the French 
Protestants, and the most severe of all. 
It declared the punishment of perpetual 
imprisonment at the galleys for men, and 
life seclusion for women, with confisca- 
tion of property, if they attended any 
religious service except those of the Ca- 
tholics. The galleys or imprisonment for 
all who sheltered or omitted to denounce 
a ' heretic' All children to be baptized 
by a Catholic priest within twenty-four 
hours of their birth, and to be sent to a 
Catholic school till fourteen years of age. 
Notice to be given to the parish priest of 
illness. No marriage to be legalised 
unless solemnised by a Catholic priest. 
No child to be sent out of France to be 
educated. No ofiice whatever to be held 
except by Catholics. All mulcts to be 
for the relief of necessitous new converts. 

Ediles (2 syl.). Annual magistrates 
in Rome whose duty it was to see to the 
edifices {cedes), especially the public 
baths, aqueducts, and market-places. 
There were curule ediles and plebeian 
ediles, the latter instituted B.C. 493. 
They ceased to be created in the reign of 
Constantine. 

Edinburgh, is Edwins-burgh, so 
called from Edwin, who founded the castle 
in the 6th cent. In Notts is a village 
called Edwin-stowe, where Edwin was 
buried. Here Robin Hood was married. 

Edinburgh {Treaty of), 6 July, 
1560. Between Queen Elizabeth and 
the Scots for the evacuation of Scotland 
by the French. By this treaty Fran- 
cois II. and Mary fully recognised the 
right of Elizabeth to the English crown, 
and agreed that Mary, in time to come, 



should neither assume the title nor bear 
the arms of England. 

At their coronation in Paris Francois and Mary 
■were proclaimed king and queen of France 
England, and Scotland. The princes of Lorraine 
had money struck in France bearing the arms of 
England ; and proclamations were made in the 
names of Francois and Mary, king and queen ot 
the three realms. 

Edinburgh {University of), 1582. 
Founded by James VI. (James I. of Eng- 
land). Reconstituted in 1858. 

Edinburgh Review {The). Com- 
menced in Oct. 1802. The political views 
were those of the Whig party. 

Edmund Crouchback, 1241- 

129G. First earl of Lancaster, 2nd son of 
Henry III., the eldest son beingEdward I. 

Edmund Hall {St.), Oxford. Said 
to have been founded by Edmund arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, in the reign of 
Henry III. The head of the Hall is 
called ' the Principal.' 

Edrisites (3 syl.), 785-919. A 
Mussulman dynasty which had Fez as 
the seat of government. The founder 
was Edris (785-793), of the race of Ali, 
poisoned by order of the calif Harun 
al Rashid. 

Edris was succeeded by Edris II. (793-828); 
Mohiujimed I., Ali, Yahia I., Yahia II., Ali II., 
Yahia III., Yahia IV. (90i5-yl9). 

Education. The first parliamentary 
grant for education was made in 1834. 
The Committee of Privy Council was 
appointed in 1839. Public elementary 
education in England and Wales was 
provided for in 1870 (33, 34 Vict. c. 75). 

Edward I. ' Longshanks,' king of 
England (1239, 1274-1307). Son of 
Henry III. He married twice : (1) 
Eleanor daughter of Ferdinand HI. of 
Castile, by whom he had four sons and 
eight daughters. The first two sons 
died young, and the last three daughters. 

3rd son, Edwabd II. (the first prince 
of Wales) who succeeded his father. 

The daughters who married are 
Eleanor, Joan, Margaret, Beatrix, and 
Elizabeth. Mary was a nun at Ames- 
bury, and died 1286. 

By his second wife he had two sons } 
Thomas earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of 
Woodstock, earl of Kent. 

His style and title: 'Edwardus rex 
Anglioe dominus Hiberniae et dux Aqui- 
tanise ' (Guienne). 

His title to France : On the death of 



282 



EDWAED 



EDWAED 



Charles IV., two claimants for tlie crown 
appeared, Philipjie de Valois his cousin, 
and Edward I. his nephew. If the 
Salique law was set aside, then Blanche 
(sister of Charles IV.), wife of PI' )e 
de Valois, was the heiress ; if the Salxque 
law remained in force, Edward, who 
claimed through his mother Isabelle, 
must be set aside, and again Philippe de 
Valois, grandson of Philippe III. le Bel, 
was heir. In neither case had Edward 
any just claim. 

Philippe III. -was father ol Philippe IV. and 
of Charles de Valois. 

PHILIPPE IV. was father of Louis X., Philippe 
v., Charles IV., and Isabelle (who married 
Edward II.). See ' Fatal Three.' 

Charles IV. left a daughter, Blanche, who 
married Philippe [VI.], son of Charles de Valois. 
This was after his accession to the throne; he 
was then son-in-law as well as cousin to the last 
king, Charles IV., and grandson of Philippe III. 

Ed^ward II. ' Caernarvon,' king of 
England (1284, 1307-1327). This son of 
Edward I. was born at Caernarvon, and 
was the first English prince of Wales. He 
married Isabella, daughter of Philippe IV. 
of France, his cousin, by whom he had 
two sons and two daughters. 

1. Edwaed III., who succeeded his 
father. 

2. John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall. 

3. Joan, who married David Bruce, 
king of Scotland. 

4. Eleanor, who married Eeynald 
count of Gueldres. 

His favourites were Gaveston, who 
was twice banished — in 1297 and in 1307 
— and at last executed summarily by the 
indignant barons in 1312. Edward's 
next favourite was Hugh Despenser, 
who was executed in 1326. 

He was murdered in Berkley Castle 
by Maltravers and Gournay. 

His style and title, up to 1326, was : 

* Edwardus, D.G. rex Anglias, dominus 
Hiberniae, et dux Aquitanite ' (Guienne). 
From 1326 he discontinued the title of 

* dux Aquitanige.' 

Ed"ward III. ' "Windsor,' so called 
from the place of his birth (1312, 1327- 
1377). Married Philippa of Hainault, 
by whom he had seven sons and five 
daughters. 

Born 
Ist son. Edward the Black Prince, 
born at Woodstock, 
father of Eichakd II., 
who succeeded his 
grandfather. # • 1330 
{Isabella) * 



2nd son. William, born at Hatfield, 

who died 1336 . . 1334 
{Joanna, born 1335, died 
1348.) 

8rd son. Lionel duke of Clarence, 

born at Antwerp . 1338 

4th son. John of Gaunt, born ai\ 1339 
Ghent, duke of Lan- [ or 
caster . . . . ) 1340 

5th son. Edmund duke of York, 

born at King's Langley 1341 
{Blanche, died young ; 

Mary and Margaret) * * * 

6th son. William, born at Wind- 
sor, lived only from 
June to Sept. . . 1348 

7th son. Thomas, born at Wood- 
stock, created duke of 
Gloucester 1385 by 
Eichard II., and mur- 
dered in 1397. Born, 
according to Stow and 
Dugdale . . . 1355 
After the death of Philippa, Edward 

III. attached himself, without marriage, 

to Alice Perrars or Perrers, one of the 

ladies of the bedchamber. 

His style and title, from 1327 to 1337 : 

'Edwardus, D.G. rex Anglite, dominus 

Hibernise, et dux Aquitanias ' (Guienne). 

From 1337 to 1377 : ' Edwardus, D.G. 

rex Angliae et Franciae [sometimes 

' Francige et Angliae 'J, dominus Hiberniae, 

et dux Aquitaniae.' 

N.B. — All the monarchs of England 

from 1377 styled themselves ' king of 

France ' up to 1800, when George III. 

relinquished the senseless title. 

His claim to the throne of France. 

On the death of Charles IV. without 

male issue, the claimants were Philippe 

de Valois and Edward III. of England. 

The former was crowned as Philippe VI. 

de Valois. 
Philippe III. of France had two sons, viz. 

Philippe IV. (who succeeded htm) and Charles de 

Valois. 
Philippe IV. had for Issue Louis X. (who buo- 

ceeded and died without issue), Philippe V. (who 

also died without issuel, and Isabelle. 
Philippe the claimant \vas the son of Charles de 

Valois, grandson of Philippe III., and cousin of 

the last king, CHARLES IV. 

Edward III. was the son of Isabelle, and great- 
grandson of Philippe III., and nephew of the last 

king, Charles IV. 
*,* The main argument was this : As women 

could not succeed to the crown, therefore Isabelle 

had no claim whatever, and her children could 

have none. 

Edward III. and the two captive 
kings. — At the battle of Poitiers, 1355 
Jean II. of Fiance was made captive 



EDWAED 



EDWARD 



283 



and brought to England. At the same 
time David II. of Scotland, defeated at 
Neville's Cross in 1346, was made captive. 
Thus were there two kings at one and 
the same time captives in London. 

Edward IV. First of the line of 
York. The claim of York was un- 
doubtedly superior to that of Lancaster, 
being from the third son (Lionel) of 
Edward III. ; whereas the house of Lan- 
castei- was from John of Gaunt, the fourth 
son, and therefore a younger brother. 
The descent was from Lionel, third son 
of Edward III. 

Lionel's daughter Philippa married Edward 
Mortimer. Tlieir son was Roger Blortimer; and 
Roger Mortimer's daughter Anne married 
Richard (son of Edmund duke of York). 

Richard duke of York, the IVhite /I'ose, was slain 
in the battle of Wakefield; and his sons were 
Edward IV. and Richard III. 

Edward married Ehzabeth Woodville, 
a widow, and was the first of our sove- 
reigns since the Conquest to marry a 
subject. He had ten children, but of the 
seven who reached maturity five were 
girls and two boys. Edward V. suc- 
ceeded, but he and his brother Richard 
were both murdered in the Tower. 

Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of 
Edward IV., and called ' The Rose of 
York,' or 'The White Rose of York,' 
married Henry VII., and thus united the 
rival branches of York and Lancaster. 

His style and title : ' Edwardus, D.G. 
rex Angliae et Franciae, et dominus 
HiberniiB.' 

Edward "V. Nominal king of Eng- 
land for about a month (1483). He was 
thirteen years of age, and his brother 
Richard was nine ; both were murdered 
in the Tower by order of their uncle 
Richard pil.] duke of Gloucester. The 
actual assassins were Slater, John Digh- 
ton, and Miles Forest. In the reign of 
Charles II. the bodies of the princes were 
found under a staircase, and removed 
to Henry VII.'s Chapel in Westminster 
Abbey 1674. 

Edward V. and Dr. Shaio. — Dr. Shaw, 
at St. Paul's Cross (Sunday, 22 June, 
1483), preached from these words in the 
Book of Wisdom, ' Bastard slips shall 
not strike deep root,' his object being to 
show that Edward V. was a bastard. He 
said that Edward IV. was married to 
Lady Eleanor Butler, the widow of Lord 
Butler of Sudely and daughter of the 
Earl of Shrewsbury ; consequently, Eliza- 



beth Woodville (mother of Edward V.) 
was merely a concubine, and that Stil- 
lington, bishop of Bath, was a witness. 
As Edward V. was the son of a concubine, 
he could not come to the throne. 

To set aside Edward and his brother Richard 
•would not render Richard duke of Gloucester 
heir, because his elder brother Clarence left two 
sons behind; but Clarence having been put to 
death for treason barred his sons by his attainder. 

Richard III. (1483) ordered Edward V. to be 
called ofElcially ' Edward the bastard, lately called 
Edward V.' 

Edward VI. Son of Henry VIH 
(1537, 1547-1553). He died after an 
attack of small-pox, leaving the crown 
to Lady Jane Grey. His style was ' Ed- 
ward, D.G. of England, France, and 
Ireland king ; Defender of the faith, and 
supreme head of the Anglican and 
Hibernian Church.' 

The Pretender, Edward VI. — Lam- 
bert Simnel, son of Thomas Simnel, a 
joiner of Oxford, instructed by one 
Simons, a priest, to personate Edward 
Plantagenet, son of the Earl of Warwick, 
and become a ' pretender ' to the crown, 
in the early part of the reign of Henry VII. 
(1486). lie was crowned at Dublin as 
Edward VI. 2 May, 1487. Being de- 
feated at Stoke by Henry VII. (16 June, 
1487), he was made a scullion in the 
king's kitchen, but was afterwards raised 
to falconer. 

Henry released Edward Plantagenet from 
prison and showed him publicly to the people, to 
show the imposition of Lambert Simnel. Edward 
VI. [Simnel] was crowned by the Bishop of Meath, 
with a diadem taken from a statue of the Virgin 
Mary, and carried to the castle on the shoulders 
of a chieftain named Darcy. 

Edward VI.'s First Prayer 
Book or The First Liturgy of Edward 
VI. 1549 (2, 3 Edw. VI.). Substituted for 
the Latin Mass Book. By the Act for 
Uniformity all clergymen who refused to 
adopt the new liturgy were subject to 
imprisonment for six months for the first 
offence, loss of benefice for the second 
offence, and perpetual imprisonment for 
the third. 

The Daily Ser-vice did not contain the Intro- 
ductory Sentences, E.xhortation, Confession, and 
Absolution, but began with the Lord's Prayer. 
There were no State prayers in this liturgy. 

The Litany contained a petition against the 
papacy. 

The Communion Service did not contain tha 
Ten Commandvwnts, but enjoined that water be 
mixed with the wine. 

In the Baptismal Service exorcism was em- 
ployed to drive out the evil spirit ; the child was 
clothed in a chrisom, and was anointed on the 
head. 

The Catechism formed part of the service, but 
it comprised only an exposition of the Creed, tho 
Lord'B Prayer, and tho Ten Coromandineuta. 



284 



EDWARD 



EGYPT 



In the Marriage Service the sign of the cross 
■was to be made on the forehead of the newly- 
married persons, and a present of money was 
given to the bride when the ring was put on her 
finger. 

In the Burial Service prayers for the dead 
•were offered. 

Vestments. The priests of parish churches 
■were to wear a surplice only ; in cathedrals the 
hood was to be -worn in preaching. 

Edward VI.'s Second Prayer 
Book, or The Second Liturgy of Ed- 
ward VI., 1552. The first liturgy re- 
formed by Cranmer under the advice of 
Bucer and Peter Martyr. 

In the Daily Service the Introductory Sen- 
tences, the Exhortation, the Confession, and the 
Absolution were added. 

In the Communion Service the Ten Command- 
ments were added; but the Introit, prayers for 
the dead, the name of the Virgin Mary, the sign of 
the cross, and mixing water with the wine were 
all omitted. 

In the Baptismal Service exorcism, anointing 
the child, chrisom, and dipping the child thrice 
were omitted. 

In the Marriage Service the sign of the cross 
and present of money were omitted. 

In the Burial Service prayers for the dead 
were omitted. 

Vestments. The nether albe, ' vestments,' and 
cope were forbidden. Prelates might wear a 
rochet, but other clergymen 'a surplice only.' 

Edward Longshanks. See 
« Edward I.' 

Edward of Caernarvon. See 
'Edward II.' 

Edw^ardofHampton, Edward VI. 

(1537, 1547-1553). Called Hampton from 
Hampton Court, the place of his birth. 

Edward of Hampton was no otherwise prince of 
Wales th'in under the general title of England, his 
father being king of England and Wales.— COKE, 
Reports (3 Jacobi, sect. viii.). 

Edward the BlackPrince (1330- 
1376). Son of Edward III., king of 
England, and father of Eichard II. As 
he died a year before his father, he never 
succeeded to the crown. He was called 
Black because he was a name of terror 
to the French. 

Similarly Lord Clifford was called Black for his 
cruelties. George Petrowitsch was called by the 
Turks Bla^k Geonje from the terror of his name ; 
Agnes countess of March was called Black Afines 
for her resistance to Edward III. at Dvmhar. The 
Black Sea means the sea of terror, and the Black 
Wind the wind of terror. See ' Black." 

Edward the Confessor (1004, 

1041-1066). A king of England before 
the Conquest. Canonised 1166 by Alex- 
ander III. The use of the Great Seal 
was first introduced by this king. 

Confessores dicti qui martyrio vitam pro Christo, 
quern palam confess! et contestati sunt, flnierunt. 
I>u Cange, vol. iii. p. 644, col. 1. 

Edward the Elder (870, 901-925), 
king of England, 



Edward the Martyr (961, 975- 
979). A king of England before the Con- 
quest, assassinated at Corfe by order of 
his stepmother Elfrida, to make room for 
her own son, Ethelred the Unready. 

Edward was no martyr in the ordinary sense of 
the word, but he was basely and treacherously 
murdered. 

Edward the Outlaw. Son of 

Edmund Ironside, outlawed to Sweden 
by Canute. 

Eelkhanee Tables (The). The 
astronomical tables of Nazir-u-Dien, pro- 
duced in the reign of Hoolaku, shah of 
Persia (1258-1265). They are still highly 
esteemed, and are referred to for the 
latitude and longitude of places not yet 
fixed by European observations. See 
' Star Tables.' 

The word Eelkhanee means ' Chief of the Tribes.' 

Effendi. A Turkish title of courtesy 
equal to our squire, and always placed 
after the proper name. Sometimes, how- 
ever, in speaking to a Turkish gentleman 
the word eftendi is used as the French 
use monsieur before a proper name. The 
Grand Chancellor of Turkey is called 
' Reis Effendi,' 

Egalit6 (Monsieur). Louis Philippe 
Joseph, due d'Orle'ans (1747-1793). Wlien 
Barere, president of the National As- 
sembly, put the question what punish- 
ment should be accorded to the king, 
Louis XVI., the Due d'Orleans rose 
and said, ' La mort sans phrase.^ It is 
somewhat strange, but the only person 
who voted against the sentence of death 
was Thomas Paine, an Englishman, who 
had the manhood to say to the assembly, 
' The king's death, instead of an act of 
justice, will appear in history as an act 
of vengeance.' Louis !^galite was guil- 
lotined 1793. 

Egypt and Bible History. 

There were thirty dynasties in ancient 
Egypt. From B.C. 3892 to 340. 

The I. dynasty began in Upper Egypt 
with Menes, B.C. 3892. Menes founded 
the city of Memphis. 

No trace of the ' Flood ' has yet been discovered 
by Egyptologists. 

II. dynasty began with Boethos, 
B.C. 3639. The second king of this line 
was Kakan, who introduced the worship 
of Apis, the sacred bull. 

in. dynasty began with Necherophes, 



li^tjrYJi'T 



EIGHT 



B.C. 8338. The Sphinx was carved in 
this dynasty. 

IV. dynasty began with Khufu [Suphis 
or Cheops], B.C. 3124. Khufu built the 
great pyramid. His successor, Khafra 
or Khafren [Cephren or Kephren], built 
the second great pyramid ; and the third 
king of the same line, Menkara [My- 
kerinos], built the third great pyramid. 

V. dynasty began B.C. 2840. The VI. 
began B.C. 2744, the last monarch being 
Queen Nitocris, noted for her great 
beauty. VII. dynasty began B.C. 2592 ; 
the VIII. B.C. 2522 ; the IX. B.C. 2674 ; 
the X. B.C. 2565 ; the XL B.C. 2423. 

XII. dynasty began B.C. 2380 with 
Amen'emhat. In this dynasty were built 
the Temple of Amun-Ra, at Thebes, and 
the obelisk of Heliopolis. Amenemhat's 
son was Usurtesen I. 

XIII. dynasty began B.C. 2136; the 
XIV. B.C. 2167. 

Hyksos or 'Shepherd Kings' were 
probably Arabs. The XV., XVI., XVU. 
dynasties (b.c. 1842, 1684, 1591). 

It is supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in 
B.C. 1806, while the XVI. dynasty was regnant. 

It is supposed that JOSEPH was viceroy of 
Sutapepe-Nubti of the same dynasty. About B.C. 
1713. 

Hyk = king, Sos = shepherds. 

XVIII. dynasty was founded by 
Aahmes [Amasis], B.C. 1591, who expelled 
from Egypt the Shepherd Kings. 

XIX. dynasty, B.C. 1443, was the Golden 
Age of the Pharaohs. The XIX. began 
with Ramses I., who was succeeded by Seti 
[Sethos], who built Karnak. Ramses II. 
was by far the greatest of all the kings 
of Egypt. It is said that he had 170 
children, of which 111 were sons, that 
he reigned 67 years, and died above 96 
years of age. After his death came a 
period of confusion. 

It is supposed that MoSES was born in the reign 
Of the great Ramses, and that the Exodus occurred 
after his death, during the reign of Arisu, a usurper 
and a Syrian, about B.C. 1314. 

No hint can be traced by Egyptologists eitlier of the 
Exodm or Oie Passage of the Red Sea. 

XX. dynasty was founded B.C. 1269 by 
Set-Nekht, and Egypt was on its full 
decline. 

XXI. dynasty began b.c. 1091. 

Solomon married Abra, the daughter of 
Pfusenes II. [Pit>hannl, last king of this line. She 
was 19 years of age (1 Kings iii. 1). It is supposed 
that 'Solomon's Song' was an epitbalamium of 
this alliance. 

XXII. dynasty was founded by She- 
ehouk [Shishak], B.C. 961, who received 
under his protection Jeroboam, and 



afterwards marched against Rehoboam 
with 12,000 chariots and 60,000 horsemen. 

See 1 Kings xiv. 25, and 2 Chron. xii. 

It is supposed that 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15, and xvi. 8, 
&c., refer to Zerah, the fourth of tliis dynasty, 
generally called Osorthon II. 

XXin. dynasty began B.C. 787. The 
second king of this line (Osorthon IV.) 
was the Egyptian Hercules. 

XXIV. d^-nasty had only one sovereign, 
Bochoris, B.C. 729-716. He was deposed 
and put to death by Shabak. 

XXV. dynasty founded by Shabak, 
B.C. 716. 

Ho SEA gave tribute to this king (2 Kings xvH. 8). 
The successor of Shabak was Shabakok, 
called So in 2 Kings xvii. 4. 

Hezekiah formed a confederacy with So, king 
of Egypt, against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
and Sennacherib marched against the allies 
(2 Kings xviil., xix.) ; but So had been succeeded 
by Tirhakah or Tarach. 

XXVI. dynasty was founded by Psam- 
metik [Psammetichus] the Great, B.C. 685. 
His son, Neku II., called Pharaoh-Nechoh 
(2 Kings xxiii. 29, &c.), overthrew Josiah 
and slew him. 

Pharaoh Hophra, the seventh of this line, con- 
temporary of Jeremiah (xliv. 80), was dethroned 
by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. In 525 B.C. 
Egypt was an appanage of Persia (dynasty XXVII.); 
then followed a Saite dynasty, a Mendesian, and 
a Sebennyte, after which the Persian power was 
restored. Next came the Grseco-Macedonian 
period; and B.C. 30 Egypt became a Boman 
province. 

Egyptian Days. Unlucky days. 
There are three in the year, viz. the last 
Monday in April, the 2nd Monday of 
August, and the 3rd Monday of December. 
Called Egyptian because ill-luck was 
attributed to them by the Egyptian 
astrologers. In the Exeter Kalendar, a 
MS. of the time of Henry II., there are 
24 Egyptian days. 

Three days there are in the year which we call 
' Egyptian days.'— So.rort MS. (British Museum). 

*,* In regard to Friday, the Brahmins and 
Buddhists consider it a dies mala, as well as many 
Christians. 

Egyptian Hall (The). In the 
Mansion House, City of London. It was 
built after the description of the Egyptian 
Hall by Vitruvius. 

Egyptian Version of the Sacred 
Scriptures, embraces the Coptic and 
Memphitic, in the dialect of Lower 
Egypt. It is ascribed to the Srd cent. 

There is a version in the dialect of Upper 
Egypt, called ' Sa'hidic ' or ' Theba'idic,' even more 
ancient. Probably close upon the 2nd cent. 

Eight (The), i.e. ' Al Motamen.' So 
the Kalif Al Motassem was called by a 



286 



EIGHT 



EISTEDDFOD 



play on his name, after his death. His 
subjects used to say he was the 8th of 
his dynasty, was born in the 8th month, 
reigned exactly 8 years, 8 months, and 
8 days, had fought 8 battles, and left at 
death 8 sons, 8 daughters, 8,000 slaves, 
and 8 millions of gold. 

It is possible that this may be true, just as it is 
possible that a dealer may hold thirteen trumps 
in his hand. 

Eight Articles {The), 1555. While 
Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were in 
prison they drew up their confession of 
faith in eight articles: (1) the Scriptures 
are the true word of God ; (2) the three 
Catholic creeds are to be believed ; (3) 
justification is by faith only; (4) marriage 
is lawful to all men ; (5) we reject the 
dogma of transubstantiation ; (6) we 
reject the dogma of purgatory ; (7) the 
cup in the Lord's Sujjper is to be given 
to the laity ; and (8) public worship is not 
to be carried on in any foreign tongue. 
See ' Articles.' 

Eight Canonical Hours (The). 

In the Catholic Church. There are four 
great (printed in capitals), and four little 
(printed in italics). 

Matins, or Nocturnes, between mid- 
night and daybreak. On festivals and 
Siandays, three psalms, three anthems, 
and three lessons. 

Laudes, at daybreak. Five psalms, 
two or more capitules (scripture extracts), 
prayers, and canticles. 

Prime, six o'clock in the morning. 
The first hour of the day. 

Tierce, nine o'clock in the morning. 
The third hour of the day. 

Sexte, twelve o'clock, or mid-day. The 
sixth hour of the day. ^ 

Nones, three o'clock in the afternoon. 
The ninth hour of the day. 

Vespers, at sunset. Five psalms, a 
capitule, a hymn, the Magnificat, one or 
more anthems, and prayers. 

Compline, at bedtime. Confession, 
one lesson, three psalms, an anthem, a 
hymn, a capitule, a short response, Nunc 
Dimittis, and prayers. 

Eight Paradises (The), or ' Hesht 
Behesht.' Eight gardens in Ispahan, on 
either side of the gate called CharBaugh. 
Each garden has a pleasure-house. 

Eighteenth Brumaire (The 
Battle 0/ the), Year VHI. (9 Nov., 1799). 



Between Napoleon Bonaparte and the 
Directory, The Directory was overthrown, 
and Bonaparte constituted ' First Consul.' 

Eighth "Wonder of the World 

{Tfie). The Escurial of Spain {q.v.). 

Eighty {The), or the Ottanta. The 
upper house of legislature in the re- 
public of Florence, in the time of Savon- 
arola ; the lower house consisted of 
3,200 henefiziati, divided into three sec- 
tions, holding office for six months. All 
laws were proposed by the Signoria, 
discussed by the Ottanta, and voted in 
silence into law by the Commons, 

The benfUziaii were those who had already held 
office in the state, or had been proposed for office. 
The former were called the Seduto, and the latter 
the Vediito. 

Eighty-six. ' The immortal 86.' The 
followers of C. S. Parnell in the House 
of Commons in 188G, &c. These 86 
really ruled the House, for they voted as 
one man, and could overthrow or carry 
any measure. Home Rule was the great 
question. The Tory government was 
thrown out by the 'immortal 86,' and 
Mr. Gladstone, who supported Home 
Rule, was supported by them. 

Eikon Basilike (I-kon Ba-zil-I-ky). 
Published 1649, at one time attributed 
to Charles I. : but John Gauden, writing 
to the Bishop of Exeter, says the book 
'is wholly and only my invention.' It 
contains a full account of the trial and 
condemnation of the king. 

Eikonoclastes (5 syl.), 1649. Mil- 
ton's reply to ' Eikon Basilike.' 

Eisteddfod {The), 1078. First ap- 
pointed by Gryffith ap Conan to reform 
the Welsh bard system. In these annual 
meetings bards of merit rehearsed their 
poems, and minstrels played their harps. 
These bards were oral historians and 
genealogists. An Eisteddfod was held at 
Caerwys, 26 May, 1568, by proclamation 
of Queen Elizabeth. It was again re- 
vived by the Gwyneddigion Society in 
1798; and again by the Cymrodorion 
Society in 1828. It lasts several days, 
and begins with the opening of the Gor- 
sedd (or council of bards), and concludes 
with the Eisteddfod, or competition for 
prizes in poetry, recitation, and music. 

Eisteddfod is from the Welsh verb eistedd, to 
Bit, and means a session, meeting together, or 
muster. 



EL DOEADO 



ELECTORS 



237 



ElDora'do. Manoa, the hypothetical 
capital of Guiana, supposed by Sir 
Walter Raleigh and others to be so 
affluent that it was called ' The Golden 
City,' and Guiana was called ' The 
Golden Empire.' 

He (Sir Walter) seems to have heard many 
■wonderful rumours of gold mines, and of cities 
built of gold and silver, and even embossed with 
precious stones: but he discovered no ran, !?nificent 
iManoa, with pinnacles blazing with diamonds 
end rubies, nor any goldmines, only signs of gold 
in the mountains beyond the Spanish town of St. 
Thomas.— HowiTT, History of England (James I. 
vol. iii. p. 74). 

Elders (The), or 'Council of the 
Elders ' (Conseil des Anciens). One of 
the two legislative councils of the ' Con- 
stitution of Year III.' in French history 
(Sept. 22, 1795). It had no power of 
initiating any law, but only of veto or 
approval. The initiative was restricted 
to the ' Council of 500 ' (g.v.), and the 
executive to the five directors. 

Eldest Son of the Church [The). 
Clovis, grandson of Morwig or Merovens 
(465,481-511). The first king not an Arian. 

Eldon Law Scholarship. Value 
200Z., and tenable for three years. 
Founded in the University of Oxford in 
honour of Lord Chancellor Eldon in 
1830. 

El'eanor Crosses. Twelve me- 
morial crosses erected in places where 
the bier of Eleanor of Castile, wife of 
Edward I., rested on its way from 
Hornby, in Lincolnshire, where she died, 
to Westminster, where she was bui'ied. 
Three still remain : viz. at Walsham, 
Northampton, and Geddington. Charing 
Cross was destroyed in 1647, but a model 
of it stands in the front of the South- 
Eastern railway station, Strand, London. 

The twelve are these : Charing, Dunstable, 
Geddington, Grantham, Lincoln, Northampton, 
St. Albans, Stamford, Stoney Stratford, Walsham, 
West Cheap, and Woburn. 

Charing cross was the work of Richard and 
Roger Crandale. 

Dunstable cross was the wor'j of John Battle. 

Lincoln cross was the v orli of Richard de Howe. 

A'oi7/t//OTpto« cross was tiic work of John Battle. 

Stoney SUatJord cross was the work of John 
Battle. 

Walsham cross was the joint work of Dymenge 
de Leger and Dymenge de Reyns. 

West Cheap was rebuilt by John Hetherley, lord 
mavor of London. 

Wohnrn cross was the work of John Battle. 

*,* Some of these crosses were certainly nob 
memorial crosses, but were built by Queen 
Eleanor herself as works of piety. 

Eleanor, Maid of Brittany. 
Sister of Prince Arthur, and next to 



Arthur lawful successor to the crown of 
England. John usurped the crown, and 
both Eleanor and Arthur were captured 
by him at Mirabel 31 July, 1202. Arthur 
met with his death mysteriously, and 
Eleanor was imprisoned for life. She 
died in Bristol Castle 1241. 

Eleatic School of Philosophers 

{The). So called from Elea, in Italy, 
the chief seat of these philosophers. 
They were divided into the Old and New 
Schools. The Old School was speculative, 
like the Ionic sect, and taught that there 
is but one element. The New School 
confined themselves to the study of 
natural philosophy. 

The chief of the Old School were 
Xenophanes, the founder (b.c. 556-456) ; 
Parmenidc'S (b.c. 513-430), and Zenon 
(B.C. 430-40.-)). 

The chief of the New School were 
Leucippos (b.c. 510-430), Democritos 
(B.C. 509-400), and Protagoras (b.c. 
481-411). 

Xenophanes revived the Eastern theory that 
God and the Universe are identical. 

The Elpatic Metaphysicians were Pantheists, 
and the Eleatic Physicians were .\tomistics. 

Electoral Roll (The). University 
of Cambridge. Consists of members of 
the senate who have resided for fourteen 
weeks, at least, within Ih mile of Great 
St. Mary's Church. Tlie following are ex 
officio members : All officers of the Uni- 
versity (members of the senate), all heads 
of houses, all professors and public 
examiners. 

The Electoral Roll Is published by the first 
Monday in October, from which day residence is 
calculated. 

Electors (The). Originally the seven 
most powerful feudatories of Germany, 
who assumed the exclusive privilege of 
choosing the kaiser. They were (1) the 
king of Bohemia, (2) the duke of Saxony, 
(3) the margrave of Brandenburg, (4) 
the count palatine of the Rhine, (5) the 
archbishop of Mentz or Mayence, (6) 
the archbishop of Treves, and (7) the 
archbishop of Cologne ; the archbishop 
of Mentz was the official president, and 
' Convener of the Electors.' 

In IfilS the Duke of Bavaria was substituted for 
the King of Bohemia (the palsgrave), but in 1(548 
the palsgrave was readmitted, and in 1692 Ernest 
duke of Hanover was created the ninth elector; 
but in 1777 the number was again reduced toe;.?/' «. 
In 1356 the Golden Bull of Karl IV. recognised the 
right of the electors to choose the king, but in 1800 
the whole system was abolished by Kapoleoa 
Bonaparte. 



ELECTRIC 



ELIZABETH 



The title of Elector continued to be held In 
Hesse-Cassel till 1866. The electoral crown was a 
scarlet cap turned up with ermine. 

Electric Telegraph {The). Pa- 
tented by Cooke and Wheatstone 12 June, 
1837 ; broii^jht into use on the Great 
Western Railway 1839 ; purchased by 
the postmaster-general 81 July, 1868 ; 
management of the telegraph assumed 
by the post-office 5 Feb., 1870. 

Morse's original instrument dates from 1835. 
The submarine electric telegraph from Dover to 
Calais was laid in Aug. 185iJ, and purchased by 
the postmaster-general in 1888. 

Elemental Spirits. Beings sup- 
posed in the middle ages to preside over 
the four elements. The elemental spirits 
of fire were called Salamandees ; the 
elemental spirits of air were called 
Sylphs ; the elemental spirits of earth 
were called Gnomes (1 syl.); and the 
elemental spirits of water were called 
Undines (2 syl.). 

Elephant {Order of the), 1189. A 
Danish military order created by Knut VI. 
after his crusade in the East, when an 
elephant was killed. Revived in 1458 
by Christian I. The cordon is blue moird. 

Elephants. The eight which sus- 
tain the world, according to Indian my- 
thology, are called Achtequedjams. 

Eleusin'ian Mysteries {The). 
The sacred rites with which the annual 
festival of Ceres was celebrated at Eleusis 
in Attica. 

Eleuther'ia. Games in honour of 
Zeus Eleutherios, so named from Eleu- 
theris, a city of Boeotia, near which the 
famous battle of Platsea was won B.C. 
479. See ' PlataBa.' * 

Eleven (TAe). Athenian magistrates 
who had the charge of executing cri- 
minals. 

When he [Socrates] came in from bathing, he sat 
down, and did not speak much. For then the 
oflQcer of the Eleven came in.— PhATO, Tlie Phaedon. 

Eleven Articles {The), 1560. Pro- 
visionary articles drawn up by the bishops 
in the early part of the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth for the instruction and guid- 
ance of the clergy and people till the 
meeting of convocation : (1) The Trinity 
is to be believed ; (2) the holy scriptures 
and the three creeds are all sufficient ; 
(3) the Church has authority to decree 
rites and ceremonies ; (4) all persons not 
lawfully appointed shall be excluded 



from the ministry ; (5) asserts the royal 
supremacy ; (6) renounces all papal juris- 
diction ; (7) declares that the Common 
Prayer Book is according to scripture ; 
(8) forbids exorcism, and the use of oil, 
salt and spittle in baptism ; (9) rejects 
private masses, and denies the propitia- 
tory sacrifice of the mass; (10) enjoins 
communion in both kinds; and (11) 
rejects images, relics, praying on beads, 
pilgrimages, miracles, and so on. See 
' Articles.' 

Eleven Members {The), 1647. 
When the army presented their ' Humble 
Representation' to parliament, it de- 
manded the expulsion of eleven members, 
with Holies at their head. The army 
charged these members with stirring up 
strife between them and the parliament, 
and with a secret design of renewing the 
civil war. The eleven members were not 
expelled, but were induced to withdraw. 
A London mob forced the House to recall 
the eleven, and fourteen peers with 100 
commoners fled to the army. Cromwell 
in two days took London, restored the 
114 fugitives, and expelled the obnoxious 
eleven. 

Elgin Marbles {The), 1816. So 
called from Lord Elgin, who collected 
them during his mission to the Porte in 
1802. They were chiefly derived from the 
Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the 
Acropolis of Athens, of which they formed 
part of the frieze and pediment built 
by Phidias about B.C. 500. They were 
purchu,sed by the British government 
for 35,000Z., and placed in the British 
Museum. 

Elgin, pronounce qin as In the word ' begin,' not 
like the monosyllable. 

Elijahs of Mosul {The). One of 
the three branches of the Nestorians. 
The other two are the ' Josephs of Ami'da' 
and the ' Simeons of Ormia.' 

Eliot {George), the pseudonym of 
Miss Marian Evans (afterwards Mrs. 
Cross), a novelist (1819-1880). 

Elisabeth {Mad.), sister of Louis 
XVI., who shared the captivity of the 
Royal family, and was scandalously guil- 
lotined in 1794. 

Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. 
(1533, 1558-1603). Katharine was 
divorced 23 May and Elizabeth born 
7 Sept. the same year. Elizabeth is 



ELIZABETHAN 



EMBASSY 



called * The Virgin Queen of England,' 
because she was never married. 

Her style was : ' Elizabeth, D.G. of 
England, Fian e, and Ireland queen ; De- 
fender of tlie ii'aith ; Supreme Governor 
of the Church of England and Hibemia.' 

Elizabeth (1 Eliz. c. 1) insisted that the title 
' Supreme Governor of the Church ' should be 
substituted for ' Supreme Head of the Church.' 

*,* Elizabeth atid Manj queen of Scots. Elizabeth 
Vas not the cousin of Mary queen of Scots, but 
the cousin of Mary's father. 

Henry VII. had issue Henry VIII. (who suc- 
ceeded him) and Margaret (who married James IV. 
of Scotland). 

ELIZ.4BETH was a daughter of Henry VIII. 

Margaret's son was James V. of Scotland, and 
Mary queen of Scots was the daughter of James V, 
(she married Henry Stuart, lord Darnley). 

Her favourites were, first, Hobert Dudley (earl of 
Leicester), who died 15S8; then Robert I'evereux 
(earl of Essex), executed for treason in 1601. 

Elizabethan Architecture. A 

style of domestic architecture which pre- 
vailed in the reign of Elizabeth, especially 
used in mansions and palatial buildings. 
Its gables are most characteristic. 

Ellorton Theological Essay. 

Oxford University. Value 211. annually. 
Founded by Dr. Ellerton, fellow of 
Magdalen College, 1825. 

Ellison Gallery (The) of water- 
colour paintings. Presented to the nation 
by Elizabeth Ellison, and placed in the 
South Kensington Museum, "May 18C0. 

Elms {The). The place of execution 
in Smithfield previous to the reign of 
Henry IV., when the gibbet was erected 
at Tyburn, which continued to be the 
chief place of execution in London till 
1783. 

Eloquence {Father of French). 
Alain Chartier, secretary to Charles VI. 
and VII. He was both poet and prose 
writer (1386-1458). 

Eloquent Doctor {The). Peter 
Aureolus, archbishop of Aix. There was a 
Peter of Ravenna surnamed Chrysologos, 
or Golden-speech, who died 450, and was \ 
canonised. And two Chrysostoms or \ 
Golden-mouthed, viz. Dion and John. 
Dion was born in Bithynia a.d. 30 and 
died 116, and John was born at Antioch 
847 and died 407. It is this latter who 
is generally known as St. Chrysostom (the 
saint with the golden mouth). 

Elrington and Bosworth Pro- 
f jisorship. See ' Anglo-Saxon, &c.' 
13 



Elzevirs. Books printed by a cele- 
brated family of printers in Holland be- 
tween 1533 and 1680. The 12mo and ICmo 
classics are beautifully and correctly 
printed. The Virgil, Terence, and other 
Roman classical authors, the New Testa- 
ment and the Psalter, have an unrivalled 
reputation. 



Emancipation Act ( The), 13 April, 
1829. The act which emancipated Ca- 
tholics from religious and civil disabilities 
in the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland. It was framed by Sir 
Robert Peel, in the ministry of the Duke 
of Wellington, and signed by George IV. 

Emancipation of Slaves {The), 

28 August, 1833 (3, 4 Will. IV.). By this 
act slavery was abolished throughout 
the British colonies, and slave-owners 
were compensated by a grant from par- 
liament of 30 millions sterhng. 

In 1861 Alexander II. of Russia emancipated 50 
million serfs, but ' it has proved a gigantic failure, 
as the wretchedness of the peasantry is greater, 
the cultivation of the soil inlerior, and much of 
the land is little better tlian waste. Xhey cnnnot 
pay the interest of the money, which is 95 millions 
stprling, and hundreds are knonted every year. 
The result is the irrepressible Nihilists, by whom 
Alexander was blown to pieces.'— Xin^tcenth Ceii' 
iury, June 1889. 

Emania {The Kings of). King 
Kimboath of Ireland built the palace of 
Emania in Ulster, an epoch from which 
Tigernach dates the dawn of authentic 
Irish history. From this splendid palace 
the princes of Ulster were called the 
* kings of Emania.' The princely palace 
of Emania was utterly destroyed when 
Muredach [Emain Macha] Tirech invaded 
Ulster, and dispossessed his cousin, the 
usurper Colla, of his kingdom (a.d. 327). 

It was Colla himself and his brothers who burnt 
Emania after their return from banishment. 

Embargo Act {The), 22 Dec, 1807, 
of President Jefferson, forbidding Ameri- 
can vessels to leave their ports. This 
was, in fact, a measure preparatory to 
war, allowing merchants to call home 
their ships, and the country to put itself 
into a posture of defence. Repealed 3 
Feb., 1809, 'as ruinous to the States, un- 
satisfactory to France, and ineffectual as 
a retaliation upon England.' 

Embassy of the Three Philo- 
sophers {The), B.C. 151. An embassy 
sent by the Athenians to tlie Roman 
senate to obtain o. mitigation of thr- tin:; 

U 



290 



EMBASSY 



EMMANUEL 



(500 talents) imposed on them for attack- 
ing Oropus. The fine was reduced to 
100 talents. The three philosophers sent 
were Diogenes the Stoic, Critolabs the 
Peripatetic, and Carucades (founder of 
the third academy). 

Embassy to China [The), 1703. 

(George) lord Macartney was sent by 
George III. on a friendly embassy to 
Kien Lung, emperor of China, who was 
at the time in his summer residence, 
Zhe-hol, in Tartary. His journey from 
Pekin to Zhe-hol was most gratifying, 
and more information of this ancient 
people was gained in this embassy than 
in all preceding ages put together. He 
tells us that white is worn in mourning, 
but never by brides ; that the left is the 
Bide of honour; that titles of honour 
never descend ; and that all ranks, except 
that of emperor, depend on competitive 
examination. Yellow is the imperial 
colour. 

Ember Days, 1095. Four times a 
year : the spring being the Wednesday, 
Friday, and Saturday of Ember week, or 
the week after the first Sunday in Lent ; 
the summer being the same days after 
Whit-Sunday; the autumn the same 
days after the feast of Holy Cross (14 
Sept.) ; and the lointer the same days 
after the feast of St. Lucia (13 Dec). 
These seasons in the Western Church 
are appointed for the ordination of the 
clergy. 

German quatember, i.e. 'quatuor tempora,' i» 
lovir seasons. Consult Skeat's Dictionary. 

Emerald Club [The), 1882. A 
branch of the Fenian Brotherhood whose 
object was to work by force alone for the 
freedom of Ireland. Dynamite and other 
compounds of nitro-glycerine were freely 
employed. The Emerald Society was 
organised in the United States of North 
America, and was contemporary with the 
Dublin ' Invincibles.' The principal of 
the Emerald Society was O'Donovan 
Rossa. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Emerald of the G-reen Vault 

[The). An immense uncut Peruvian 
emerald given by Randolph II. to the 
Elector of Saxony, and kept in the Green 
Vault {grimes Geicolbe) at Dresden. 

This 'vault' is in the Zwinger, a group of 
buildings erected by Augustus II. as a vestibule to 
his new palace. It is called^ ' Green ' from the 
colour of the paper or hangings with which it was 
origiuarlly covered. Ihe regalia used at the coro- 



nation of Augustus (a present of Karl V.) are 
still kept in the seventh apartment. The Emerald 
is in the eighth or last apartment. 

^meute. A riot of a political cha- 
racter, the result of what the French call 
' attroupement ' or party meetings in the 
public streets and squares. These public 
musters were first declared illegf-I in 
France in 1791 ; the law was confirmed 
24 May, 1834, and again 7 June, 1818, 
when the pillagers of shops, breakers of 
windows, plunderers of arms, stump 
orators, and leaders of riots were most 
severely handled. 

The Great Three Days !^meute of 
1830 occurred on Tuesday, Wednesday, 
and Thursday, 27, 28, 29 July, when 
Charles X. was obliged to flee and ab- 
dicate. 

Em.irian Provinces {The). The 
northern part of the States of the Church 
{i.e. the Bomagna), with the duchies of 
Parma and Modena, which in 18G0 were 
attached to Sardinia, but now form part 
of the kingdom of Italy. 

In 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte called Emilia the 
'Emilian Republic' New Emilia comprehonda 
liologna, Ferrara, Forli, Massa and Carrara, Mo- 
dena, Palma, Placentia, Ravenna, and Reggio. 

Em.ilie {The Divine), to whom 
Voltaire wrote verses, was Madame 
Chatelet, with whom he lived at Cirey 
for ten years. Her palfrey was called 
' Eossignol.' 

Emir al Om.ra. Commandant of 
commandants ; a military rank and title 
created by the Calif Rhadi (G3G*as a sop 
to the Turkish guards, a constant terror 
of the Abbasides (3 syl.), as the Pretorian 
guards were of the Roman emperors. 
This great officer had the sole manage- 
ment of all military matters ; officiated 
for the calif in the mosque of Bagdad ; 
and had his name mentioned in the 
public prayers. The French ' Mayor of 
the Palace ' resembled in rank and power 
the Emir al Omra of the Abbaside califs. 
Imperatof imperatorum would be the Latin equi- 
valent. 

Emm.a. So Harold called his coat- 
of-mail. 

And he put on his coat-of-mail which he called 
Emma, and which was so strong that no man 
could pierce it.— Fkeeman, Uld English History, 
&c. p. 314. 

Emmanuel College. n Cam- 
bridge University. Founded by Sir 
Walter Mildmay in 158i. 



EMMETT'S 



EMPEEOE 



291 



Emmett's Insurrection. In 

Dublin 23 July, 1803, in which Lord Kil- 
warden and several other persons were 
assassinated by the insurgents. It re- 
ceived its distinctive name from Robert 
Emmett, a young enthusiast, wholieaded 
this outbreak, and only arrived in Dublin 
the previous year (1802). Emmett had 
manufactured a large number of arms, 
and heaped together a vast amount of 
ammunition. He expected 2,000 rebels 
to meet him at Contigan's mills before 
nine o'clock on Wednesday morning, 
23 July, 1803, but everything went 
wrong. The man who was to turn the 
fuzees and rammers for the beams had 
forgotten them, the jointed pikes were 
all lost by an explosion in Patrick Street, 
the slow matches got mixed with others, 
the fuzees of th» grenades were nowhere 
to be found, the scaling-ladders were 
not finished, and of the 2,000 men 
only eighteen put in an appearance. How- 
ever, Eimnett, with five or six others, in 
their green uniforms, marched towards 
the Castle, and were informed that Lord 
Kilwarden's carriage had been stopped, 
and that both his lordship and his 
nephew had been murdered. A company 
of soldiers soon dispersed the insurgents, 
and Emmet, being arrested, was tried, 
condemned, and executed 19 Sept. the 
same year. 

Thomas Moore refers to Robert Emmett in his 
' Irish Melodies, ' O breathe not his name ' ; and 
again, " She is far from the land where her young 
hero sleeps.' Emmett was engaged to a daughter 
of Curran. 

Emoraim {The). Jewish doctors who 
assisted in composing the Gema'ra, which 
took about 311 years. It contains anno- 
tations, discussions, and amplifications 
of the Mishnah. There are two Gemaras 
— that" of Babylon, completed a.d. 500, 
and that of Jerusalem, finished in the mid- 
dle of the 4th cent. The Mishnah and 
Gemara together make what is called the 
Tahnud. 

Empecinado {The). Juan Martin 
Diaz of Spain, the Spanish guerilla chief 
(1775-1825), so called from pecina, a 
pool or marsh ; the villagers of Spanish 
marshes were nicknamed Empecinados. 
Diaz was a man of enormous muscular 
strength. George III. gave him a sword 
which no man could wield but himself. 
When captured in 1825 he burst the 
cords which, bound him, threw from him 



five men, and was only captured by 
casting a cloak over him. Thus en- 
tangled he was hanged on a tree. 

Another derivation of the name is this : 'El Em- 
pecinado, c. a. d. VempotHse, qui lui fut donne, 
parce qu'il etait dun village de coidoiiniers, 
etat oii Ion fait, comme on salt, grand usage de la 
poix.'— liouiitet. 

EmperorElect of the Romans. 

Maximilian, who failed to get himself 
crowned kaiser, in 1508 assumed the title 
of ' Emperor Elect of the Romans.' Till 
then the ' emperors elect ' were only 
called ' Kings of the Romans ' {q.v.). 

Emperor of Elba {The), 1814. 
Napoleon I., after his abdication. Elba 
is an island 20 leagues in extent, with 
12,000 inhabitants. Napoleon was allowed 
an annual income of 240,000?., and Jose- 
phine, with other members of his family, 
were allowed 80,000?. more. He entered 
Elba 10 May, and left it 26 Feb., 1815 
(298 days). 

Emporor of the German King- 
doms {The), 'Kaiser der deutschen 
Reiche,' 18 Jan., 1871. William I., king of 
Prussia, during the siege of Paris was 
created ' German Emperor.' In the pre- 
ceding Nov. he was made head of the Ger- 
man Confederation {q.v.). The Austrian 
monarchs were only kings of Germanjt 
and emperors of the West, i.e. the Holy 
Roman Empire, and hence were kaiser- 
kings. They were sometimes called 
emperors, a title which did not belong to 
them as sovereigns of Germany, but as 
sovereigns of the ^Vest. 

' Emperor of Germany ' is not a correct desig- 
nation, but either ' Ucutscher Kaiser' {Genivm 
Emperor) or ' Kaiber der deutschen Reiche.' 

Emperor of the Romans. ' Em- 
perors of Rome,' ' Emperors of the Holy 
Roman Empire,' or ' Emj)erors of the 
West,' all titles equivalent to kaiser, 
borne by Charlemagnfe and his suc- 
cessors. Otto the Great, king of Ger- 
many, revived the title. From 1508 the 
king of Germany was ex officio emperor 
of the Romans, and the king elect was 
emperor elect of the Romans, and con- 
tinu'^d so till his coronation ; previously 
the king elect of Gei-many had been en- 
titled ' king of the Romans.' 

Emperor of the Romans, i.e. king of Germany 
after his coronation. 

Emperor Elect of the Romans, the king elect 
Of Germany from the time of Maximilian. 

King of the Romans, the king elect of Germany 
between Otto I. and Maximilian I. 

u2 



292 



EMPIRE 



ENCYCLOPAEDISTS 



Empire St; ate (The) of North 
America. New York, which has thirty- 
six votes in the Electoral College of 401. 

Empirics and Dogm.atists. Two 
schools of medicine in Alexandria in the 
three • centuries preceding the birth of 
Christ. The Empirics took experience 
as the only base of curing maladies. 
The Dogmatists, or Methodists, were the 
regulars who treated diseases according 
to rule. The chiefs of the Empirics were 
Phillnos of Cos, Sextus Empiricus, and 
Heraclldes of Tarentum. 

The chief of the Dogmatists were Erasistratos, 
Themison, and Ccelius Aurelianus. 

Empirics and Rationalists. Two 

rival schools of philosophy. The Em- 
pirics insist that our sole knowledge of 
the material world depends upon our 
senses. The Rationalists or Idealists 
contend for an innate sense or per- 
ception. Chief of the Empiric philo- 
sophers are the Peripatetics, the disciples 
of Democritos, Epiciiros, and Aristotle, 
among the ancients ; and the di;iciples of 
Hobbes, Locke, Condillac, and Diderot, 
among the moderns. 

The chief of the Rationalists or Idealists are 
Plato, Malebranche, Kant, Scheliing, and Hegel. 

There was also another school of Idealists, 
the exponents of which were Berkeley, Hume, 
^ichte, &c. 

Empress of India, 1877, Queen 
Victoria assumed the title in addition to 
her other titles. 

Enabling Statute (The), 1540 (32 
Henry VIII. c. 28). I. Enabling a tenant- 
in-tail to make a lease for three lives, or 
twenty-one years, to bind his issue. 

li. Enabling a husband seised in right 
of his wife in fee-simple, or fee-tail, to 
make a similar lease to bind his wife and 
her heirs, provided she joined therein. 

III. Enabling ecclesiastics seised of 
an estate of fee-simple in right of their 
churches, to make leases to bind their 
successors. Repealed by 19, 20 Vict. c. 
120, s. 35. 

There are other enabling acts by which eccle- 
Biastical lands may be leased. 

Enactments (Bussian). The old 
form used in Russia was Boiare prigo- 
vorili, i czar prikazal (The seniors are 
of opinion, and the czar has enacted). 
The seniors were called fto/yars = Latin 
majores, ox primores, tiU Peter the Great 
abolished the title. 



Encke's Comet. Recurs in about 
1,200 days. It was not discovered by 
Encke (2 syl.), but its periodicity was. 

Seen by Mechain 17 Jan., 1786. 

Seen by Caroline Herschel 7-27 Nov., 
1795. 

Seen by Bonvard, Huth, and Pons 
20 Oct. to 19 Nov., 1805. 

Seen by Pons 25 Nov., 1818, to 12 Jan., 
1819. 

Johann Franz Encke (2 syl.) was born at Ham- 
burg in 1701, and died in 1865. 

Encratistes (3 syl.). See ' Encra- 
tites.' 

Encratites [The), or Abstainers, 
A.D. 173. A religious sect founded by 
Tatian, one of the Greek Fathers. They 
abstained from marriage, meat, wine, and 
indeed all bodily indulgences. They 
distinguished between God and the 
Creator, and they denied the reality of 
Christ's body. 

Encumbered Estates Act {The\ 
14 Aug., 1848. Ireland. To enable per- 
sons whose estates were encumbered by 
mortgages, chancery suits, or otherwise, 
to sell them at once, without delay or 
expense, either wholly or in part, with * a 
parliamentary title,' which is given at 
the time of sale. 

The Cmirt was established 28 July, 1849, and 
closed 31 Aug., I.s5«. A similar Court was estab- 
lished in the West Indies 11 Aug., 1854. 

Encumbered Estates of Ireland. 

Estates under the Court scattered all 
over Ireland, with deserted mansions and 
empty houses. Receivers take the place 
of the non-resident landlords, and, of 
course, are able to do nothing to help 
the tenants or pay for improvements. 

Encyclical Letter {An). A letter 
from the pope or church council addressed 
to a whole nation or the whole of Chris- 
tendom. In 1884 the French nation was 
addressed by an encyclical letter. 

E icyclopasdists, 18th cent. 
Leaders of thought who, in a publication 
entitled the ' Encyclopaedia,' popularised 
enquiry into the Christian religion, poli- 
tics, science, and government. No doubt 
these writers prepared the way for the 
Great Revolution. 

The chief were D'Alembert (1717-17S.3), joint 
editor with Diderot of the famous ' Encyclopcedia, ' 
in 28 vols., to which Voltaire and other living 
savants contributed, Diderot (171'2-1783), a mate- 
rialist, who made the ' Encyclopaedia ' a vehicle 
tor the difCusion of materialistic and atheistic 



END 



ENGLAND 



opinions. J. J. Roiisfieau, Grimm, Dumarsnis, 
Voltaire, Baron d'Holbach, and Jancourt. (K.B. 
Biography and history were excluded.) 

End of the World. Nostradamus 
said, in 1566 : 

Quand Georges Dieu crucifera, 
Que Marc le ressuscitera, 
Et que St. Jean le portera, 
La fin du moude arrivera. 

That when Good Friday falls on 23 
April (St. George's Day), and Easter 
Sunday on 25 April (St. Mark's Day), 
and Corpus Cliristi falls on 24 June 
(Jolin the Baptist's Day), the world will 
come to an end. This coincidence of 
dates occurred in 1886, but the world 
still wags. The same coincidences oc- 
curred in 1784, 1666 (Great Fire), and, 
what is strange, in 1546, in 1451, 1421, 
1204, 1109, 1014, 919, 672, 577, 482, b87, 
140, and in 45. So will it be in 1943. 

*^* Sir Isaac Newton calculated (so 
says the critic Corneille de Pauw) ' qu'une 
comt^te heurtera si violemment notre 
soleil en I'an 2255, qu'il n'y a plus aucune 
esperance qu'il soit encore en etat 
d'eclairer les liabitants de notre monde 
apres cet accident.' 

Endless Peace (The), a.d, 533. 
Purchased by Justinian of Kosroes or 
Chosrocs I. the Great, king of Persia, 
for 11,000 pounds of gold (about 440,000Z. 
sterling). It lasted barely seven years 
(Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' xli.). 

Erifans sans Souci {Lcs). A 
volunteer theatrical company of young 
tradesmen in Paris, in the 15th cent., for 
the representation of satirical farces, in 
which Hving characters and current 
events were introduced. There was 
another company formed of lawyers and 
called the 'Basocians' (q-v.). 

Pronounce Ahn-fahn sahgn soo-see. 

Enfant de Miracle {L'). Napo- 
leon I. 

' They flit like phantoms about the mimic court 
of the " Enfant de Miracla." '—'I'lie Oracle, ItiSo. 

Enforcing Act (T/ie). Passed Con- 
gress 9 January, 1809. Its object was to 
preserve strict neutrality between Eng- 
land and France. All vessels from these 
two countries were, by this act, excluded 
from the United States. 

Engagement (The). I., or Scottish 
Covenant, 1643. The agreement of the 
Assembly of Divines met in Henry VII. 's 
Chapel at Westminster, to maintain 



Presbyterianism. . The whole clergy were 
required to submit ; and 3,000 were ejected 
from their livings for refusing to do so. 

II. In 1647. A secret treaty between 
Charles I. and the ' Solemn League and 
Covenant' {q-v.). Charles engaged to 
establish Presbyterianism in Scotland 
and extirpate the sectaries ; and the 
league engaged to restore the king by 
force of arms. See ' Engagers.' 

III. In 1649. The new oath substi- 
tuted by the Long Parliament, after the 
execution of Charles I., for the oaths of 
Supremacy and Allegiance : ' I swear to 
be true and faithful to the government 
established without king or house of 
peers, and never to consent to their re- 
admission.' 

Some doubt may be raised of the policy of the 
'Engagement.' . . . As long as it was confined to 
those who held office under the government, it 
remained a mere question of choice ; but when it 
was exacted from all Englishmen above 17 years 
of age ... it became tb many an act of necessity, 
and served to irritate rather than to produce 
Becuxity.— Dr. Lingakd, History of England, viii. 5. 

Engagers (The), 1649. Or the party 
of Hamilton, pledged to support ' the 
Engagement.' The Duke of Hamilton 
collected some 15,000 men, tumultuary 
and ill-disciplined, on the king's 
(Charles I.'s) behalf; but they were 
utterly routed by Cromwell near War- 
rington, and Hamilton surrendered. The 
Engagers were the moderate Presbyterian 
party; the rigid Presbyterians, called 
' Wiiigamores,' had the Duke of Argyll 
for their leader, and were the dominant 
party in the middle of the 17th cent. 

If the Covenanters got the upper hand ... he 
[Monirose] must abandon his most devoted fol- 
lowers, the old Royalists and Engagers, and take 
the covenant himself.— HowiTT, History of Eng- 
land tCommonwealth, p. 315). 

England. Its Sovereigns and Dynas- 
ties since the Conquest : — 

Norman line — Four kings (1066-1154) : 
William I. the Conqueror; William II. 
Pvufus (son) ; Henry I. Beauclerc 
(brother) ; Stephen of Blois (nephew). 

Plantagenet line — Eight kings (1154- 
1399) : Henry II. (grandson of Henry I.); 
Richard I. Coeur de Lion (son) ; John 
Lackland (brother) ; Henry III. (son) ; 
Edward I. Longshanks (son); Edward 11. 
(son) ; Edward III. (son) ; Richard II. 
(grandson). 

House of Lancaster — Three kings 
(1399-1461) : Henry IV. (son of John of 
Gaunt duke of Lancaster); Henry V 
(son) ; Henry VI. (son). 



294 



ENGLAND'S 



ENGLISH 



House of York — Three kings (1461- 
1485) : Edward IV. (son of Eicliard duke 
of York); Edward V. (son); Eichard HI. 
(brother of Edward IV.). 

Tudor line — Five sovereigns (1485- 
1603): Henry YJl. (son of Edmund 
Tudor and Margaret Beaufort) ; Henry 
VIII. (son) ; Edward VI. (son) ; Mary 
(daughter of Henry VIII. and Katharine 
of Aragon) ; Elizabeth (daughter of 
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleynj. Lady 
Jane Grey not reckoned in the list. 

Stuart Dynasty {sovereigns of Great 
Britain) — Pour sovereigns (1603-16S9) : 
James I. (son of Mary queen of Scots) ; 
Charles I. (son) ; [Commonwealth : 
Cromwell, Lord Protector] ; Charles II. 
(son of Charles I.) ; James II. (brother) ; 
Anne (daughter of James II.). 

House of Orange (Revolution), 1689- 
1714 : William III. (prince of Orange) 
[grandson of Charles I.] and his wife 
Mary (daughter of James II.), conjointly. 

House of Hanover — At present (1890) 
five sovereigns (1714-*) : George I. 
(elector of Hanover) ; George II. (son) ; 
George III. (grandson, son of Frederick 
prince of Wales) ; George IV. (son) ; 
William IV. (brother) ; Victoria (niece of 
William IV., daughter of Edward duke of 
Kent). See ' English Sovereigns.' 

The Saxon race, •which dominated 827-lOlS, gave 
fourteen sovereigns. The Saxons and Danes 
gave eight sovereigns (1013-1066). 

N.B. — The English monarchs descend 
through the female line from King 
Egbert, the first king of England ; and 
trace back in the male side up to Wil- 
liam the Conqueror, whose son, Henry I., 
married Matilda, daughter of Margaret 
and Malcolm III. of Scotland. Margaret 
was the daughter of Prince Edward, and 
granddaughter of King Edmund, lineally 
descended from Egbert. See ' Victoria.' 

England's Darling. Hereward 
the Wake, lord of Burn in Lincolnshire, 
famous for his resistance to William the 
Conqueror. He established his ' camp 
of refuge ' in the Isle of Ely, where, in 
1071, he was joined by Earl Morcar. 
Morcar surrendered and was im^jrisoued 
in Normandy, but Hereward escaped. 

* Ensiland's Standard Ad- 
vanced,' 1 May, 1649. A manifesto 
ssued by Captain Thompson demanding 
the completion of public freedom, vowing 
justice on the murderers of Arnold and 



Lockyer, and threatening, if a hair of 
Lilburne's head was touched, to avenge 
the wrong seventy-and-sevenfold. Tliis 
party was put down on 17 May by Fairfax 
and Cromwell, who shot Cornet Thomp- 
son (brother of Capt. Thompson) and two 
corporals in Burford churchyard ; the 
rest promised to return to Ireland. 

Locliyer, a trooper, a brave young fellow of 23, 
was shot by Fairfax and Ct'omwell. 20 April, 104f), 
for mutiny. He was buried witli military honours, 
followed by thousands with sea-green and blacii 
ribbons on their hats. 



(The) 



English. Aristopliands 

Samuel Foote (1722-1777). 

English. Chrysostom (The). 

Jeremy Taylor is so called by Coleridge 
in ' Table Talk ' (4 June 1830). 

English Church Union (The), 
abbreviated into E.C.U. Formed in 
1859 ' for the purpose of uniting church- 
men in defence of the doctrine and disci- 
]Diine of the Church of England, and of 
the rights and liberties of her faithful 
children.' It is what is called a high- 
church or ' ritualistic '. association. 

The ' Church Association ' represents the ' mode- 
rate ' or ' Evangelical ' party. 

English Claude (The). Thomas 
Gainsborough (died 1788 at the age of 61). 



English Crown (The). 
the following jewels : 



Containa 



1 large ruby, irregularly 
polished. 

I large broad-spread 
sapphire. 

16 sapphires, 

II emeralds. 



4 rubies. 

l,Hm brilliants. 

1,27'2 rose diamonds. 

147 table diamonds. 

4 drop shaped pearls. 

273 pearls. 

The gross weight of the crown made in 1838 by 
Messrs. Kundcli A Bridge is .Sfl oz. 5 dwta. Troy. 

The famous rubv was given to Edward the Ulack 
Prince by Don Pedro of Castile in 1307. Usury V. 
wore it in his helmet at the battle of Agincourt in 
1415. 

English Ennius {The). See ' En- 
nius.' 

English Garrison {The). So the 
Irish landlords were denominated by 
the partisans of the Irish Land League 
{q.v.). The third allegation of the Times, 
in their charge called 'Parnellism and 
Crime,' 17 Sept., 1888. 

We [the three Roj'al Commissioners] find that 
the respondents did enter into a conspiracy to a 
syr^tem of coercion and intimidation to promote 
an agrarian agitation ... for the purpose of im- 
poverishing and expelling from the country tha 
Irish landlords, who were styled the ' Engliiih 
Garrison.'— Kecdict (1890). 

English Justinian {The). Ed- 
ward- I. (1239, 1272-1307). So called 



ENGLISH 



ENGLISH 



295 



because, like Justinian, he codified the 
laws, and reduced to practical shape the 
institutions of his predecessors. Edward 
I., in fact, begins a new epoch ; all before 
him was ancient England, all from his 
accession is modern England. He de- 
fined the limits of civil and ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction, instituted the appointment 
of ' Conservators of the Peace,' now called 
' Justices of the Peace,' organised into 
their present shape the superior courts 
(the Queen's Bench, the Exchequer, and 
the Common Pleas), and instituted the 
' Court of Appeal,' the basis of our ' Court 
of Chancery.' 

In this reign were passed the ' Statute of Mort- 
main,' 127L), and the '^Statute cf Kliuddlan,' 1281. 
And both Magna Charta and the Charter of the 
Forest were coutirined. 

English Language {The). Or- 
dered to be used in all courts of law, 1362 
(3G Edw. ni. St. i. c. 15). 

It is a pity that the sovereign still uses Norman 
French, instead of English, in expressing the 
royal assent or dissent to Acts of Parliament. 

English Language, how derived. 

II. Indian (Sanskrit). 
2. Persian (Zend). 
3. Slavonic (Russian). 
4. CeZ^?c (Gaelic and Cymric). 
5 GrcEco-Latin (Greek). 
6. Gothic (German). 
Teutonic [l. Ma;so-GotMc. 

Gothic J 2. Loiv German (English, 
has three 1 Dutch, Flemish). 

groups is. High German (German;. 
See ' Erse.' 

English Martsrr {The first), 10 
March, 1401. William Sawtre, rector of 
Lynn, Norfolk, who was burnt at the 
stake in the reign of Henry IV. 

* English Mercurie ' {The), 1588. 
Was for many years considered to be tiie 
oldest English newsi)aper, but in 1839 
Mr. Thomas Watts of the British Museum 
proved it to be an impudent forgei'v, as 
the paper on which it is printed bears 
the arms of the House of Hanover, and 
the initials ' G. R.' See 'Literary For- 
geries.' 

English TTational Anthem. 

' God save the King ' (or Queen). 

E nglish Pale ( The). In Ireland. The 
five districts of Cork, Drogheda, Dublin, 
Waterford, and Wexford. Generally 
called ' the Pale ' (Henry II.). 

There was aa ' English Pale ' about Calais. 



English Pope (The). Adrian IV. 
(1100, 1154-1159). His name was Nicho- 
las Breakspear. 

English Sovereigns do not suc- 
ceed to the crown by hereditary right, 
but by parliamentary authority. A 
crooked sort of descent is preserved, but 
not like that of our hereditary nobility. 

WiLLLVM I. had no hereditary right 
at all. The heir (though not of royal 
descent) was Harold. 

William II. had no hereditary right. 
The heir was his elder brother Robert 
duke of Normandy. 

Henry I. had no hereditary right. The 
heir was Robert. 

Stephen, the nephew of Henry I., had 
no hereditary right. The heir was 
Maud. 

John had no hereditary right. The 
heir was Arthur, son of Geoffrey, 4th son 
of Henry II. John was the 5th son. 

Henry II. had no hereditary right. 
The heir was Eleanor, damsel of Brittany, 
heiress of William I. 

Henry IV. had no hereditary right 
after Richard II. ; the heir was Edward 
Mortimer, earl of March, by descent 
from Lionel (3rd son of Edward III.). 
Henry IV. was the son of John of Gaunt 
(4th son of Edward III.). 

Henry V. and VI. were out of the 
direct line, which was continued in the 
line of Mortimer earl of March. 

Richard III. had no right to the 
crown while Edward V. was alive, and 
after the death of his nephew Edward 
the direct heirs were the sons of George 
duke of Clarence, his elder brother. 

Henry VII. had no right in descent ; 
he was the son of Edmund Tudor, whose 
only pretence to ' royal descent ' was 
that his grandmother was the widow of 
Henry V. (daughter of Charles VI king 
of France). The heir was Elizabeth of 
York, whom he married after he became 
king. 

There was another equally shadowy 'claim.' 
His paternal grandmother, Margaret, was the 
granddaughter of an illegitimate son of John of 
Gannt (i.e. John Beaufort earl of Richmond had 
a natural son by Katharine Swynford). 

William III. and Mary had no here- 
ditary right. The heir was the Old 
Pretender. 

Anne had ho hereditary right. The 
heir was the Queen of Sardinia, by Hen- 
rietta Anne, daughter of Charles I. 

George I. had no hereditary right. 



296 



ENaLISH 



EOLIO 



This line was cTiosen by parliament be- 
cause the Brunswickers were the nearest 
Protestant relatives to their predecessors. 
See 'England,' its sovereigns and dy- 
nasties. 

English Sweat (The), Sept. 1482. 
So called because those attacked were 
covered from head to foot with a profuse 
perspiration. It lasted twenty-four hours, 
and sometimes longer, but left an extreme 
languor with palpitations for three years, 
and in some cases till death. Some 600 
persons were attacked daily, and ninety 
out of a hundred died. It reappeared in 
the years 1485 and 1486. See ' Plague,' 
&c. 

From 1506 to 1551 a modification of this disease 
appeared in Great Britain and in France. It was 
attributed to bad drainage, and was especially- 
fatal to tiie fat and non-industrial class. Twelve 
hours decided whether it would prove fatal or not. 

In 1533 it broke out in Germany and the Nether- 
lands, and again appeared in England in 1542 and 
1551, since which time it has not recurred. 

English Twenty Club {The). A 
club restricted to twenty of the best 
shots amongst the English volunteers. 
In 1884 Albert Victor, son of the prince 
of Wales, joined the club. 

English in the Pale. The Eng- 
lish settled in Ireland, holding the estates 
of native chiefs expelled by Strafford. 
These colonists kept themselves apart 
not only from the Irish proper but also 
from the Anglo-Irish. Many of the Pale 
were Catholics. See ' English Pale.' 

Enne'ades (3 syl.). The great work 
of Plotlnus, the neoplatonic philosopher, 
edited by Porph^Try his disciple. It con- 
sists of six sections each divided into nine 
parts; hence the name Enneades or 
Nines. 

Ennius {The English). Layamon, 
who wrote a translation in Saxon of ' The 
Brut ' of Wace (13th cent.). 

Ennius {The Sjmnish). Juan de 
Mena of Cord(5va (1412-1456). 

Ennius of France {The). Jehan 
de Meung (1260-1820), surnamed Clojn- 
nel, because he was lame and hobbled in 
his gait. He added 1,280 verses to the 
' Romance of the Hose,' begun by Lorris. 

Enoch {The Book of). Ptef erred to 
by Jude, supposed to have been written 
about A.D. 40. Three Ethiopic versions 
were brought to Europe by Bruce in 
1773 ; and a translation of it into English 



by Dr. Laurence was published in 1821; 
and much more recently Dr. Kenealy 
published a translation ' illustrated.' 

It is divided into five parts : (1) the fall of the 
angels and the journey of Enoch through the 
earth under the guidance of an angel; (2) tlie re- 
velation made to Enoch, as that of the revelation 
of St. John; (3) astronomy and the phenomena 
of the seasons ; (4) the prophetic vision of the 
Messiah's kingdom till the Last Judgment ; (5) ex- 
hortations and moral reflections. 

Bruce presented one of his MS. copies to the 
Bodleian Library, Oxford. 

Ensign of the British Navy 

{The). The Union Jack. It consists of 
three crosses, the blue field of St. Andrew 
is the field ; then the white saltire of St. 
Andrew and the red saltire of St. Patrick, 
joined together, with a white edging to 
the latter, to express the field ; over all 
is charged the red cross of St. George 
fimbriated with white. 

The white ensig-n of the British or 
Eoyal Navy is the banner of St. George, 
with the 'Jack' cantoned in the first 
quarter. 

The red ensign is that of the merchant 
service. 

The blue ensign is that of the naval 
reserve. 

Ensignmen, 1662. Those evicted 
Irishmen who joined the ensigns of 
Charles II. in Flanders, and after his re- 
turn were entitled to have their estates 
restored to them by the Act of Settle- 
ment. To prevent injustice the then 
holders were ' reprised ' by the grant of 
land elsewhere of the same value. 

The claimants fared but badly. One of them 
was Lord Castleconnell,who had served Charles II. 
for five or six years as a common soldier in the 
Netherlands, in the Puke of York's regiment. 
Another was Colonel Charles MacCarthy I'.eagh, 
onca the owner of a principality. It was found 
impossible to carry out the Restoration Settle- 
ment. 

Enthusiasts {The). A sect of the 
Independents which sprang up during 
the civil war between Charles I. and the 
parliament. The word was applied to 
all those who insisted that the Scriptures 
must be interpreted by the light of pri- 
vate inspiration. 

Under the head of Independents .... were the 
Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers, Perfectlsts, Soci- 
nians, Arians, and otliers.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. 
(Cliarles I., chap. vi. p. 273). 

Eolic Dialect. The Eolians formed 
one of the four great divisions of Greece, 
and dwelt originally north of Thessaly, 
but pushed their way southwards. Their 
dialect was distinguished by an aspira- 



EON 



EPIDEMICS 



207 



tion of initial vowels, called the digamma. 
Alcpcos, Sappho, Corinna, and Pindar 
wrote in the Eolic dialect. One of the 
modes of music was called Eolic ; it was 
less grave than the Doric, and less 
effeminate than the Lydian and Ionian. 

Eon de I'Etoile, 12th cent. A reli- 
gious impostor who gave himself out to be 
the Son of God, and drew around him a 
host of followers. In 1148 he was taken 
before the Council of Reims, and pro- 
nounced to be an idiot, but was thrown 
into prison and died there. He used to 
pervert '■ Eurn qui venturus est' into 
* Eon qui venturus est.' 

Eons. Intermediaries between the 
Supreme Being and the Jewish Jehovah ; 
or, according to the Gnostic theory, be- 
tween God and man. Wisdom is an Eon, 
so is Faith, so is Prudence. Basilides 
says there are 365 such beings, but Valen- 
tin admits only thirty. 

In modern phraseology the -word ' Eon ' (from 
the Greek rtion, for ever) means an interminable 
period. Thus Eternity is said to be ' eon upon 
eon.' 

Ephesian Letters. Magical letters 
from an inscription of the statue of 
Diana in the temple of Ephesus. These 
letters were looked on as an amulet or 
charm. They were ascribed to the 
Dactyli or priests of Cybele. The letters 
were Askion, Kataskion, Tetras, Dam- 
namenetts, Aisia. 

When Milesius contended with Ephesius at the 
Olympic games, Ephesius proved the successful 
competitor, because he had the Ephrnian U'ltt-rs 
attached to his heels. When these were removed 
Milesius was the winner. 

Epliors. Five contemporary Spartan 
magistrates of almost unlimited civil 
power. The two contemporary kings 
were, for the most part, only generals of 
the army. 



Ephtalites (3 syl), or White Huns 
iq.v.). 

Epicureans (The). Ancient Greek 
I)hilosophers, so named from Epicuros of 
Samos, the founder. He taught in hia 
own private grounds in Athens, and his 
disciples, like tlie Academics, were called 
the ' Garden sect.' His system was that 
the chief aim of life should be enjoy- 
ment ; that the liighest degree of enjoy- 
ment is perfect repose ; and that is to be 
obtained only by keeping a sound and 
healthy mind in a sound and healthy 
body. Epicuros lived B.C. 312-270. His 
disciples were Metrodoros, Polytenos, and 
Hermaclios. His successors were Poly- 
stratos, Basilides, Protarchos, and others 
of less note. 

Heraclltos of Ephesus (B.C. 543-483) taught that 
happiness is the end and aim of life. 

Epicure'ans {The Sect of the). One 
of the Grecian sects in the early ages 
of Christianity. They denied that God 
troubles Himself about mundane matters, 
and taught that the world was made by 
the chance conflux of atoms. They dis- 
believed in a resurrection ; held that 
man consists only of a material body, 
and as this life is his end-all and be- 
all, his duty is to make the best of it, 
without taking any thought of a state 
after death. 

Epicu'rus of China (The). Tao 
or Taou, generally called by the title 
Laou-keun. He is mentioned by Kong- 
foo-tse {Confucius), with whom he was 
contemporary (about 5th cent. B.C.). 
See ' Tao ' and ' Taoism.' 

Epidemics. Such diseases as 
attack a large number of persons at the 
same time. The following have been 
noted : — 



Year Popular Name 


Scientific Name 


Affected 


Authority 


1374 

1523 

1642, &C. 

1731 

1800 

Various 

1845 


Dancing mania 

Wolf madness 

Demoniacal possc'^'iion 
Convulsionaries of St. Mudard 

Incendiarism 

Witchcraft 

Suicide 

Visions 

Panic 


Chorea-VMnia 

Lijcanthropia 

Demono-mania 

Theo-mania 

Pyro-mania 

Demono-pathia 

Melnncholia 

Delusions 

Pan-phubia 


Hundreds 

Many 
Thousands 

Maiiy 


Hecker 
Calmiel 

Marc 

Vaiiom 

Esquirol 

Boismont 

'Edin. Keview,'1849. 


Asiatic cholera appeared in Ea.uland in ls:31 and several times since Russian influenza was very 
fatal in London in 1720, and has frequently appeared in England since 1162. 



298 



EPIPHANES 



EEA 



Eplph'anes (4 syl.). Ptolemy V. 
This surname seems to have been given 
in irony. Similarly Ptolemy II., called 
'brother-lover,' murdered all his brothers, 
and Ptolemy IV., called ' father-lover,' 
murdered both father and mother. So 
Ptolemy V., who began to reign at the 
age of 4, was poisoned at the age of 28, 
having distinguished himself in nothing. 
He was simply a commonplace villain. 

Epipliany {The). A season kept in 
remembrance of the visit of the Magi to 
the infant Jesus in Bethlehem. First cele- 
brated in 360. Twelfth day (or 6 Jan.). 
It was not held as a separate festival till 81.3. 

Episcopacy in Scotland. The 

three old women who hurled their stools 
at the head of the dean of Edinburgh, 
22 July, 1637, for attempting to read the 
Anglican service in St. Giles's Church, 
were Euphemia Henderson, Bertha Craig, 
and Elsj)a Craig. The congregation 
shouted, ' A pope ! a pope ! Antichrist ! 
Stone him ! stone him ! ' 

Episcopal Cap {The). A cap 
adorned with cordels and silk threads of 
a green colour. ' Pileus pontificalis cor- 
dulis ac floccis sericis coloris viridis 
ornatus.' See Du Cange, vol. v. p. 300. 
See 'Caps.' 

'Cordula' means little cords or threads, a 
word not to be found in Latin dictionaries. 

Episcopalians. Properly means 
those who accept the institution of 
bishops as rulers of the Church, but in 
modern parlance the term is restricted 
to the Church of England, and those 
churches which are associated with it, as 
Catholics is to the Church of Rome and 
Presbyterians to the Church of Scot- 
land. The words are convenient and only 
perversely distorted to their etymological 
meanings. 

It is puerile to contend against the ordinary 
acceptance of these words. They speak with 
sufficient preciseness for ordinary language, and 
If more is required we must indeed ' speak by the 
card or equivocation will undo us.' 

Episcopi Vagan'tes (8 syl.). 
Free bishops. They had no diocese, 
but received the title for their learning. 
They were almost entirely Irish, and 
assumed the power of ordaining, till a 
Council called in 816 decreed that no 
Scot (Irishman) so ordained should be 
admitted into the ministry. 

Epoch of the Building of Solo- 
mon's Temple {The), May b.c. 1015. 



Era — Epoch. An era is a series of 
years beginning from an epoch. An epoch 
is an important event which constitutes 
the starting point of the series. Thus the 
birth of Christ was the epoch from which 
the Christian era begins to count, either 
backwards or forwards, or both. 

Before the Nativity there was no 
general starting point of historic dates, 
but each nation chose its own epoch; 
generally the foundation of a city, the 
commencement of a dynasty, or some 
famous victory. These eras can easily be 
reduced to B.C. or a.d. if required, accord- 
ing to the notes appended to several of 
the following eras. The Catholic Church 
divides the whole history of man into six 
epochs or ages of unequal length, viz. : — 

1. From Adam to Noah ; 

2. From Noah to Abraham ; 

3. From Abraham to David ; 

4. From David to the Babylonish cap- 
tivity ; 

5. From the captivity of Judah to the 
birth of Christ ; 

6. From the birth of Christ to the end 
of the world. 

But indej)endent of these epochs there 
are numerous other events which have 
been made points de dejjart by different 
people : — 

The Era of the Greek Olympiads B.C. 776 

The Era of the Foundation of Rome ... 753 

The Era of Nabonassar 747 

The Era of Alexander the Great 824 

The Era of the SeleucidEe 312 

The Julian Era 45 

and so on. 'See ' ^ra.' 

Era {The Mundane). Many chrono- 
logists date from the foundation of the 
world, at any rate up to the Nativity ; 
but great diversity of opinion exists on 
the subject. The chief authorities are : 
' The Benedictines,' Calmet, The Greek 
Church, Professor Hales, and Archbishop 
Usher. 

The Benedictines' system is better known as 
'L'Art de Verifier les Dates.' 

I)om Augustin Calmet (l()72-17o7) was a learned 
theologian of Lorraine, author of a ' Dictionary of 
the Bible,' in French. 

The Greek Church based its calculation on the 
Septuagint. 

Hales (Prof. Williaml of Dublin University, 
author of a ' New Analysis of Chronology ' (1809- 
1814). 

Dr. James Usher, archbishop of Armagh, was 
born in Dublin (1580-1656) ; and is the author of 
' Annales Veteris et Novi Testament!,' and a book 
of universal Chronology. 

Number of years between the Creation 

AND THE Nativity. 

According to the modern Greek Calendar .... 7.388 

According to Josephus 7'283 

According to Scaliger ^ m, —, ... 56_J 



ERA 



ERA 



299 



Accordingto the ancient Greek Church ... 5508 

According to Professor Hales 5411 

According to ' L'Art de Verifier Ics Dates ' ... 49G8 

According to Archbishop Usher 4004 

Accordingto Calm et 4000 

According to the Jews S7G0 

See ' Era of Antioch,' ' Era of Constanti- 
nople,' ' Era of Alexandria,' &c. 

Prof. William Hales, the Chronologist, who died 
In 18.'U, must not be confounded with Alexander 
de Hales, who died in 1242, and was called the 
' Irrefragable Doctor.' 

Era of Abraham {The). Those 
who rcmke the patriarch Abraham the 
epoch of their chronology begin their era 
1 Oct., B.C. 2016. 

To reduce the era of Abraham to the Christian 
era, subtract 2,015 years and throe months. The 
remainder will be the year and the month. 

Era of Actium {The), or 'the 
Actiatic Era.' Began 1 Jan. B.C. 30. It 
commemorates the victory of Octavianus 
(Augustus Cissar) over Antony. 

Weourselves often spsak of events as occurring 
before or since the Conquest. 

Era of Alexander {The), or Era of 
the Lagidee, that is of Ptolemy son of 
Lagus, a general of Alexander the Great, 
v/ho reigned in Egypt after the death of 
the Macedonian. The era here referred 
to was that which began with the death 
of Alexander, and was used in Egypt after 
the accession of Ptolemy. It began 
12 Nov., B.C. 324. 

Called in Latin JEra Philippi or ^ra Bicornis. 

Era of Alexandria {The). A com- 
putation of Julius Africanus adopted 
by the Christians of Alexandria, who 
reckoned the interval between Adam and 
Christ to be 5,500 years, or rather 5,502. 
In the re!gn of Diocletian ten years 
were deducted, and 5,787 was called 
5,777 of the world, or 277 of the incar- 
nation. 

Era of American Indepen- 
dence {The), 4 July, 1776. 

Era of Antioch {The). According 
to Panodorus of Antioch, the chronolo- 
gist, who lived in the 5th cent., the world 
was created 1 Sept., B.C. 5492. 

This differs from the Mundane Era of Alexan- 
dria, which was fixed at 5502 ; but In A.D. 285, ten 
years bein?? subtracted from the Alexanflrian cal- 
culation, both the eras were aliiie. tiee ' £ia, Xlie 
Mundane.' 

Era of Augustus {The), or of 'the 
Empire,' adopted by the Romans. It 
began B.C. 27. 

Era of Bengal, or * The Bengalee 
Era.' Measured by solar time, and not 



by lunar, like the Mohammedan year. It 
is supposed, however, to be derived from 
the Hegira, and in the middle of the 
16th cent, the two correspond. 

Era of Bithynia {The). An era 
adopted by the Bithynians, who took for 
their starting point the year when they 
threw off the Macedonian yoke, and be- 
came indej)endent ; that is, B.C. 2b8. 

This means that the year B.C 288 of the Chris- 
tian Era was the year 1 of the Bithynian Era. 

Era of Constantinople {The). 

Adopted in the Eastern Empire in the 
7th cent. Like the" Era of Antioch {q.v.), 
it began from the creation of the world. 
According to this calculation, the interval 
between the Creation and the Nativity 
was 5,508 years, and the birth of Christ 
occurred in the 5,509th year. The Rus- 
sians followed this era till the reign of 
Peter the Great. 

The civil year of Constantinople began 1 Sept.; 
the ecclesiastical year either 21 Blarch or 1 April. 
So in the Church of England the civil year begins 
on New Year s Day, but the ecclesiastical year in 
the preceding Advent, four weeks before Cliristmas 
Day. 

Era of Creation (T/ie). /See 'Era, 

The Mundane.' 

Era of Diocletian {The). Began 
29 Aug. A.D. 284, when Diocletian was 
proclaimed emperor of Rome. This era 
was used by Christians till the introduc- 
tion of the Christian era. See next 
article. 

Era of Jesus Christ {The), or the 
' Christian era,' the ' Year of Grace,' or 
* the Incarnation.' Begins 1 Jan. in 
4714 of the Julian period. This era was 
first used in 527 by Dionisius Exiguus, a 
monk of Scythia, and a Roman abbot, 
but was not generally adopted till long 
after that. In France in the 8th cent., 
in England in July 816, in Spain in the 
11th cent., in Portugal in 1415, in the 
Eastern empire in 1453. It was in use 
in England as far back as a.d. 680. 

Herod the Great died A.U.C. 750, and the era of 
Jesus Christ is a.u.C. 753. There must be an error 
of three years or more, for Herod not only died 
A.U.C. 750, but he spent the last forty days of hia 
life at Jericho. 

Kegnante in perpctuum ac gubernante Domino 
nostro Salvatore seoula universa, anno recapitu- 
lationis Dionisi, id est ab Incarnatione Chrii^ti, 
sexcentessimo octuagessimo [c«0]. . . . Ego Oshere 
Rex. . . . 

Sometimes called ' Annus Trabeationia ' ; and 
sometimes ' The Circumcision.' 

Era of Julius Csesar {The), or 
'the Julian Era.' It was B.C. 46 when 



SCO 



ERA 



ERA 



Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, and 
Julian's system prevailed in England 
till 1752, when it was superseded by the 
Gregorian year. What we call the ' Old 
Style' is that according to the Julian 
system :and what we call the 'New 
Style' is the Old Style corrected. In 
1752 the diiTerence was twelve days. 

Russia still adheres to the ' Old Style.' 

Era of Kings {The). See 'Era of 
the Seleucidse.' 

Era of ITabonassar (The). This 
era began on Wednesday, 26 Feb., B.C. 
747. Nabonasr.ar was the founder of the 
kingdom of Babylon. The Jews at this 
era made their year consist of 365 days 
instead of 360. 

Famous in astronomy, being the era followed by 
Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It was used by the 
Chaldsean astronomers, and was transmitted by 
Callis'thenes to Greece. 

Era of Pisa [The). Much used in 
France in the 12th cent. ; it preceded our 
common era by one year. 

Era of Rome (The). See 'Era of 
the Foundation of Rome.' 

Era of Saliv^hana Saka {The), 
or ' The Saka ' {i.e. the year), began a.d. 
78. Named after Salivahan, a king who 
reigned many years in the Deccan, and 
was a great encourager of the arts and 
sciences. This era is much used in the 
southern provinces of Hindustan. The 
years are called ' Saka.' 

Era of Spain (r/ie). Began 1 Jan., 
B.C. 38, and was in commemoration of 
the conquest of Sjiain by Augustus the 
year preceding. This era was long fol- 
lowed in Spain and Portugal. 

Era of Tyre {The). Began 19 Oct., 
B.C. 125 ; the year when the Tyrians ob- 
tained their autonomy from the Syrian 
kings. This era was used in Syria. 

To reduce the Tyrian Era to the Christian Era, 
subtract 124, and if the given year is less than 125, 
deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the 
year B.C. 

Era of ■yicram^^ditya is reckoned 
from B.C. 56, and prevails chiefly in the 
northern provinces of India, and in Guz- 
erat. It is called after a sovereign of 
Malwa, who defeated Soka king of Delhi, 
and acquired possession of the most im- 
portant throne of India. The years are 
called ' Samvat.' 

According to India,n mythology the world is to 
iBsiioviyuys [agesj.three of which are past already. 



The fourth, called the Knli-yug, is the last and 
worst. 

Era of Yezdegird (T7ie). A Per- 
sian era which began on the accession of 
Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, 
16 June, A.D. 632. Also called ' the Ge- 
lalsean era.' 

To reduce the Persian to the Christian era, add 
to the Persian era G30. 

Era of the Arabians {The). See 
* Era of the Hegira.' 

Era of the Armenians {The). 
This era began Tuesday, 9 July, a.d. 
552, when the Council of the Armenians 
confirmed the condemnation of the Coun- 
cil of Chalcedonia, pronounced in 530, and 
thus completed their * schism.' 

Era of the Ascension {The). 

Tlie era was used only by the author of 
the ' Chronicle of Alexandria,' who dates 
the martyrdom of Menas, ' Anno CCLVII 
Domini in coelos assumptionis.' 

To reduce this era to our A.D. add 38. Thus the 
martyrdom of St. Menas of Cotys is given in tlia 
'Chronicle': 'Anno CCLVII I)omini in coelos 
assumptionis.' Which would bo A.D. 2y5. 

Eraof the Chinese (T7^e). Begins 
B.C. 2697. The Chinese begin their era 
with the accession of the Emperor Yao, 
a semi-historical monarch of the Tenth 
Ki (or race). Yao was the traditional 
author of the Chinese calendar, who first 
divided the year into 365 days, with an 
extra day every fourth year. 

It is said that on one occasion, during the reign 
of Yao, the sun did not set for ten days. Soma 
perSi nr, quote this, but not wisely, in confirmation 
of Joshua X. 12. 

Era of the Foundation of 

nom.e{The). A.U.C. 
According to Vai'ro 21 April, B.C. 753 
According to the Capitoline Marbles 752 
According to Polybius . . . 751 
According to Archbishop Usher , 748 
According to Fabius Pictor . . 747 
According to Newton . . . 627 

Cato, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Solinus, and 
Eusebius follow the date given by the Capitoline 
Ma,rbles. 

The Roman emperors, with Plutarch, Tacitus, 
Dion, Aulus Gellius. Censorinus, Onuphrius, Ba- 
ronius, Prof. Hales, Bibhop Beveridge, Strauchius, 
Dr. Playfair, &c. follow the computation of Varro. 

Era of the French Kepublic 

{The). Began 22 Sept., 1792, the day of 
the foundation of the French Bepublic, 
and terminated 31 Dec, 1805. 

The following talila will show the correspond- 
enco between the foolish French system and the 
ordinary Christian era 



EEA 



ERASTIANISM 



801 



Year 








I. 


From 22 Sept 


, 1702 to 21 Sept 


, 1703 


11. 


11 M 


17 13 „ „ 


I7;i4 


III. 


II i> 


1704 „ „ 


1795 


IV. 




17.1.5 „ 


179G 


V. 


II 


17J6 „ „ 


1797 


VI. 


" 


17 '7 „ „ 


17 8 


VII. 




17!W „ „ 


1799 


VIII. 


11 11 


17)9 „ „ 


18 TO 


IX. 


11 


IS )0 „ „ 


ISOl 


X. 


' 


!>- 1 11 .. 


1892 


XI. 


II 


UJI „ „ 


1803 


XII. 


" 


18 j8 


1804 


XIII. 


" 


18j4 


1805 


XIV, 




18J5 to 31 Dec 


,1805 



EraoftheHeg'ira(rM. Adopted 
by all Mohammedans. It began with the 
' flight ' of Mohammed from Mecca, 16 
July, 622. 

The i of ' Hegira ' is generally pronounced long, 
but it would be more correctly written and pro- 
nounced ' Hedj'rah.' The word does not mean 
jlight hut emiiiration. Some place the Hedjrah on 
Thursday, 15 July. 

Era of the Jews {The). The 
Jews now date from creation, which they 
place B.C. 3760, and they begin their 
year with the new moon next after the 
autumnal equinox. 

Era of tlie Maccabees {The). 

Began B.C. 106, when Judas Maccabseus 
took the command of the insurgent Jews 
who sought to throw off the yoke of An- 
tiochus Epiphanes. His arms were suc- 
cessful, he destroyed every vestige of the 
heathen religion, restored the Mosaic 
law, and established a Jewish dynasty 
called the Asmonasan which lasted to 
B.C. 37, when Herod the Great was made 
king of Judaea by the Romans. This era 
of the Maccabees is called by the Jews 
* the Era of Kings.' 

In 2 Maccabees vii. we read of a mother and her 
seven sons who were martyred by Antiochos Epi- 
phanes, because they refused to eat swine's flesh 
at the king s command. This massacre is said 
to have occurred B.C. 166, and is celebrated in 
the Catholic Church on 1 August. These seven 
brothers were not related to the great Asmonsean 
family, but it is rather remarkable that both the 
events referred to occurred in the same year. 

Era of the Martyrs {The). Began 
23 Feb., 303. It was the tenth and last 
persecution of Diocletian, the Roman 
emperor, to which he was instigated by 
his colleague Galerius. Diocletian died 
A.D. 313. 

The ' Era of Diocletian ' (q.v.) and the ' Era of 
the Blartyrs' are often used as synonymous terms, 
but the former began 29 August, 284, and the latter 
23 Feb., 303. Without doubt Christians used the 
era of Diocletian in consequence of the persecu- 
tions which rendered the reign so memorable. 

Much error prevails on the subject of these per- 
secutions. We are apt to forget that Christians in 
rower instituted the crusades, the wars of the 
Waldenses and of the Albigenses, the Dragon- 
Hades, the Tliirty Years' war, the Bartholomew 



slaughter, the fires of Smithfield, and all the 
horrors of tlie Inquisition. All religious persecu- 
tions arose from a conviction that there is only 
one right religion ; and those in power think that 
religion which is sanctioned by the state is the 
right one. 

Era of the Olympiads {The). 

Began 1 July, B.C. 776. The era of the 
Olympiads is a system of dates adopted 
by the ancient Greeks. An Olympiad 
was the interval of four years between 
two consecutive celebrations of the Olym- 
pic games. Tiiese games were trials of 
strength and agility tested by running, 
boxing, leaping, wrestling, and so on, held 
at Olympia, a plain of Elis, every fourth 
year. They were first employed for 
ciironological purposes, when Choroebos 
won the foot-race, the principal match 
before chariot-races were introduced. 

By this system of dates, events were said to 
have occurred on the 1st, 2nd, &c. year of tlie so- 
and-so Olympiad, mentioning the nunaber of cele- 
brations since the establishment of the era in 
B.C. 770. 

Era of the Persians. See * Era 

of Yezdegird.' 

Era of the Seleu'cidse {The). 

Began 1 Oct., B.C. 312, when Seleucus 
Nicator, king of Syria, took possession 
of Babylon. The dynasty lasted 247 
years, to B.C. 64. 

Seleucus Nicator, one of the best generals of 
Alexander the Great, was a native of Macedon,and 
therefore the era which he founded is sometimes 
called the ' Macedonian Era.' 

It was called by the Jews the Era of Contracts, 
certainly a very apt appellation. 

Erasmus's Paraphrase. This 
was a paraphrase of the Scriptures, in 
1547, placed with the Bible in parish 
churches. 

Erastianism.. The religious tenets 
of Thomas Erastus, a physician of 
Baden (1521-1583), who asserted that 
the church is a civil institution, sub- 
ordinate to and dependent on the civil 
power. Thus it is said that the Church 
of England is Erastian or a parlia- 
mentary church, and that its articles 
and discipline depend on acts of parlia- 
ment. Erastus taught that the Christian 
ministry is not a divine institution, that 
Christ and his apostles prescribed no 
particular form of church government, 
and that the punishment of all offences 
belongs to the magistrate. Of course 
he denied the dogmas of apostolical 
succession, the power of the keys, and 
ordination. He taught that anyone 
might preach who liked, and that the 



302 



EREMITES 



ESPOUSAL 



success of preaching depended solely on 
moral suasion. 

The Scotch Covenp.ntcrs called submission to 
the civil powers ' Erastiini=ni.' The book of 
Erastus is entitled ' De Excommunicatioiie eccle- 
Biastica.' 

Eremites of St. Paul {The), or 
' Freres de la Mort,' IStli cent. A reli- 
gious order under the patronage of St. 
Paul the Anchorite. Tneir special duty 
was to attend to the sick and preside at 
funerals. They wore on their scapulary 
a death's head and cross-bones. 

Erenachs. Laymen who held in 
Ireland church lands. If dignitaries 
they were called Comorbans. They ap- 
propriated the revenues, like lay abbots, 
leaving to the clergy only the tithes and 
fees. (From the 9th to the 17th cent.) 

Erfurt {Treaty of), 27 Sept., 1803. 
Between Napoleon I. and Alexander of 
Eussia. Nai)oleon agreed to recognise as 
parts of the Russian empire Finland 
(taken from Sweden), and Moldavia and 
Walachia (taken from Turkey); and 
Alexander promised to support Joseph 
Bonaparte as king of Spain. 

Eric. Blood-fine which the kindred 
of a layman convicted of homicide were 
compelled to pay to the family of the 
slain (Ireland). 

Eric's La-W. The ancient laws of 
Sweden collected into a single volume 
by orders of Eric IX., who reigned 1150- 
1162. 

Eri'gena means 'the Irishman.' 
Joannes Scotus, the Schoolman, is so 
called. Scot and Irish were at one time 
synonymous terms; so that John Eri- 
gena and John Scotus mean the same 
thing. (Died 875.) 

He must not be confounded with Duns Scotus, 
the Schoolman (121)5 1X8). 

Erlau {He has won the fame of). 
An Hungarian proverb. In 1552 Erlau 
was besieged by the Turkish army of 
Solyman the Magnificent. Women 
joined the men in its defence, and so 
obstinately resisted that the Turks raised 
the siege, and Erlau was saved. This 
was one of the noblest defences in his- 
tory. (Erlau, -lau to rhyme with now.) 

Ernest of Hanover. Called the 
Confessor on account of his having intro- 
duced into his dominions the ' Augsburg 
Confession ' {(l-v.). 



Erse. The native Irish language. 
Celtic is divided into Cymric and Gaelic. 

Cymric is Welsh, old Cornish, and 
Armorican or Breton. 

Gaelic is Highland Scotch, Erse, and 
Manx. See ' English Language,' &c. 

Escalier des Malheureux (!»'). 
A back or private staircase in the palace 
by which the boon companions of Pliara- 
mond entered into his sanctum sanctorum. 
"When Pharamond wanted a little relaxa- 
tion he made a well-known sign, and 
entering this apartment, ' on admettait 
C3UX a qui les ministres avaient refuse 
leur audience, ou que la garde avait re- 
butes; et cet escalier, par lequel le 
monarque et eux passaient egalement, 
s'appelait " I'escalier des Malheureux " ' 
{Bictionnaire Historiqiie, &c.,-pa,iL G. S. 
desR . . . .). 

Escu'rial {The). A famous monas- 
tery in New Castile called 'the eighth 
wonder of the world.' It is a pile of 
granite of great magnificence. 

The tale is that Felipe II. of Spain in the battle 
of St. Quentin vowed to St. L(jrcnzo (on whose 
day, 15 Aug., 15.57, the battle was fought) that if he 
would grant him the victory he would build a 
monastery to his honour. As St. Lorenzo was 
burnt to death on a gridiron the monastery was 
bull!, hi the form of a gridiron, long courts repre- 
senting the bars of the gridiron. It was begun in 
1563, and finished in 1584, and was intended for 
palace, mausoleum, and monastery. It has 14,000 
doors, and 11,000 windows. 

Es'karites (3 syl.). Mohammedan 
Platonists, who place the summum ho- 
num in the ' Contemplation of the Great 
Omnipotent.' They are moral and of 
most placid temper. 

Eskimo. Is derived from Ashkimai, 
and means ' eaters of raw flesh.' A term 
applied to them in contempt by the 
Indians of Algonkin stock. 

Espousal of the Adriatic {The). 
An annual ceremony on the feast of 
Ascension in Venice from 1177 to the 
end of the republic, when the doge went 
in his state barge, the ' Bucentaur,' to 
the shore of Lido, near the mouth of the 
harbour, and dropped a gold ring into 
the sea, saying, ' We wed thee with this 
ring in token of our true and perpetual 
sovereignty.' The origin of this custom 
is as follows : When Pope Alexander III. 
Avas driven out of Rome by Frederick 
Barbarossa, hetook refuge in Venice, and 
was honourably entertained in the doge's 
palace. Ziani, the doge, sent an embassy 



ESSAYS 



ET-CETERA 



SOS 



to the kaiser demanding the restitution 
of the pope, but Barbarossa repHed, 
' Unless the Venetians will deliver the 
fugitive into niy hands a captive in chains 
I will utterly extirpate the republic' 
War was the inevitable consequence. 
The Venetians proved the victors, and 
the kaiser's son Otto fell into their hands. 
Pope Alexander went forth to meet the 
victorious fleet, and, giving the doge a 
gold ring, said to him, ' With this ring 
take, on my authority, the lordship of 
the sea,' and the anniversary was kept 
ever after. 

Essays and Reviews, 1860. By 
several Oxford_scholars on ecclesiastical 
subjects. Condemned by the Conference 
of Clergy at Sion House, 25 Jan., 1861. 
Tiie judgment of the Court of Arches 
against Williams and Wilson was re- 
versed by the Judicial Committee of the 
Privy Council, 18 Feb., 1864. Synodical 
judgment on the book passed 24 June, 
1864. 

Essenes (2 syl.). A very ancient 
Jewish sect who maintained that the 
essence of religion is silence and contem- 
plation. Many passed their life in celi- 
bacy; they looked on the Mosaic law as 
an allegorical system of mysterious 
truths, and renounced the outward letter. 
' The letter killeth, it is the spirit [or 
spiritual meaning] which giveth life.' 

Essex Junto [The), 1812. A certain 
party of the federalists of theUnited States 
imbued with Anglomania, and favourable 
to monarchy and separation. All the 
federalists were opposed to war with 
England, and favourable to a war with 
the French republic. The American 
government stigmatised the platform of 
the junto as treason, and as tending to a 
dissolution of the union. 

ki the head of this minority (said Jefferson) is 
what is called the Essex Junto of Massachusetts, 
but the majority of these leaders do not aim at 
Beparation. In this they adhere to the known 
principle of General Hamilton— never, under any 
views, break the union. Anglomania, monarchy, 
and separation, then, are the principles of the 
Essex federalists ; Anglomania and monarchy 
those of the Hamiltonians : Anglomania alone 
that of the people who call themselves federalists 
(vol. iv. p. 188). 

Est-il Possible? Nickname of 
Prince G-eorge of Denmark, given him by 
his father-in-law, James II. He was the 
consort of Queen Anne, and his everlast- 
ing exclamation was ' Est-il possible ? ' 



Estates of the Realm. Not king, 
lords, and commons, but lords spiritual, 
lords temporal, and the commons. Hence 
we read of the ' king and the three 
estates of the realm.' 

Esther. The Persian word is Ar- 
tishona. Her real Hebrew name was 
Hadassah. 

Estrith'sonides (4 syl.). The 
second dynasty of Denmark (1047-137.'5). 
So-called from the founder, Svend, son 
of Estritha, sister of Canute the Great 
of England. 

Estrapa'do [The). A punishment 
in which the victim was raised by his 
hands tied behind hun, and then let fall 
once, twice, or more, with a concussion. 
The French called the suspension of a 
victim on a movable gibbet which (rising 
and falling alternately) plunged him into 
a fire and pulled him out, tlie ' punish- 
ment of the estrapade.' This was also 
sometimes repeated twice, thrice, or more 
times. 

Etablissements de St. Louis 

{Les), about 1255. A recueil of laws and 
ordinances under the direction of Louis 
IX., especially aimed at the venality of 
justice, the harsh treatment of creditors, 
and the extravagant . rate of interest. 
The code is still extant, and shows both 
wisdom and a love of justice. Published 
in Paris 1786. 

Etats G-6n6raux {Les). A French 
deliberative assembly, consisting of all 
the three states, viz. the noblesse, the 
clergy, and the commons. The first was 
convoked by Philippe IV., in 1302, and 
the last by Louis XVI. in 1789, when the 
total number of deputies was 1,145. That 
is, 572 commons, 572 noblesse and clergy, 
and a chairman. 

Louis le Gros (1108-11.S7) admitted the commons 
into the Legislative Assembly, and called the name 
T^'Asst'inhlee des Tmis EtuU. The commons were not 
again called till 1302. 

Pronounce A-tah' jen-a-ro'. 

Et-cetera Oath [The], 1641. An 
oath imposed by Ciiarles I. upon the 
clergy, who were required to swear that 
they ' would not consent to alter the 
governmynt of the church by arch- 
bishops, bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c.,' 
and to give a fixed declaration of opinion 
respecting church dogmas, government, 
rites, and ceremonies. 



S04 



ETERNAL 



EULOGIA 



Eternal City {The). Ancient Rome. 

Ethelred the Unready. That is, 
the Unwise (*, 978-1016). His great 
unwisdom was shown in the massacre of 
the Danes on St. Bryce's Day, 13 Nov., 
1002, in warding off the Danes by bribes 
rather than by war, and in his most un- 
fortunate clioice of ministers to execute 
his commands. 

He bribed the Danes time after time. In 9D1 he 
paid them lO.OOCL to retire, in 997 he paid them 
](1,000;. to leave the country. In 998 he increased 
his bribe to 20,000L, in 909 to 24,000/., then 3l5,OOOL 
In 1002 he tried secret massacre, and in 1003 ha 
bribed Sweyn, who had come over to avenge the 
blood of his countrymen, -with 14,000/. in money 
and sixteen counties. 

Ethelwolf S Charter. An erro- 
neous term for ' Ethelwolf's Grant.' This 
king of Wessex gave a tenth part of his 
private estate to ecclesiastical purposes ; 
and, in return, the churches gifted were 
to perform weekly certain ' religious ' 
services. He ordained that one poor 
man on every ten hides of his own land 
should be maintained in food and 
clothing. He released from all payment 
(except the trinoda necessitas, q.v.) a 
tenth part of the folkland. 

Selden, Hume, and others quote this as the legal 
origin of tithes ; but tithes were established in 
the 6th cent., if not before. Ethelwolf reigned in 
Wessex 836-858, and hoped to avert invaders and 
bring peace on his kingdom by giving largely to 
the church. 

Ethiopic Version {The) of the 
Bible, supposed to be of the 4th cent. 
This version is printed in Walton's Poly- 
glot, but with many inaccuracies. See 
' Scriptures.' 

Eton School, or College, 12 Sept.,^ 
1440. Founded by Henry VI. as the* 
' College of the Blessed Marie of Eton, 
by Wyndesore.' The ' Montem ' was 
abolished in 1847. 

The Montem was a kind of ' black mail ' exacted 
by the boys triennially on Whit Tuesday from all 
■who passed the mound (or montem) called Sa,lt 
Hill, and the ' gratuities,' called unit, sometimes 
amounted to 1,000/. 

The last ' Montem ' exaction was made in 1844. 

Ettrick Shepherd {The). James 
Hogg, born at Ettrick, a shepherd and 
poet. Died 1835. 

Eubages {The). The 2nd order of 
Druids — they may be called the working 
clergy. The Druids were the high priestly 
party, a princely order. The inferior 
order were called Bards. Hence the 
three classes were Druids, Eubages 
(3 syl.), and Bards. 



Eudoxian Heresy {The). Pro- 
mulgated by Eudoxius, patriarch of An- 
tioch, in the 4th cent. — That the Son had 
an independent mind, and, therefore, 
might differ from the Father; so that 
Father and Son might be at variance. 

Eu-er'getes (4 syl.). The well-doer, 
or benefactor. Ptolemy III., king of 
Egypt, was so called after ravaging 
Syria and Persia, when he brought back 
2,500 statues of Egyptian gods carried 
away by Cambyses (b.c. 246-221). 

Eugene Aram. A market gar- 
dener's son, of Newby, in Yorkshire, who 
set up a school at Knaresborough. In 1745 
one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, was 
missing, and thirteen years afterwards 
Richard Houseman dropped a remark 
about a skeleton in St. Robert's Cave, 
which caused him to be apprehended. 
Houseman on his trial accused Aram, 
who was apprehended and executed in 
1759. 

Euge'nians. The people of South 
Munster, i.e. Waterford, Cork, and Kerrj'', 
so called from Prince Eogan. Those of 
North Munster were called Dalcassians. 

Eu'gubine Tables {The). Seven 
bronze tables with inscriptions, dis- 
covered at Gubbio (Eugubium), where 
they are still preserved. The literal 
characters on four of the tables are 
Umbrian, on two of them Latin, and on 
the remaining one partly Umbrian and 
partly Latin. The inscriptions are sup- 
posed to date between three and four 
hundred je&xs before Christ. [Eugubine 
3 syl.] 

The subjects are directions respecting sacriflco 
and forms of prayer. 

Euhe'merism, 4th cent. The teacli- 
ing of Euhemerus or Evemerus, who 
taught that the heathen gods — Mars, 
Bacchus, Apollo, and so on — were either 
kings or noted worthies in the fabulous 
island of Panchsea, which he placed in 
the Southern Ocean. Some explain 
miracles by euhemerism. 

Eulo'gia. Is bread, blessed by the 
priest at the time of mass, for the benefit 
of those unable to attend, or for com- 
municants who were allowed to take it 
home with them. The custom gave rise 
to the panis beat us (pain benit), or Holy 
Bread {q.v.). 

Food blessed by the priest is sometimes callctl 
Eulogia. 



EUNOMIANS 



EVANGELICAL 



305 



Eunom'lans, 4tli cent. Disciples 
of Eunomius, bishop of Cyzicura, who 
maintained that G-od the Father could 
'not be of the same nature as Jesus 
Christ, because no creature can be equal 
to the Creator. He also denied the 
proper humanity of Christ, disbelieved 
the dogma of the Trinity, and believed 
that the Virgin Mary had other children 
besides Jesus her ' first-born.' 

European Wars. The two greatest 
of modern histox'y are the Seven Years' 
War and the War of Europe against Napo- 
leon I. Li the Seven Years' War {q.v.) 
England, Sweden, and Prussia opposed 
Russia, Austria, Saxony, and France. In 
the Napoleonic war England, Russia, 
Prussia, Austria, Spain, Portugal, (fee, 
combined to dethrone the ' disturber of 
nations.' 

Euse'bians. Another name for 
Arians, so called from Eusebius, bishop 
of Nicomedea, who supported Arius, con- 
demned by the Council of Nice a.d. 325. 
This was not Eusebius the historian. 

Eutych'eans, or ' Monoph'ysites,' 
A.D. 418. Followers of Eutyches the 
archimandrite, who maintained that 
Christ was not man, but God only ; and 
that his humanity was absorbed in his 
divine nature, ' as a drop of rain by the 
eea.' His heresy was condemned by the 
Council of Chalcedon in 451. 

Eusine Sea {The). The hospitable 
sea. Originally called 'the Axine,' or 
inhospitable sea. Similarly, the Cape of 
Good Hope was first called ' the Cape of 
Despair ' ; Beneventum was originally 
called ' Maleventum ' ; and Dyrrachium 
was called ' Epidamnus,' till the Romans 
thought -damnus too much like datn- 
num to be lucky. 

Evangelic League {The), 1G13. 
A confederacy of the Lutherans and 
Calvinists of Bohemia against the Kaiser 
Mathias. It was counterbalanced by 
another confederacy, called ' the-Catholie 
League,' and the contests of the two 
leagues kept Germany in a most dis- 
turbed state through the entire reign. 
Mathias died in 1(519, and was succeeded 
by his cousin Ferdinand II., when the 
Thirty Years' War between Catholics and 
Protestants deluged Germany in blood. 
See nexc aa'liole. 



Evangelical Alliance {The). 

I. 1608. An alliance of the Protestant 
states of Germany in self-defence. It 
was opposed by the Holy Alhance, formed 
in 1609. 

The chief Protestant states of the alliance were 
the Electoral Palatinate, Wiirtcmberg, Hessen- 
Cassel, and the margraviate of Baden-Darlach. 

II. 1845. The alliance of all Christians 
without regard to denominational dis- 
tinctions ; for the advancement of ' evan- 
gelical ' religion ; the counteraction of 
infidelity, romanism, and mere ritual- 
ism ; and for the strict observance of the 
Christian sabbath. See ' Nine Articles.' 

Evangelical Community {The). 
The Moravian Association so called 
themselves. It was a kind of social 
reijublic. The chief ecclesiastics, called 
' the Ancients ' (elders), regulated all the 
acts, both civil and religious ; presided 
over the education of the children, en- 
joined penances, pronounced excom- 
munications, and determined the rank of 
each member of the coixununity. 

Evangelical Doctor (T7i6'). John 

Wyclif (1324-1384). Called a heresiarch 
by Catholics, but ' the morning star of the 
Reformation' by Protestants. Bouillet 
numbers among his sins : ' Wiclef exas- 
pere attaqua des lors la puissance papale 
au spirituel et au temporel, et traita le 
pape A'Antechrist. II niait la trans- 
substantiation ; la necessite de la con- 
fession pour qui a la contrition ; la damna- 
tion des enfants morts sans bapteme [! !] ; 
I'effieacite des indulgences ; la primaute 
du siege de Rome ; la hie'rarchie ; le droit 
des clercs et des moines aux biens tem- 
porels,' &c. (' Dictionnaire Universel,' 
p. 2010, col. 2.) 

*,* No doubt Wyclif was morally aided in his 
work by th3'Gre:\t Schism of the West' (q.v.), 
when the pope of Rome and pope of Avignon never 
tired of cursing and excommunicating each other. 

Evangelical Prophet {The). 
Isaiah is so called from his clear and 
constant allusions to the Messiah. Isaiah 
was cut to pieces by a wooden saw, 
B.C. 698, aged 60. 

Evangelical School {The). Of 
Germany under tlie leadership of Schleier- 
macher, whose 'Discourses on Religion,' 
1804-1828, made a new era in German 
tlieology ; but his greatest work ia 
' Christian Faith ' (1768-1834). 



306 



EVANGELICAL 



EXAECH 



Evangelical Symbols. The sym- 
bols of the four Evangehsts, taken from 
Ezekiel's cherubim {see ' Cherubim ') are — 
a man, a Hon, an ox, and an eagle, men- 
tioned in Rev. iv. 6-7 as supporting the 
throne of God. Jerome was the first to 
give the present appropriation of the 
man to Matthew, the lion to Mark, the 
ox to Luke, and the eagle to John. 
Matthew begins with the human descent 
of Christ from David, and Luke has the 
ox because his gospel begins with the 
account of Zacharias serving in the 
temple. The eagle refers to the doctrine 
of tlie logos, and the lion to the beasts 
in the desert where Jesus was tempted 
with which Mark begins his gospel. The 
union of the four symbols in one creature 
is called a tet'ramorph. 

Often the four Evangelists bear four 
bannerols on wdiich are respectively in- 
scribed the initial sentence of each 
gospel. Perhaps the oldest symbol is a 
mountain from which issues four streams, 
and a lamb standing at the top. 

In frescoes, windows, &c. 

Maiihnci is represented -with a pen, writing at 
the dictation of an angel. 

Marl: is represented writing, and with a winged 
lion at his feet. 

Luke has a pen, but is not writing. He is study- 
ing a scroll. 

John is represented as a youth rapt in thou.s;ht, 
and an eagle about to take flight to heaven 
stands by him. 

Evangelical Union [The), 1608. 
An alliance of the Protestant states of 
Germany formed at Auhausen in Bavaria ; 
it was opposed in 1G09 by the Holy 
Union, formed at Wiirzburg. 

Evangelical Unionists {The), 
1810. A religious sect founded in Scot- 
land by James Morison, who taught that 
the greatest sin is want of belief in 
the universal atonement of Christ — i.e. 
that Christ, by his death, saved all men, 
past, present, and yet unborn. 

There are also the Evangelical Free Church, 
the Evangelical Mission, the Free Evangelical 
Christians, the Working-man's Evangelical llis- 
sion, and, in the middle of the 19th cent., the ' Low 
Church party ' of the Anglican Church -w ere 
called 'Evangelical' (Churchmen), and the Ger- 
man Protestant Church is called otflcially the 
' Evangelical Church.' 

Evangelics and Papalins. So 

Strype designates the Protestants and 
Papists at the accession of Queen Eliza- 
beth. By ' Papalins ' he means, not 
Roman Catholics, but the half-and-half 
Papists, the compromisera of a papistic 
bias. 



Evans Prize for Theology. Value 
about 9Z. Founded in the University of 
Cambridge by the friends of the Vener- 
able Robert Wilson Evans, D.D., arch- 
deacon of Westmoreland 1869. {See 
' Regius Professor of Divinity.') 

Evem'erism. See ' Euhemerism.' 

Ev'erest (3 syl.), probably the highest 
mountain in the world, is named after 
Sir George Everest, surveyor-general of 
Lidia. The mountain, which is in the 
Nepaul range of the Himalayas, is 29,002 
feet above the level of the sea (nearly 
5^ miles). 

Evergreen Pam. Lord Palmer- 
ston, or Henry John Temple, third 
Viscount Palmerston, 1784-1863. He 
was born 20 Oct., died 18 Oct., was buried 
in Westminster Abbey 27 Oct., entered 
Parliament 1807. Was M.P. 56 years, 
and died at the age of 79. 

Everlasting Aris'teas {The). 
A mythical character of ancient Greece, 
like the Wandering Jew of more modern 
times. He taught Homer (about B.C. 
900), and reappeared in sundry places 
400 years afterwards. 

Exalta'dos {The) of Spain, 1819, &c. 
The extreme radical party in the reign 
of Ferdinand VII. ; tliey were especially 
irate because the Inquisition was restored. 
The Exaltados were composed of dis- 
banded soldiers, with a sprinkling of 
Spanish dons. The high tory party were 
called ' Absolutists ' {q-v.). 

The Exaltados were called ' Constitutionalists ' 
because they wanted to restore the constitution 
given to Spain in 1812, abolished by Ferdinand VII. 
in 1814. 

Exaltation of the Cross {The). 
* Exaltatio Crucis.' A festival held 14 
Sept. Instituted in 642 in memory of 
' la vraie croix que Chosroes, roi des 
Perses, avait e'levee 14 ans auparavant.' 

Ex Apostolatus Officio. A bull 
by Paul IV., wherein ' by his apostolic 
authority' he ratifies 'all and singular 
sentences, censures, and penalties of ex- 
communication, suspension, interdict, 
deprival, at any time decreed or promul- 
gated by pope, council, decree of the 
fathers, canons, apostolic constitution, 
or ordinance, against heretics and schis- 
matics.' 

Exarch. I. A viceroy of the By- 
zantine emcire in the West. He had the 



EXCHEQUER 



EXEMPT 



807 



government of a province, as the exarch 
of Rome, the exarch of Africa, the exarch 
of Italy, and the exarch of Ravenna. 

II. The Ecelesiastical exarchs were 
delegates of the patriarch of Constanti- 
nople or of some sjiiod, charged to visit 
a diocese and see to the moral conduct 
of the clergy. At the present day an 
exarch of the Greek Church is tanta- 
mount to a legate of the Western 
Church. 

Manj' bishops and archbishops of the Greek 
Church are called exarchs 

Exchequer {The). Low Latin scac- 
carium, Norman French eschequier. The 
word is generally ascribed to a ' che- 
quered table, much like a chessboard, at 
which the barons sat,' and in defence of 
this etymology it is said that the use of 
this ' chequered table ' was to assist the 
board in its calculations. This is Cam- 
den's suggestion. Chevellet connects the 
word with the German Schatz (a treasure), 
and the Court of the Exchequer would 
then mean the court of the royal reve- 
nues ; but Scheler says of this suggestion : 
' C'est incontestablement une erreur.' 
The court was established by William the 
Conqueror in the Aula Regis, and its chief 
work lay in the assessment and collection 
of the revenue. 

Exeb.equer (Court of). See under 
' Court.' 

Exchequer Bills, 1096. Bills for 
money, or promissory bills issued from the 
exchequer by authority of parliament. 
They vary from lOOZ. to 1,000/., and bear 
interest at l^cl. per cent, per diem. They 
form the chief part of the unfunded debt 
of the nation. Government from time to 
times gives the holders of these bills the 
option of having the bills paid off at par 
or of receiving new bills. Charged on 
the Consolidated Funds from 18 April, 
18G1. 

Excise — Customs. Excise is a 
duty imposed on home goods, made, 
manufactured, or grown. This sort of 
tax was first imposed on beer 1648. It 
was introduced by Pym, the republican 
(German accise, ' tribute '). Customs, an 
impost on things of foreign growth or 
manufacture. 

Exclusion [The Bill of), 11 Nov., 
1680. To exclude James duke of York 
from the throne after the death of his 



brother Charles II. The bill passed 
through the Commons, but was thrown 
out by the Lords. 

James duke of York did succeed to the throne, 
but being a Papist Wi'.'iam and Blary were invited 
over by the Protestant parly. James fled, and it 
°was declared that he had abdicated. 

Exclusionists, 1680. Adherents of 
the Exclusion Bill [q.v.). They were the 
Whig party. 

Excommunication — Interdic- 
tion. Excommunication is exclusion 
from Christian fellowship. Interdiction 
is a prohibition to perform a religious 
rite, service, or ceremony. In mediaeval 
times the excommunication of a king 
absolved his subjects from allegiance. 

Execra'bilis [The Bulls), 1460. In 
which Pius II. forbids appeals to a 
future council. 

1530, in which Clement VII. condemns 
the divorce of Henry VIII. 

1606, by which Paul IV. forbids the 
Catholics of England to take the oath of 
allegiance. 

10 June, 1809, launched by Pius VII. 
against Nax^oleon I. This was avenged 
by the captivity of the pope. 

Executive Council of the State 

{The), 1048. The Council of Forty, with 
John Milton the poet for secretary. 
Appointed to govern the nation after the 
execution of Charles I. There was to be 
a parliament convened for six months 
every two years, and for the other 
eighteen months the council was without 
control. 

Executive of the University 
of Cambridge {The). The Chancellor, 
the High Steward, the Vice-Chancellor, a 
Commissary, the Sex Viri, the Public 
Orator, the Librarian, the Registrary 
with his assistant, the two Proctors, the 
two Pro-proctors with their two assist- 
ants, the two Esquire Bedells, the Uni- 
versity Marshal, the two Members of 
Parliament for the University, the 
Counsel, the Solicitor, and tiie Syndics. 
See each. 

Exempt Lords. In the Common- 
wealth meant lords suspended or de- 
barred from exercising the functions of 
their office. 

'14 May, 1660. The Lords passed a 
vote for calling on all those lords who 



503 



EXETEK 



EXPOSITOR 



had formerly been exempted for siding 
with the king.' 

Exeter College, Oxford, 1314. 
Founded by Walter de Stapledon, bishop 
of Exeter. The Head-master is called 
the Rector. See ' Pusey and Ellerton 
Scholarships.' 

Exeter Hall is quite another place. It is a 
large proprietary building on the north side of 
the Strand, London, completed in 1831, and used 
for concerts and public meetings. The Handel 
festivals and the 'May Meetings' (.q.v.) have 
rendered the place famous. It is 131 feet long, 
76 feet wide, and 45 feet high. 

Exhibition, London. I. The 
WorlcVs Fair, opened 1 May, 1851, 
and closed 15 Oct., 1851. The building 
was a monster glass palace, and the 
exhibition consisted of manufactured 
articles, works of art, jewellery, and 
curiosities. 

II. The International Exhibition was 
opened 1 May, 18(32, and closed 1 Nov., 
1862, 

Similar exhibitions have been since opened in 
numerous places. The first in Paris, called 'the 
Universal Exhibition,' was opened 1 April, 18(57, 
and closed 1 July, 18G7. The Paris Exhibition of 
1889 surpassed all the others for splendour of de- 
sign and variety of exhibits. The Eilfel Tower 
was a prominent feature. 

Exhibitioner. In Oxford Uni- 
versity one who holds an exhibition ; a 
kind of scholarship in Corpus Christi; 
and in Worcester College. Exhibitioners 
are now called scholars. 

Exon. A title applied to certain 
officers of the Yeomen of the Guard. 
Latin exon-erarius, i.e. one relieved from 
work or active service, but still remaining 
in a position of dignity and ease. Exons 
are also called exempts. 

Exon Domesday. The statistical 
survey of the Conqueror's commission 
for the monastery of Exeter, containing 
the counties of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, 
Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Corn- 
wall. This survey contains, what is 
omitted in the great Domesday Book, 
the tally of live stock, as well as the 
names of landowners, the amount of land 
held by each, the number of vassals, 
villeins, cottars, and serfs, the amount 
of i)asture land and arable land, the 
number of mills and fishponds, &c. 

Exorcist. This officer of the Greek 
and Latin churches had nothing to do 
with the act of exorcising, but only to dis- 
criminate between the really possessed 



and those who jDretended or were supposed 
to be so. In the fourth Council of Carthage 
it was prescribed that the bishop, when 
he ordained an exorcist, should place a 
book in the hand of the aspirant, and 
say to him, ' Take this book, study it, 
and receive power to lay hands on the 
possessed, whether they be baptized or 
only catechumens.' The exorcism itself 
was delegated to certain priests by the 
bishop of the diocese. 

Ex-oukontians. Arians were so 
called by their opponents, because by 
their tenets Christ was created out of 
nothing (ex-onk-onta), in which respect 
alone He differed from man. 

Expectation Sunday. The Sun- 
day before Whit Sunday. Acts i. 4, Christ 
commanded the disciples 'that they 
should not depart from Jerusalem, but 
ivait for the promise of the Father.' 
They waited till the day of Pentecost 
and the promise was fulfilled. See ' Sun- 
days.' 

Expectation "Week. The week 

preceding Easter, commemorative of the 
waiting or expectation of the apostles for 
the outpouring of the Spirit, which came 
at Pentecost. 

Expectative Canons. Canons 
without revenue or prebend, but possess- 
ing the title of canon, with a voice in the 
chapter, and a place in the choir till a 
prebend became vacant. 

Expectatives (4 syl.), or 'Man- 
dates.' Letters of request from the poi)e 
praying that benefices be conferred on 
certain individuals nominated in the 

letters. 

Experimental Physics {Pro. 
fessorskip of). In the University of 
Cambridge, 1871, founded by the Uni- 
versity. Stipend 850Z. a year. 

Explanation {Act of), 1649. A bill 
brought into parliament by the Duke of 
Ormond, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to 
confirm the Protestants in the estates 
confiscated from Irish Catholics, after 
■what is called the ' Irish Eebellion.' This 
act was quaintly called the ' Magna 
Charta of the Protestants of Ireland.' 

Expositor {The). Averroes, the 
Moorish expositor of Aristotle ; born at 
Cordova, in Spain, 1120 ; died between 
1196 and 1206. 



EXSURGE 



FACT 



809 



Exsurge, Domine [The Bulls). I. 
1377. By Gregory XI. against Wyclif. 

II. 1520 by Leo X. against Luther. This 
bull was publicly burnt 10 Dec, 1520, at 
Wittenberg by Luther, 

Pronounce Ex-sur'-ge Bom'-i-ne. 

Extension Teaching, 1887. Ex- 
tending the voluntary popular education 
to a regular course of uistruction cover- 
ing between two and three years. The 
instruction to contain two groups — (1), 
natural, physical, and mathematical 
science; and (2) history, political eco- 
nomy, mental science, literature, and art. 
It requires the students to attend a 
consecutive series of lectures for six 
terms in a group of subjects, and an 
examination proof of efiiciency either 
in Latin or some modern language, the 
first three books of Euclid, and algebra 
as far as quadratic equations. 

Extradition Treaty. For the 
mutual surrender of criminals (not poli- 
tical) who have taken refuge in another 
kingdom. Concluded between England 
and France 13 Feb., 1843, and the same 
year between England and the United 
States of America. 

Since 1813 similar treaties have been made with 
other nations, so that now we have extradition 
treaties with Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, 
[France], Hayti, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, 
Prussia, Salvador, Spain, Sweden and Norway, 
Switzerland, Tonga [the United States], &c. 

Extravagants or ' Extravagantes 
Constitutiones,' in canon law are decre- 
tals or constitutions published after the 
Clementines {q-v.), not at first included in 
the Corpus Juris Canonici, but forming a 
supplementary volume. They consist of 
the Extravagants or papal constitutions 
of John XXII. and a few of his suc- 
cessors. They were added to the Corpus 
Juris Canonici by John Lancelot in the 
time of Paul IV. (1555-1559). 

The whole Corpus Juris Canonici consists of (1) 
the Decretals of Kaymond of Penaforte (12.»i. in 
5 books ; (2) the Sixt, or continuation of the 
Decretals, also in 5 books; and (3) the Extra va- 
gantes Communes, consisting of the Clementines, 
in 5 books, and Extravagantes Joannis in 1 book. 
Subsequently 5 books of Communes were added, 
being the rescripts of later popes. 

Ezra. Same as Esdras, Zoroaster, 
or Zerdusht. The last is the Persian 
translation of Ezra, which means ' help.' 
He died B.C. 440, aged 99. 

F. The three F's. Mr. Butt's Irish 
platform (1876) : F[ixity of tenure], F[ree 
sale], F[air rent]. The principle of com- 



pensation for unexhausted improvements 
was introduced in Ireland in the Land 
Act of 1870 ; that of the Three Fs in the 
Land Act of 1881. 

Fabian Method (The). Delay. 
Fabius Maximus, instead of attacking 
Hannibal, harassed him by marches and 
countermarches. Hencv>; the proverb, ' To 
win, like Fabius, by delay.' 

Fabius of America {The). George 
Washington (1732-1799). 

Fabius of Austria (TZ/e). Marshal 
Daun, able and cautious (1703-17(jij). 

Fabius of France {The). Anne 
Montmorency (1493-15G7), so called from 
the way he conducted his expedition 
against Kaiser Karl V. — annoying him 
in every way, alluring him from place 
to place, and never coming to a general 
battle. 

Fable of Jenkins' Ear {The), 

1738. Capt. Robert Jenkins, master of a 
sloop trading from Jamaica, was boarded 
and searched by a Guarda Costa (Spanish 
coastguard), and barbarously ill-treated. 
He affirmed that the Spanish captain had 
cut oil one of his ears, and Jenkins 
carried about with him an ear wrapped 
in wadding. On 16 March he appeared 
at the bar of the House of Commons, and 
Pulteney, Barnard, Y7yndham, and Pitt 
made political capital out of the story to 
embroil the nation with Spain ; but Burke 
dubbed the whole story a fable. This 
incident or fable led to a declaration of 
war with Spain. 

Fabliaux, 1150-1350. Short fables 
or tales in verse, such as ' Reynard the 
Fox' and Parnell's' Hermit.' The fabliaux 
poets were wandering minstrels very in- 
ferior in position to the Troubadours and 
Trouveres. The best of all this immense 
pile of French verse which has come 
down to us is the fabliau of ' Aucassin 
and Nicolette,' which is tender, natural, 
and full of interesting situations. 

Fabuls9 Atella'nse. A species of 
farce written in the Oscan language, 
which was spoken in all the south of 
Italy, and, from its resemblance to Latin, 
was understood by educated Romans. 

Atellanae, from Atella, a city of the Oscans, in 
Campania, where these farces were performed. 



Fact and Right. 

Fact.' 



See ' Right and 



310 



FACTORY 



FALAISE 



Factory Act {The), 9 Aug., 1870 
(33 & 3i Vict. c. 62). Working hours, 6 
to 6 or 7 to 7, except Saturdays, when 
work is to close at 2 p.m. Extra hours 
6 to 8 p.m., 7 to 9 p.m., or 8 to 10 p.m., 
not more than five days in any week, and 
not more than forty-eight days in any 
year. This not to be allowed in anywise 
except two hours are allowed for meals, 
at least half an hour of the time being at 
five o'clock p.m. The Factory and Work- 
shop Act of 1878 (41 Vict. c. 16) repealed 
all previous acts, and consolidated them 
into one comprehensive statute. It was 
amended in 1883 (46 Vict. c. 53). 

In 1890 there was a European clamour for 
higher wages and a reduction of working time to 
eight hours a day. 

Factory King {The). Richard 
Oastler (1789-1861). 

Faculty {A Grant of). Is an order by 
the bishop of a diocese to do something 
or enjoy something not permitted by 
common law ; such as an alteration in a 
church, the erection there of a gallery or 
organ, to place a tablet on the church 
walls, to obtain a particular seat in a 
church, and so on. 

Faculty of Advocates {The), 
1424. Scotland. The college or society 
of advocates who plead in all actions 
before the courts of sessions, justiciary, 
and exchequer. 

The statute runs : ' Gif there bee onie pure 
creature, for faulte of cunning or dispenses, that 
cannot or may not follow his cause, the king . . . 
Ball ordaine the judge before quhom the cause 
Bulde be determined, to purvey and get a leill and 
a wise advocate to follow sik pure creatures' 
causes; and gif fiik causes be obteined, the wran- 
ger sail assyith baith the partie skaithed and the 
advocatis coastes and travel.' 

Fagot Votes. See 'Dictionary 
of Phrase and Fable,' p. 283. From the 
following quotation it would seem that 
this term is literal, and that buying a few 
fagots and hiring for a few pence a room 
in a hut gave a person a vote at elections 
for members of parliament. 

Faggot, voters were there in plenty, renting a 
room of some old crone at a penny or so a week, 
lij^hting a tire with a small faggot of sticks, and 
thus standing in freedom s might an elective 
burgess.— C. Thomson, Autobiography, p. 58. 

Faineants, i-e. worthless. A term 
applied to the latter Merovingian kings 
of France, in which reigns the mayors of 
the palace really governed the kingdom, 
and the kings were mere puppets. 

They were Thierry III., Clovis III., Childe- 
bert in., Dagobert HI., CMlperic U., Thierry IV., 



and Childeric III., dethroned in 730. Of these 
seven kings, five were the third of their name. 
See ' Fatal Three.' 
*,• Louis v. was also called ' le Faineant." 

Fair Maid of Galloway {The). 
Margaret, sister of Earl William of 
Douglas, on whom descended the estates 
of Galloway, Wigton, Balvenie, Ormond, 
and Annandale, after the execution of 
William in 1440. She married William, 
heir of James the Gross, her cousin- 
german. 

Fair Maid of Kent {The). Joan, 
daughter of the earl of Kent. She was 
the wife of the Black Prince, and mother 
of Richard II., born 1326, married 1361, 
died 1385. 

The Black Prince was born in 1330. At his mar- 
riage he was 31 and his wife 35 years of age. 
Edward died 1376, so h^p widow survived him nine 
years. Her son was crowned 1377. 

Faire Ruelle. To receive guests in 
one's bedchamber. 

Armande Bejart had made a start by receiving 
her guests, sumptuously attired and reclining on a 
state-bed. The guests passed on both sides of the 
bed. This was called /aire ruelie.— Nineteenth Cen- 
tury (June 1889, p. 7'Js). 

Faithful Worman(T;^e). Prender- 
gast (in the reign of Henry II.). When 
MacGallapatrick of Ossory sought a safe- 
conduct to the Norman camp in Ireland 
to exculpate himself from treason his 
friend Prendergast was appointed his 
escort. On his reaching the camp, 
O'Brien insisted on his death, but Pren- 
dergast, drawing his sword, swore on the 
cross that no harm should befall the man 
who had confided in his honour ; and he 
was allowed to conduct his friend back 
again in safety. 

Fakirs (Fa-keers'). Paupers; a 
species of religious recluse common in 
India and the East generally. They live 
on alms, but subject themselves to great 
hardships to earn eternal happiness. 
Some neither lie nor sit for years toge- 
ther. Some hold their hands over their 
heads all life long. Some go about 
well-nigh naked, exposed to heat, cold, 
and the stings of insects. Some live 
in ditches. Some carry fire on their 
heads. Some condemn themselves to 
perpetual silence. And all live an ascetic 
life. 

Falaise {The Treaty of), 1174. 
V/illiam king of Scotland (brother of 
Malcolm IV.) invaded Northumberland, 
but was made prisoner at the battle of 



FALCZY 



FALSE 



:ii 



Alnwick and taken tc Henry II., who was 
at Northampton The Scotch redeemed 
their king by making him hegeman to 
Henry, and the treaty was signed at 
Fahxise. in Normandy. This treaty is 
important, as it made the king of Enghmd 
the overlord of the king of Scotland. 
Hicliard I. cancelled this? treaty for a sum 
of money equal to 100,000Z. of the present 
day. 

Falczy {Peace of). 24 July, 1711. 
Between Russia and Turkey, by which 
Czar Peter I. the Great agreed to restore 
Azof to the Porte. 

Falk Laws (TJie), 1873. So called 
from Dr. Falk, who insisted on the com- 
pulsory education of the clergy of 
Prussia. The laws are four in number : 
(1) The first was directed against the 
abuse of ecclesiastical discipline for poli- 
tical purposes, such as ' boycotting,' 
excommunication, and anathemas ; (2) 
the next regulated the effect of secession 
from the Church on the obligation to 
meet certain taxes; (3) the third law 
was directed at the evasions of Roman 
Catholics of State education incumbent 
on all Germans ; and (4) abolished the 
legality of papal tribunals, recognising 
the judgments of the German eccle- 
siastical courts as the only authority 
on Church matters. In 1874 these four 
laws were supplemented by others to 
ensure more perfect obedience. 

Dr. Adalbert Falk was apjaointed by Prince 
Bismarck ' Minister of Public Worship ' 22 Jan., 
1872. In 1872 Prince Bismarck carried tiirough 
the Prussian Houses a bill to transfer tiie control 
of primary education from the Church to the 
State authorities. 

Falkenstein (Battle of), 1814. 
Called ' The Battle of the Rocks ' ; in 
■which a party of French mountaineers 
defended themselves from an army of 
Germans and Cossacks by liurhng rocks 
upon them. 

Fall of the Leaf (T/ie), 1712. The 
Act 10 Anne, c. 19, a.d. 1712 imposed a 
stamp-duty on newspapers, and so many 
were consequently discontinued that it 
was called the ' Fall of the Leaf.' 

False Coiner (The). Philippe III. 
*Le Hardi' of France was so called 
because he debased the coin. (1245, 
1270-1285.) 

False Decretals (The), 835-845. 
A shameless forgery purporting to be 



forty-nine rescripts oi bishops in the first 
four centuries. Signed by such names 
as St. Anacletus (who died 78), St. Alex- 
ander (who died 100), St. Fabian (who 
died 236), Julius (who died 337), and St. 
Athanasius (who died 373). The object 
of the Decretals is to diminish the 
authority of metropolitans over their 
suffragans, by establishing an appellant 
jurisdiction of the Roman See in all 
causes, and by forbidding national coun- 
cils to be holden without its consent. 
Every bishoj) is made amenable only to 
the tribunal of the pope. Every accused 
person might aj^peal to the pope from 
any civil sentence. The pope only could 
make new sees or translate from one see 
to another. Upon these spurious de- 
cretals has been built the great fabric of 
papal supremacy. Koch says that this 
book ' produced enormous changes in the 
Roman hierarchy, doctrine, and disci- 
pline ; and has to an incalculable extent 
raised the authority of the pope.' 

They assume to have been compiled by St. Isi- 
dore of Pelusium, who diad 450, but certainly had 
no existence for nearly 400 years later. 

The ' False Decretals ' are subdivided into three 
parts : 

Part I. contains 61 decretals of popes in the first 
three centuries (from Clement, a.d. 91, to Sylves- 
ter, A.D. 814). 

Part 11. contains the Canons of the Councils. 

Part III. contains the decretal epistles from 
Sylvester to Gregory the Great (34-590). 

The False Decretals assert that Constantino the 
Great ceded to Pope Sylvester and his successors 
the empire of the West, and that tlie Church of 
Rome has the charge of the whole flock of Christ, 
as the successor of St. Peter. That every bishop 
emanates from Rome, and that the power of the 
pope overrides that of the councils. 

*,* It is passing strange that a vile forgery should 
have been accepted and appealed to as authority 
by the Catholic Church for nearly 1,000 years. It 
was appealed to in 8G5 by Nicholas I. ; by the Ecu- 
menical Council in 870; again by Leo. IX. (104S- 
1054). It was made the basis of the Hildebrandine 
system (1073-lOSO) ; was referred to as authority 
bv the Abbot Barlaam in 1:!41 ; by the Council of 
Florence, 7 May, 1437 ; and was confirmed by the 
Council of Trent in 1.564. 

They were proved to be forgeries by Nicolas 
Cusanus in 1482 ; by Laurentius Valla in 1457 ; by 
Contius in 1586, but his evidence was suppressed; 
and by Blondel in 162S, but his book was placed 
in the ' Index.' At length. Pope Pius VI., in 1789, 
had the honesty and courage to declare the author 
of the book Tmpoxtor Neqiiissimtis, and the decretals 
' infamous forgeries.' See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

The author of tliese decretals was either Isidore 
Mercator aCenobite,or Benedict Levita of Mentz, 
or Riculfe archbishop of Mentz who brought them 
to France in 811. 

False Hermit (The), Enrico the 
Italian was so called by the Catholics 
because he was a hermit of the ' heretical ' 
Waldenses. He was condemned to death 
in 1134 by the Council of Pavla, but 
escaped and died in 1147. 



312 



FAMILIES 



FAST 



Families {The). A secret society 
founded by Anguste Blanqui and Ber- 
nard, chiefs of the French SociaUsts and 
Communists. This red repubHcan party 
were greatly instrumental in bringing 
about the revolution of 1830. 

Familist. 1540. One of the religious 
sect called ' the Family of Love ' {q.v.). 

Under the head of Independents .... were the 
Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
Familists, Enthusiast?, Seekers, Perfectists, So- 
cinians, Arians, and others.— HowiTT, History of 
England (Charles I., ch. vi. p. 273). 

Familists. A religious sect in New 
England in the 17th cent. This sect 
looked for rare revelations and forsook 
the revealed word (John Habvard, 1G28). 

The Davidlans (q.v.) are so called in England 
and Holland. 

Family Feud, or 'Blood Feud.' 
See ' Vendetta,' ' Rimbecco.' 

Family Pact {The), ' Facte de Fa- 
mille,' 15 Aug., 1761. A secret compact 
made at the instigation of the Due de 
Choiseul by all the crowned heads of the 
Bourbon race to stand together in de- 
fence of each other, and put an end to 
the British maritime supremacy. The 
family consisted of Louis XV. of France, 
Carlos III. of, Spain, Ferdinand IV. of 
Naples, and Filippo of Parma. Spain 
bound herself to deprive Great Britain 
of her commercial privileges in America, 
and to transfer them to France. France 
bound herself to aid Spain in the re- 
covery of Gibraltar. The ' Pact ' was 
quite efEete, and was broken up by the 
revolution in 1789. 

Louis XV. was the fourth of the Bonrbon dynasty 
(founded by Henri IV.); Carlos III. was the ftftli 
of the Bourbons in Spain (founded by the grandson 
of Louis XIV.); Ferdinand IV. was Carlos's son; 
and Filippo of Parma was son of Charles de 
Bourbon. 

Fam.ily of Love {The), or * Fami- 
lists, 1540. A religious sect founded by 
Henry Nicholas, a mercer of Delft, and 
introduced into England in 1570 by 
Vitells. These sectaries made all reli- 
gion consist of inward love to Christ 
They rejected infant baptism, the 
divinity of Christ, and original sin. 

Fanariotes (4 syl.). Greek drago- 
mans residing at Fanar, in Constanti- 
noj)le, and exercising considerable 
induence in Turkey in the 17th and 18th 
centuries. The insurrection of the 
Greeks in 1821 put an end to their power. 



Faneuil Hall. In Boston, Massa- 
chusetts. Built in 1742 by Peter Faneuil 
and presented by him to the town for 
public meetings, &c. 

Fanny {Lord). John lord Hervey 
(1G96-1743). Lord Privy Seal in 1740; 
' half wit, half fool ; half man, half beau.' 
It is said that he used rouge, drank 
asses' milk, and took Scotch pills. 

These lines are weak, another's pleased to say, 
Lord Fanny weaves a thousand such a day. 

PuPE, Sat. and Ep., i. 8. 

Like gentle Fanny's was my flowery theme, 
A painted mistress or a piirling stream. 

Pope, Prologue {.■^at. and Ep.), line 149. 

Far'andole (3 syl.), or ' Faran'dola.' 
A sort of country dance peculiar to the 
South of France and North of Italy, akin 
to the Carmagnole {q.v.). It was under 
the excitement of this dance that Mare- 
chal Brune was murdered at Avignon in 
1815. 

Farmer G-eorge, or ' The Farmer 
King,' The sobriquet of George III. 

Farmer Godric and his Cum- 
mer Godgifu. Henry I. of England 
and his wife Matilda (daughter of King 
Malcolm of Scotland and Margaret sister 
of Edgar the Atheling). By this marriage 
the blood of Cerdic and Alfred was 
blended with that of Rolf and the Con- 
queror. 

Farmers General. In French 
' Fermiers Generaux.' Those in the an- 
cient regime of France who farmed the 
public revenues, such as tallage, gabelle 
(or tax on salt), the tax on tobacco, the 
octrois, and so on. Originally forty in 
number, but afterwards increased to sixty. 
They were immensely rich, and were ap- 
pointed by the 'ministre de finances,' 
who expected his pot-de-vin for the ap- 
pointment. Suppressed by the Assembles 
Constituante in 1790,' 

Farnese (3 syl.). A princely Italian 
family, famous for their patronage of the 
arts. In their palace at Rome they pos- 
sessed some of the finest sculptures of 
the world, as the Farnese Bull, now at 
Naples ; the Farnese Flora, Hercules, 
and Gladiator. 

Fast Days. In the Catholic Church 
Wednesday was a fast in commemoration 
of the day when Jesus was betrayed and 
taken prisoner, and Friday the day of his 



FASTI 



FATHER 



813 



crucifixion. To these was added Saturday 
to commemorate the entombment. 

The quadrigesimal or Lent fast com- 
memorates the forty days passed by Jesus 
in the wilderness ; it was originally only 
forty hours. 

There are four different sorts of fast : 

(1) Jejunium generdle (binding on all); 

(2) Jejunxum consuetudinarium (a local 
fast) ; (3) Jej u?iiuvi j^cenitentidle {hy wa,y 
of penance) ; and (4) Jejunium votlvum 
(consequent on a vow). 

The Mohammedans fast the whole 
month of Ramadan, when the Prophet 
brought the Koran from heaven. 

Fasti. In ancient Rome days when 
the law-courts were open ; ' Nefasti ' days 
when they were closed. Also public re- 
gisters. These registers were of two 
Borts, Fasti Kalendures (or Sacri) and 
Fasti AnndUs. The Fasti Kalendares 
were almanacs. The Fasti Annales were 
chronicles of the year containing the 
names of the consuls and other magis- 
trates for the current year, and a brief 
notice opposite each day of some past 
historic event in Roman history. 

Ovid's Fa.sti is a poetical companion to the calen- 
dar published by Julius Ciesar. 

Fat Thursday. See ' Zobia grassa.' 

Fat Tuesday. See ' Mardi Gras.' 

Fatal Stone {The). A palladium, as 
the ' Fatale Marmor ' or ' Stone of De- 
stiny ' [q.v.) of Scotland. The Fatal Stone 
of Artizoe, of the Persians, mentioned by 
Pliny. The ' Black Stone ' of the Seids. 
The ' Fatal Stone ' is described as a large 
mass of very rich grey silver ore of an 
Indian South American tribe, removed 
from place to place, as the tribe fled be- 
fore the Spanish invaders. See ' Caaba.' 

Probably the ' Great Goddess Diana which fell 
from heaven ' was a meteoric stone, like the ' Fatal 
Stone ' referred to above. 

Fatal Three. The succession of 
three brothers has been singularly fatal 
in France. The Capetian dynasty ter- 
minated with the three succeeding 
brothers (sons of Philippe TV. le Bel), 
viz. Louis X., Philippe V. , and Charles IV. 
The Valois line came to an end by the 
succession of the three eons of Henri II., 
viz. Francois II., Charles IX., and Henri 
III. Similarly, the Bourbon dynasty 
terminated with the three sons of Louis 
the Dauphin, viz. Louis XVI., Louis 
XVIIL, and Charles X. The empire also 
14 



consisted of Napoleon I., Napoleon II., 
and Napoleon III. 

After Charles IV., the third brother of the Cape- 
tian dynasty, came Philippe de Valois, a collateral 
branch. After Henri III., the third brother of the 
Valois dynasty, came Henri de Bourbon, a colla- 
teral branch, .\fter Charles X., the third brother 
of the Bourbon dynasty, came Louis Philippe, a 
collateral branch. And with the third of these 
triplets monarchy in France died out. Of the 
seven Rois Faim'ants of France, five were the third 
of the name— Thierry III., Clovis III., Childebert 
III., Dagobert III., and Childeric III. And after 
Napoleon III. the empire was converted into a 
republic. 

Fatale Marmor, the 'Lia Fail' 
{q.v.), or ' Stone of Destiny.' See above, 
'Fatal Stone.' 

Fatale, pronounce Fay-td'-le. 

Father and Friend of the 

People {The). Henri IV. of France 

(1553, 1589-lGlO). 

II fut de ses Bujets le vainqueur et le pere.— 
Voltaire. 

Father and Mother of his 
People {The). Kang Hi (1653, 1661- 
1724). One of the best of the Chinese 
emperors. 

Father Fritz. The name of en- 
dearment given to Friedrich II. the 
Great by his Prussian subjects (1712, 
1740-1786). 

Father Violet. Napoleon I. (1769- 
1821, emperor 1804-1815). So called 
after his banishment to Elba, because he 
assured his partisans that he would ' re- 
turn to France with the violets.' Violets 
are still the symbol of imperial pro- 
clivities in France. 

Father of Biblical Criticism 

{The). Origen is called the father of 
Biblical criticism and exegesis (185-254). 
He was accused and tortured for heresy. He 
denied the inspiration of scripture, rejected much 
of the historical portions of the Bible, and dis- 
believed in eternal punishment. 

Father of Botany {The). Toume- 
fort (3 syL), 1656-1708. Linnasus fol- 
lowed him in all the main parts of his 
system. 

Father of British Inland Na- 
vigation {The). Francis Egerton, 
duke of Bridgewater (1736-1803). Brind- 
ley constructed for him a canal between 
his coal pits at Worsley to Manchester, 
which reduced the carriage of. coals from 
12s. to 6s. a ton, and their price from Id. 
to 3fZ. a cwt. 

The ' Bridgewater Canal,' commenced in 1753, 
was by no mean the Ji/s( canal in the British Isles. 



314 



FATHER 



FATHER 



The New River Canal was begun in 1G08, the 
Carmarthenshire Canal in 1755, the Droitwich to 
the Severn in 1756, &c. But it was the first great 
navigable canal. 

Father of Burlesque Poetry 

(The). Hipponax of Ephesus (b.c. 566- 
520), a Greek poet. 

Father of Chronology (The). 

Josephus Justus ScalTger (1540-1609). 
His great work is ' De Emendatione Tem- 
porum.' 

Father of Church History 

(The). Eusebius, first of the Greek 
Fathers {q.v.) and author of an Ecclesi- 
astical History in ten books (Greek) from 
A.D. 1 to 324. Also called ' Father of 
Christian History ' (265-338). 

Father of Cruelty. Alliakem I. 
of Cordova who exiled to Africa 40,000 
of his own subjects for rebellion a.d. 818. 
He was also called ' He of the Suburbs,' 
because he razed to the ground the 
suburbs in which the above-mentioned 
rebels resided. 

Father of English Poetry (The). 

Geoffrey Chaucer, the greatest English 
poet up to the time of Shakespeare. 
There were English poets before him, 
but Chaucer was ifiter ignes Luna 
minores. 

Father of French Chemistry 

{The). Arnaud de Villeneuve (1238- 
1314). He discovered sulphuric, muria- 
tic, and nitric acids ; obtained alcohol 
from fermented liquors ; and procured 
the spirit of turpentine by dissolving in 
alcohol the juice of pine- wood. 

Father of French Eloquence 

(The). Alain Chartier (1386-1458), secre- 
tary to Charles VI. and Charles VII. 

Father of French Philosophy 

{The). D'Alembert, mathematician, litte- 
rateur and encyclopaedist (1717-1783). 
Called the ' Mazarin of Letters.' 

Father of French Poetry [The). 
Thibault (1210-1253), comte de Cham- 
pagne, and afterwards king of Navarre. 
He introduced the alternate masculine 
and feminine rhymes. 

Feminine rhymes for the most part end in e or 
es\ silent in prose, but pronounced slightly in 
poetry at the end of a line. 

Thibault, pronounce Tee'-ho. 

Father of French Satire {The). 
Mathurin Regnier (1573-1G13). 

Eeguier, pronounce liain'-yca. 



Fathers of French Sculptors 

{The). Goujon and Pilon (16th cent.). 
The former, called the Correggio of sculp- 
tors, was slain in the- Bartholomew 
massacre. 

Father of French Surgery 

{The). Ambroise Pare (1517-1590), author 
of a treatise on Gunshot Wounds. 

Father of French Tragedy 

{The). Robert Gamier (1534-1590). The 
foreboding dream in his ' Hippolyte ' has 
nothing superior in Corneille or Racine. 
However, Corneille is generally looked 
on as ' the Father of French Tragedy.' 

Father of Grace and Elegance 

{The). So the French style Du Bellay, 
one of their Pleiad poets, also called ' the 
French Ovid' (1524-1560). 

Father of Landscape Garden- 
ing {The). Lenotre (1613-1700). He 
laid out the gardens of Versailles, the 
Tuileries, St. Cloud, St. Germain, Fon- 
tainebleau, Clugny, Chantilly, Meudon, 
and Sceaux. He died at the age of 88, 
never having had a day's illness in his 
life. 

Father of Letters {The). Louis 

XIL (1462, 1498-1515). 

FrauQois I. (1494, 1515-1547). 

Lorenzo de Medicis of Florence (1448- 
1492). 

Maecenas, the Roman statesman, waa called 
the Patron of Letters (B.C. 73-8). 

Father of Medicine {The). Hip- 
pocrates, b.c. 460-357. 

Father of Mesmerism {The), or 
' Animal Magnetism.' Mesmer (1734- 
1815). He taught that there exists a 
force in man which he could communi- 
cate to others, and that this force was of 
a sedative character, inducing sleep or 
alleviating pain. 

Father of Modern French 
Literature {The). Claude de Seyssel 
(1450-1520), celebrated for being the first 
prose writer in French with any degree 
of purity. 

Father of Modern German 
Poetry {The). Martin Opitz of Silesia 
(1597-1639). 

Father of Modern Philosophy 

{The). Roger Bacon, a friar, author of 
♦ Opus Majus ' (1214-1202). 



FATHEK 



FATHER 



315 



Father of Modern Scepticism 

(The). Bayle (1647-1706), author of a 
French ' Historical and Critical Dic- 
tionary.' 

Father of Modern Swedish 
Poetry (The). Stjernlijelm {Shearn- 
yebn), 16tli cent., contemporary with 
Shakspeare, Lope de Vega, &c. 

Father of Parody {The). Hippo- 
nax of Ephesus (b.c. 566-520), a Greek 
poet. 

Father of Physiology (The). 
Haller (1708-1777). He wrote eighty-six 
books on medicine and physiology. 

Father of Political Dissenters 

(The). Sir John Oldcastle, commonly 
called Lord Cobham (1360-1417). Burnt 
to death in the reign of Henry V. He 
was condemned by Archbishop Arundel 
in 1413, but the sentence was carried out 
by Henry Chicheley, Arundel's successor, 
14 Dec, 1417. Lord Cobham was said to 
be unsound on these four points ; Tran- 
Bubstantiation, penance, pilgrimages, and 
inaage-worship. 

Father of Satire (The). Archi- 
lochos of Paros (b.c. 710-690), a Greek 
poet. He inveighed against Paros, against 
Thasos, and against Lycambes, who 
promised to give him his daughter in 
marriage, but afterwards retracted his 
word. Lycambes was so pricked to the 
heart by the satire of the poet that he 
hanged himself. 

Archilochum proprio rabies armavit iambo, 
HoR. De Arte Poetica, 79. 

Father of Waters. The Irrawaddy 
(Burmah). Johnson, in his ' Rasselas,' 
calls the Mississippi 'the Nile of the 
Father of Waters.' 

Father of his Country. 

Andronicos Palceologos assumed the 
title (1260-1332). 

Augustus (' Pater atque Princeps ' — 
Horace), b.c. 63, 31-14 a.d. 

Cicero, who broke up the Catiline con- 
spiracy (B.C. 106-43). 

The Romans offered the same title to Marius 
after his annihilation of the Teutonea and 
Cimbri, but he declined to accept it. 

Cosmo de' Medici is so designated on 
his tombstone. 

' CosmiiK Mediri | Hie situs est, | Decreio publico, | 
Pater Patriie (1519-1574). 

DoRiA [Andrea) is so called on his 
statue at Genoa (1468-15G0). 



Julius G'esar was so styled after he 
had quelled the Spanish insurrection 
(B.C. 100-44). 

Laurence O'Toole, archbishop of 
Dublin, who died 14 Nov., 1180 : he was 
of the illustrious house of O'Tuathal, and 
was canonised in 1226 by Honorius III. 

Louis XVni. of France (1755, 1814- 
1824). 

Washington {George), ' Defender and 
Paternal Counsellor of the American 
States ' (1732-1799). 

See also 1 Cliron. iv, 14. 

Father of his People {The). 
Lou=s XII. of France (1462, 1498-1515). 

Even Louis XI. was so called. The French, as 
a rule, have not been happy in their royal 
appellatives. 

Father of the English Uni- 
tarians {The). John Biddle of Glou- 
cestershire (1615-1662), He was thrice 
imprisoned by the Long Parliament, and 
was at last liberated in 1652 by the Act 
of Oblivion. He was again arrested in 
1655, but Cromwell discharged him in 
1658 ; he was again arrested in 1662, and 
fined lOOZ. Not being able to pay the 
fine, he died in prison within five weeks. 

Father of the Forest {The). It 

stands in California in Tulare County, 
is 450 feet high, and 138 feet round the 
trunk. 

Father of the French Drama 

{The). Rotrou (1609-1650) was so called 
by Corneille. If not the ' father of the 
drama,' he was doubtlessly the ' founder 
of the French theatre ' so far as scenery 
is concerned and the general conduct of 
the stage. 

Father of the German School 

{The). Albert Diirer (1471-1528). 

Fuseli says of Albert Diirer, ' though called the 
Father of the German School, he neither reared 
scholars, nor was he imitated by German artists 
of any age.' 

Father of the Land League. 

Ireland. Michael Davitt, 1879. 

Father of the Modern Drama 

{The). In Germany. Andrew Gryph 
(1619-1664), prince of the Silesian poets. 
Shakspeare died the very year that 
Gryph was born. He wrote both tra- 
gedies and comedies, but is pompous, 
declamatory, and overstrained. 

Father of the People {The). 
Christiern III. of Deimiark (1502, 1534- 
1559). 



BIO 



FATHERS 



FEAST 



Gabriel du Pineau, a French lawyer 
(1573-1644). 

Fathers {Last of the). St. Bernard 
(1091-1153). 

The ' Fathers of the Church ' were followed by 
the ' Schoolmen.' 

Fathers of the Greek Church. 

Those Christian writers of the Greek 
Church who succeeded the Primitive 
Fathers {q.v.), and lived in the 4th and 
5th cents. : 

Died 

842 Eusebius of Nicomedia. 

873 Athanasius. 

879 Ephrem of Edessa (the deacon). 

— Basil the Great. 

886 Cyril of Jerusalem. 

390 Gregory of Nazianzus in Cappa- 

docia. 
896 Gregory of Nyssa. 
403 Epiphanius. 
407 Chrysostom. 
444 Cyril of Alexandria. 

Fathers of the Latin Church. 

Contemporary with those of the Greek 
Church (q.v.). 
Died. 

317 Lactantius. 

397 Ambrose of Milan. 

420 Jerome (2 syl.). 

430 Augustin of Hippo. 

467 Hilary. 
St. Bernard (1091-1153) is called the Last of the 
Latin Fathers, and was followed by the Schoolmen. 

Fatherland. Germany. 

What is the German fatherland ? 
Is't Prussia's realm or Suabian-land? 
Is't where the Rhenish red-grapes hang ? 
Or -where the Baltic sea-mews clang ? 
Oh ! nay, nay, nay. so cribbed a strand 
Is not the German fatherland. 

Our fatherland all Germany— 
Who speak the tongue our sons must be. 
God give us courage, will, and strength, 
To free it in its breadth and length ; 
Join every heart, join every hand 
Till Germany's one fatherland. 

Arndt (translated by E. C, B.). 

Fatigue Party. Men of the rank 
and file employed on works, such as 
making roads, digging trenches, moving 
guns, pitching camps, &c., not their 
special military work. They are said to 
be 'men on fatigue.' 

Fatimites (3 syl.). An Arabian 
dynasty in Egypt, founded by Mahadi 
Obaidallah, a descendant of Fatima, 
daughter of Moliammed ' the projihet ' 
(910-1171). On the death of Adhid (last 
of the Fatimites) the dynasty of the 



Ayubides (3 syl.) succeeded. The Fati- 
mites of Egypt wore red turbans. 

The princes of the Fatimites were called Aliades 
(.3 syl.), from All, cousin of Mohammed. Ali married 
Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, and was pro- 
claimed kalif in 666. 

Faust {The English). Dr. Dee, the 
astrologer (1527-1608). 

Favoured Child of Victory 

{The). Marshal Massena, duke of Rivoli 
(1758-1817), so called because his whole 
career in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, 
and Poland had been an unbroken series 
of victories. He was foiled by Viscount 
Wellington (Duke of Wellington) at 
Busaco 27 Sept., 1810. 

Fawkes {Gziy, i.e. Guido). Was at 
the taking of Calais by Archduke Albrecht 
in 1598. He took part with Catesby 
and the other conspirators in Gunpowder 
Plot, 1604-5, was arrested 5 Nov. 1605, 
and executed at Westminster 31 Jan., 
1606. 

In 1850, the year of 'the Papal aggression,' the 
figure of Cardinal Wiseman was substituted for 
Guy Fawkes in the street processions. 

Fealty was performed standing ; 
homage was performed kneeling. Fealty 
was sv/orn to by oath ; homage required 
no oath. In fealty the vassal stood 
before his lord, and laying his right 
hand on the Bible, said aloud: 'Know 
ye this, my lord, that I swear to be 
faithful and true to you, and to bear 
faith to you for the lands that I shall 
hold of you. • And I will lawfully do unto 
you the customs and services which I 
ought to do, and at the times assigned. 
So help me God and his saints.' Then 
taking up the book he kissed it, and put 
it back again. See ' Investiture of 
Vassals.' 

Feast, Feasts. See also 'Festa,' 
' Festum,' and ' Fete.' 

Christian Feasts are (a) Fixed; (6) 
Movable. 

{a) The Fixed Christian Festivals are 

All Saints or All Hallows, 1 Nov. 

All Souls in honour of all the faithful 
dead, whether canonised or not, 2 Nov. 

Candlemas Day or the Purification of 
the Virgin Mary, 2 Feb. 

Christmas Day or the Nativity, 25 Dec 

Circumcision, 1 Jan. 

Epiphany or Twelfth Day, 6 Jan. 

Iimocents' Day, 28 Dec. 



FEAST 



FEAST 



817 



Lady Day or Annunciation of the 
Virgin Mary, 25 March. 

The following are also called Saints' 
Days, or Red Letter Days : — 

S. Andrew SO Nov. 

Barnabas 11 June 

James the Elder 26 July- 
John the Baptist (his Nativity) 24 June 

John the Evangelist 27 Dec. 

Luke the Evangelist 18 Oct. 

Mark the Evangelist 25 April 

Matthew the Evangelist .. 21 Sept. 

Matthias 24 Feb. 

Michael (Blichaelmas Day) ... 29 Sept. 

Paul (his Conversion) 25 Jan. 

Peter (by Catholics Peter & Paul) 29 June 

Philip and James the Less 1 May 

Simon and Jude ^ 28 Oct. 

Stephen (the first martyr) ... 26 Dec. 

Thomas (the shortest day) ... 21 Dec. 

(6) Movable Christian Feasts : — 

Ascension Day or Holy Thursday, ten 
days before Whit Sunday. 

Ash Wednesday, the first day in Lent. 

Easter Sunday {q^v.). 

Good Friday, the Friday before Easter 
Day. 

Palm Sunday, the Sunday before 
Easter Day. 

Pentecost or Wliit Sunday, the seventh 
Sunday after Easter. 

Sexagesima Sunday, (about) sixty days 
before Easter, second Sunday before Lent. 

Trinity Sunday, the Sunday following 
Whit Sunday. 

See each of these in loco. They all depend on 
Easter Day. 

Feasts {Grecian), or Grecian Fes- 
tivals. 

Agraulia, or Agrauria, held at Athens 
in honour of Agraulos or Agrauros, 
daughter of Cecrops. 

Artemisia in honour of Artemis 
[Diana] ; the bread offered to the goddess 
was called lochia, and the women who 
performed the sacred rites were called 
loinbai. 

Diony'sia in honour of Dionysos [Bac- 
chus], observed in Athens with great 
splendour and numerous ceremonies. 

Eleusinia, the most celebrated and 
most mysterious festival of any in Greece. 
The greater mysteries were celebrated 
at Eleusis, in the month Boedromion 
(the latter half of Sept. and the former 
of Oct.). 

Panathenaia in honour of Athene 
[Minerva], protectress of Athens. It 
lasted several days and was celebrated 
with great magnificence. 

The festivals of Greece were very numerous. 
There were fifty beginning with the letter A. And 
besides these special festivals there were the 



times set apart for the Isthmian, NSmSan, Olym. 
plan, and Pythian games. 

Feasts {Boman), or Roman Festivals. 

1. In January : The Agondlia in 
honour of Janus on the 9th ; and Car- 
mentalia in honour of Carmenta (mother 
of Evander) on the 11th. 

2. In February: The Faunalia in 
honour of Faunus on the 13th; the Lu- 
percdlia in honour of Pan, on the 15th ; 
the Begifiigium on the 2-ith, to com- 
memorate the flight of Tarquin ; and two 
or three others. 

3. In March: the Matrondlia to com- 
memorate the termination of the Sa- 
bine war on the 1st; the Liberdha in 
honour of Bacchus on the 18th ; the 
Quinquatrta in honour of Minerva, on 
the 19th ; and two others. 

4. In April : the Megalesia, on the 4th 
and 5th, in honour of the mother of the 
gods ; the Ceredlia in honour of Ceres, 
on the 9th ; and three others. 

5. In May : on the 1st the sacred rites 
of the Bona Dea were performed by the 
vestal virgins ; the Leniurta, to the souls 
of the deceased, on the 9th ; and two 
others. 

6. In June : On the 1st were several 
festivals, one of which was that of Juno 
ino7ieta. Other festivals were held on 
the 4th, 7th, 9th, and 10th. 

With the festivals of this month the Fasti of 
Ovid end. The other six books are lost, 

7. In July were seven festivals. 

8. In August were four festivals. 

9. In September : the Ludi Magni 
were held on the 4th in honour of the 
great gods ; and on the 13th the consul 
fixed a nail in the temple of Jupiter. 

10. In October were two festivals. 

11. In November were two festivals. 

12. In December : the Saturnalia were 
held on the 17th, the most celebrated 
festival of the whole year, when aU per- 
sons of every rank gave themselves up to 
feasting, frolic, and fun. 

Besides the time devoted to the games. 

Feast of Fools, or ' Festum Fatno- 
rum.' The Christian substitute of the 
Roman Saturnalia. The same as ' Festum 
Kalendarum' {q.v.), 1 Jan. Abolished 
in Germany by the Council of Basel 
(1431-1449) ; in France by Charles VII. 
in 1444. Observed at Antibes (2 syl.) as 
late as 1644. See ' Festum Asinorum.' 

This was not the Ass's Festival, as many assert. 
The Ass's Festival was the 14th of Jan., and cora- 
memorated the ' Flight into Egypt,' whereas the 



318 



FEAST 



FEDEEALISTS 



Peast of Fools was New-year's day, and thence 
called 'Festum Kalendarum.' It was called Fcstum 
hypodiacoHomm, ' non quod revera soli Subdiaconi 
has scelestas choreas ducerent; sed quodhac jocu- 
lar! appellatione indicare voluerint festivitatem 
hancfuisse ebriorum clericorum veldiaconorura." 
Du Cange, vol. iv. p. 298, article ' Kalendse." It was 
a day of drunkenness and debauchery, in which 
the clergy took a leading part. 

Feast of Liberty ( The). A festival 
held by the Athenians every five years, 
in commemoration of the victory of 
Salamis over Xerxes and his host. It 
was celebrated on the battle-field of 
Platsea. 

Feast of ITature {The), 10 Aug., 
1793. To celebrate the ' perfected consti- 
tution.' Se'chelles and David the painter 
were the chief devisers. A plaster statue 
of Nature was erected on the Place de la 
BastiUe, having two streams of water 
sprouting from her breasts. The front of 
the pedestal bore the words, ' We all are 
her children.' Other mottos were ' Hell 
vomits kings,' and 'Hell vomits priests.' 
The chief members of the Convention, 
public committees, and commune kneeled 
in adoration to this plaster image, pray- 
ing her to receive the eternal devotion of 
the French. Then followed firing of can- 
non, scattering of flowers, kissing, and 
dancing. The nurses of the foundling 
hospital brought their children to ' Mother 
Nature,' and the Dames de la Halle were 
crowned with wreaths. In the Place de 
la Revolution (now ' de la Concorde ') was 
a gigantic statue of Liberty with a forest 
of poles bearing red caps, and inscribed, 
* Imitate us ; we are free.' 

Feast of Pikes {The), 14 July. So 
the ' Feast of the Federation ' is called by 
Carlyle, because the Bastille was taken on 
14 July, 1790, by the mob, for the most 
part armed with pikes. 

France roared simultaneously to the welkin, 
bursting forth into sound and sinol^e at its Feast 
of Pikes.— Caklyle, French. Revolution, vol. iii. 
bk. ii. 1. 

Feast of Reason {The), 10 Nov., 
1793. Celebrated by decree of the Con- 
vention at Paris. 

Feast of Reconciliation {The), 

25 Jan., 1555. A grand religious proces- 
sion in London, in the reign of Queen 
Mary, to commemorate the return of 
England to the See of Rome. It was to 
be held annually on St. Andrew's day 
(25 Jan.). 

The bishops were empowered to ' reconcile ' all 
to the Catholic Church, and enter their '- 



registers. Those who did not give in their names 
were to be proceeded against as heretics. Thia 
was followed by four years of persecution, when 
about 300 suffered death. 

Feasts of the Etre Supreme 

{The), 8 June, 1794. Celebrated by de- 
cree of the Convention at Paris. See 
also * Festa,' ' Festum,' and ' Fete.' 

Feathers Tavern Association 

{The), 1771. An association opposed to 
the abolition of subscription to the Thirty- 
nine Articles and confessions of faith. Its 
name is derived from the place of meet- 
ing. In 1772 the association presented a 
petition to parliament on the subject. It 
was signed by 200 clergymen and 50 lay- 
men, chiefly lawyers. 

Febron'ianism, anti - papalism. 
John Nicholas von Hontheim, who assu- 
med the pen-name of Justinus Febronius, 
wrote a book, ' De Prsesenti Statu Eccle- 
siae,' published in 1767, to prove the inde- 
pendence of national churches, and the 
' home rule ' of diocesan bishops. It met 
with the severest censures of the Roman 
tribunals. 

February Patent or Ordi- 
nance {The), 1801. Promulgated for the 
establishment of a central Reichsrath, 
consisting of a house of lords and house 
of representatives from all the provinces 
of the Austrian empire. Hungary re- 
fused to send any representative, and in 
1867 Hungary was granted its present 
form of government. 

February Revolution {The), 1848 
(22, 23, 24). In which the govern- 
ment of Louis Philippe of France was 
overthrown. It began at a reform ban- 
quet with the cry of Vive la Beforme ! 
and ended in three days with the cry of 
Vive la Bepuhlique ! The king fled, and 
a republic was proclaimed 24 Feb. 

Fedavees. A company of young 

men, agents of the Chief of the Assassins, 
a secret society of Asia. They dressed in 
white, with red bonnets and girdles, and 
were armed with daggers ; but they as- 
sumed all sorts of disguises. 

Federalism, 1792, 1798. A scheme 
proposed by the Girondists {q.v.) to form 
tlie different departments into a federacy, 
like the United States of America. 

Federalists {The), 1841. Ireland. 
"When the House of Commons decided 



FEDEEALS 



FENELON 



819 



that demands for the repeal of the Union 
were unconstitiTtional, the repealers called 
themselves 'Federalists,' and declared that 
their platform was not identical with the 
repeal for which Daniel O'Connell had 
previously been agitating. They said they 
were opposed to the dismemberment of 
the Imperial Parliament, but favoured the 
idea of an Irish Parliament to have juris- 
diction in exclusively local affairs. O'Con- 
nell accepted the new programme. 

Federals [The), 1861-1866. In the 
American Civil War the Federalists were 
those who armed to preserve the Union 
against the Confederates (g-.i).) or Southern 
States. 

Federate Republicanism, 1793. 

A French federation against the Con- 
vention. The chief league consisted of 
Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon. Keller- 
mann was sent with 30,000 troops to re- 
duce Lyons to obedience, and tlie siege 
lasted from 19 Sept. to 9 Oct., 1793, when 
the city surrendered, and 2,000 of the 
inhabitants were put to death. Toulon 
was set on fire, and the federation was 
stamped out. 

Federation of the Champ de 
Mars, or 'Fete of the Federation,' 
11 July, 1790. The first anniversary of the 
taking of the Bastille in Paris, when 
60,000 persons assembled, and Louis XVI. 
swore to preserve the constitution worked 
out by the Constituent Assembly. 

A second federation was held 14 July, 
1792. 

A third was held during the famous 
Hundred Days {q.v.), 26 May, 1815. This 
is more properly called the Cliamp de 
Mai, but it was held in the Champ de 
MuTs of Paris. Here Napoleon the Great 
proclaimed what is called ' L'Acte Addi- 
tionnel ' — that is, the act which Napo- 
leon, during the Hundred Days, ' ajouta 
aux Constitutions de I'Empire.' Tliis 
assembly, announced for 26 May, did not 
reaUy take place till 1 June. 

Fee-penny [The). A fine paid or 
exacted of a debtor if his debt was not paid 
to time. Sir Thomas Gresham, writing 
from Flanders, frequently requests the 
English government to settle its debts ' to 
save the fee-penny.' 

Fehmgerichte (4 syl.), or the ' Holy 
Fehm.' A secret tribunal of the middle 



ages, in Westphalia. Its object was espe- 
cially to terrorise the barons, whose law- 
less conduct was the curse of the land. 
These tribunals were at their climacteric 
in the 14th and 15th cents. 

The members of the tribunal were called 
* Wissende ' (3 syl.), the initiated. 

The district over which it exercised 
judicial authority was called the ' Red 
Land.' 

The assessors of the court and execu- 
tors of its sentences were called ' Frei- 
sclioffen ' (free justices). 

The presiding judge was the ' Freigraf ' 
(free count). 

The kaiser (king of Germany) was ex 
officio one of the ' Wissende.' 

Felix'ians, 8th cent. A Spanish sect 
so called from Felix bishop of Urgel. 
He taught that Christ in respect of his 
divine nature was the Son of God by 
generation ; but in respect of his human 
nature was only the adopted Son of God, 
like other holy men. This was called the 
' Adoption Controversy.' 

Elipandus (archbishop of Toledo) was a Felixian. 

Fellow Commoners, in Cam- 
bridge University, are students who pay 
higher fees, wear a distinctive costume, 
and 'common' or dine at the Fellows' 
Table. They were called in Oxford Uni- 
versity ' Gentleman Commoners.' They 
are generally either noblemen or married 
men. 

Female Hi gh Sher iff( The). Anne 
countess of Pembroke, a staunch royalist 
in the reigns of Charles I. and II. On the 
death of her father, the Earl of Cumber- 
land, in 1643, she succeeded to the here- 
ditary office of Slieriff of Westmoreland, 
attended the judges of assize, and sat with 
them on the bench at Appleby. 

Fencing the Tables. Keeping 
from the eucharist all whom the ' Fencers ' 
thought unworthy to be communicants. 
One clergymen of Dumfries forbade from 
the table aU who used minced oaths, 
such as ' heth, teth, feth, fegs, losh, gosh, 
and lovenenty.' 

Fdnelon of Germany {The). 
Lava'ter (1741-1801). Born at Ziirich; 
the founder of physiognomonie, or the art 
of reading character by physiognomy. 

Fdnelon of the Reformation. 

Johann Arnd of Anhalt (1555-1021). 



320 



FENIAN 



FEEMIERS 



Fenian Heroes [The). The heroes 
of Finn, called by Ossian ' Fmgal.' ' Gal ' 
means the alien or foreigner, as Wales, 
&c. 

Fenians, or Fenian Brotlier- 
hood. An association of Irish rebels 
ill-disposed to the British government, 
and bent on a separation of Ireland from 
England. It was organised in America 
by James Stephens in 1858. The leaders 
were called ' Head-Centres,' and their 
subordinates were called ' Centres.' 

It was introduced into Ireland in 1865 
by James Stephens, the ' head-centre,' 
who was imprisoned in Dublin, 11 Nov., 
but made his escape, 24 Nov., by the 
connivance of the turnkey. 

This society, which made the most 
reckless attacks on life and property, 
was condemned, 12 Jan., 1870, by Pope 
Pius IX., and on 14 Oct. by General 
Grant, president of the U.S. of America; 
but it still remains active for mischief. 

18 Sept., 1807, Sergeant Brett was killed ; and on 
13 Dec. the wall of Clerkenwell House of Detention 
■was blown up by these miscreants. The attack 
on Clerkenwell prison was for the rescue of 
Richard Bourke. 

12 March, 1868, O'Farrell, a Fenian, made an 
attempt to assassinate in Sydney the Duke of 
Edinburgh, the second son of Queen Victoria. 

In May 1882 Lord Frederick Cavendish (the 
newly-appointed viceroy of Ireland) and Thomas 
A. Burke, under-secretary, were savagely assassi- 
nated while walking in Phoenix Park, Dublin. 

In March 1883 simultaneous attempts were made 
to blow up the offices of the Local Government 
Board and the office of the Times ' newspaper. 

In 1884 the Fenians attempted to blow up with 
dynamite four of the chief railway stations. 

*,* The name ' Fenian ' is a base dishonour to 
the famous national militia, the Fianna Eirin, 
whose achievements formed a source of song and 
romance honourable to Ireland. Fingal, son in- 
law of King Comhalor Combal (A.D. 212-353), little 
thought his name would be so degraded in the 19lh 
cent. 

Sir Walter Scott alludes to the Fenians in ' The 
Antiquary,' but not the Fenians condemned by 
every right-thinking man, under the patronage of 
Michael Davitt. 

Fer, ant feri ; feri, ne feriare 

(Suffer or strike ; strike lest you be 
stricken), or thus, * Aut fer, aut feri ; ne 
feriare, fei*i.' The jingling words inces- 
santly muttered by Queen Elizabeth 
while she remained in doubt whether to 
sign the death-warrant of her cousin 
Mary or not. 

Ferdinand I. Kaiser-king of Ger- 
many of the house of Austria (1503, 1556- 
1564). 

Father, Philipp the Handsome ; 
Mother, Jua,ria, daughter of Ferdinand 
and Isabella; his elder brother was 
Kabl v., and his grandfather was Kaiser 



Maximilian I. ; Wife, Anna Jagellon of 
Bohemia; Son and successor, Maxi- 
milian II. Contemporary with Mary 
and Elizabeth. 

Ferdinand II. Kaiser-king of Ger- 
many of the House of Austria. He was 
son of Karl duke of Styria, and succeeded 
his cousin Mathias on the throne of 
Germany (1608, 1637-1657). He began 
the infamous thirty years' religious war 
against the Protestants. 

Father, Karl archduke of Styria ; 
Mother, Maria of Bavaria; Son and 
successor, Ferdinand III. Contem- 
porary with James I. and Charles I. 

Ferdinand I. had two sons, viz. Maximilian II., 
who succeeded him, and Karl, who died duke of 
Styria. 

Karl of Styria (the 2nd son of Kaiser Fer- 
dinand I.) had for issue Ferdinand II., who suc- 
ceeded his cousin Mathias on the throne of Ger- 
many. 

Ferdinand III. Kaiser-king of 
Germany (1608, 1637-1657). 

Father, Ferdinand II.; Mother, *; 
Wives (1) Mary- Anne of Spain, mother of 
Leopold, his successor, (2) Mary Leo- 
poldina of Austria, and (3) Eleanora of 
Mantua. Contemporary with Charles I. 
and the Commonwealth. 

Ferdinand the Summoned. 

Ferdinand IV. of Castile and Leon (1285, 
1295-1312). So called because, when he 
ordered two noblemen, the brothers 
Carvajal, to execution without trial, they 
summoned him to appear before the 
tribunal of God within thirty days, and 
within the allotted time he died. 

Fergus Maelvor [Sir W. Scott's 
Waverley). The original was Major 
Donald Macdonald, executed on Satur- 
day, 18 Oct., 1746, with eight others. 

Feringhee (Afghanistan). A Euro- 
pean. 

Fermiers G-^n^raux. A name 

given in France, before the Revolution 
of 1789, to a privileged association who 
' farmed ' the public revenues. It was a 
shocking jobbery, the fermiers being 
selected either by the minister of finance 
(who made his selection for a money 
consideration) or by the king's mis- 
tresses. The number was forty, but rose 
to sixty a little before the revolution. 
These farmers paid the king a fixed sum 
and made what profit they could out of 
the taxpayers. 

Vtonoxxncedi Fair'-vie-ay jen-e-ro'. 



FERNEY 



FESTUM 



821 



Ferney [The Patriarch of). Vol- 
taire (1094-1778). After his departure 
from Prussia he retired to Ferney, a 
quiet httle spot near Geneva. He died 
at the age of eightj--tvvo. 

Ferocious Beast of Auso'nia 

{The). So Caracalla, the Roman em- 
peror, was called by the Alexandrians. 
It is said that the tyrant was pleased 
with the name, and boasted of it. 
Ausonia meaus Italy. 

Ferra'ra {Feace of), 26 April, 1433. 
Between Venice and Milan, brought about 
by Nicholas marquis d'Este, the ' Paci- 
ficator of Italy.' 

Ferry of Death {The). The ferry 
of the Irtish, leading to Siberia. So 
called because it leads the Russian exile 
to political death. 

To cross the Ferry of Death, to be laid on the shelf 
in political life. 

Fertile Periods. Plato teUs us 
there are times when the powers of 
minerals, vegetables, and animals sym- 
pathise magically with superior natures, 
and have a greater aptitude to partici- 
pate in those superior powers. At those 
periods ' miracles ' abound, for inferior 
things partake of the Divine powers. 
When no such celestial powers are 
inherent in minerals, vegetables, and 
animals, Plato says it is a 'barren 
period.' . 

Festa Brachio'rum, or 'Festa 
Manualia,' 1493. Days on which no works 
requiring the aid of horse and cart might 
be done. Manual labour means such as 
is done by the skill of the hands ; but 
brachial labour is such as is done by the 
muscular force of the arms. 

[Festa] ' Manualia ' seu ' Brachiorum ' vulgo 
appellantur, in quibus videlicet ipsa prohibitio per 
totam diem ad ea duntaxat opera et negotia quse 
Bine equis et carrucis fieri possuntseextendebat.' 
— Stattitti Ecc. MeiiUiis. 14ua. See Ilistoria Meldetts. 
inter lustrum, p. 54-2. 

Festa Capit'uli, i.e. those fete 
days ' quoB Capitulum habent ' : as AU 
Saints', Annunciation, Ascension, As- 
sumption, Epiphany, Michaelmas Day, 
Nativity of Christ (Christmas Day), Na- 
tivity of John the Baptist, Pentecost, 
Purification of the Virgin Mary, and the 
Resurrection. Add to these the fOte day 
of Mary Magdalene, and that of Hugh of 
Lincoln. 

Festa Domin'ica. Sacred fes- 
tivals set apart in honour of some saint, 



martyr, or confessor of the Christian 
Church, called in English a saint's day. 

Festival of St. Napoleon {The), 
1806. 15 Aug., the birthday of Napoleon, 
was so designated by the first Emperor 
of the French. 

Festival of the Sacrifices {The). 
' Id-al-Azha,' or 'Kurban Bairam,' the 
second or Great Bai'ram, is observed by 
Mohammedans in commemoration of 
Abraham offering his son. It is observed 
seventy days after the Lesser Bairam, 
and lasts four days. 

Festum Ar'chitricli'ni. The 

second Sunday after Epiphany, the 
gospel of which day is John ii. ; the 
marriage feast, when the Architricllnus 
wanted wine and Jesus miraculously sup- 
plied it. See ' Sundays.' 

Festum Asino'rum. 14 Jan., to 
commemorate the ' Flight into Egypt.' 
Several rituals of this festuin are extant. 
That of Beauvais, in France, has a rubric 
which orders the priest to bray three 
times, and the congregation to braj^ three 
times in answer. As the ass was led 
to the altar a hymn of nine stanzas was 
sung, each stanza ending with hee-haw, 
hee-haw ! The first runs thus {see ' Feast 
of Fools ') : — 

From out the East 
Came forth the beast, 
Both strong and fair, 
Its packs to bear. 
Hee-haw ! Sir Ass, 
fiee-haw ! 

Festum Bea'tae Mari'ae de Ad- 

ventu, i.e. the Conception of the 
Virgin Mary, 8 Dec. Instituted 1356. 

Festum. Broncher'ise, i.e. Fes- 
tum Braneher'ire, or Pahn Sunday (the 
Feast of Branches). See ' Sundays.' 

Festum. Cam.pana'rumi. The 

festival of the Annunciation; the day 
after Quasimodo Sunday; that is, the 
Monday next after Easter Monday. So 
called because on this day ' ad Salu- 
tationem-angellcam solemnius pulsantur 
campante ' (Du Cange). 

With us the Annunciation is called ' Lady 
Day,' celebrated on 25 March. 

Festum Canaba'rum. The Feast 
of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii.). 

Festum Cande'lse. The founder's 
day of any church or religious institu- 
tion when candles were lighted in honour 

Y 



Orientis partibus, 
Ads-entavit Asinus, 
Pulcheret fortiss'imus, 
Sarcinis aptissimus.. 
He, sire Aiie,lie! 



322 



FESTUM 



FESTUM 



thereof. This festival used to be called 
in old English Lichtmesse. 

Pestum Compassio'nis Bea'tae 

Mari'ae. Instituted 1423, and held the 
Friday before Palm Sunday. 

Festum Coro'nae Christi. Insti- 
tuted 1357. Innocent VI. appointed it 
to be held as the ' Feria 6 post octavam 
Kesurrectionis Dominicae.' 

Festum. Corporis Christi, or at 
full 'Festum Consecrationis Cor]3ori3 
Christi,' or in brief ' Festum C.C.C.' In- 
stituted 1371. The great C.C.C. festival 
is ' 5 feria post Octavam Pentecostes.' 

Another festival of ' Corpus Christi ' was that 
called ' Festum Sacrosanct! Sacramenti,' in Ger- 
man Frohnleiclmavwfest, instituted by Urban IV. 
iu 1264 ; it followed the octave of Pentecost. 

The 'Festum Eucharistioe,' instituted in 1356, 
■was another ' Festum Corporis Christi.' 

Festum de Clav'ibus, 1355. In- 
stituted by Innocent VI. in honour of 
the nails used in the crucifixion of Christ. 

Festum Divisio'nis Apostolo'- 

rum., 5 July. When Bede, Usuard, and 
others say the apostles parted company, 
and each went into his special field of 
labour. Also called the Festival of the 
Dispersion ; instituted 1098. 

Festum Duplex. When two fetes 
occur on the same day. In which case 
the greater festival is observed and the 
lesser one is deferred to the day following. 

Festum Fatuo'rum. See 'Fete 
des Fous.' 

Festum. Florum.. ' Nono Kalen- 
das Junii ' (May 24). 

Festum Herba'rum. Assumption 

Day (15 Aug.). This was the day when 
Eoman women carried bundles of herbs 
to the temples, as offerings to their gods. 
The [Roman] Catholic Church preserved 
the custom, but changed the object of 
veneration. 

The Assumption is the act of taking up to heaven 
the Virgin Mary bodily without dying. This 
change was made in the 5th cent. 

Festum Hypapantes, or ' Purifi- 
cation of the Virgin Mary,' Feb. 2. Also 
called 'Festum Luminum.' Instituted 
542. 

Hypapante means 'meeting together.' It was 
on this day that Mary met Simeon and Anna the 
Prophetess. 

Festum Hypodi'acono'rum. 

The fete of the Subdeacons, a part of 



the Saturnalia, when archbishops and 
bishops, with all the inferior clergy, 
played practical jokes on each other, and 
all forms of distinction were, for the 
time being, held in abeyance. The 
general character of the feast was gross 
drunkenness, and the name was a satire 
on the worldly lives of the general clergy. 
As Beletus says, 'hac joculari appella- 
tione indicare voluerint, festivitatem 
banc fuisse ebriorum clericorum.' 

Festum Kalenda'rum. A Chris- 
tian substitution of the Roman Saturn- 
alia, at the close of the old year and 
beginning of the new. It was a time of 
unlaridled license, when slaves and 
servants were on equal footing with 
their masters. Men, women, and chil- 
dren dressed up as beasts, and ran 
about the streets braying, roaring, bark- 
ing, and indulging in the coarsest practi- 
cal jokes. The early Church, unable to 
abolish the custom, tried to divert its ob- 
ject, and introduced innovations scarcely 
less objectionable than the old Roman 
licentiousness. One day of the feast was 
a satire on the drunkenness of the clergy, 
and was called ' Festum Hypodiacono- 
rum ' (g'.y.), or the Subdeacons' Fete, 
where subdeacon included all eccle- 
siastics, from the archbishop to his 
curate. 

Augustine refers to the feast in his ' Sermo da 
Tempore,' 215; and in the 'Life of Eligius,' bk.ii. 
chap. 15, we read 'KuUus in Kalendis Januarii 
nefanda et ridiculosa, vetulas, aut cervulos, aut 
jotticos [practical jokes] faciat.' 

Festum Lu'minum., or 'Festum 
Hypapantes.' The Feast of Purification 
(Greek uirairauTr]), from the meeting of 
Simeon and Anna with Christ, whom 
they had long waited for in the Temple 
Also called ' Festum St. Simeonis.' 

Festum Oliva'rum. The Sunday 
before Easter day, generally called Palm 
Sunday. See ' Sundays.' 

Festum Saneti Petri ad Vin'- 
CUla, 1 Aug. Instituted by the order 
of Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Theo- 
dosius. This was the continuance of an 
old heathen festival in honour of the 
victory of Actium, in which Octavius 
overcame Antony. The festival was 
continued, but its object was changed. 

Festum Translatio'nis Jesu, 

or the ' Day of Transfiguration.' Insti- 
tuted 6 Aug., 1498. (Matt. xvii. 1-13.) 
See also under the word Feast.' 



FETE 



FEUILLANTS 



323 



F^te Days. See ' Holy Days.' 

Fete de 1' An e. Introduced into Paris 
in the 15th cent. ; was a ridiculous carica- 
ture of the Flight into Egypt. A young 
woman with an infant in her arms was 
seated on an ass, led by an old nian 
representing Joseph, and followed by a 
long procession to the cathedral church, 
accomj)anied by bishops and their clergy. 
As it went along, chanting the appointed 
canticles, the crowd responded hi>tha I 
hinha ! imitating the bray of an ass. It 
was not discontinued tiU the close of the 
IGth cent. 

other similar processions were the ' Marche du 
Boeuf Gras' (ly.r.), 'La fete de la Kouteille,' 'La 
fete dcs Cornards,' ' La fete des Tons ' (.Sir Fools, 
Feast of '), and ' La fete du Geant aux Ours ' (on 
3 July). 

Pronounce Fate de lahn, Fate d'la Bou-tau'-e, Fate 
de Fuo. 

F§te des FOUS. January, in com- 
memoration of the Flight into Egypt. 
This profane exhibition was immensely 
popular in France from the 12th to the 
IGth cent. 

Fdte-Dieu, 1246. A festival insti- 
tuted by Urban IV. in honour of the 
host or consecrated wafer, called ' Festum 
Corporis Christi,' and held in France on 
the Sunday following Trinity Sunday. 
At one time it was celebrated with street 
processions and great pomp, but the 
street processions ceased in 1830. 

Except in France the festival is held on the 
Thursday following Trinity Sunday. 

F6te of the Federation. See 

under ' Federation.' 

Fetes. See ' Holy Days.' 

Fetichism. An idolatry of the 
grossest sort. The name was given by 
the Portuguese to the adoration paid by 
negroes in Africa to the fetiche^s, such as 
fire, water, animals, trees, stones, and 
invisible beings such as the Grisgris of 
Central Africa, the Manitotis and Ockis 
of America, the Burkhans of Siberia. 

The priests of this idolatry are called fifriofs in 
Africa, 70/(;//t((;s in America, and shamans in Cen- 
tral Asia. 

If a worshipper does not get what he prays for, 
he w ill addicss his idol tbu : ' How now. dog of a 
spirit! Wo give you lodging in a magnificent 
temple, we gild you handsomely, feed you well, 
and offer incense ; yet, after all this, you are so 
ungrateful as to refuse us what we ask.'— Astley, 
Collection of Voyaufs. 

Fetters of Greece [The). Deme- 
trias, Chalcis, and Corinth were so called 
by Demetrius Poliorcetes of Macedon. 
"Iho freedom promised,' said the ^tolians, 



' was an illusion . . . The fetters of Greece would 
only be clasped lighter by a stronger hand.' — The 
Students' Home, p. 3o(j. 

Feu Saere, or 'Mai des Ardents.' 
A terrible malady which appeared in 
Paris A.D. 945 ; in Scotland in 954 ; and 
in Italy and Germany in 985. ' Ce mal 
[says SauvalJ brulait a x^etit feu, et con- 
sumait sans qu'on y put reme'dier . . . 
elle brulait les entrailles ou toute autre 
partie du corps, qui tombait en lam- 
beaux. Sous une peau livide, elle con- 
sumait les chaires en les separant des os. 
Ce que ce mal avait de plus etonnant, 
c'est qu'il agissait sans chaleur, et pe'ne- 
trait d'un froid glacial ceux qui en 
etaient atteints ; et qu'a ce froid niortel 
succedait une ardeur si grande dans les 
memes parties, que les malades y eprou- 
vaient tons les accidents d'un cancer.' 

Feudal System {The). Holding 
estates bj' military service. William I. 
divided the kingdom of England into 700 
fiefs and about 60,000 knights' fees (or 
holdings). These knights' fees or second- 
ary holdings were held, not of the crown 
immediately, but of one of the 700 crown 
vassals under similar service. The 700 
vassals were bound to supply the crown 
with soldiers according to a fixed scale, 
and the secondary holders supplied the 
vassals under whom they held in a 
similar way. Bishops and abbots were 
bound, in times of war, to supply the 
king with soldiers in proportion to their 
possessions. 

Feuillantines (4 syl.), 1583. Pte- 
formed Feuillants, an order founded by 
Marguerite de Polastron. Anne of Aus- 
tria, in 1622, founded a house of Feuil- 
lantines in the Faubourg St. Jacques, 
Paris. 

Feuillantism. The political prin- 
ciples of the Feuillants in the French 
revolution. It was reformed monarch- 
ism. 

Feuillantism— that party which loves liberty 
yet not more than monarchy.— Carlyle, French 
lievolution, vol. ii. bk. v. 10. 

Feuillants (The), 1577. Reformed 
Benedictines, founded by Jean de ja 
Barriere, Abbe de Notre Dame de Feuil- 
lant, in France. They go about bare- 
headed and bare-footed, sleep upon 
wooden pallets, eat kneeling, and impose 
on themselves incredible austerities. 
Their robe is white, with a white hood. 
In 1630 Urban VIII. separated tie 



324 



FEUILLANTS' 



FIEEY 



Feuillants of Italy, and called them 
'Reformed Bemardins.' The Feuillans 
or Feuillants are often called the Bare- 
footed Monks. 

Pronounce Fuh'e-yahn'. 

Feuillants' Club {The), or ' Club 
des Feuillants,' 1790. The more moderate 
of the Jacobins. So called because they 
held their meetings at a convent of the 
Feuillants {see above), near the Tuileries. 
The chief of the club were Lafayette, 
Bailly, Duport, and the brothers Lameth. 
Their enemies nicknamed them the 
' Club Monarchique.' Extinguished Nov. 
1791. 

The original name of the club was the ' Com- 
pany of 1789.' 

Fez (The), or 'Council of Tara,' in 
Ireland. The triennial meeting of the 
subordinate chieftains, priests, and bards, 
held at Tara in Ireland, and instituted 
by Ollav Fola about 900 years b.c. Ollav 
Fola reigned forty years and died in 
peace. 

In the second year of his mission Patrick pre- 
sented himself before the Fez . . . and Logary 
the king declared himself a convert.— 27u'£;iton- 
vica (article ' Ireland,' p. 465). 

fi" for Pandects, ff is a corrupt way 
of making the Greek n, v, the initial 
letter of Pandects. 

Fiacre. A French cab, so called 
because the first fiacres were made in the 
Hotel St. Fiacre, Rue St. Martin. 

St. Fiacre is the patron saint of gardeners. 

Fian'a Er'ion {The). A very 
celebrated Irish militia commanded by 
Fingal (or Fein M'Cooil), in the reign of 
Cormac, grandson of Conn. It consisted 
of 9,000 men of great strength, activity, 
and intelligence, who were bound to 
choose wives solely for their merits, 
never to ill-treat a woman, and never to 
turn their backs on a foe. This force was 
annihilated at the battle of Gabra, or 
Gawra, in Meath, where Oscar, the son 
of Ossian the poet, fell. 

Fiann {The). An ancient order of 
warriors in Ireland. No man of the 
order was allowed to marry a dowered 
wife, lest he might choose her for her 
money and not for her merits. No man 
of the order might use his strength 
against a woman. None might assert 
his own rights seLfislily against another's 
wants. 



Fief or Feud. Conquered land 

let out, not for money, but military ser- 
vice. The Romans let out conquered 
land for usufruct, called Emphyteusis 
(grafting), the grantor was the ' stock,' 
the tenant was only the graft. Feud is 
a corrupt contraction of 'phut', fut, feud. 
And fee, fief are variants of the same 
Latinised Greek word. 

Field Conventicles {Act against), 
1670. A field conventicle is ' any un- 
authorised meeting for religious worship, 
even in a private house, if any of the 
hearers stand in the open air.' Every 
minister who preaches and prays on such 
occasion during the three following years 
shall incur the forfeiture of his property 
and the punishment of death. 

Field Fortification has for its ob- 
ject the protecting of camps, villages, 
posts, passages of rivers, and the con- 
struction of such works as may be re- 
quired to aid the operations of an army 
in the field. Trenches and offensive 
works executed on the spot in carrying on 
a siege also belong to 'field fortification.' 

Field of March {The), or ' Champ 
de Mars.' A national convention or 
assembly held during the first dynasty of 
France. It was revived by Pepin d'He- 
ristal, but after a.d. 755 was held in May, 
and called Champ de Mai. Napoleon I. 
revived these assemblies in the ' Hundred 
Days ' (June 1, 1815). 

Pronounce Sharnd Marz, Sharnd Ma'-e. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold {The). 
Called in French history Le Champ du 
Drop d'Or. The site between Guisnes 
and Ardres, where in June 1520 was held 
an interview between Henry VIII. and 
Francois I. of France. So splendid and 
gorgeous was this fete, that the site where 
it was held was called ' The Field of the 
Cloth of Gold.' 

Fiery Cross (T^e). A blazing torch 
in the form of a cross, carried from hill 
to hiU to sununon the clans to battle. Sir 
Walter Scott speaks of it in ' The Lady 
of the Lake.' He says the chaplain slew 
a goat, and dipped the cross in its blood. 
It was then delivered to a swift runner, 
who ran with aU his speed to the next 
hamlet, where he presented it to the prin- 
cipal person, who was bound to send it on. 
Every man, from 16 to 60 years of age, 
was expected instantly to repair fully 



FIERY 



FILIOQUE 



equipped for war to the place of rendez- 
vous on pain of ' fire and sword.' In the 
civil war of 1745-6 the Fiery Cross was 
Bent round thus. 

The ' fiery cross ' was borne swiftly through the 
townships and parishes (of Upper Canada), calling 
forth a levy en mnssrot the loyal inhabitants, who 
rushed to the defence of the capital.— HowiTT, 
Hist, of Eng., 1837, p. 389. 

Fiery Tears of St. Lawrence 

{The). The shooting stars which appear 
with considerable regularity between the 
9th and 14th of August. The festival of 
St. Lawrence is the 10th August. 

Fieschi Laws, 1887. Some very 
stringent laws against the French press, 
published after the attempt of Fieschi on 
the life of Louis Philippe, king of the 
French, by the ' infernal machine ' (^7.^.). 
Enormous fines were unposed on those 
who ridiculed the king, or disputed tlie 
wisdom of any act of his government, or 
who avowed themselves republicans, or 
who published a print of any sort with- 
out subjecting it first to the minister of 
the interior. 

The fines were from 400^ to 2,000/. sterling for the 
first offence, double that for a second offence, and 
BO on. 

Pronotmce Fe-esk'ke. 

Fifteen {The). The judges of the 
Sui^reme Court of Session in Scotland. 

Fifteen {Ozit in the Fifteen). A 
partaker in the Derwentwater rebellion, 
1715. fi'ee' Forty-five.' 

Is it so singular that a man should have been 
out in the forty-five ? . . . your father, I think, . . 
. . was out with Derwentwater in the fifteen. — 
Sir W. Scott, Jiedtjaunilet, chap. vii. 

Fifteen Mysteries {The), in Catho- 
lic theology. See ' Five Joyous Mysteries,' 
' Five Dolorous Mysteries,' and ' Five 
Glorious Mysteries.' Observe the triplet. 

Fifteen Years' Farce (T7ie). The 

Great French Revolution which ended in 
the coronation of Napoleon I. (1789-1804). 
La comedie de quinze ans was admirably played 
In France . . . but what have been the results?— 
Mazzixi, Faith of tlie Future. 

Fifth Doctor of the Church 

{The). So Pius V. called Thomas Aquinas 
(1224-1274). 

The Four Doctors of the Latin Church, em- 
phatically so called, were St. -Ambrose (340-.S'.)7), 
St. Jerome (345 420 , St. .\ugustine (3oi 430', and 
St. Gregory. The fifth doctor was similar to 
such phrases as the ' Tenth Muse,' the ' Eighth 
Wonder of the World,' &c., meaning one of super- 
eminent merit. 

Fifth Monarchy Men appear in 
1054. They believed in the four great 



monarchies of Antichrist, marked out 
by the prophet Daniel (ch. vii.), viz. the 
Assyrian, Persian, Macedonian, and Ro- 
man, the fifth being that of Christ on 
earth. In politics they were republicans, 
acknowledging no earthly king but Christ ; 
and they conspired to murder CromweU, 
the lord-protector. In the reign of 
Charles 11., led by one Venner, a wine- 
cooper, they proceeded to ' take the king- 
dom of heaven by force, without waiting 
for Christ ' ; the king sent the military 
against them, and after some severe fight- 
ing, the ringleaders were taken captive 
and executed 1660, and the sect died 
out. 

Filibuster. A corrupt spelling of 
the French ' flibustier,' called in English a 
buccaneer {q.v.). Filibusters were piratical 
seamen, resolved to force their way into 
the New World jealously guarded by the 
Spanish. The most famous were Morgan 
(a Welshman), who took Panama in 1670 ; 
Pierre Legrand of Dieppe, who with 
twenty-eight men took the ship of a Span- 
ish admiral ; Nau I'Olonnais, Michel le 
Basque, who made themselves masters of 
Vera Cruz in 1683; and Monbars the 
Exterminator, who in 1683 took Vera 
Cruz. After the accession of William III. 
the French flibustiers and the English 
buccaneers were in deadly antagonism ; 
but after the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, 
the piratical expeditions were put an end 
to. 

Filio'que Controversy, which long 
disturbed the Church, was this : ' Did the 
Holy Ghost proceed from the Father by 
the Son, or from the Father a?id the Son 
{filioque)? The Greek Church maintained 
the former, the Latin Church the latter 
dogma. The phrase was added to the 
Creed by Recared in the Council of 
Toledo A.D. 589 ; was adopted by Charle- 
magne in 788 ; and by Benedict VIII., at 
the instance of Kaiser Heinrich II., in 
1014. Tliis question is often called 'the 
Procession of the Holy Ghost.' 

It must be confessed that the authority is not 
very satisfactory. Eecared, Charlemagne, and Hein- 
rich II. of German J' are not the names we should 
select to settle a point in divinity. Recared, or Re- 
carede, was the seventeenth Iting of the Visigoths 
in Spain, who compelled his subjects to embrace 
the Christian faith, and was therefore called ' The 
Catholic' He was converted only two years and 
a few months before the Council of Toledo w.as 
convened. The addition of lUioqw to the Nicene 
Creed created a flame of discord between the 
Eastern and Gallic Churches. Pope Leo III. was 
averse to the addiiiou. 



326 



FILIUS 



FIEE 



Filius Nullius, or ' Filius popidi,' 
a bastard. In the eyes of the h\w an ille- 
gitmiate son is nobody's son ; and as such 
a son has no ' blue blood ' he is only a 
commoner, or one of the ignohile vulgus. 

Filles Bleues (Les), 1604. Also called 
the ' Celestial Annunciades ' (4 syl.). A 
religious order instituted by Maria Vic- 
toria Fornaro. Tliey wore blue mantles, 
and hence their name. , 

Pronounce Fee-yd bltih. 

Filles de Sagesse {Les). The grey 
nuns of St. Laurent. 

A host of other religious communities might be 
added, as : 

Filles de Ste Genevieve I Filles Reponties 
Filles de la Providence Filles St. Thomas, &c. 
Filles du Calvaire | iiee ' Founders.' 

Filles-Dleu. Hospitallers, at one 
time called Soeurs de St. Gervais, because 
in 1300 they were charged with the hos- 
pital of that name. Their dress is a 
white gown and black mantle. 

Filmerite (3 syl.), I7th cent. A 
disciple of Sir Eobert Filmer (*— 1688), 
author of ' The Anarchy of a Limited 
and Mixed Monarchy,' opposed to a Wil- 
liamite or adherent of the House of 
Orange. The Filmerites, like Arch- 
bishop Sancroft and Dean Hickes, 
believed in the 'divine right of kings,' 
and were therefore zealous Jacobites and 
advocates of the political doctrine of 
' Passive Obedience ' or ' Non-resistance ' 
(q.v.). 

Fine of Leinster {The). Exacted 
for more than 500 years, and paid by 
more than forty kings to the king of 
Meath. It consisted of 3,000 cows, 3,000 
hogs, 3,000 sheep, 3,000 copper caldrons, 
8,000 ounces of silver, and 3,000 mantles, 
and was paid every second year till 
A.D. 963, when it was remitted. For the 
reason of this fine see ' Boarian . . . 
Tribute.' 

Fines {Statute of), 4 Henry VIII. 
This was a renewal of the law of 
Edward IV., by which entails could be cut 
off at pleasure, and thus the great land- 
owners were enabled to divide their 
estates amongst their children, bequeath 
them, or sell them. 

Fingal. The Territory of the Fin- 
gal or White Strangers, consisting of 
Dublin and certain parts to the north 
thereof. See ' Wliite Strangers.' 

bta,ffa la called ' Fingal's cave;' or, more 



strictly speaking, the cave in the Isle of Staffa is 
so called. 

Macpherson's Fingal was Finn, rig [king] of the 
Leinster Finns or Finians, who resided at a dun 
or fort at Alinhain [Allen] in Kildare. Transferred 
by Macpherson to Morven in Scotland. 

Finn's Fingers. Five enormous 
stones, each about 5 feet in height, and 
some 4 tons in weight, on the top of the 
hill of Shanthamon, in the county of 
Ca'van, Ireland. 

Finns, the Fenni of Tacitus, and 
Phinni of Ptolemy, belonging to the 
Ugrian race or Ogres, probably of Mon- 
golian origin. They were divided into 
five groups : the Finns of Finland ; the 
Lapps ; the Permian Finns ; the Volga 
Finns ; and the Ugrian Finns, to which 
group the Magyars IMard'-yahs] belong. 

FirbolgS {The). The remnant of 
the old Thracian Nemedians which re- 
turned to Ireland under the conduct of 
the five sons of Dela. The tribe had 
been driven from the island by the 
Fomorians, said to be African pirates, 
descendants of Ham. The sons of Dela, 
according to Irish tradition, divided the 
island into the five kingdoms of Leinster, 
Munster, Ulster, Connaught, and Meath, 
each of the sons being ruler of one of 
these principalities. The rule of these 
princes continued forty, or, as some say, 
eighty years, when they were dispossessed 
by the Danaans under Tuatha-na- 
Danaan {q.v.), a people famed for necro- 
mancy. 

The Irish still call strangers ' Fawmorries 
(Fomorians). The Nemedians are said by chroni 
clers to have been descendants of Japhet, 
through Nemedius. Of course all this is only 
Bardic history. The FirbolgS were probably 
Belgae, or Belgae who migrated from Britain. 

Fire and "Water Interdicted. 

' Aquae et Ignis Interdictio.' The judicial 
form of words used to signify that the 
person referred to was banished from 
Italian soil. He might go where else he 
liked, but must not remain in Italy. 

Fire Brigade Committee {The 
MetrojJolitan). Responsible for the 
management of the 700 men and the 
state of their 150 fire-engines, 150 fire- 
escapes, 150 horses, and 28 miles of hose. 
Since 1889 the number of fire-engines 
has been increased in London to 170. 
The whole city and county of London is 
divided into four districts. A, B, C, D, 
each district being under a separate 
superintendent, who is paid 195^. a year. 



FIRE-CROSS 



FIRST-FRUITS 



327 



All the districts are connected by tele- 
graphs and telephones. 

The average number of fixes in the metropolis 
IS about 2,00u a year. 

Fire Cross {The). See 'Fiery 
Cross.' 

* Fire First.' ' Gentlemen of the 
French Guard, fire ' (said Lord Charles 
Hay) ; to which the Comte d'Auteroche 
replied, ' Fire yourselves, gentlemen of 
England ; we never fire first.' The 
battle of Fontenoy, 10 May, 1745. 

Quant a moi, je tiens le mot de M. d'Auteroche, 
'Messieurs les Anglais, tirez les premiers,' tres 
authentique. . . . Les deux troupes sont en 
presence. Lord Hay crie, s'avancant hors des 
rangs : ' Messieurs les gardes f ran<;aises, tirez.' 
M. d'Auteroche alors va k sa rencontre, et le 
saluant de I'epee : ' Monsieur (lui dit-il), nous ne 
tirons jamais les premiers; tirez vous-memes.' 
_M. E. FoURNIER (an eye-witness). 

Get engagement se fit a distance si rapprochee 
que les officiers anglais, au moment d arreter 
leur troupe, nous salutrent le chapeau a la main; 
les notres ayant repondu de meme a cette cour- 
toisie. . . . Lord Charles Hay sortit de son rang, 
et s avanca ; le comte d Auteroche, lieutenant 
des grenadiers, se porta alors au-devant de lui. 
' Monsieur (dit le capitaine, lord Hay), faites 
done tirer vos gens ; ' ' Non, Monsieur (repondit 
d'Auteroche), nous ne tirons pas les premiers ; ' et 
B'etant de nouveau salues, ils rentrerent chacun 
a son rung.— L Esprit daiis I'Histoire, chap. lii. 
pp. 348, 349 (Paris, 1883). 

Lord Charles Hay gives a different version : 
' When we came within 20 or 30 paces of [the 
French], I advanced before our regiment, drank 
to them, and told them we were the English 
guards, and hoped they would stand still till we 
came up to them, and not swim across the Scheldt, 
as they did the Mcin at Dettingen. Upon which 
I immediately turned about to our regiment, 
speeched them, and made them huzzah, I hope 
with a will. An officer [d Auteroche] came out of 
the ranks, and tried to make his men huzzah ; 
however, there were not above three or four of 
the brigrtdc that did so. —Letter (now in the pos- 
Bession of the Marquis of Tweeddale, at Yester 
House). 

Fire of Antwerp (The), 29 July, 

1588. So the Spaniards called the fire- 
ships sent by Drake and Hawkins into 
the Armada. The eight vessels, under 
charge of Cajit. Young, ran right into the 
Spanish fleet in full blaze, sending forth 
explosion after explosion. The Spaniards, 
remembering the Dutch fire-ships, 
shouted, ' The fire of Antwerp ! The 
fire of Antwerp ! ' and every vessel was 
put in motion to escape in the darkness 
as best it might. The confusion was 
terrible, ships running foul of each other, 
and escaping from Ostend to Calais. A 
thunderstorm, with a furious gale of wind 
from the south-west, added to the terrors 
of that terrible night. 

Firman {A). A decree issued by the 
sultan, signed with his cipher, and sealed 



•with his signet. Also a passport given 
to travellers by a pacha. 

First Book of Discipline (The), 
1561. A book of church polity drawn 
up by John Knox and five others for the 
use of Scotland. 

First Book of Homilies (The), 

1547. In which is comprised the doc- 
trines of the Church of England, as 
established in the reign of Edward VI., 
declaring that salvation rests solely on 
a lively faith in the merits of Jesus 
Christ ; and that no works without such 
faith are good works in a scripture 
sense. 

First Comm.union Office (The), 

1548. In the reformed Church of Eng- 
land. 

First Day of the Republic (The). 
French history. 20 Sept., 1792. When 
the National Assembly at the proposal of 
M. d'Herbois rose en masse, and, waving 
their hats, shouted, ' We declare royalty 
in France abolished for ever.' 

First English Liturgy {The), or 
'Book of Common Prayer,' 1548. The 
Second Liturgy was in 1552. The Forty- 
two Articles in 1553 ; reduced to Thirty- 
nine in 15G3 ; and modified to their pre- 
sent form in 1571. 

First ifnglish Martyr {The), 1401. 
William Sawtre, rector of St. Oswyth, 
London, a Lollard, in the reign of Henry 
IV., was the first person who suft'ered at 
the stake in England for religious 
opinions. 

There is a tradition that St. Alban fell 
a martjTT in the persecution of Diocletian 
A.D. 305. The tale is that he served in 
the Roman army, but, having offered 
an asylum to Amphibalus, a Christian 
priest, in order to save his guest he 
changed dresses, and being apprehended 
was beheaded at Verulamium. It is said 
that a church was afterwards erected on 
the spot, and the name of the town was 
changed to St. Albans. 

First-fru'.ts, or ' Annats.' The first 
year's income of a church living paid to 
the pope, forbidden in 1534 (by 25 Hen. 
VIII. c. 20). Granted to the crown in 
1534 (2C Hen. VIII. c. 3) ; restored to the 
church in 1555 (by 2, 3 Phil. & Mar. c. 4j; 
again granted to the crown in 1559 (by 
1 Eliz. c. 4) ; restored to the church by 



328 



FIEST 



FIVE 



letters patent of Queen Anne, 3 Nov., 1703. 
See ' Queen Anne's Bounty.' 

Abolished in Fra7ice in 1438 by the 
'Pragmatic Sanction,' under Charles VII. 

Abolished in Ireland in 1883 (3, 4Wm. 
IV. c. 37). 

Ceased in Spain under Carlos V. 
(1519-1558). 

In Germany it formed one of the Cen- 
tum gravamina presented to the em- 
peror in 1521, and the claim ceased. 

When Dr. Benson in 1883 was made archbishop 
of Canterbury his fees amounted to 885L 5s. The 
r> mount for this presentation has now been re- 
duced to 281L 5,s. tiU. 

First Gentleman of Europe. 

George IV. (1762, 1820-1830). 

Louis d'Artois of France was so called also. 

First Martyr of Liberty {The), 
1770. North America. Christopher Snider, 
a Boston lad. Theophilus Lillie, a Boston 
shopkeeper, persisted in selling English 
goods after they were tabooed. His 
shop was attacked by the mob, and one 
of his shopmen, named Richardson, fired 
on the mob and killed the boy Snider, 
who was followed to the grave by a pro- 
cession reaching a quarter of a mile, and 
the boy was exalted into a martyr. 

First Year of Equality {Tlie), 
1792, beginning 22 Sept. The address 
Monsieur was abandoned, and the word 
Citizen substituted in its stead. 

Fishing Inquiry {A). In parlia- 
mentary language means an inquiry at 
large ; an inquiry into a given question 
not for the sake of solving that question, 
but with the hope that something may 
turn up. 

This is what is called in the familiar language 
of lobbies of parliament ' a fishing inquiry.' Fish- 
ing for somptliing to say about the matter ; but 
you cannot get your fish if tiie fisli will not come 
into your net.— W. E. GLADSTONE, Speech at Calder, 
17 Nov.. 1885. 

Fitzwilliam Museum [The). Of 
books, paintings, illummated MSS., en- 
gravings, &c. in Cambridge ; to which 
has been added, in 1834, the Mesman col- 
lection; in 1850 eighty-three ancient 
marbles collected by John Disnay. In 
1861 John Ruskin gave twenty-five water- 
colours by J. M. W. Turner, R.A. ; and 
in 1862 Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison presented 
to the museum thirty pictures of modei'n 
English masters. Since then many other 
valuable presents have been added by 
different donors, and the university has 
I urchased numerous rarities. Founded 



by Viscount Fitzwilliam of Trinity Hall 
in 1764. 

Five {Council of), 1722. The Earl of 
Arran, the Earl of Orrery, Lord North, 
Lord Gower, and Atterbury bishop of 
Rochester. A junto constituted to bring 
back the Stuart dynasty after the birth 
of Charles Edward. 

Five Acts {Sidmouth's and Castle- 
reagh's), 1819. After the Manchester 
Massacre {q.v.) Lord Sidmouth brought 
in three bills in the House of Lords, and 
Lord Castlereagh two bills in the House 
of Commons to prevent large gatherings 
of a political character and political 
articles like those of Hone calculated to 
disturb the public peace. The five bills 
all passed, and were 

(1) An Act to prevent the training of 
persons to the use of arms {Sidmouth). 

(2) An Act to prevent and punish 
blasphemous and pernicious libels {Sid- 
mouth). 

(3) An Act to authorise justices of the 
peace to seize arms collected for riotous 
purposes {Sidmouth). 

(4) An Act to impose stamp duties on 
newspapers {Castlereagh). 

(5) An Act to prevent blasphemoua 
and seditious meetings {Castlereagh). 

Five Articles {The), 1559). Drawn 
up by Convocation at the beginning of 
Queen Elizabeth's reign, and forwarded 
by Bonner to the lord keeper to be laid 
before parliament. They were these : 
(1) The corporal presence to be main- 
tained ; (2) the elements after consecra- 
tion are no longer bread and wine ; (3) 
the mass is a propitiatory sacrifice ; (4) 
the lawful successor of St. Peter is the 
supreme head of the Church ; and (5) the 
clergy only are to settle all matters bear- 
ing on doctrine and church discipline. 
No notice was taken of this petition. 
See ' Articles.' 

Five Articles of Dort {The), 1618- 
1619. Calvinistic views of (1) absolute 
predestination and election ; (2) redemp- 
tion only through the death of Christ ; 

(3) original sin and human corruption ; 

(4) conversion not of ourselves, but the 
gift of God ; (5) the final perseverance of 
the saints. 

In church government the Synod of Dort de- 
cidedly preferred Presbyterianism to Episcopacy. 

Five Articles of Perth {The), 
1618. (1) The communion shall be 



FIVE 



FIVE 



829 



received kneeling, and not sitting ; (2) in 
extreme cases the communion may be 
privately administered; (3) in extreme 
'cases baptism may be privately adminis- 
tered ; (4) young people, when advanced 
to a suitable age, shall be confirmed by 
the bishop ; (5) the five following days 
shall be holidays — viz. Christmas Day, 
Good Friday, Easter Day, Ascension 
Day, and Pentecost. These five ►enact- 
ments were passed by a parliament held 
at Perth, in the reign of James I. of 
England, and were designed as the thin 
edge of a wedge to introduce into Scot- 
land a form of worship similar to that of 
the Anglican Church. 

Five Burglis of the Danes 

(The). Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Not- 
tingham, and Stamford. These five 
burghs were called the ' Danelagh ' 
(Dane-Law), because they were ruled by 
Danish and not by English law. Ke- 
covered from the Danes in 941 by 
Edmund. 

Five Christian Verities {The). 
In Catholic theology. 

1. The child Jesus, conceived in the 
womb of the Virgin Mary, was verily and 
indeed the Son of God, and the second 
person of the Trinity. 

2. This Jesus is true God, one with 
the Father and the Holy Ghost. 

3. The two perfect natures exist in one 
only person. The divine nature received 
from God the Father, and the human 
nature from his mother Mary. 

4. All that pertains to the person of 
Christ as a substance is unique ; but all 
that pertains to his nature is double. 

5. The Virgin Mary is veritably and 
properly the IMother of God. 

(Mgr. Guerin, Vies des SaiJits, vol. iii. 
pp. 625, 626.) 

Five Dolorous Mysteries {The). 
In Catholic theology. 

1. The agony of Christ in the olive 
garden. 

2. The scourging. 

3. The crowning with thorns. 

4. The burden of the cross borne to 
Calvary. 

5. The crucifixion. 

Five Glorious Mysteries {The). 

In Catholic theology. 

1. The Eesurrection. 

2. The Ascension. 



S. The descent of the Holy Ghost on 
the day of Pentecost. 

4. The assumption of the Virgin, body 
and soul, to heaven. 

5. The consummation of her glory by 
her triple coronation of grandeur, power, 
and goodness. See ' Crowns.' 

Five Good Emperors {The) of 
Eome, They succeeded the Flavian Em- 
perors {q.v.). They were Nerva, Trajan, 
Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus 
Aurelius. 

Five Hundred (T7ie). See 'Coun- 
cil of 500.' 

Five Hundred {The), or Les Cinq- 
cents, 1795. One of the two legislative 
councils of the ' Constitution of Year 
III.' in French history. Dispersed by 
Napoleon I. in 1799. See ' Council of 
500.' 

Five Hundred of Athens {TJie). 

The original number of the senate aj)- 
pointed by Solon was 400, a hundred for 
each tribe, but Klisthenes increased the 
number to 500. B.C. 401 the constitution 
of Athens was changed into an oligarchy 
of 500, but this state of things only lasted 
from March to June, when the democracy 
was restored. 

Five Joyous Mysteries {The). 

In Catholic theology. 

1. The annunciation and conception 
of the Word or Logos in the Virgin's 
womb. 

2. The visitation and influence of 
grace on John the Baptist, who ' leaped 
in the womb.' 

3. The birth in Betlilehem. 

4. The purification and offering made 
by Mary in the temple. 

5. Christ's visit to the temple at the 
age of twelve, when he was found by his 
mother among the doctors. 

Five Kings {The). I. b.c. 2598- 
2205, preceded by the three emperors, 
and forming the tenth or mythic period 
of Chinese history. The names were 
Chao-hao, Chouan-hio, Ti-ko, Yao, and 
Shun. In the reign of Shun is placed 
the great flood or inundation of China. 
Next followed the semi-historic period. 

II. In A.D. 990, five kings were simul- 
taneously conver:.ed to Christianity — 
viz. Olaf king of Sweden, Harold king of 
Denmark, Miczyslaf sovereign of Poland, 
Vladimir grand-duke of Muscovy, and 



330 



FIVE 



FIVE 



Geisa prince of Hungary. A European 
panic, that the world was coming to an 
end, some time between 901 and 1000, 
may account for the religious fervour of 
the times. Never were there so many 
kings entitled ' pious ' before or since. 

Five Kings of France {The). 

The five Directors, 1795. 

The five kings of France sit in their curule 
chairs with their flesli coloured breeches and 
regal mantles. — Atelier du Lys, ii. 

Five Members of the G-eneral 
Assembly {The). In 1(J05 James I. 
of England asserted his right to call 
and dissolve the General Assembly of 
the Church of Scotland; but several of 
the Scotch clergy resisted this innova- 
tion, and five of them were punished by 
banishment. See 'Arrest of the Five 
Members ' by Charles I. in 1642. 

Five Mile Act {The), 17 Car. II. 
c. 2, A.D. 1655. This act subjected 
every Nonconformist minister who ap- 
proached within five miles of any 
corporate town, or other place where 
he had been used to x^^'each, to a 
j)enalty of AOl., or six months' imprison- 
ment, unless he would take the oath that 
' he deemed it unlawful, under any pre- 
text, to take up arms against the king, 
and that he would in no wise seek to 
bring about any alteration of government 
either in church or state.' Abolished by 
the ' Act of Toleration ' in 1689. 

The act aimed at those who had been driven 
from their livings by the ' Act of Uniformity,' as 
well as at Nonconformists. 

Five l^ations (T/ie). The Iroquois, 

afterwards called ' The Six Nations,' q.v. 
See also ' Pentapolis,' ' History of the 
Five Nations ' (N.Y. 1727, 1866 ; London 
1747, 1755). 

Five Orders of the Clergy 

{The). 3rd cent, Subdeacons, Acolyths, 
Exorcists, Readers, and Ostiarii, said by 
the Church of Rome to be apostolic 
institutions. The duty of suh-deacons 
is to wait upon the deacons in divine 
service. In the Roman Church there 
are seven, in some churches many more. 
Acolyths did the menial work, such as 
lighting the candles, carrying the sacred 
vessels, bread and wine, &c. Exorcists 
had charge of the dtemoniacs. Headers 
read the scriptures in that part of the 
service in which the catechumens were 
admitted. Ostiarii were the door- 
keepers. 



Five Points {The), 1536. The five 

points of Calvinism are — (1) Absolute 
election and reprobation ; (2) particular 
and not universal redemption; (3) the 
grace of God is irresistible ; (4) the will 
is not free to choose or reject God's 
grace ; (5) the final perseverance of the 
saints. 

Or in brief thus : (1) Absolute election and repro- 
bation ;i'2) particular redemption; (3) irresistible 
grace ; (4) the will is not free ; (6) the perseverance 
of the saints. 

Five Propositions of the Jan- 

senists {The). The bishops of France 
subscribed a letter to Pope Innocent X. 
in condemnation of five heretical propo- 
sitions said to be contained in the 
' Augustinus ' of Jansenius. They are 
these : 

1. Some of God's commandments are 
impossible to be kept by the righteous. 

2. A man doth ever resist inward 
grace in the state of fallen nature. 

3. In order to merit, or not merit, it is 
7iot indispensable to have a freedom of 
will, but only freedom from restraint. 

4. The semi-Pelagians were heretics, 
because they maintained the necessity of 
an inward preventing grace. 

5. It is heretical to say that Jesus 
Christ died for all mankind. 

Five Races {Period of the), or in 
Chinese Woo-tae, 420-618. This period 
includes the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 
12th imperial dynasties, called Tseng, 
Tsee, Leang, Tchin or Chin, and Swi. 
From 420 to 534 the empire was divided 
into southern and northern, the former 
being the imperial line. From 534 to 
618 it was divided into the southern, 
eastern, and western empires. In 618 
the three empires were united again 
under the Swi dynasty. 

Five Sacraments {The). (1) Con- 
firmation ; (2) Penance ; (3) Orders ; (4) 
Matrimony ; (5) Extreme Unction. Ar- 
ticle XXV says ' these five are not to be 
counted [by the Anglican Church] for 
sacraments of the gospel, being such as 
have grown partly of the corrupt follow- 
ing of the apostles, partly are states of 
life allowed in the scriptures.' 

Five Successions {Period of the), 
or Heehoo-Woo-tae. This includes t:ie 
14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th imperial 
dynasties of China, called Hehoo-Leang, 
Hehoo-Tang, Hehoo-Tsin, Hehoo-H"iu, 
and Hehoo-Chew. The seat of empire 



FIVE 



FLAGELLANTS 



831 



was at Kai-fong-foo. It lasted from 
907 to 960. During all this period the 
Tartars held the north of the emi)ire. 
Tiie Five Successions gave way to the 
Song or Tsong dynasty, called the 19th, 
but the Tartars continued to occupy the 
north. In 1206 the Monguls established 
themselves in the west, and Teniou-gin 
assumed the title of Genghis Khan {i.e. 
supreme khan or over-lord). 

Five Thousand {The), b.c. 411. A 
nominal distinction which included all 
the citizens of Athens. In contradistinc- 
tion to the 500 oligarchs. It meant that 
Atliens was to be governed by all the 
citizens, and not by 500 only ; that its 
government should be democratic, and 
not oligarchical. 

Fives Court {The). The head- 
quarters of the ' fancy,' during the regency. 
It was in the neighbourhood of the Hay- 
market. There was another in St. 
Martin's Lane. In ' fancy ' slang the 
hand is called ' a bunch of fives.' 

Flag Captain, Flag Lieuten- 
ant. A captain or lieutenant in a flag 
ship. A flag lieutenant in the navy is 
about tantamount to the aide-de-camp of 
a general in the army. It is his duty to 
see that the admiral's orders are com- 
municated to the various ships of the 
sqiiadron. See ' Flag Officers ' in ' Diet, 
of Phrase and Fable.' 

Flag of the Prophet (The), or 
' Sanjak-Sheriff; 632. The sacred banner 
of the Mohammedans. Originally the 
white turban of the Koreish, captured 
by Mohammed. Subsequently a green , 
flag was substituted, being the curtain i 
which hung before the door of Ayesha, ! 
one of the prophet's wives. It is pre- ! 
served most carefully in a chapel or the ' 
seraglio, and watched over by several 
emirs. 

Flags {Modem National). 

America, field with seven red and six 
white stripes, and a blue canton with 
stars. ' Stars and Stripes.' 

AuHtria, red, white, and red (hori- 
zontally). A shield and crown in the 
white stripe. 

Belgium, black (next the staff), yellow, 
and red (vertically disposed). A device 
in the yellow stripe. 

Denmarh, a red field, with a white 
cross cutting it into quarters. 



France, blue (next the staff), white, and 
red (vertically disposed). 

Greece, a blue field with a white cross 
in the canton, and four white stripes. 

Holland, red, white, and blue (hori- 
zontally disposed). 

Mexico, a white flag with a black 
spread eagle, holding in its beak a green 
serpent. 

Norway, a red flag, quartered by blue 
and yellow stripes, and the first quarter 
crossed. 

Portugal, blue and white, vertically 
disposed (blue next the staff). Shield 
and crown in the centre. 

Prussia, a white flag with a black 
eagle and a small black Maltese cross in 
the top corner next the staff. 

Russia, a white flag with two blue 
stripes running from corner to corner 
like a St. Andrew's cross. 

Spain, red, yellow, and red (hori- 
zontally disposed). 

Sweden, a blue flag, quartered with 
yellow stripes. In the first quarter 
several crosses. 

Switzerland, a red flag with a white 
cross in the centre. 

Turkey, a red flag with a silver cres- 
cent and star with eight points. 

Venezuela, yellow, blue, and red 
(horizontally). A device in the yeUow 
stripe. 

See ' Standards,' and ' Black Flag,' 
• Red Flag,' ' White Flag,' ' Yellow Flag.' 

Flagellants. Fanatics who ap- 
peared at sundry times in Europe, and 
marched about in procession along the 
streets and public roads to appease the 
wrath of God. They marched two and 
two, singing dolorous hymns, mingled 
with groSns; and every now and tuen 
stopped to whip eacli other with 
scourges to ' atone for the sins of the 
people.' They first appeared in the 11th 
cent, under St. Peter Damian. Again in 
1268, when Reinier, a Dominican, formed 
them into a sect. Again in 1349, when 
Germany was attacked with the pesti- 
lence, called the Black Death {q.v.). 
Again in 1574, when Henri III. of France 
joined the sect. They still exist in Italy, 
France, Mexico, and New Mexico, but 
their number is small. 

The Flagellants were naked to the -waist, but on 
march threw over their shoulders a white cloak, 
hence they were called 'Blancs-battus.' They 
threw off the cloak when the scourging began, and 
insisted that ' Without shedding of blood there 
was no remission.' They called themselves the 



332 



FLAMINIAN 



FLEUR-DE-LIS 



Brotherhood of the Cross (q.v.), and -wore a cross 
on their breast, another on their back, and a 
third on their hat. 

Black Flagellants were so called from their 
black masks. 

Bluf Flagellants were so called from their blue 
mantles. 

While Flagellants were so called from their 
white mantles. See ' Blancsbattus.' 

Flamin'ianWay (T7i(9). The great 
high road made by Flaminius, the Censor, 
from Eome, through the Sabine country 
to Ariminium, B.C. 220. 

Flamrnoek's Rebellion, 1495, 
in behalf of Perkin Warbeck. The most 
formidable danger which ever threatened 
the throne of Henry VII. The rebellion 
was crushed out by the king's artillery 
at Blackheath. Thomas Flammock, the 
leader, was hanged at Tyburn in 1497. 

Flanders. In 862 erected into a 
coimty vmder Baldwin ' Bras-de-Fer,' 
continued to 1119. Then follow Charles 
I. of Denmark, 1119-1127, and WiUiam 
Clinton of Normandy, 1127-1128. 

The dynasty of Alsace and Hainault, 
1128-1405. 

The dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy, 
1405-1482. 

The Austrian dynasty, 1482-1506. 

Charles Quint in 1659 incorporated it 
with the seventeen provinces called ' The 
Circle of Burgundy.' Since 1830 it has 
belonged to Belgium. 

Flanders Mare {A Great). So 
Henry VIII. called Anne of Cleves, who 
was married to him by deputy, and sepa- 
rated by mutual agreement. Born 1515, 
married 6 Jan., and divorced 12 July, 
1540, died at Chelsea 1557, aged 42. 

Fla'via Caesarien'sis. One of the 

five provinces into which Britain was 
divided in the reign of Severus.* It con- 
sisted of the western portion of the 
island. It had a separa,te ruler, but that 
ruler was subject to the prefect, or 
governor-general, of the island. 

Flavian Emperors (The) of 
Eome. The successors of the Ctesars, of 
whom Nero was the last. After a year 
of anarchy, order was restored by Titus 
Flavins Vespasian, who gave his name of 
Flavian to the new dynasty, which con- 
sisted of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 
the 12th emperor. See ' Five Good Em- 
perors.' 

Flaxman G-allery (TJie). A col- 
lection of some 140 plaster casts modelled 



by John Flaxman, R.A., and presented 
by Miss Denman to the council of Uni- 
versity College, London. 

Fleet Marriages. Fictitious, clan- 
destine, or irregular marriages, in the 
17th and 18tli cents., solemnised without 
banns or licence in the Fleet chapel, or 
in some ' marriage-room,' dignified for the 
nonce with the name of chapel, generally 
some tavern. These marriages were 
performed by disreputable parsons who 
lived in the purlieus of Fleet Prison, 
which were not under the jurisdiction of 
the bishop. They were declared illegal by 
Lord-Chancellor Hardwicke's Act, which 
came into operation 2C March, 1754. 

March 25, the day before these marriages became 
illegal, as many as 217 marriages were celebrated 
and entered in one of the Fleet register books. 

Fleet Prison. A metropolitan 
prison abolished in 1842, and pulled down 
in 1845. It was situated on the side of 
the river Fleet, and was used for persons 
committed by the Ecclesiastical Courts, 
the Court of Equity, the Exchequer 
Court, and the Common Pleas. 

It was burnt by Wat Tyler in the reign of 
Richard II., issl ; again in the great Fire IGOJ ; and 
again in the Gordon Riots 17aO. 

Flemish Painters. 

Called Name 

Albrecht DUBER .... 1471-1528 
Lucas van Leyden {Lucas 

Dammesz) 1494-15S3 

Hans Holbein 1495-1554 

Otho van Veen (Otto-Venius) 1548-1588 
Sir Peter Paul Rubens . . 1577-1640 

David Teniers 1582-1649 

Jacob Jordaens 1594-1678 

Sir Antony Vandyck . . . 1599-1641 
Hermanszoon Eembrandt 

van Eyn 1606-1674 

Snyders (1579-1657) the great animal painter was 
contemporary with Rubexis. 

Fleshly School (The), 1871. A 
school of English poetry, of which the 
chief exponents areD. G. Eossetti, Swin- 
burne, Whitman, and Baudelaire. It 
means sensuous, voluptuous, amorous 
poetry, ' verging on nastiness.' The 
term was given to this school of writers 
by Eobert Buchanan in the ' Contempo- 
rary Eeview,' Oct. 1871. 

Fleur-de-lis {The), or 'Lily of 
France,' first adopted by Louis VII. le 
Jeune (1120, 1137-1180) as a symbol of 
the French monarchy. The royal stan- 
dard was thickly charged with the 



FLIGHT 



FLOEIDA 



833 



flower, but Charles VI. (1380-1422) re- 
duced the number to three. Tlie nature 
of the emblem is uncertain. Some think 
it is a bee, the emblem of the early 
kings — Clovis and his successors. Some 
fancy it is a toad or frog, whence 
Nostradamus calls the French crapauds. 
Some think it is the flower of the reed 
placed in the hands of Christ by the 
soldiers when they crowned him with a 
diadem of thorns. And some think it is 
an emblem of the Trinity, ' tria juncta in 
uno,' which probably is the basis of the 
symbol. 

Some heralds tell us that -when the Franks 
chose a king they raised him on their shields, 
and placed a reed, for sceptre, in his hand ; hence 
the ancient kings are represented holding a fleur- 
de-lis. 

Flight into Egypt {The), 14 Jan. 
The flight of the Holy Family from 
Bethlehem to Egypt, in order to escape 
the slaughter of the Innocents about to 
take place under the orders of Herod the 
Great. 

Flint Jack. A notable forger of 
prehistoric implements. 

Floating Debt. Government loans 
not funded, but to be paid off in full at a 
stated time. If the government is unable 
to meet the demand, the floating debt, or 
Buch part of it as cannot be met, is con- 
verted into funded debt — that is, a debt 
on which interest is paid by government 
either for a fixed term of years or for 
ever. The former is called terminable 
annuities, and the latter perpetual an- 
nuities. 

Flogged by Deputy. When Henri 
IV. of France abjured, and was received 
into the Catholic Church in 1595, two 
ambassadors were sent to Rome to do 
penance for him. They knelt in the 
portico of St. Peter's and sang the 
' Miserere,' a blow being given on their 
shoulders with a switch at each verse. 

Lesage, in his ' Gil Bias ' (v. 1) makes Raphael 
the deputy of the marquis's son ; but Raphael, not 
seeing the justice of the substitution, ran away. 
Strange as it may seem, yet is it sanctioned by 
both God and man. Thus for the sin of David 
thousands of his subjects were 'scourged' by a 
plague. And what else is the entail of Adam's dis- 
obedience '? 

N.15. Flogging in both Bervices was abolished in 
England in 188-2. 

Flood {Date of the). According to 



Septuagint 
Jackson . 
Hales 
Jo&ephus . 



. S-'4(; I Persian . 

. 3170 I Hindi'i . 

. 3155 Samaritan 

. 3140 Howard . 



2998 
2GJ8 



B.C. 

Clinton . . . 2482 
Playfair . . . 2852 
Usher . . . 2348 
Marsham & Calmet 2344 



Petaviua . . 2329 

Strauch. . . 2293 

Hebrew . . . 2288 

Vulgar Jewish . 2104 

Floral G-ames of Toulouse 

{The), 1 May, 1322. A literary con- 
test instituted at Toulouse for the en- 
couragement of poetry. The prizes con- 
sisted of flowers made of gold or silver, 
chiefly the violet, eglantine, marigold, 
amaranth, and lily. The poets who 
belonged to the institution were called 
' The college of the gay science.' The 
games still exist, and the prizes are given 
away every year on 3 May. 

Florentine Diamond {The). 
Weighs 139,^ carats, and is among the 
crown jewels of the Emperor of Austria. 
It has a slight citron tint, and is valued 
at 105,000^. It belonged to Charles the 
Bold, and after the battle of Granson was 
picked up by a Swiss, who thought it was 
a bit of glass, and sold it to a priest for a 
gulden. The i)riest sold it for 3 francs, and 
it was next bought for 200?. by Bartholo- 
mew May, a merchant who lived in Berne. 
May sold it to a Genoese for a large sum 
of money; Ludovico Sforza bought it of 
the Genoese for double what he had 
given ; it then came into the possession of 
Pope Julius II., and Pope Julius presented 
it to the Emperor of Austria. 

Flores Historia'rum, or ' Flowers 
of History,' by Matthew Paris, is in 
reality the work of Wendover continued 
by Matthew Paris. It begins at creation 
and goes down to 1238. Matthew Paris 
brought it down to 1259, and William 
Eishanger continued it still further. 

Florid or Perpendicular Style. 

Succeeded the Decorated English in the 
14th cent., as the Decorated had suc- 
ceeded the Early English or Lancet style 
in the 13th cent. The Florid style is so 
called from its profusion of ornamental 
detail. It is called Perpendicular from 
the perpendicular mullions of the windows, 
the lines of the panel-work, and the 
Tudor arch. One of the finest specimens 
is Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. Its 
best j)eriod was between 1375 and 1598. 

The Tudor arch was four-centred. St. George's 
Chapel, Windsor, and the nave of Canterbury 
Cathedral are good specimens of this style of 
architecture. 

Florida (U.S. North America). So 
called by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, 
because xt was discovered on Palm 



FLOWEK 



FLOWERY 



Sunday, called in Spanish ' [Pascua] 
Florida.' The nickname of the inhabit- 
ants in this state is Fly-up-the-Creeks. 

Flower Badges. Of Families. 

Blue cornflower, the badge of William 
king of Prussia. 

Erica cinerea, the five-leaved heath, 
the badge of the Macalisters. 

Erica Tefrdlix, the cross-leaved heath, 
the badge of the Macdonalds. 

Genista,ihe badge of the Plantagenets. 

Primrose, the badge of the Primrose 
League, in honour of Lord Beaconsfield. 

Mose (red), the badge of the Lancas- 
trians. 

Eose (white), the badge of the Yorkists. 

Violet, the badge of Napoleon and the 
French imperialists. 

Wild Strawberry, the badge of the 
Frasers. 

Flow^er Bad{;;e3. Of Nations. 

Athens . . . The Violet. 

Canada , . . Sugar-maple. 

England . . . Led Rose. 

Florence . . . Giglio (Lily). 

France . . . Iris Lily. 

Ireland . . . Shamrock-leaf. 

Prussia . . . Linden. 

Saxony . . . Mignonette. 

Scotland . . . Thistle. 

Wales . . . . Leek-leaf. 

As in England the Lancastrian badge was a red 
rose, and the Yorkist a white one, so in Florence 
the GueHs (or pa.pal party) adopted the red lilii, 
and the Ghibellines (or imperial party) a tihite one. 

Flo"Wer Symbols. Of Moral quali- 
ties. 

Box a symbol of Immortality. 

Cedar „ Fidelity. 

Corn-ears „ Holy Commtinion. 

Dates „ Faith. 

Grapes „ The blood of Christ. 

Holly-berries „ The Resurrection. 

I'v „ „ 

OUve „ Peace. 

Orange-blossom „ Virginity. 

Palm „ Victory. 

Hose „ Incorruption. 

Vine „ Christ our Life. 

A\ hite Lily „ Purity. 

Yew ,, Death. 

The amaranth, cypress, laurel, myrtle, oak, 
olive, asphodel, and rosemary are funereal plants. 

Flower of the Levant (The). ' II 
fiore di Levante,' Zante. 

Flower of the Sun (The). The 
Elixir of Life. The alchemists called all 
sorts of fiocculent substances obtained by 
distillation flower, hence we have ' flowers 
of sulphur,' ' flowers of benzoin.' The 
flower of the sun was a bright ruby stone 
called the ' philosopher's stone.' 

He that has once the ' Flower of the Sun,' 
Xhe perfect ruby which we call eiuir, 



Can confer honour, love, respect, long life ; 
Give safety, valour, yea, and victory 
To whom he will. In ^^^(ht-and twenty days 
He'll make an old man of four score a child. 
Ben Jon son. The Alehymist, ii. 1. 

Flower-pot Plot (^;^e), 1692. An 

infamous imposition got up by Young 
and Blackhead, who hoped to make 
money by it, like Titus Oates. These 
villains wrote an engagement to bring 
back James II. and seize William. 
Having forged the signatures of Marl- 
borough, Cornbury, Sancroft (the ex- 
primate), and Sprat bishop of Rochester, 
they secreted the document in a flovvei*- 
pot at the bishop's house at Bromley. 
The bishop was arrested, but denied all 
knowledge of the plot, and then Black- 
head confessed the forgery. 

Flower Sermon (The), May 18.51. 
Established by W. M. Whittemore, D.D., 
rector of the united parishes of St. 
Katherine Cree and St. James. It is 
usual to present nosegays, which are 
then sent to hospitals. 

Flowers. According to Herrick the 
ancient inhabitants of this island used to 
adorn their houses all the year round 
with green boughs. At Christtnas with 
bay, rosemary, and mistletoe, up to 
Candlemas day (2 Feb.) ; from Candle- 
vias to Easter with box ; at Easter with 
yew ; at Whitsuntide with birch and 
flowers, oaken boughs, and bent (a kind 
of grass). 

Flowers dedicated to Saints. 

Baneberry to St. Christopher. 

Be:\n (the common) to St. Ignatius. 
Corn-feverfew to ... St. Anne. 
Spider-wort to St. Bruno. 

Toyvort to the shepherds, for their purses. 
Valerian (blue) to Jacob, for his angels' ladder. 

Flow^ers referring to Saints. 

Briony (black) Our Lady's seal. 

Clematis The Virgin's bower. 

Hyacinth (blue) ... St. Dorothy's tears. 

Lily of the Valley ... Madonna s tears. 

Oleander St. Joseph's nosegay. 

Flowery Kingdom {The). China. 

Flowery Land {The), or 'Hwa 
Kwoh.' China ; meaning the ' flower of 
the world.' Certainly no land is more 
productive. 

It justifies the long-existent and always increas 
ing hope of foreigners that the Flowery Land would 
evenUially adopt this most speedy and effectual 
mode of locomotion. — Fung Yke, Nineteenth Cen 
tury, Feb. 1890, p. 225. 

Flowery Land Pirates {The), 
186-4. ' The Flowery Land ' was the name 
of the pirates' cutter. The captain, the 



FLY 



FOMORIANS 



835 



mate, and several others were murdered 

in tlie passage from London to Singapore. 
Five Spaniards were publicly executed at 
Newgate for this outrage. 

Fly {Killed by a). Adrian IV., the 
only Englishman who has been pope. He 
was Nicholas Breakspeare of Langley, 
aud succeeded to the papal throne in 1151 ; 
died, being choked by a fly, in 1159. 

Flying Company (TJie), 1561. 
Chosen troops of 100 musketeers for con- 
stant service, destined to act in defence of 
the Vaudois at any point where an attack 
was threatened by their Catholic perse- 
cutors. Two pastors always attended the 
' company.' 

Flying Dutchman {The), 1806, or 
' Ship of Doom.' The reflection of a vessel 
off the Cape of Good Hope, occasionally 
seen at a considerable distance, and re- 
garded by sailors with superstitious terror. 
The tale is that this mirage is the ship 
of Vanderdecken, who in 180(5 tried in vain 
to enter Table Bay, and swore he would do 
so, if he ' beat about the Cape till the day 
of doom.' Out of punishment his ship 
and crew were turned into phantoms, 
' beating about the bay,' and bringing 
evil to all who view the vessel. 

Flying Highwayman {The). 
Richard (Dick) Turpin, 1711-1739. To- 
day in town, to-morrow at York, the next 
dav at Chester, 'an alibi personified.' 
Hanged at York 1739. 

Flying Roll {The), 1175. A book 
compiled by James Jershom "White from 
the writings of Joanna Southcott and 
John Wroe. It is a jumble of texts from 
Genesis to Revelation, supposed to have 
a meaning known only to the initiated. 

Flying Squadron {The), 1705. 
Those members of the Scotch Parliament 
who professed to act independently, but 
soi;ght their own ends by joining one 
of the other two parties (Jacobites and 
revolutionists) as suited tliem. Their 
leader was the Marquis of Tweeddale. 

Fo, or Foe. The founder of a religious 
system in China which may be called 
?3addhism, or reformed Brahmanism. 
His birth is placed B.C. 1027. He taught 
as his fundamental principles truth and 
altruism, to take the life of no living 
creature, to abstain from wiue, not to steal 



or covet, to keep the body in chastity and 
temperance, and to believe in a future 
state. The priests are called ' Bonzes,' 
and live in monasteries. 

The orthodox or state religion of China is Con- 
fucianism (Yu) ; and there is a third system called 
Taoism, or rationalism. 

Fodrum Regale (3 syl.). Certain 
customary supplies of provisions, at the 
expense of the city where the German 
emperor resided when he visited Italy. 
See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' vol. i. p. 346. 

Folio {Tom). Thomas Rawlinson, a 
bibliophilist, who flourished 1681-1725. 

Folk Mote. The Court of the Hun- 
dred in Saxon England. It was held once 
a month, and was presided over by the 
alderman and bishop of the diocese. This 
mote was superior to the Hall Mote and 
inferior to the Shire Mote. 

In the Folk Mote all contracts for the sale of 
land were made ; and such crimes were tried as 
could not be judged by the lord of a tithing or 
town. 

Folkungs {The). A race of ad- 
ministrators in Sweden, somewhat like 
the French ' Mayors of the Palace.' They 
called themselves Jarls, and were in 
power from 1250 to 1387, when the 
regency of Sweden was given to Mar- 
garet, queen regent of Denmark and 
Norway. In 1397 by the' Union of Cal- 
mar ' the three kingdoms were nominally 
united in Eric, grand-nephew of Mar- 
garet ; but Sweden had separate adminis- 
trators from 1471 to 1523, when Gustavus 
broke from Denmark, and erected Sweden 
into an independent kingdom. 

Folkungs of Norway {The), from 
1319 to 1387. Like the Folkungs of 
Sweden these rulers were not kings, but 
resembled the ' Mayors of the Palace ' in 
French history. The Norwegian Folk- 
ungs were Magnus VIII., also Folkung 
of Sweden (1319-1350), Hako VIII. (1350- 
1380), and Olaf V. (1380-1387). 

Folly of Spain {The), or ' Folies 
d'Espagne.' A hvely dance tune. The 
dancers used castanets. The measure 
was a trois temps, and the movement 
moderately fast. 

Fomo'rians {The). According to 
Keating (p. 116), the original owners of 
Ireland. They supported themselves by 
fishing and fowling. When Partholan 
and his four sons, some 2,200 years before 
the Christian era, visited Ireland, these 



53C 



FONDATION 



FOOLSCAP 



Fomorians were found in the island. It 
is said they were an Iberian or Basque 
colony. Moore, in his ' History of Ire- 
land,' calls the Fomorians ' African sea- 
rovers, who infested the coasts of Ireland 
afte7- the extirpation of Partholan's race.' 
He says they stamped out the Neme- 
dians, held the island for 200 years, and 
were succeeded by the Firbolgs. Of 
course, this is only ' bardic history,' but 
the storming of Tor Innis by the Neme- 
dians is the subject of a very famous 
Irish poem. 

Fondation Montyon {La), 1825. 
Founded by J. B. Eobert Auget baron 
de Montyon, who gave 5 million francs 
aux convalescents sortant des hopitaux 
de Paris, qui auraient le jylus hesoin 
de secours. The money was invested, 
and brings an annual interest of 10,000Z. 
sterling. Everyone who has been in a 
hospital for five days receives 1 franc, 
and the bounty rises to 25 francs. 

rronovince, Lahfone-dah'-se-on Moan-te'-yone. 

Fondeurs, or ' Clippers.' Bands of 
robbers which disturbed France in the 
unsettled times of Charles VI. and VII. 
They were often accompanied by the 
ecorcheurs and other vagabonds. 

Fontainebleau {Treaties of). 

(1) 1542. A treaty of alliance between 
Francois I. and Gustavus Vasa. 

(2) 2 Sept., 1679. A treaty of peace 
between France, Denmark, and Sweden. 

(3) 10 Nov., 1785. A treaty of peace 
between Austria and Holland, by the 
'mediation of France. 

(4) 27 Oct., 1807. A secret treaty 
between Napoleon I. and Carlos IV. of 
Spain, for the deposition of the House of 
Braganza for refusing to accept the 
' Continental System.' By this compact, 
Portugal was partitioned between the 
Prince of Asturias and a young libertine 
named Godoy, chief minister of Spain. 

In 1()40, Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke and 
recalled the Duke of Braganza. The concordat 
between Napoleon and Pius VII. at Fontaine- 
bleau took place 25 Jan., Ibl3. 

FontangeS {A la). A style of head- 
dress in the reign of Louis XIV., in 
which long streaming ribbons were intro- 
duced. Mile. Fontanges (2 syl.) was maid of 
honour to Mme. de Montespan, and was 
a court favourite for a few months; but 
she died at the age of 20. 



Fontenoy {Battle of). See 'Fire 
First.' 

Fonthill Abbey. Was commenced 
by Beckford in 1795, and sold by him in 
1822. 

Foolisll. More foolish than Abu 
Gabshan. An Arabian proverb. Kofa 
made Abu Gabshan intoxicated, and in- 
duced him to deliver up the keys of the 
temple of the Kaaba, When he grew 
sober he saw the full evil of his folly, but 
it was too late. The tribe of Khozaab, 
which had been in possession of Mecca 
and its temple, were deprived of both 
by the Koreish, who retained possession 
till the time of Mahomet. 

Fools {Last of the titled) of France 
was L'Angely (1(320-1679), court fool of 
Louis XIII. He was of good family, but 
very poor. His satire was so caustic that 
he grew rich by the blackmail given him 
to purchase exemption from his sallies. 

Armstrong, court jester to .Tames I. and 
Charles I., was the last of the titled fools in Eng- 
land. He died 167-2. 

Fools' Fair, 14 Sept. Held in the 
Broad Gate, Lincoln, for the sale of 
cattle. Licensed by William and Mary. 
Called ' Fools' Fair ' because the time is 
so unsuitable for the purpose. Being 
harvest time, very few can attend it, and 
Lincohi at the time had no special trade 
or manufacture. See ' Fete des Fous.' 

Fool's-cap Livery {The), 1563. 
A badge livery adopted by the Calvinists 
of the Netherlands to show their con- 
tempt and abhorrence for Cardinal Gran- 
velle, a pompous, arrogant, bigoted 
churchman, sent by Philip II. of Spain 
to introduce Roman Catholicism into 
Holland and stamp out Calvinism. A 
party of young nobles, to show their con- 
tempt for this churchman, assumed a 
dress in ridicule of the cardinal's finery. 
It was something like that of a poor 
monk, of the coarsest grey cloth, without 
any ornament except that of a fool's cap 
and bells embroidered on the sleeves. 
This was in allusion to the cardinal's 
custom of calling the Flemings 'fools.' 
In a few days aU the Flemings assumed 
the new livery. 

Foolscap Paper. The smallest 
folio-sized paper. It used to have the 
royal arms in the water-mark, but the 
Bump Parliament ordered the water- 



FOOT 



FOEMULART 



837 



mark to he chariged for a fool's cap and 
bells. There seems to be a pun in the 
device from the Italian /of/ ^io cajJO (chief 
Qr full-sized sheet of paper). 

Foot of a Fine (The). The fifth or 
last part of a fine, containing all the 
matter, the day, year, and place, and be- 
fore vvliat justices the fine was levied. 
A corruption of the old French la pee or 
la 2)es - j5a/.r. After proclaiming the fine 
in the Common Pleas, the justice said, 
* Criez la pees ' {i.e. Proclaim the peace), 
and the Serjeant read the concord or 
agreement between the parties. The 
foot of the fine is, therefore, the j^aix or 
final agreement as stated by the countor 
or Serjeant. 

Foot-page, or * Foot-bearer.* An 
attendant in olden times whose duty it 
was to squat under the table of kings 
and other great men, and keep his mas- 
ter's feet warm, by rubbing them with his 
hands, nursing them in his lap, and even 
cherishing them in his bosom. 

The foot-bearer shall hold the feet of the king 
In his lap. from the time he [the king] reclines at 
the board t : 1! he goes to rest ; and he [the foot-pa ge] 
Ehall chafe them with a towel, and during all that 
time shall watch that no harm befalls the king. 
He shall eat of the same dish from which the king 
takes his food ; and shall light the first caudle 
before the King.— SOUTHEY, Madoc (note). 

Fops' Alley. A railed-off passage 
in front of the pit of the Italian opera- 
house, where dandies lounged who 
thought their figures showed more to ad- 
vantage in a standing posture than in 
a sitting one. They wagged their cha- 
peaux bi'as, and dropped their canes, and 
hallooed to their friends in the boxes, 
being thus an intolerable nuisance. 

Forbes Mackenzie Act (The), 
1833. For the regulation of public- 
houses in Scotland (16, 17 Vict. c. G7). Its 
object was to prevent grocers from being 
secret publicans, for no liquor is to be 
drunk on the premises where groceries 
are sold. No liquor is to be sent out 
from any hotel or inn on Sundays before 
six in the morning, nor after eleven at 
night. Some grace was allowed to 
travellers journeying either on pleasure 
or business. 

Foreign Canons. Such as did not 
officiate in the canouries to which they 
wore attached. They were the non-rec'- 
deutiary canons. 
15 



Foreign Enlistment Acts (The). 
In 1605 British subjects were prohibited 
from entering foreign service (3 Jac. I. 
c. 4, s. 18). £i 1835 the prohibition was 
suspended by order in council. 

The enlistment of foreigners into the British 
service was permitted in 1854 (18 Vict. c. 2). 

Foreigners' Friend (The). Der- 
mot king of Leinster, who brought over 
English and Welsh allies to assist him 
in regaining his throne, from which he 
had been driven by Tiernan O'Ruarc, 
lord of Breffny, in 1168. 

Forest Cantons of Switzerland 

(The), or the ' Waldstetten,' that is, 
Schwitz, Uri, and Unterwalden. 

Forester {Fannjj). The pen-name of 
Emily Judson (Chubbock), an American 
author. 

Forester (Frank). The pen-name 
of Henry William Herbert, an English- 
born American author. 

Forfeiture and Corruption of 
Blood. A law which existed before the 
Conquest, that a man guilty of treason 
forfeits his estates to the crown, and can 
transmit no title of dignity to his heirs. 

In America the law of ' Corruption of Blood ' 
cannot exist, for there are no titles of dignity 
teansmittable. 

i^orgeries (Literary). See under 
* Literary Forgeries.' 

Fork-Beard. Sueno (Swe-no) king 
of Denmark (985-1014). 

He exacted the tribute called Danegeld, and in 
1013 was crowned king of England. Tyfve-skeg or 
Fork-Beard was succeeded by his son Canute. 

Form of the Beads (The), 1538. 
Certain instructions for praying drawn 
up by Browne, archbishop of Dublin. 

Forma Pau'peris (In). By statutes 
passed in the reigns of Henry VII. and 
VIII., if a plaintiff swore he was not 
worth hi. beyond the clothes he was 
wearing, he luid counsel and attorney 
assigned him by the coui't gratuitously, 
and aU court-fees were excused him. 

Formula of Concord (The), or 
' Consensus,' 1576. Drawn up at Torgau ; 
suppressed at Brandenburg in 1614 ; re- 
published in Switzerland in 1675. 
Torgau, pronounce Tor-gow. 

Formulary, or ' Formula.' I. 1653. 
In which Innocent X. condemned the 
five propositions of Jansen taught in his 



838 



FORT 



FORTY 



famous book entitled ' Augtistlnus '{q.v.). 
He commanded tlie Jansenists to sub- 
scribe to it, but tlicy refused to do so. 

II. The formulary of 1665, in which 
Alexander VII. confirmed the formulary 
of Innocent X. The Jansenists still re- 
fused subscription. In 1668 Pope Cle- 
ment, to prevent a schism, withdrew the 
formulary, and this is called the ' Peace 
of Clement IX.' 

Fort Adjutant {A). A staff-officer 
in command of a fortress. They have an 
extra pay of is. 9d. daily. 

Forties {The), 1826. The forty shil- 
ling franchise of Ireland, repealed 1829. 
See ' Forty-shilling Freeholders.' 

Mr. O'Connell at the head of the priests and the 
' Forties ' was declared by the sheriff duly elected. 
— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng., year 18-28, p. 117. 

Mr. O'Connell had repeatedly declared that he 
■would not accept emancipation if the faithful 
• Forties ' were to be sacririced. He would rather 
die on the scaffold than submit to such a measure. 
—Ibid, year 1829, p.l42. 

Fortification [Permanent). The 
art of shutting in a circumscribed piece of 
ground, or a city, by defensive masses of 
earth and ditches, to resist the attacks of 
an enemy. Every plot of ground so 
fortified is supposed to be surrounded by 
a polygon of fortification, and the works 
constructed on any one side of this poly- 
gon constitute a front of fortification. 
The great mass of earth thrown up from 
the ditch inwards is the ramfart ; and 
the covering shot-proof mass of earth on 
the outer edge of the rampart is the 
paravet. The step of earth behind the 
parapet (about a foot high) is called 
the banquette. 

A rampart is about 7J feet high. 

Fortunate (The). So Philippe VI. 
de Valois was called, but his whole reign 
was a series of calamities. In this reign 
the French lost the battles of Sluys 
(Slu'iz) and Cre'cy. 

The French have been singularly unhappy in 
their royal ' pet ' names. 

Forty. This number is very con- 
Bpicuous in the Bible and Christian 
Church. 

1. It rained forty days and forty nights in the 
Flood.-Gen. vii. 12. 

2. IMoses twice fasted for forty days and forty 
n'glits— Eaod.xxiv. 18, &c. 

8. The spies sent to Canaan were forty days in 
Bearching the land. — Num. xiii 35. 

4. The Israelites wandered forty years in the 
■wilderness.— Ps. xcv. 10. 

5. Goliath defied the armies of Saul for forty 
days. — 1 Sam. xvii. 16. 

6. Elijah fasted forty days.— 1 Kings six. 8. 



7. Ezekiel bore the iniquities of the house ot 
Jacob forty days, a day for a year. 

8. Jonah cried to the Ninevites, ' Yet forty days 
and Nineveh shall be overthrown.' — Jonah iii. 4. 

9. Jesus fasted and was tempted forty days in 
the wilderness.— 3/tt«. iv. 2. 

10. Jesus tarried on earth forty days after his 
resurrection.— ^-(c/s i. 3. 

11. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus forty years 
after the .\scension. 

12. According to Church tradition Jesus was 
forty hours in the tomb. 

13. The Lenten Fast continues for forty days, 
from Ash Wednesday to Easter Sunday. Intro- 
duced into England by order of .Edbald king of 
Kent, A.D. 640. 

14. One of the saints of the Catholic Church is 
called ' Quadragesimus,' said to have been a 
shepherd, and under-deacon of Pa via. His day is 
26th Oct. 

If). St. Swithin's days of rain are forty. 

16. The Je'ws were forbidden to indict more than 
forty stripes on an offender. 

17. The martyrdom. See ' Forty Martyrs.' 

Forty (The). 1. 'I Quarantia.' A 
council of state, in Venice, between the 
Six Sages and 450 representatives, of 
whose origin and positive duties very 
little is known. It was a permanent 
body, which seems to have represented 
the chief families of Venice, and exercised 
criminal justice. In the best days 
the doge had a Council of Six, to 
which every bill was first submitted. The 
Six sent it to the Forty, or council of 
state, and then it was sent to the legis- 
lative assembly, consisting of 450 repre- 
sentatives. 

The 40 electors of the doge were in 1249 increased 
to 41 to prevent an equal division. The nomina- 
tion of these electors was very complex. The 
Grand Council first selected 30, who were reduced 
by ballot to 9. These 9 nominated 40, who were 
reduced by ballot to 12. These 12 elected 2.5, who 
were reduced by ballot to 9. These 9 elected 4.5, 
who were reduced by ballot to 11. These 11 elected 
the 41 electors, and the 41 electors chose the doge 
out of the Grand Council. 

II. Besides the council of state in 
Venice, there were three tribunals, each 
of which was composed of forty members. 
(1) The tribunal of appeal from the city 
magistrates ; (2) Another tribunal of 
appeal from the suburban magistrates; 
and (3) a high court of assize which took 
cognisance of aU criminal offences except 
treason. 

III. The Academic Fran^aise, founded 
by Richelieu in 1635, consists of forty 
members, neither more nor less. Its 
original intention was to fix and purify 
the French language. Membership is 
now the highest literary distinction which 
the nation can bestow. 

The election of the ' head administrator ' of the 
Theatre Francais to a seat among the ' Forty ' of 
the Academie is, after the lapse of 200 years, in 
atonement for the non-election of the founder him- 
self [M. Claretie elected 22 Feb., 1889].— 2^inefee»<A 
Century, July 1«89, p. 85. 



FORTY 



FORTY-TWO 



839 



IV. The English Academicians are 
called ' The Forty.' 

Mr. Faed lacked not backers all the way up and 
down among the ' Forty,' and Sir Frederick's 
threat of resignation had no terrors. — Truth, 
13 Jan., ISriT. 

V. One of the inferior courts of Athens 
consisted of 40 magistrates (ot reaaapd- 
Kovra), who went on circuit to settle con- 
troversies about money, actions of assault 
and battery, and neglect in attending the 
public assemblies. 

Forty Columns (TJie), or * Chihel 
Sutun.' A lofty erection still existing, 
but in a somewhat dilapidated condition, 
in 41^^ N. lat., on the route of the cara- 
vans from Bokha'ra to China (Heeeen, 
' Asiatic Nations,' vol. iii. p. 389). 

This is the ' Stone Tower' of Ptolemy.— Gees' ra- 
phia, bk. i., ch. 12. 

'Forty-five (The). The rising which 
took place in Scotland in 1745. It -vvas an 
attempt on the part of Prince Charles 
Edward Stuart to regain the throne of 
James II. Lewis Gordon, brother of the 
Duke of Gordon, was one of the adiierents. 

'Forty-five {Out in the). One of 
the Jacobites who had taken part in the 
rebellion of 1745, when the anti-Hano- 
verian furore ran very high not only in 
the Higlilands of Scotland, but also in 
England. 

He designated the rebellion of 1745 as the afair 
of '45 ; and spoke of one engaged in it as a person 
•who had been out in the forty -five. —Sit W. SCOTT, 
RedgatintU't. 

In the forty-five, that is, concerned or involved 
in the rebellion of 1745. 

I sutfered in the forty-five. — Jft.ch. x. 

A71 old 'forty-five mmi, one formerly concerned in 
the rebellion of 1745.— 16. 

Forty-hour Prayers, 1560. Made 
before the ' saint sacrement ' in the times 
of public calamities, jubilees, 'les jours 
gras,' and so on. At one time they lasted 
forty hours without interruption, because 
Christ was ' forty hours in the tomb.' In- 
dulgences were granted by Pius IV. to 
those who observed these pritres de 
quarante heures. 

Forty Martyrs (The), 320. The 
martyrs of the famous TJiundering Le- 
gion, condemned to death by Agricolaus 
for refusing to offer sacrifice at Sebaste, 
in Lesser Armenia, in obedience to their 
cominander Licinius. It is said that they 
■were exposed naked on the surface of a 
pond frozen over, and St. Basil tells us 
that they lay there for three days, and all 



their limbs were mortified by the cold 
(St. Basil, ' Homily ' 20, vol. i. p. 452). 

Forty-nine Men, or ' The Forty- 
nine Officers.' Protestant royalist offi- 
cers who had served Charles I. in Ireland 
before 1649. These officers by a declara- 
tion of Charles II. were to receive their 
arrears in lands at the rate of 12s. 6d. in 
the pound, and an equal dividend of 
whatever should remain of their se- 
curity. 

Forty - shilling Freeholders 

{The Irish), 1826. Men entitled to the 
elective franchise who swore that their 
tenement was equal to them in value to 
40.S. a year. A hut and small potato 
plot were sufficient to give a vote. In 
order to multiply votes farms were cut 
up into small holdings, whereby a large 
constituency was created scarcely re- 
moved from actual pauperism, and 
almost entirely under the command of 
the parish priest. Repealed 1829 (10 
Geo. IV. c. 8), after the Bill for the 
Emancipation of Catholics had passed. 

Till 14'29 universal suffrage prevailed, but votes 
were then confined to 40«. freeholders in the 
counties, and the qualification of a county mem- 
ber was the possession of a freehold worth 401. a 
year, equal to iOOl. at the present time. 

Forty-times Forty Churches 

{The City of), Moscow. 

Forty-two Articles {The), 1552, 
1553. The original number of the Arti- 
cles of the Church of England. In 1502 
seven were omitted, and the number 
was reduced to thirty-nine by the sub- 
stitution of four new articles. 

THE AKTICLES OMITTED. 

1. (Art. X.) Of Grace. No man is 
constrained to sin. 

2. (Art. xvi.) Of Blasphemy against 
the Holy Ghost. That is, perversion of 
' God's Word,' or malignant opposition 
to it. 

3. (Art. xix.) All men bound to keep 
the moral law. 

4. (Art. xxxix.) The resurrection of 
the dead is not past. 

5. (Art. xl.) The soul does neither 
sleep nor perish with the body. 

6. (Art. xli.) Of the millenarians. De- 
claring the dogma a fable derived from 
Jewish tradition. 

7. (Art. xhi.) Not all men wiU be 
saved. 

Xho new articles are the v., xii., xxix., and xxx. 

z2 



840 



Fosg 



FOUNDERS 



Foss of Ma'rius {The), b.c. 103. 
A canal cut by the soldiers of Marius 
when encamped against the Cimbrians. 
It ran from the rear of his camp on the 
right bank of the Rhone to the coast. 
Its object was to secure ready access to 
the sea. 

F6ujdarry Court {The). In India, 
the court of criminal law. The ' foujdar ' 
is a magistrate of police who takes cog- 
nisance of criminal matters. 

Foul Baid {The), 1417. The dis- 
honourable inroad ; referring to the raid 
of the Regent Albany on Roxburgh Castle 
and the town of Berwick while Henry V. 
was in France. The Dukes of Exeter 
and Bedford, with an English army, 
compelled Albany to raise both the sieges. 

The Duke of Albany was prime minister of 
Scotland to Robert I., Robert II., and James I. 
(fifty years); he ■was above eighty at his death 
(1419). 

Foul- weather Jack. The Hon. 
John Byron, admiral and navigator, who 
was noted for the tempestuous weather 
which pursued him in all his voyages 
(1723-1786). 

Founder of Cliristian Elo- 
quence {The). Bourdaloue (1632- 
1704), unrivalled for argument, method, 
and depth of thought. His ' Lent Ser- 
mons ' are the best known of his works. 

Founders of Religious Orders. 

Annunciades (numerous) 

— Celestes MariaVittoriaFornr.ri 

— of Bourges Jeanne de Valois 

— of Savoy Amadcus VI. 

Augustines Augustine of Hipi;o 

Barefooted Friars (nu- 
merous) 

Barefooted Alcantarines Ferdinand Gomez 

— Augustines Tommaso da Jeaus 

— Carmelites ... Theresa of Avila 

— Eremites or Erraites 

(several) 

— Franciscans ... ... Paolo of Foligno 

— Trinitarians Jean Bapiiste . de la 

Conception 

Benedictines Benedict of Nnrsia 

Bernardines Bernard of Clair vaux 

Brigettines or Nuns of Brigitte or Bridget ol 

our Holy Saviour S^veden 

Brothers of Charity ... Vincent de Paul 

Camaldules Romualdus 

Capucinsor Capuchins ... Matteo Baschl 

Carmelites(White Friars) John of Jerusalem 

— of Macon Margaret of St. Joseph 

Several others 

Carthusians Bruno 

Celestines Pierre de Moron [Celes- 

tine v.] 

Christian Doctrine ... Ippolite Galantini 

Cistercians ... Robert de Molesme 

Clarisses or Poor Clares Clare of Assisi 

Clercs Mineurs ... Francesco Caracciolo 

— Reguhers (Theatins) ... Gaetano of Chieti 

(Latin Tlirntr) 
—~ Of the Mother of God Giovauui Leonardl 



Clercs Somasques Geremia Emiliani 

Cluniacs Bernon abbe de Cluny 

Congregation of the Holy Frances Hary Paul 
Heart of Mary Liebermann 

— Holy Hearts Marie Joseph Coudrin 

— Holy Trinity Marie de la Croix 

— Son of Mary Louis Marie Baudouin 

— Very Holy Sacrament Louis Agut 

— Very Holy Trinity ... PhlUp Neri 
And several others 

{Gaston de Rente and 
Henri Michael Buch 
Daughters of Calvary „. Antoinette d'Orleans 

— Charity Vincent de Paul 

— Providence .... ... Marie de Lumagne 

And several others 

Doctrinaires Csesar de Bus 

Dominicans ... Dominic 

Feuillants . Jean de la Barriere 

Filies Dieu (originally 

ScEurs de St. Gervais)... 

Franciscans Francis of Assisi 

Fratres CellitaB or Mex- 

ians ... ... .. Mexius 

Frtres des Ecoles Chre- Jean Baptiste de la 
tiennes Salle 

— Mineurs Francis of Assisi 

Gilbertines ... ... Gilbert bishop of Mcaux 

Hieronimites of Fiesole Charles de llumene 

— of the Observance ... Loup of Olmedo 

— of Spain Thomas of Siena 

— of Umbria Pietro of Pisa 

Hopital de Mouzo Gerard Teinturier 

Hospitallers Gerard Tom 

Jesuits Ignatius Loyola 

Lazarists Vincent de Paul 

Liguorians ... ... ... Alfonso of Liguori 

Minims Francis of Paula 

Minorites Francis of Assisi 

Missionaries of the Pre- 
cious Blood Ga spar d del Bufalo 

Norbertines Korbert archbishop of 

Magdeburg 
Notre Dame de Refuge ... Elizabeth of Ranfaing 
There are thousands of institutions entitled 
Notre Dame 

Oratorlans Philip Neri 

Order of France Pierre de Eerulle 

— Mercy Pierre de Nolasque 

— Our Holy Saviour ... Brigitte or Bridget of 

Sweden 

— the Holy Cross Theodore of Celles 

— the Incarnate Word Jeanne Marie de .\iatel 

— the Perpetual Adora- Catherine Mechtilda da 

tion S. Sacrement 

— the Very Holy Trinity Felix de Valois 

And many others 
Ordre de Flore S. Joachim 

— de r(JEuvrede la Jeun- 

esse John Joseph Allemand 

— de Pulsano John of Mathera 

— des Servites Manetto, Sostenus, and 

five others 

— de Tres-sainte Trinite Jean de Matha 
Penitents Angela countess of Civi- 

tella 

Picpus Abbe Condrin 

Preaching Friars of S. 

Dominic Dominic de Gusman 

Premonstratensians ... Norbert archbishop of 

Magdeburg 
Priests of the Mission, or 

Lazarists ... ... Vincent of Paula 

EecoUets.ref ormed Fran- 
ciscans John of Guadalupe 

Redemptorists ... Alfonso of Liguovi 

Reformed Bernardines... Louis Perrucard de 

Ballon 
Eeligieuses Auxiliatrices 

des ames du Purga- 

toire Marie de la Providence 

Religious Hospitallers .. John de Dieu 
St. Fintan of the Order of 

St. Jerome Mary Garcias 

Second Founder of the 

i'illes de Ste. Genevieve Marie Bouneau 



FOUB 



FOUB 



841 



Seralnalres de la Provl- FranQois de Chancier- 



Sibiors of Charity of 

Joseph 

— of iUercy 



— of Ste. Anne 

— of St. Gervais 

— of the Hermitage 

— ot the lluly Family ... 

— of the Presentation of 
Mary, &c. 

Society of French Mis- 
sions 

Soeurs Grises 



Sylvestrians 
Tabcnnites .., 
Templars 



Trappists 

Terti uries of St. Francis 

Teutonic Kiiifclits 

Third Order of the 

Humble 

Urbanists 



Elizabeth .Vnne Bayley 
Marie Therese Char- 
lotte de Lainourous 
Jeanne de la None 
Franvois Armaud Ger- 

vnis 
Ursula Benincasa 
Marie Ue Kodat 

Marie Anne Kivier 

John Baptist Rauzan 
Marie Marguerite 7Jfi- 

jfost de LaJLtumuiais 

U-Youville 
Sylvester Gozzolini 

Hngues des Payens, 
Geoltrey de St. .\dhe- 
mar, and 7 otliers 
Rotrou count of Perche 
I'r.incia of Assi; i 
Frodtrick duke of 
Suabia 

Jean de Meda 
S. Isabolle (confirmed 
by Urban II.) 
Ursulines Angela of Merici 

Foundling Hosp'tal {The). Lon- 
don, 1739. Foundt'd by Capt. Coram. 

One established at IMiian in 787. 
„ „ at Pi-r.s in 1640. 

, „ at Siockhohn in 1763 by the 

Frtemasons. 

Four Ancient Books ofWales 

(T/ie). 'The Black Book of Carmar- 
then,' ' The Book of Aneurin,' ' The 
Book of Taliesin,' and the poetical por- 
tion of ' The Red Book of Hergest ' (q.v.). 
It was published in 18C8, with an 
En-rllsh translation, by the Rev. Canon 
Wiihams and the Rev. D. Silvan Evans. 

Four Articles (The). Drawn up 
by Bossuet in the reign of Louis XIV. 

1. The ecclesiastical power shall be 
subordinate to the civil power in France. 

2. The decision of a general council 
shall supersede the dictum of a pope. 

3. The church shall at all times con- 
form to local usages and municipal laws. 

4. The judgment of the pope even 'in 
matters of faith shall not bo binding 
unless ratified by a general council. See 
' Articles.' 

Four Attributes of Glorified 
Bodies {TJie). In Catholic tb>eology : 
Subtlety, agility, luminosity, and immor- 
tality (Mgr. GuEEiN, ' Vies des Saints,' 
vol. ix. p. 559). 

Four Burghs (The). Edinburgh, 
Stirling, Berwick, and Roxburgh ; noted 
for their ' Court of the Four Burghs,' 
superseded by the ' Convention of Royal 
Burghs,' 1187. 



Four Cardinal Virtues {The). 
In Catholic theology : Fortitude, justice, 
prudence, and temperance. 

Four Credenze {The). After the 
treaty of Constance {q.v.), 1183, Frederick 
Barbarossa introduced a podesta or dic- 
tator into Milan, not a native, and under 
him were four estates or credenze : (1) 
the old consuls and their officers ; (2) tlie 
capitani or higher nobles, with the arch- 
bishop of Milan at their head ; (3) the popo- 
lani or burghers ; and (4) the valvassori or 
inferior nobles. Soon these four estates 
practically resolved themselves into the 
aristocracy and ^proletariat or popolani. 

Four Creeds {The). Of theCathohc 
Church of Rome : The Apostles' Creed, 
the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian 
Creed, and the Creed of Pius V. 

Four Days' Battle {The), 1-4 
June, 1665. Between the English fleet 
under the jointcommand of PrinceRupert 
and the Duke of Albemarle, and the 
Dutch fleet under the command of De 
Ruyter and De Witt off the North Fore- 
land. The English lost ten ships and 
1,700 men killed and wounded ; the 
Dutch lost two admirals, seven captains, 
and 1,800 men, with fifteen vessels of all 
sorts. The Dutch claimed the victory, 
and without doubt had the advantage. 

Four Hundred {The), b.c. 411. 
The oligarchical legislature of Athens. 
This body formed an irresponsible 
government, and held its sittings in the 
senate house. In four months the con- 
stitution of the 400 was overthrown, and 
the govermnent placed in "the hands of 
5,000 citizens instead of the entire male 
population. 

A committee of five was first chosen ; this com- 
mittee chose ninety-five members ; and each of 
the hundred chose three. 

Four Hundred and Fifty {The). 
The legislative assembly of ancient 
Venice, chosen from the six quarters of 
the city. The privy council of the dogo 
consisted of the Six Sages ; the great 
council of state of forty members. 

Four Masters {The). Rhyming 
annalists of Ireland. The annals were 
compiled in the 17th century (1636) by 
Michael O'Clery, with the assistance of 
three other antiquaries. Harris tells us 
they are ' chiefly drawn from the annals 
of Clonmacnois, Inisfail, and Senat, as 
well as from other approved and ancient 



842 



FOUR 



FRA 



chronicles of Ireland.' A full acconnt 
maybe found in Mr. Pet Lie's ' Remarks 
on the History and Authenticity of tlie 
Autograph Original of the Annals of the 
Four Masters.' 

Four Points {The), 1854. (1) The 
cession of the Russian protectorate in 
the Principalities, and establishment of 
a European protectorate in its stead; 
('2) the free navigation of the Danube ; 
(3) an arrangement to put an end to 
Russian preponderance in the Black Sea, 
and for bringing the Ottoman govern- 
ment into harmony with European go- 
vernments ; and (4) the renunciation by 
Russia of a protectorate over the Chris- 
tian subjects of the sultan. 

Four Symbols {The), or standards 
in Catholic theology. 

(1) The Apostles' Creed; (2) the 
Nicene Creed; (3) the symbol of Con- 
stantinople ; and (4) the Athanasian 
Creed. 

The Constantinople formulary was made at the 
Council Oi Constantinople in 331, and is recited at 
mass. It is identical wioii the Nicene Creed, 
except in tlie one article aboat tli3 procession of 
the Holy Ghost from the father [Jilivzue). 

Four Vov/s of the Order of 
St. Francis of Paula. Poverty, 
chastity, obedience, and the quadra- 
gesimal life (i.e. the Lenten fast of 40 
days). 

Fou'rierism. The social system 
devised by Charles Fourier. He would 
divide men into groups of 400 families, 
and these gToups into series, and these 
series into phalanxes. A single group he 
would place ujider one immense roof, and 
there should be supplied every appliance 
of industry and art. No army would be 
required, no wars could ever break out, 
as all the world would be one great 
family. 

Fourteen Sa,intly Helpers 

{The). The fourteen saints to whose 
churches, between Bamberg and Coburg, 
annual pilgrimages were made, viz. 
George, Blaise, Erasmus, Vitus, Panta- 
loon, Christoplver, Denys or Dionysius, 
Cyriacus, Aciiatius, Eustace, Giles or 
^gidius, Margaretha, Catharine, and 
Barbara. 

Fourth Estate {The). The news- 
paper j)ress. The ' three estates of tlie 
realm' in the legislature are the lords 
Bpiritual, the lords temporal, and the 
coiuiuons. The newspaper press as a 



power may well be called * the fourth 
estate,' with a moral power far greater 
than the other three. 

Fourth of July {The), or 'Tlie 
glorious Fourth of July.' In American 
history is glorious as being the day of 
the Declaration of Independence (177G). 

Fowler {The). Heinrich I. of Ger- 
many is so called, because he was flying 
his hawks on the slopes of the Harz 
mountains when the messengers came to 
tell him he had been chosen king. 

Fox {A). An old English broadsword. 
So called because it bore the figure of a 
fox, the rebus of a famous sword-maker. 

Come, come, comrade, . . . put np your fox, and 
let us be jogging.— Sir W. Scott, Kcnilicorth, ch. iv. 

0)1 point of fox. 'By the sword's 
point.' 

Thou diest by point of fox. If thou compst 
a-pryingto this tower once more. -Ibid. ch. xxix. _ 

(Probably, ' fox ' is the Latin falx, 
wiiich is the Greek nekeKvs, a hatchet, 
axe, or pruning-knife.) 

Fox {The). A vessel of 170 tons 
burden, fitted out by Lady Franklin, and 
committed to the charge of Capt. 
HcClintock, to go towards the North 
Pole to ascertain if anything could 
be learned of the fate of Sir Jolin 
Franklin or his two sliips, the ' Erebus ' 
and ' Terror.' On 6 May, 1859, was dis- 
covered in a cairn a document stating 
that Sir John Franklin had died 11 June, 
1847. Numerous relies of the two crews 
were brought home and publicly ex- 
hibited in London. It was also ascer- 
tained that Sir John had discovered the 
long-sought-for North-west Passage. 

'Fox's Martyrs.' The 120 sup- 
porters of Charles James Fox who lost 
their elections when parliament was dis- 
solved 25 March, 1784. 

Foxites (2 syl.). Quakers, followers 
of George Fox, founder of the sect (1024- 
1090). 

His muzzle, formed of opposition stuff, 
Firm as a l''o\ito, would ujt lose its ruH, 

Peteb PiNDAii, The Hazor-stiUer. 

Fra Dlavolo. Michele Pezza, one 
of the leaders in the Calabrian insurrec- 
tion. In 17^1) Cardinal Ruffo made him 
a colonel. He was taken captive by the 
French, and was hanged at Naples in 
1806. 

Fra Moria'le (4 syl.). Montreal 
d'Albano, proven^al condoltiere, died 



FKANCE 



FEANCISCANS 



843 



1354. Being sentenced to death by 
Rienzi, he ' summoned ' the tribune to 
follow him within a month, and within a 
month Bienzi was killed by the fickle 
mob. 

France, (a) The three Boyal dy- 
nasties of France : — 

I. The Merovingian race (420-752), 
gives 34 sovereigns (including Phara- 
niond"). 

II. The Carlovingian race (752-987) 
gives 16 sovereigns. 

III. The Capetian race (987-1848) 
gives 37 sovereigns. But the Eepublic 
was 1792-1804 ; the Empire of Napoleon I. 
was 1S04-1814. In 18i8 Louis Napoleon 
was president, and emperor 1852-1871. 
In 1871 a republican form of govern- 
ment was established. 

The Capetian dynasty was often in- 
direct. The first nine kings were in 
direct descent. Then came Philippe III. 
Le Hardi, called the Philippine line, 
1270-1285 ; the elder branch gave five 
kings, 1285-1C28 ; the Valois branch gave 
seven kings, 1328-1498; then followed 
the Valois-OrlJans branch, Louis XIL, 
1498-1515 ; then the Valois-Angouleme 
dynasty of five kings, 1515-1589 ; then 
the Bourbon race from 1589. Louis- 
Philippe was Bourbon-Orleans. 

{b) The six great peers of France. In 
the time of Henri I. (1031-lOGO). The 
Duke of Burgundy, the Duke of Aqui- 
taine, the Duke of Normandy, the Count 
of Champagne, the Count of Flanders, 
and the Count of Toulouse. Eacli of 
these peers had almost equal power with 
the king himself. 

According to Ronsard (Frnnciadt), the Franks 
•were so called from Francion, son of Hector of 
Troy. Of course this is a poet s fahle. 

Franchi {Ausonio). The pseudonym 
of Francesco Bonavino, the Italian phi- 
losopher. 

Francis II. (Frjfnz). Emperor of 
the Romans and king of Gex'many. From 
6 Aug., 1806, called ' emperor of Austria ' ; 
born 1768, died 1835. He reigned as 
kaiser-king of Germany, 1792-1806 ; as 
emperor of Austria, 1806-1835. 

Father, Leopold II. ; Mother, the 
Infanta Maria Louisa ; Wives, Elizabeth 
of Wiirtemberg, mother of Ferdinand 
his successor, who abdicated ; Maria 
Theresa, mother of Maria Louisa, who 
married Napoleon I. ; Maria Louisa of 
Austria; and Charlotte Augusta of 



Bavaria. Francis II. was brother of 
Marie Antoinette, the unhappy wife of 
Louis XVI. of France, both of whom 
were guillotined. 

He gave up the Netherlands and Lombardy by 
the treaty of Campo Formio, but received Venice 
17 Oct., 1707. 

Gave up all his possessions on the left bank of 
the Rhine by the treaty of Luneville, 3 Feb., 1801. 

Gave up aU his Italian states, buabia, and the 
Tyrol, by the treaty of Frcsburg, 26 Dec. 1SC5. 

Renounced the dignity of emperor of Germany, 
but retained that of emperor of Austria, 6 Aug., 
iKOi;. 

End of the Holy Boman Empire, 1806, after last- 
ing lOOG years. 

Francis - Joseph (Franz- Joseph), 
Emperor of Austria and king of Hun- 
gary and Bohemia. Born 1830, reigned 
1848- 

He succeeded his uncle Ferdinand, 
who abdicated in 1848. Father, Francis 
(younger brother of Kaiser Ferdinand), 
son of Francis II. ; Wife, Elizabeth of 
Bavaria ; contemporary with Victoria. 

His son Rudolph, heir apparent to the throne, 
■was born 1858, married Stephanie of P.elgium 1881, 
and put an end to his life in Feb., 1889. 

Franciscans {The), or 'Fratres 
Minores,' 1209. Followers of the rule of 
St. Francis of Assisi, originally divided 
into ' Conventuals ' and ' Observantins.' 
The Conventuals lived in convents and 
monasteries ; the Observantins [q-v.) were 
hermits, and in France were called Cor- 
deliers, from the cord which they used 
for belt. The strictest of the Observan- 
tins were barefooted. 

lie collets of Spain were formed in 
1500 by Father John of Guadalupe. ' Le 
nom Becollets fut donne a ces religieux, 
parce qu'ils vivaient dans des convents 
solitaires, et qu'ils faisaient une profes- 
sion plus spe'ciale de la pratique de la 
retraite et de recueillement ' (Gu£rin, 
' Pet. Boll.' xii. p. 43). 

Pveformed Cajnicins of Tuscany, 1525; 
formed by Matteo Baschi of Urbano. 

The Capucins 'ont une piece sur le 
derriere de leur habit, comme S. Fran- 
cois le recommande dans son testament.' 
They have long beards, but St. Francis 
himself had a very short beard. Both 
the Be'collets and the Capucins wear a 
brown dress, but Cordeliers a black one. 

Second Order of St. Francis: The 
Clarisscs, or followers of St. Clair. 
They were called, in France, ' Urbanists,' 
because they obtained their constitution 
from Urban IV. (in 1203), but generally 
they went by the name of ' The poor 
sisters Clarisses,' or the ' poor Clarisses.' 



844 



FRANCO-AUSTKIAN 



FEANCONIA 



The Minories of London were so called 
from the Minory convent of Clarisses. 

The Grey Sisters of Flanders were 
Franciscans who originally dressed in 
grey, but subsequently adopted either 
white, black, or dark blue. They took 
on themselves the vows of poverty, 
chastity, and obedience. 

Thikd Order, instituted by St. Fran- 
cis in 1221, for both sexes. These Fran- 
ciscans followed their own vocations, 
married and were given in marriage. 
The Dominicans, Augustines, Minims, 
Carmelites, and Servites, all had a 
similar order. 

Penitents were of this order, instituted 
in 1397 by Angela countess of Civitella. 
' Eecollettines ' are reformed Penitents. 

Nurses of hospitals, asylums, &c., who 
took on themselves the vows of chastity, 
poverty, and obedience to the bishop of 
the diocese. They went by various 
names. In Spain, %Iinimes infirmiers, 
or Obrcgons, from Bernardin Obregnn of 
Madrid. In Flanders, les Bons-Fieux or 
Bons Fils. 

Mgr. Guerin (vol. xii. p. 44) tells us there were 
1,500 'maisons de Franciscains ' and dyO.OOO reU- 
qieux in England in lasO. Introduced into England 
in 12-24. Some Franciscan tertiaries live in con- 
vents. 

They -were called ' Grey Friars ' from the colour 
of their dress, as the Dominicans were called 
' Black Friars,' and the Carmelites were called 
' Vv'hite Friars. They were in everlasting antago- 
nism with the Dominicans ever since 1250. 

Franco- Austrian "War {The), 
1859. Between France and Austria, to 
deprive the latter of Italy. France was 
victorious. Total loss of hfe, 40,000. 
Cost of the war, 60,000,000Z. sterling. 

Franco -Prussian "War {The), 
1870, 1871. Between Napoleon III. 
emperor of France, and Williain I. king 
of Prussia. The French were defeated in 
every great batule and in every siege. 
The chief battles were those of Weissen- 
burg, Worth, Saarbriick, Vionville, Gra- 
velotte, Beaumont, and Sedan. By these 
victories William I. became German 
emperor. This is called ' The Six 
Months' War ' (from 28 July, 1870, to 28 
Jan., 1871). Total cost of the war, 
500,000,000?. sterling. Total loss of hfe, 
225,000. William I., who was king of 
Prussia, added to his titles ' German 
emperor' {Deiitscher Kaiser). 

Francois I. le Grand. Also called 
* Le Pere des Lettres.' Of the Capetian 
dynasty, and second of the Valois-An- 



goulome line (1494, 1515-1547). The 
Renaissance iDeriod. Francois I. 'had 
the largest nose in France, except his 
jester ' (Tribnulet). 

Father, Charles comte d'Angouleme 
(great-grandson of Charles V. and cousin 
of Louis XII., whom Fi'an^ois succeeded); 
Mother, Louise of Savoy ; Wives, Claude, 
daughter of Louis XII., mother of Henri 
II. his successor, and Eleanore, widow 
of Emmanuel of Portugal, and sister of 
Charles-Quint, emperor of Germany. 
Contemporary with Henry VIII. and 
Leo X. His first mistress was the 
Countess of Chateaubriant ; his second 
was Mdlle. Heilly, created duchesse 
d'Etampes (that is, she was married, 
under cover, to Jean de Brosse, who was 
requited by being made due d'Etampes). 
Another of his mistresses was La belle 
Ferronniere, the nominal wife of one 
Ferron, an ironmonger. 

Charles V. had two sons, Charles VI. and 
Louis due d' Orleans. 

From the former descen4od in direct line 
CiiAKLES VII., Louis XI. his son, and Charles 
VIII. No surviving issue. 

Louis due dOrleans had also two sons— viz. 
Cha,rlGS due d'Orleans and Jean d AngouIi''nie. 

Louis XII. was son of Claarles due d Orleans. 

,Tean d'Angouleme had for son Charles d'Angou. 
leme, whose son was FRAN90IS I. 

Francois II. of France (1543, 
1559-GO).' Was son of Plenri II. and 
grandson of Francois I. While dauphin 
he married Mary Stuart, daughter of 
James V. of Scotland. After his death 
the widow became queen of Scots and 
married her cousin Henry Darnley. Coiv- 
temporary with Elizabeth. 

Franc o'ni (Roi). Joachim Murat. 
So called by Napoleon for his theatrical 
display. Franconi was a pompous, con- 
ceited director of one of the minor thea- 
tres of Paris. Murat, though undoubtedly 
intrepid, was extremely vain, and used 
to parade the streets of Naples in silks 
and satins like a theatre king (1771- 
1815). 

Franco'nia. A large district of Ger- 
many lying north and south of the river 
Main, originally peojiled by the Franks. 
In the early part of the empire this pro- 
vince enjoyed the privilege of electing 
the king of Germany within its own ter- 
ritory, and of crowning him by the hands 
of its own archbishop (Mainz), primate 
of the empire. In 912 Konrad I., count 
of Franconia, succeeded the Carlovin- 
gians in Germany, but gave them only 



FEANCONIA 



FEATICELLI 



845 



one Iring ; but after the extinction of the 
Saxon djTiasty, the house of Franconia 
succeeded in the person of Konrad II., 
and suppUed Heinrich III., IV., and V. 
The house of Hohenstauffen was a branch 
of the same powerful hne. At the close 
of the Hohenstauffen dynasty Franconia 
rapidly declined, and no\v forms a part 
of the kingdom of Bavaria. 

Franconia {House of). Repre- 
sented in Germany by one king, Konrad 
I. of Franconia (912-918). Succeeded 
by the house of Saxony. Another house 
of Franconia reigned in Germany (1024- 
1106) , represented by Konrad II., Heinrich 
III., and Heinrich IV. 

Frangistan. The country of the 
Franks. Europe generally was so called 
by the Saracens. 

others have made private offers ... to disjoin 
tlicir forces from tlie camp of the kings of Fran- 
gistan.— Sir W.Scott, The Talisman, chap. xv. 

Frank Pledge. A law which pre- 
vailed in England before the Conquest, 
whereby every member of a tything was 
held responsible for the good conduct of 
everyone within the tything. Hallam 
says ' ten men in a village were made 
answerable for each other.' 

Frank Tenements, or ' Freeholds.' 
Lay tenements which were divided into 
knight-service and free-socage. The 
former of these was divided into knight- 
service proper, grand-sergeanty, comage, 
&-C. Free-socage w^as divided into petit- 
sergeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavel- 
kind. 

Sergeanty means service rendered to the king. 
Grand-sergeanty was personal service, petit-ser- 
geanty was a money or other payment as rent. 
This payment miglit be merely nominal, as the 
delivery of a corn of wheat or small tuft of grass, 
a fish, a flag, and so on. 

Franks of Walla'chia (Ths), 
1750. A politico-religious secret society, 
founded by Frank, a neophyte of Walla- 
chia. He preserved the Jewish doctrines 
and the Roman Catholic ritual. He was 
interred at death with royal honours, 
and his daughter became the Sovereign 
of the Faitliful. The members of this 
sect are very numerous. 

Frankfort {Treat y of), 10 May, 
1871. A treaty of peace between Ger- 
many and France after the terrible 
Franco-German war. 

Franking Letter,"-. Sending let- 
ters by post free of charge. This pri- 



vilege was claimed by the House of 
Commons in 1660, when the post-office 
was first legally established. Each 
member of parliament was entitled to 
send ten letters a day (not exceeding an 
ounce in weight) to any part of the 
United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen 
free. Members used to give franks to 
their friends, relations, and constituents. 
Abolished in 1840, when the uniform 
penny-post was introduced. 

Cabinet ministers still send letters free of post, 
and letters from and to the post-olQce general ard 
all free. 

Franklin {Benjamin), 1706-90. 
Aged 84. Turgot happily said of him : 

Eripuit ccbIo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. 

' Eripuit coelo fulmen ' refers to his 
lightning conductor, and the latter clause 
to the part he took in American mde- 
pendence. 

Fraternelle {La), 1793. A society of 
Parisian women, which met under the 
roof of the Jacobins. Each woman car- 
ried a dagger. 

These were female patriots, whom the Girondins 
called 'Megceras,' and count to the extent of 
8,000 ; with serpent-hair all out of curl, who have 
changed the distaff for the dagger. They are of 
the Societj. called FraierncUe, w hich meets under 
the roof ofthe Jacobins.— Carlyle, French lieculu- 
tioii, vol. iii. bk. iii. 7. 

Fraternity of St. G-eorge {The). 
A military order established in the reign 
of Edward IV. for the defence of the 
Irish Pale, or the four counties of Dublin, 
Meath, Kildare, and Louth. It consisted 
of 40 knights, 40 squires, and 120 archers. 

In the time of John the Pale contained twelve, 
counties. 

Frates'clli(T7ip),or 'Piagno'ni.' The 
disciples and friends of Savonarol'a, or 
the republican party of Florence. 

Fraticelll {The). A section of the 
Italian Franciscans, founded by Father 
Maurato and Father de Fossombroni, 
who lived as hermits, and observed the 
rule of St. Francis in all its rigour. 
Tire Fraticelli gave out that the Church 
of Rome is the Babylon spoken of in 
the Book of the Revelation; that the 
rule of St. Francis was the rule observed 
and enjoined by Christ ; that the sacra- 
ments are inutile ; and that the per- 
fection of the Christian regime is abso- 
lute poverty. This schism had a material 
tendency to lower the tem.poral authority 
of the papacy, and helped greatly to pave 



Me 



FRATEES 



FEEE 



tlie way to the Reformation. They were 
joined by the Beghards {q.v.). 

Sometimes the Fratres Minores are called Fra- 
ticelli, which means about the same thhig. The 
term is also applied by way of contempt to the 
Catharists, Waldenses, and other ' heretics.' 

Fratres Cellitae. A rehgious order 
pretty common in G-ermany and the 
Netherlands ; sometimes called Mexians, 
from Mexius, their fomider. 

Fratres Conversi. Lay monks 
{q.v.). 

Conversi proprie dicebantur, qui a sseculari 
vita, quam aliquandiu professi fuerant, vitsm 
monachicanm amplectabantur, et ad morum con- 
versionem veniebant. Ditterebant a Kutritis, qui 
scilicet ab infantia in monasteriis enutriti ean- 
dem vitam amplexati erant. — Du Cange, vol. ii. 
p. 703, col. 1. 

Fraunhofer's Lines. The dark 
lines of a solar spectrum, first carefully 
observed and measured by Fraunhofer in 
1815. 

Frederick. For German kings see 
Friedrich. 

Frederikshamn, in Finland 
{Treaty of), 17 Sept., 1809. A treaty of 
peace between Sweden and Russia, by 
which Sweden ceded Finland to Russia. 
Charles XIII. of Sweden also promised 
his adhesion to the ' continental system,' 
and closed her ports to British commerce. 

Free Bench {The). I. The place 
where a lodge of the Vehmgericht {q.v.) 
Was held. See ' Frei-graf s. 

II. A widow's dower in a copyhold. 

Free Burghers. Judges, with the 
Frei-graf s, in the Vehmgericht (q.v.). The 
president was called the grand master. 

Free Church of Scotland {The), 
1843. That part of the Presbyterian 
Church which resists all interference with 
the free choice of ministers by the con- 
gregations over which they are called to 
preside. No patron, no board, no trustees 
can present. They may nominate, but 
cannot over-ride tlie will of the congrega- 
tion. Between 18-CO May as many as 
470 ministers and professors signed an 
Act of Separation, thus renouncing all 
claim to the benefices which they held. 
See ' Seven Ministers,' ' Veto,' ' Volun- 
tary Controversy,' ' Non-Intrusionists.' 

The chief leaders were Drs. Chalmers, Chandler, 
Candlish. Welsh, Buchanan, and Gordon, with 
Messrs. Guthrie, Cunningham, and Dunlop. 

Free Communionists, or 'Open 
Communionists.' Those Baptist dissen- 
ters who admit other orthodox Christians 



to partake with them of the Lord's 
Supper. John Bunyan, author of ' Pil- 
grim's Progress,' was a 'Free Com- 
munionist.' See * Close Communionist.' 

Free Coup. A term applied in Scot- 
land to a piece of waste land where rub- 
bish may be deposited free of charge. 

Free Lances [Middle Ages]. Mili- 
tary rovers collected together under a 
free captain, and hired out by any 
government which wanted a ready-made 
army. In Italy they were called condot- 
tieri ; in France they were called Com- 
pagnies Gr ancles. 

Free Methodist Church {The), 
1860. Their distinctive points are sim- 
plicity in dress, free pews, extempore 
preaching, no instrumental music, no 
choir. They are Wesleyans in doctrine. 

Free Socage. Free tenure of land. 
It was divided into petit-sergeanty, 
tenure in burgage, and gavelkind. 

Free Trade, 1779. This phrase was 
coined by Grattan in the Irish Parlia- 
ment, and referred to the restrictions 
placed on the Irish trade by the British 
Parliament. 

In the reign of Charles II. acts were passed pro- 
hibiting the Irish from sending to England either 
cattle, provisions, or manufactures. As labour 
was cheaper in Ireland, the English tradesmen, 
farmers, and manufacturers thought they would 
be ruined by Irish competition. Free Trade meant 
the liberty of trading freely with England. 

Free Trade Battle {The). The 
struggle for the reform of our customs 
and excise laws, which culminated in the 
abolition of the corn laws in 1816. The 
battle may be divided into four periods : 
(1) From 1822 to 1830, in Avhich Huskis- 
son was the moving spirit ; (2) from 1830 
to 1840; (3) from 1840-1846, when 
Villiers, Cobden, Sir Robert Peel, John 
Bright, and Lord John Russell were the 
most prominent characters ; and (4) from 
the rej)eal of the corn laws in 1846 
onwards. 

No nation has followed suit, although Cobden 
predii;ted all would within twenty years. On the 
contrary, all nations of Europe. America, and even 
our own colonies, think Free Trade a great politi- 
cal mistake (1.S90). 

Free "Will. The Arminians in- 
sisted on the freedom of the will to 
choose the right and reject the wrong. 
Calvinists are what is called ' Necessi- 
tarians,' i.e. they deny that the will 
is free. If the propensities of a man 
are evil, his will is enslaved by his evil 
propensities; if his heart has been 



FEEEMAN 



FREETHINKING 



847 



chnnged by conversion, his will acts in 
obedience to the Spirit of God withiu him. 
Freeman {Mr. and Mrs.). The 
Princess Anne and Duchess of Marl- 
borough mutually agreed to abandon all 
formalities and court etiquette in t.'iclr 
intercourse with each othei". To this end 
Anne and her hushand were to be called 
' Mr. and Mrs. Morley,' while the Duke 
and Duchess of Marlborough were to be 
called ' Mr. and Mrs. Freeman.' 

Freeman's Roll (The), 1832. A 
list of the Freemen (q.v.) made out by 
the town-clerk of a borougli or nuinicipal 
town (5, 6 Wm. IV.c.76). As the Reform 
Bill did not disfranchise the freemen, a 
list was kept of those then living that 
they might still retain their municipal 
rights ; but no new freeman was admitted, 
and the old ' citizens ' gradually died 
out. See ' Burgess Roll.' 

"FreemaBoniThe Female). The Hon. 
Mrs. Aldworth of Newmarket, co. Cork, 
the youngest child and only daughter of 
the Right Hon. Arthur St. Leger (created 
Viscount Doneraile 2B June, 1703). The 
lady concealed herself, it is said, in a 
clock-case, got frightened, and thus re- 
vealed her presence. It was resolved by 
the brotherhood, to prevent further mis- 
chief, to receive Mrs. Aldworth into the 
craft (nee Elizabeth St. Leger). 

In 1882 Mdlle. Marie Deraismes was received into 
the Grand Orient Lodge of Paris. 

Freemasons. Grand Lodge held 
at York, under the patronage of King 
Edwin, A.D. 926. Henry VI. entered the 
order in 1442. Duke of Sussex was 
gi-and master 1813 to 1843. Besides 
Edwin and Henry VI., Edward the Con- 
fessor, Henry VII., William III., and 
George IV. were ' free accepted masons.' 
So were St. Dunstan, William of Wyke- 
ham. Sir Thomas Gresham, Inigo Jones, 
Sir Christopher Wren, and a host of 
others whose names are household words. 

First French Lodso. at Paris 1725 

First American Lodge . . . . „ . . 1730 

First Gf^rman Lodge, at Hamburg .. .. 17.S5 

Grand Lodge of Scotland .. .. .. .. 1736 

Freemasonry. The tenets and sys- 
tem of tin Freemasons: 'I'exercice de 
la bienfais mce, I'e'tude de la morale uni- 
verselle, et la pratique de toutes les vertus.' 
In French Masonry, in which I was ac- 
cepted, the initiatory steps are called 
Voyages, the club-houses are called 
Lodges, and the head of n lodge is called 



The Venerable (in English lodges the 
Master). A lodge formed is called a Temple. 
There are thirty-three degrees, but the 
three early ones are most important, called 
Apprentice, Companion, and Master. (In 
England the Companion is called the 
Craftsman or Fellow-craft.) The initiated 
form a council c..':ed The Great East, or 
Grand Orient', m Eng'uind the Grand 
Master. In F^^nce there are two annual 
banquets to celebrate the winter and 
summer solstice. In England banquets 
are more frequent, but less significant. 
French Master Masons wear a highly 
decorated pale blue scarf, on which are 
hung the masonic jewels. 

Freemasonry is generally traced to the building 
of Solomon s Temple. It. w:is introducrd vaho 
I England ill A.D. 67i. The grand lodge at York was 
founded in 92G. In France each lodge has an 
Orator, and when I was made a Master Mason in 
Paris the oration made to me was ' On the Im- 
mortality of the Soul.' I found the French lodges 
less social than those of England, but never once 
entered a lodge without boing expected to con- 
tribute freely to some charity. 

Freemen. Persons in boroughs or 
municipal towns who had by birth, 
marriage, adoption, purchase, or appren- 
ticeship the right of citizen, from which 
right they were the sole electors of the 
municipality and members of parliament 
for such town or borough. At the time 
of the Reform Bill (1831) many of these 
freemen were in almshouses, many were 
paupers, many were in workhouses, and 
many in gaol, but still retained their 
votes, which were bought for a sum of 
money varying from 5Z. to ten times that 
sum, and in some cases even more. 

Freethinkers. Those whoare not in 
bondage to any church formulary, such 
as creeds, articles of I'cligion, and con- 
fessions of faith. They hold themselves 
free to think for themselves, and feel 
themselves not bound to think as coun- 
ci's, states, or churches think for them. 
Their thoughts on religious subjects are 
not bound, but free. 

Freethinking Christians, 1799. 
They acknowledge no law of church 
government and no doctrine of faith 
binding but such as the New Testament 
teaches. They may be called Unitarians, 
or Deists, in that tiiey reject the divinity 
of Christ, the doctrine of the atonement, 
the notion of original sin, the dogmas of 
election and reprobation, atei nal punish- 
ment, angels, the immortality of the 
Boul, and the inspiration of the Bible. 



818 



FKEI 



FEENCH 



Frei Grafs. The jiiflges of the 
Velmigericht {q-v.). See ' Free Burghers.' 

French Artists. 

1. The Floreniine school : Jean Cousin 
(1492-1570), Nicolas Poussin (1594- 
16(35), &c. 

2. The Italian-French school : Vouet 
(1589-1649), Lesueur (1617-l(;5.->), Lehrun 
(1619-1690), Pierre Mip-nard (1610-l-<;5), 
Jouvenet, called the ' Carracci of France ' 
(1647-1707), &c. 

3. The Bomantic school: Greuze 
(1726-1805). 

4. The Statuesque Bchool: J.-L. David 
(1748-1825). 

5. The EcaJistic school : Carle Ver- 
net (1758-1836), Horace Vernet (1789- 
1863), Ge'ricault (1791-1824), &c. 

6. The Eclectic school : Paul Dela- 
roche (1797-1856), Delacroix, Hersent, 
Prudhon, Ary Scheffer, &c. 

French. Assembly {The). The 
legislative assembly of France is divided 
into Right and Left. The Right includes 
the Legitimists, the Orleanists, and the 
Imperialists. The Left includes the 
Republicans and the Radicals. The 
Legitimists are those who favoured the 
fortunes of the older branch of the 
Bourbon family, represented till 1883 by 
the Comte de Chambord, who was called 
by them 'Henri V.' The Orleanists 
favoured the Louis Philippe branch of the 
Bourbon family. On the death of the 
Comte de Chambord, in 1883, the Legiti- 
mists and Orleanists became united. The 
Imperialists favour the family of Napo- 
leon. The Legitimists used to constitute 
the 'Extreme Right,' the Orleanists the 
' Right Centre.' The Radicals sit in the 
' Extreme Left,' and the Republicans in 
the ' Left Centre.' 

French Brigands and insurgents. 



Jacquerie. 

Ilailiotins. 

Paslour 

Routiers, 



See 

Cabochiens. 
Chaperon s-blancs. 
Communists. 
Cottereaux. 
Ecorcheurs. 

French Byron {The). 

Musset (1810-1857). 

Paul de MuFset has gone to rejoin his brother, 
the French Bjron — a lets powerful Byron than 
yours, yet a poet to the tips of his fingers.— ED. 
ABOUT, To tlie Atliinc,-it7n,3July, lb80. 

French Club {The), 1792. A fede- 
ration of art.'sans and soldiers of the 



Alfred de 



national guard, who had weapons con- 
cealed in the building where they met 
(near the Tuileries), with which they 
were to arm themselves and rush to the 
defence of the king if his life was 
threatened by any of the desperadoes of 
the Paris mob. This club cost the court 
10,000 francs a day (400Z.). 

French Cro"wn {The). Made in 
1791, contained the following diamonds : 
The Regent, the Blue Diamond, the 
Sancy, the Golden Blies, the Crown 
diainond, the Ebenda, the Mirror of 
Portugal, the Tenth Mazarine, and a 
large number of others without specific 
names. Valued at 588,112Z. when, in 
1810, Napoleon commanded the crown 
jewels to be re- valued ; but in 1791 they 
were supposed to be worth 807,808Z. 

French Ennius {The). Guillaume 
de Lorris (1235-1265), author of the first 
part of the ' Roman de la Rose ' {q.v.). 

French Florentine School of 

Painters {The). Includes Cousin (1492- 
1570) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). 

French Fury {The), 1582. The 
Duke of Anjou and Brabant had been 
recently raised to the sovereignty of the 
Netherlands ; but, finding the Prince of 
Orange a great check on his actions, 
resolved to make himself in one day 
master of all the towns in which were 
French garrisons. The seizure of Antwerp 
fell to the Duke's lot, and he assembled 
his soldiers in the city, ostensibly for a 
review. At a given sign the French 
troops fell on the burghers, and set fire 
to the city. The burghers drove the 
French soldiers out of the city. Above 
1,500 fell, among whom were 260 of noble 
rank. The biter was bit, and the French 
were victims of their own ' Fury.' 

French Iso'crat^s {The). Fle- 

chier, bishop of Nismes (1632-1710). 
Florid, antithetical, and elegant in style. 
His masterpiece is his oration over 
Marshal Turenne. 

French Maccabseus {The). Simon 
de Montfort (1150-1215), the most cele-. 
brated military genius of the 12th cent 
Entrusted by Philippe II. (Auguste) with 
the crusade against the Albigenses in the 
south of France (1208-1218). 

French Ovid {The). Du Bellay,one 
of the PUiade Frangaise (1524-1560), 



FRENCH 



FRENCH 



849 



called also the 'Father of Grace and 
Elegance.' Spenser speaks of him as 
' first garland of free poesy that France 
brought forth.' 

The v.ord Olive, the title of his 115 sonnets, is an 
anagrt'.m of Viole, the nnnie of the lady whom he 
Celebrates, as Petrarch shadowed forth his Laura 
under the figure of a laurel. 

French Painters {Mediceval). 

Nicolas Poussin 1594-1G65 

Claude le Lorrain [Claude 

Gelee] lCOO-1682 

Bourdon 1616-1671 

Le Sueur , . 1617-1655 

Le Brun 1619-1790 

French Peasant Pelief Fund 

(The). Originated by the 'Daily News' 
Sept. 1870 and closed April 1871. 

French Phidias {The). J. B. Pi- 
galle (2 syl.), 1714-1784. 

His nude statue of Voltaire is, however, well- 
nigli ridiculous. 

French Pindar (T/^c). Two of the 
French poets are so designated : (1) Jean 
Dorat (1507-1588) ; and (2) Ponce Denis 
Lehrun (1729-1807). 

French Pl^i ade ( The) . ' La Pleiade 
Frangaise ' in the reign of Henri III, 
(1574-1589), composed of the seven poets 
Ronsard, Du Bellay, Remi Belleau, Jo- 
delle, Bai'f, Pontus de Thiard, and the 
seventh was either Dorat or Amadis 
Jamyn. 

Under Louis XIIL (1610-1643) was a 
second batch called La Pleiade Fran(;aise, 
and consisting of Rapin, Commire, Larue, 
Santeuil, Menage, Dupe'rier, and Petit. 

The term is borrowed from the Alexandrians 
under Ptolemy Philadelphos, who so called seven 
contemporaneous poets, viz. Lycophron, Theo- 
crites, Aratos, Nicander, ApoUonios, Callimachos, 
and Philiscos (called Homer the younger). 

French Propertius (The). An- 
toine Bertin, who died 1790, at the age of 
38. He possessed the brilliant imagina- 
tion and also the licentiousness of the 
Latin ijoet. 

French Raphael {The). Lesueur 
(1617-1655), 

French Revoluf on. L JohnKar- 
rion, elector of Brandenburg, more than 
two centuries before the French Revolu- 
tion, says of 1789, in his journal (still in 
MS.) : ' Alors sera I'une des plus grandes 
conjonctions et la dixieme totale renau- 
tion {sic) de Saturne, laquelle, aprcs la 
Nativitey de Nostre Seigneur, mil vii 



cents et Ixxxix, sera totalement accom- 
plie ; et si le monde doit apres plus 
durer, nul ne scait {sic) sinon Dieu. O 
quelles grandes merveilles Ton verra 
ad'onc {sic), tant de variations et destruc- 
tions, jji-incipalement es constitutions et 
ordinances chrestiennea . . . &c.' 

Against the year yy2o he has these words : ' II y 
auroit grand effusion de sang des chrestions, et 
grandes oppressions d'aulcuns grands flefz.' 

11. Between 1719 and 1889 there have 
been seventeen revolutions in France. 
The Reign of Terror and that of Napoleon 
were terrible for their slaughter. 

The accumulated deficit of France in 
ten years, ending 1889, was 240 millions 
sterling. The revenue has fallen short of 
the expenses about 24 millions sterling 
annually. 

The financial embarrassment which led 
to the Great Revolution was a little over 
two millions sterling. 

The financial embarrassment in 1889 
was, in round numbers, 1,686 millions 
sterling. 

The public debt of Great Britain in 1890 was 599 
millions ; of France 1,'286 millions. 

In ten years the public debt of Great Britain 
(ias9) has decreased O; millions sterling ; of Franca 
it has increased 240 millions. Mr. Goschen in 18S9 
reduced it 20 millions. 

French Revolution {The First). 
From 5 May, 1789, to 27 July, 1794. 

Chief Leaders of the First French 
Mevolution : — 

Comte de Mirabeau, 17S9 1791. 

Danton, from the death of Mirabeau to 1793. 

Robespierre, from June 179.S to 27 July, 1794. 

Next to these three were St. Just, Couthon, 
Marat. Carrier, Hebert, Santerre, Camille Desmou- 
lins, Kolan d and his wife, Brissot, Bernave, Sieyes, 
Barras, Tallien, &c. 

Great Days of the First French 
Bevolution: — 

1789. 17 June. The Tiers Etaf constituted itpelf into 
the 'National Assembly'; 20 June, the day 
of the Jeu tie Paiime, when the Assembly 
took an oath not to separate till it had 
given France a constitution ; 14 July, Storm- 
ing of the Bastille ; 5. 6 Oct., the king and 
National Assembly transferred from Ver- 
sailles to Paris. This closed the ancient 
rihjhiv of the court. 

1791. 20, 21 June. Flight and capture ol the king, 
queen, and royal family. 

1792. 20 June, attack on the Tuileries by San- 
terre; 10 Aug.. attack on the Tuileries and 
downfall of the monarchy ; 2, 3, 4 Sept., 
massacre of the state prisoners. 

1793. 21 Jan., Louis XVI. guillolined ; 31 May, com- 
mencement of the Keign of Terror; 2 Juno, 
the Girondists proscribed; 16 Oct., JMarie 
Antoinette guillotined ; 31 Oct., the Giroai. 
dists guillotined. 

1794. 5 April, downfall of Danton; 27 July, down- 
fall of Robespierre. 

French Revolution of Feb. 
1848. See under Revolution ' &;c. 



850 



FRENCH 



FRIDAY 



French Revolution of July 

1830. See under ' Revolution,' &c, 

French Kosclus {The). Francois 
Talma (1770-1826), the greatest of French 
tragedians. Roscius the great actor was 
a comedian. 

French Theatre {Founder of the). 
Rotrou (1G09-1650). Corneille calls him 

his father, 

French Triumvirate {The), 1560. 
Francois due de Guise, Marshal St. 
Andre, and the Comte de Montmorency, 
who leagued together against the queen 
mother Catherine de' Medici. They were 
leaders of the high Catholic party, and 
irreconcilable enemies of the Huguenots. 

French Vegetius {The). The 
Chevalier de Folard, born at Avignon 
(1669-1752). 

French of the East {The). The 
Persians. ' Vanity ' (says James Morier) 
'is their besetting sin, and that alone 
will account for the lust of comphment 
which prevails in both nations.' 

French of the TTorth(r7ie). The 

Poles. So called from their vivacity, 
fickleness, love of society, and quickness 
of parts. 

Frenchmen. It was Voltaire who 
described his countrymen as 'half 
monkey and half tiger.' 

FreresBleus {Les). Affiliated Phila- 
delphians, whose object was the restora- 
tion of the Bourbons. They were 
organised by Lieut. -Colonel Oudet. See 
' Philadelphic Society.' 

Frdres Mineurs. See ' Fraticelli.* 

Freres Precheurs, or ' Preaching 

Friars.' Dominicans [q.v.). 

Freres de la Mil^ee du Christ. 

See ' Chevaliers Porte-glaive.' 

Pronounce Frair d'lah me-leece ; She-val-le-ay port 
glaiv. 

Frferes de la Mort {Les). The 
Eremites of St. Paul, 13th cent., whose 
special province was to look after the 
sick and preside at funerals. They had 
on their scapulary a death's head, which 
they kissed by way of grace before meat, 
and laid beside thera. 

Friar Bacon's Study. On Folly 
Bridge, Oxford. A gateway tower to 



defend the passage and keep out un- 
desirable intruders. 

Friars {The Four Brandies of). 

(1) Augustine Friars, or mendicants ; 

(2) Franciscans, or Grey Friars ; (3) Do- 
minicans, or Black Friars; (4) Carmelites, 
or White Friars. 

The Franciscans and Dominicans were al'ways 
'cat and dog.' 

Friars Conventual. The first 
order of St. Francis of Assisi was divided 
into ' Conventuels ' and ' Observatins.' 

On les appela conventuels parce qu'lls vivaient 
dans de grands couvents, au lieu que ceux qui 
suivaient la r^gle diuis toute sa purete deineu- 
raient dans des ermitages, ou dans des maisons 
basses et pauvres. — Mgr. Gu£rin, Les Petites BoU 
landisk'S, vol. xii. p. 42. 

Friars Observant. Those Fran- 
ciscans who dwelt in hermitages or huts, 
observing the rule of St. Francis in all 
its length and breadth. Those who dwelt 
in convents were called ' Conventuals ' 
{see above). There were four classes of 
Observants : (1) the Observatins, consti- 
tuted in 1363 ; (2) those who followed the 
strict observance ; (3) those of the Order 
of Mercy, called 'the Great Observants'; 
and (4) the Preaching Friars of the pri- 
mitive observance who were reformed 
Dominicans. 

All the Friars Observant were [1335] ejected from 
their monasteries and dispersed. Some were 
thiust into prisons, and others were confined in 
tlie houses of the Friars Conventual.— HowiTT, 
Hutory of Eiuiland, vol. ii. p. 215. 

Friars Minor {The), or ' Minorites ' 
(8 syl.), 1209. Founded by St. Francis 
of Assisi. They arrived in England in 
1224, and were called ' Grey Friars' from 
the colour of their dress. 

Subsequently divided into Observants, Con- 
ventuals, Capuchins, Kecollets, Cordeliers, &c. 

Friday Lucky to the United 

States. On Friday, 21 Aug., 1492, 
Christopher Columbus sailed on his great 
voyage of discovery. On Friday, 12 Oct., 

1492, he first discovered land. On Fri- 
day, 4 Jan., 1493, he sailed on his return 
voyage to Spain. On Friday, 14 March, 

1493, he arrived at Palos in safety. On 
Friday, 22 Nov., 1493, he arrived at His- 
paniola in his second voyage to America. 
On Friday, 13 June, 1494, he discovered 
the continent of America. On Friday, 5 
March, 1496, Henry VIII. gave John 
Cabot his commission. On Friday, 7 
Sept., 1565, Melendez founded St. Au- 
gustine, the oldest town in the U.S. On 
Friday, 10 Nov., 1620, the ' Mayflower,' 



FRIDAY 



FRIEDRICH 



851 



with the Pilgrim Fathers, made the 
harbour of Provincetown. On Friday, 
22 Dec, 1G20, the Pilgi-im Fathers landed 
at Plymouth rock. On Friday, 22 Feb., 
George Washington was born. On Fri- 
day, 16 June, Bunker Hill was seized 
and fortified. On Friday, 17 Oct., 1777, 
the surrender of Saratoga was made. 
On Friday, 22 Sept., 17$0, the treason of 
Arnold was laid bare. On Friday, 19 
Sept., 1791, was the surrender of York 
Town. On Friday, 7 July, 1776, the 
motion was made "by John Adams that 
the U.S. are and ought to be independent. 
The ' Great Eastern ' sailed from 
Valentia on Friday, 13 July, 18G6, and 
landed safely at Heart's Content (New- 
foundland), with the ' cable,' Friday, 27 
the same month (' Norfolk Beacon,' 
U.S.). 

Aurengzebe considered Friday a lucky 
day, and used to say in prayer, ' O that 
I may die on a Friday, for blessed is he 
who dies on that day ! ' 

Friday {TJnluckn). Friday, 5 Oct., 
B.C. 105, was marked oicfastus in the 
Roman calendar, because on that day 
Marcus Mallius and Ciepio the consul 
were slain, and their whole army was 
annihilated in Gallia Narbonensis by 
the Cimbrians. 

Considered very unlucky in Spain. 

It is deemed an unlucky day by 
Buddhists and Brahmins. 

The reason given by Christians for its 
ill-luck is because it was the day of 
Christ's crucifixion ; but surely that is 
not an ' unlucky ' event to Christians. 

A Friday moon is unlucky for weather. 

Friedrich I. Barbarossa, or Red 
Beard. ' The father of his country.' 
Kaiser-king of Germany (1121, 1152- 
1190). Drowned while fording the Selef, 
a river of Cilicia. Second of the house 
of Hohenstauffen or Suabia. He was the 
first king to set pendant seals to diplomas. 

Father, Friedrich duke of Suabia, 
brother of Konr.\d III., founder of the 
dynasty. Mother, A^rnes sister of Hein- 
rich the Proud. Wives, Adelaide, repu- 
diated ; Beatrice of Burgundy, mother of 
his son and successor Heinrich VI. 
Contemporary with Stephen, Henry II., 
and Richard I. (Coeur de Lion). 

Of course, Konrad III. was his uncle. 

Friedrich. II. Iron Tooth, son of 
F.iedrich I. count of Hohenzollern, 



elector of Brandenburg. So called be- 
cause he showed his teeth to the unruly 
barons who presumed on his youth to 
rebel against him. He abdicated in 
1470 in favour of his brother Albert 
[Albrecht], the Achilles and Ulysses of 
Germany. 

Friedricll II. The Wonder of the 
World. Kaiser-king of Germany (1194, 
1215-1250). Probably poisoned by his 
son Manfroi, who poisoned his brother 
Konrad in 1254. 

Father, Heinrich VI. Mother, Con- 
stance, heiress of the Two Sicilies. Wives, 
Constance of Aragon ; Yolande, or lo- 
lanthe, daughter of the king of Jerusalem, 
mother of Konrad IV., who succeeded 
him ; and Isabella daughter of Henry III. 
of England. Contemporary with John 
and Henry III. 

Kaiser Otto III. (98.3- 1002) was also called 'The 
Wonder of the World.' 

Friedr'ch III. the Pacific, or, 
rathei-, 'the Indolent,' Second of the 
Habsburg line of kings (1415, 1440-1490), 
the longest reign of the kaiser-Icings of 
Germany. Emperor of the Romans 
1452, and this was the last time that any 
German king was crowned at Rome. It 
was this roi faineant that adopted the 
five vowels for the imperial device, mean- 
ing ' Austrias Est Iniperare Orbi Uni- 
verso,' or 'Alles Erdreich 1st Oester- 
reich Unterthan'; in English, 'Austria's 
Empire Is Overall Universal.' Like his 
predecessor and successor Maximilian, 
he died of dysentery by indulging too 
freely in a melon. Three successive 
kings died of melon-colic. 

Father, Ernst dukeof Austria. Mother^ 
Cimburgis, a Polish princess. Wife, 
Eleonore daughter of Edward king of 
Portugal. Sun and successor, Blaxi- 
milian I. Contemporani v\'ith Henry VI., 
Edward IV., Edward V., Richard IIL, 
and Heniy VII. 

*^* Ernst father of Friedrich III. 
was cousin of Kaiser Alsert II., who 
married Elizabeth daughter of Kaiser 

SlEGMUND or SiGISJIUND. 

Friodrioh III. kaiser-ldng of Germany reigned 
53 years (ll'iO li'^'i). and died at the ago of 78. 

George III. of Great iJritain roiyiied CO years 
(IVGO-l.sJO). and died at the age of 82. 

Louis XIV. of France reigned 72 years (1048-1715), 
and died at the age of 77. 

Friedricll the Handsome. A rival 
claimant of the German throne with 
LudwJer V. Both were elected and belli 



8&2 



FrJEDRICH 



FEUCTIDOR 



crowned, but Fiiedricli, being defeated 
at the battle of Miihldorf in 1322, wa3 
imprisoned, and Ludwig remained king. 

Friedrich "Wilhelm IV. of Prus- 
sia (17'J5, 1840-18G1), son of Frederick 
William III. Father, Fbiedbich WrL- 
HELM III.; Mother, Louisa Augusta of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; Wife, Elizabeth 
Louisa of Bavaria; Sore, Wilhelm I. king 
of Prussia and German emioeror. Coiv- 
temporary with Queen Victoria. 

Friends {The Society of), 1G24. 
Quakers, a sect founded by George Fox, 
of Drayton, in Leicestershire, a shoemaker. 
They believe in the main fundamental 
principles of what is called 'Orthodox 
Christianity,' but they express their re- 
ligious creed in the very words of the New 
Testament Scripture, and each member 
has the liberty of interpreting the words. 
Their main speciality is the belief of ' the 
Light of Christ in man,' and hence they 
entertain a broader view of the Spirit's 
influence than other Christians. 

In morals, propriety of conduct, good order, and 
philanthropy, the Quakers are a pattern society. 

Friends of God {The), 1370-1400. 
A brotherhood formed by Nicholas of 
Basel, which protested against the sacer- 
dotalism of Germany and Switzerland. 

Friends of Liberty and Equal- 
ity {The), 1794, An Hungarian secret 
society, organised by Martinovics for the 
purpose of introducing the principles of 
the French Revolution. The society had 
not been in existence many months when 
it was stamped out, Martinovics and six 
others being executed by the sword in a 
field near Buda, still called ' the field of 
blood.' 

Friends of Truth {The). Quakers 
were so-called in the seventeenth century. 
They are now called ' Friends.' 

Friends of the People {The), 
April 1792. A political association formed 
in London for the purpose of obtaining a 
reform in the representation of the people. 
Headed by Gray, Baker, Whitbread, She- 
ridan, Lambton, and Erskine. 

Frith Gild. A peace-club or volun- 
tary society pledged to the maintenance 
of peace and mutual security. A member 
of the gild was called a ' Frith-man,' and 
a breaking of the j)eace was a ' Frith- 
breach.' These Frithgilds were very 
general th'-'oughout Europe in the 9Lh and 



10th cents. Our friendly societies are 
' Frith-gilds.' 

Fronde {La), 1648-1653. A French 
insurrection provoked by the meanness 
and arrogance of Mazarin, the chief mi- 
nister, while Louis XIV. was still a minor. 
At length the chief nobility united in a 
grand council, and insisted on a I'eform, 
such as the abolition of monopolies, the 
reduction of taxes, the examination of 
public expenditure, prohibition of arrest 
without assigning a cause, and so on. 
Mazarin resisted, and even arrested 
Blancmenil (president of the council), and 
Broussel, a conspicuous member. All 
Paris rose in insurrection, and compelled 
Mazarin to release his prisoners. Mazarin 
and the queen-mother fled, and both par- 
ties prei^ared for war. The insurgents 
soon disagreed among themselves, and 
Mazarin, at the head of 8,000 men, returned 
to Paris in triumph. The insurgents in 
this riot v/ere called Froiideurs, and the 
court party were called Mazarimans 
(q.v.). 

jNIonglat thus explains the term. He says that 
the Paris parlement forbade boys to sling stones, 
and one day a young barrister said, ' Quandcesera 
mon tour, je fronderai bien I'opinionde mon pere." 
Here fronderai means to combat, to oppose : but the 
•whole point of the remark was in allusion to tha 
Fronde war, and therefore it could not have origi- 
n'lted the term. 

The word became popular slang for several 
Tears. EverythUtg \va.s a. la Fro tide. There were 
Fronde hats, coats, and gloves ; Fronde muifs and 
fans ; Fronde dishes and loaves of bread ; Fronde 
songs and tunes 

Fronde {The Little), lf.5.1. The great 
Conde, in the guerre de la Fronde, was 
originally of the court or Mazarin party, 
but he quarrelled with the party, and 
made a split called ' the Little Fronde.' 
This was a third party, for though Conde 
hated Mazarin much, he hated the par- 
liamentarians more. 

Frondeurs. Slingers, common in 
the Spanish armies in the 13th and 14th 
cents. The natives of the Balearic Isles 
were most noted slingers. The Greeks, 
Romans, and Carthaginians had com- 
panies of slingers; so had the French 
and German. "" But the word is chiefly 
associated with the insurgents of the 
Fronde war, called les Frondeurs, who 
were opposed to the court party called 
Mazarinians {q.v.). 

Frue'tidor {Bix-huit), i.e. 4 Sept., 
1797. A noted coiqj d'etat, by the ma- 
jority of tlie Directory against Bartlie- 
leniy and Carnot, and againr:t those mem- 



FUERO 



FURIES 



853 



bers, both of the Conseil des Cinq-cents 
and of the Conseil des Anciens, thought 
to be favourable to royalty. The three 
directors wei'e Barras, Lare'veillere-Le- 
paux, and Rewbell. The result of this 
revolution was the deportation of the two 
directors, 11 members of the Conseil des 
Anciens, 42 members of the Conseil des 
Cinq-cents, 35 journalists, a host of priests, 
and numerous others called * conspirators.' 

Fuero Jusgo {The). The code of 
the Visigoths in S^Dain, 

Fueros (The). The written laws of 
Jaca (Spain), the most ancient of Europe. 
They were confirmed by Alfonso III., and 
called 'the Ancient IJsages of Jaca.' 
Fuero = charter, statute, or code of laws. 

There were the ' Fuero of Leon,' the ' Fuero of 
Naxera,' the ' Basque fueros,' Ac which were char- 
ters. These charters were abolished by Eopartero, 
but restored in 1S44 by Queen Isabella. 

Fugger (Antony). A modern Croesus. 
When Charles-Quint was shown by Fran- 
cois I. the royal treasury in Paris, he 
said to the king, ' There is a lineia-weaver 
in Augsburg that could pay for all this 
out of his own purse.' 

Fuh-lie. First of the five emperors 
of China. Like the old kings of Rome, 
the mythological kings of China rei^re- 
sent five periods and not five persons. To 
Fuh-he is attributed the invention of 
writing, and he is said to have tauglit the 
people the art of rearing cattle, fishing, 
&c., and to have instituted the rite of 
marriage. Musical instruments are also 
attributed to this mythical king. 

Fullers and Weavers of Ghent 

(The), 1344. A trade dispute, in which 
Jacob von Artevelde, the great brewer, 
sided with the fullers, and Gerrard Denys 
with the weavers. In a battle fought in 
the market-place as many as 1,500 fullers 
were slain, and trade was utterly ruined. 
Artevelde (4 syl.) was assassinated 9 July, 
1345. 

FUTQ. A kind of cock, often repre- 
sented on Chinese works of art, and em- 
broidered on the dresses of mandarins of 
a certain rank. Like the roc of the Arabs 
and the phoenix of the Egyptians, the 
Chinese ' fum ' is mythological. It is a 
salamander, with the head of a goose, the 
hindquarters of a stag, the neck of a 
snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead and 
beak of a cock, and the back of a tortoise. 



It is about 6 cubits high, and is called 
' the mandarin of tune.' 

Fum (George lY.). Fum 'the Chi- 
nese bird of royalty ' was represented on 
the ceiling of the staircase at the north 
end of the main corridor of the Brighton. 
Pavilion (then called the Chinese Gal- 
lery). 

And where is Fum the Fourth, our royal bird, 
Gone down, it seems to Scotland. . . . 

Byron, Don Juan, xi. 78. 
One day the Chinese bird of rojalty— Fum, 
Thus accosted our own bird of royalty— Hum, 
In that palace or china-shop, Brighton, which 

■VVTien Fum had just come to pay Hum a visit. 

Thomas Brown (Moore), The Fudge 
Family in Paris. 

Here, ' Fum ' seems to mean Louis of 
France, and ' Hum ' George IV. 

Fundamental TiSiW (The), 29 Sept. 
(Oct. 11), 1802, Russia. The whole judicial 
system of Russia was then settled on a 
nevv^ basis, securing the independence of 
the courts of justice, the limitation of the 
courts of appeal, the introduction of the 
jury system in criminal cases, and the 
appointment of judges by the state. It is 
framed in three parts, the first treating 
of the constitution of the courts in 91 
articles ; the second of criminal procedure 
in 157 articles ; and the third of civil pro- 
cedure in 138 articles. By the first, judi- 
cial power is vested in justices of the 
peace, with the senate as a final court of 
appeal. By the second, prosecution is 
placed under the control of a public pro- 
secutor. By the third, it was decreed 
tliat there should be in future two courts 
of appeal. 

Fuor-Usciti (The), or the 'turned- 
out ones.' So were called those persons 
of the Neri and Bianchi (Blacks and 
Whites) who were exiled by the faction 
which for the time being had the upper 
hand. Dante, a White, was one of the 
Fuor-TJsciti (1302). Singular of Fuor- 
Usciti is Fuor- Uscito. 

Let Florence perish, so long as the Fiwr-Usciti get 

bick to the city ; let her streets run with blood, h"r 

treasure be exhausted, her foes victorious, uniil 

I the Funy-Usciti be within her walls again. — Mrs. 

Oliphant, Makers of Florence, p. 54. 

Furies of the G-uillotine (The). 
The Tricoteuses, or women who frequented 
the public clubs and revolutionary tribu- 
nal of France, where they sat knitting, 
and openly expressed their approval or 
disapproval of the proceedings. With the 
fall of the Jacobins they disappeared. 
A A 



d54 



FUROR 



GABELLE 



They were called Tricoteuses from their 
knitting, and Furies from their violence. 

Furor Berser'kicus. An artifice 
of battle among the Danes, like the In- 
dian war-whoop. In this furor the men 
tried to resemble wild beasts, such as 
wolves and dogs. They bit tlieir shields; 
they howled ; they threw off their cloth- 
ing ; they rushed about frantically ; they 
made hideous faces. It was at length 
made penal. 

Eric eaj-1 of Norway Omnex berserkos Nortrcgia 
exulare jusi^ii sGretlis Saga, p. 142). 

Furry Dance {A). A processional 
dance in May consisting of thirty or more 
couples, who danced to the ancient Cel- 
tic Furry tune in at the front door of 
houses and out at the back door. It dif- 
fered from the May dance, which was 
round a May-pole. In Lithuania proces- 
sional dances on the octave of May-day 
have existed from time immemorial. 

Sometimes, but erroneously, called the ' Flora 
Dance,' or Floralia. 

Flirstenbund {T7ie), March 1785. 
The alliance of Friedrich II. (the Great) 
of Prussia with the Electors of Saxony 
and Hanover, for the maintenance of the 
German constitution. By this master- 
stroke of policy Friedrich defeated tlie 
kaiser's plot of adding Bavaria to Austria. 

Fuste et bac'ulo. ' By staff and 
baton,' commonly called ' tenure by the 
verge.' A mode of tradition or delivery 
of real x>i'operty where there is no house. 
In France, seisin was made by delivery of 
a baton or pair of gloves ; in Lombardy 
by a spear ; in Germany by a clod or 
twig ; in Scotland by a pen. 

Fuste (Latin) in 2 syl. 

Fyzoola Klian. The charge brought 
by Mr. Wyndham against Warren Hast- 
higs, governor-general of India, was his 
conduct to Fyzoola Khan, the Rohilla 
chief, 1787. The basis of the charge was 
this : The Nabob of Oudh wanted to 
seize certain lands belonging to the Ro- 
hilla chief, and gave Hastings 100,000Z. 
to help him in this seizui'e. Hastings now 
told the Rohilla chief if he would give 
him one and a half million sterling he 
would guarantee his retention of these 
lands. Fyzoola (3 syl.) replied he did not 
possess so much money, and the matter 
was allowed to drop. 

G. Cornwall. George IV. so signed 
his private letters to his personal 



friends. See 'N. & Q.,' 19 April, 1884, 
p. 305. 

Or of Edward's Race. There 
was a ' prophecy ' afloat in the reign of 
Edward IV. that the king's son would 
perish by the hands of a person whose 
name began with G. Clarence, the 
king's brother, was named George, and 
Edward, with the Woodvilles, always 
suspected him of aiming at the crown. 
Fabyan says that Clarence was drowned 
in the Tower in a butt of Malmsey wine, 
but he left behind a brother Richard 
duke of Gloucester, who was generally 
credited with the death of Edward V. as 
well as with that of Margaret's son 
Edward, the Duke of Clarence, Henry 
VI., and many others. 

G-abelle. From the German gahe^ 
tribute, impost, was a tax imposed on 
salt by Philippe IV. le Bel in 1286, and 
was one of the causes of the revolution. 
There were many other gabelles, as the 
gahelle des draps, gahelle des vins, 
gahelle de tonlieu (standing in the mar- 
kets for sale), &c. ; but when used alone 
it always means the tax on salt. The 
king had the monopoly of this article, 
and every person was compelled to buy 
at least 7 lbs. of it yearly, whether wanted 
or not. Heads of families had to buy 
the same quantity for each member of 
their establishment; but no one was 
allowed to use this salt for pickling or 
corning beef. Another injustice was 
this : the price varied in different pro- 
vinces; thus, what would cost 32s. in 
other provinces, was sold by government 
in Auvergne for 8s. As many as 8,000 
persons were annually imprisoned in 
France for infringing the salt laws. 
See ' Pays de Grande Gabelle,' ' Pays de 
Petite Gahelle.' 

Not till 1340 was the tax extended to all France. 
Edward III. with a pun called it La Loi tialique. 

HISTORY OF LA GABELLE. 

Imposed by the Etats Generaux in 
1353, and abolished by the Assemblee 
Constituante 10 May, 1790. It brought 
into the revenue at one time as much as 
60,000,000 livres, and in the reign of 
Louis XVI. 38,000,000 francs. Some pro- 
vinces redeemed the tax, others obtained 
(from sundry causes) exemption h-o.n. 
additions to the original levy, so thattl'O 
greatest inequality existed, and at the 
time of the revolution one-third of the 



GABERLUNZIES 



GALLIA 



855 



country paid two-thirds of the tax. Be- 
tween 1519 and 1553, Poitou, Saintonge, 
Aunis, Anjou, Limousin, La Marche, 
Pe'rigord, and Upper Guienne, redeemed 
the tax ; other provinces bought off a 
partial exemption ; while Artois, Flanders, 
Henault, Calais, the Boulonnais, Alsace, 
Be'arn, Lower Navarre, and other modern 
acquisitions of the ci-own were, like 
Brittany, wholly exempt from the tax. 
This inequality of necessity was the cause 
of smuggling, and we are told that every 
year there were more than ' 4,000 saisies 
domiciliaires, plus de 3,400 emprisonne- 
mens, et plus de 500 condamnations a des 
peines capitales ou afflictives.' It seems 
that a temporary tax on salt was imposed 
by an ordinance of Louis IX. as far back 
as 1246, by Philippe le Bel in 128fi, again 
by Philippe VI. de Valois in 1340, and 
in 1853 by the Etats Gre'neraux ' pour des 
besoins momentane's.' Discontinued in 
1358; but Charles V. (13G4-1380) made 
it a permanent tax. "Wholly sui^pressed 
28 March, 1790. 

Gaberlun'z^es. Licensed beggars 
who were compelled to v/ear a badge to 
distinguish themselves from the Thig- 
gers and Scoi'ners {q.v.). Gaberlunzies 
were called blue-gowns in England. 

Gadel'ian Conquest of Ireland 

{The). Gadelus or Gathelus, an Egyp- 
tian and contemporary of Moses, was the 
son of Scota (daughter of a Pharaoh of 
Egypt). He descended on Ireland under 
the conduct of two sons of Milesius 
(king of Spain), B.C. 1372, and utterly 
sul)daed the race of Tuath. From these 
Gadelians all the kings of Ireland, do-UTi 
to the English conquest in a.d. 1172, 
descended, and in Irish history are called 
the ' princes of the Milesian race.* 

We are also told that the Irish are called Scots 
from Scota, the Egyptian princess. Of course 
these traditions must not be accepted as his- 
torical facts, but they are necessary to be known. 

Gaelic. Comprehends the Irish, the 
Highland-Scotch, and the Manx lan- 
guages. 

G-agging Act (The). In England, 
1795 (36 Geo. III. cc. 7, 8), for treason 
and sedition. 

Gaisford Prizes (The). One for 
Greek prose and one for Greek verse. 
Oxford University. Founded by sub- 
scription in memory of Dr. Thomas 



Gaisford, dean of Christ Church, regius 
professor of Greek, 1856. 

Galeazzo's Lent. A system of 
torture calculated to prolong the victim's 
life for forty days. It was the invention 
of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Milan (1277, 
1322-1328). 

GalenistS. A branch of Men- 
nonists, founded by Galenus in 1664. 
They advocate freer views both in doc- 
trine and discipline than the strict Men- 
nonites. See ' Mennonites.' 

Galile'ans. Those Jews who held 
it unlawful to obey a heathen magis- 
trate. Josephus says they agreed in all 
things with the Pharisees, but insisted 
that they owed subjection and obedience 
only to God. When (Luke xxiii. 5) Jesus 
was represented to Pilate as a Galilean, 
an insinuation was made that he acknow- 
ledged no obedience to Csesar. 

Probably all that was meant is that he was a 
native of that province. Julian said in his dying 
moments, ' Thou hast conquered, O Galilean !' Tho 
disciples of Jesus were called Galileans (Acts ii. 7). 

Galley Ha'pence (The). Genoan 
coins brought into England by the galley- 
men who came hither with wine and 
other merchandise. They were broader 
than the English ha'penny, but not so 
thick. They were prohibited by Henry 
IV. as a legal tender. 

Galleys (The). As a punishment in 
France was fixed by an ordinance of 
Charles IX. in 1564, to be not less than 
ten years. The bagnes were substituted 
for the galleys in 1748 ; and the name was 
changed to travaux forces by the Con- 
stituent Assembly in 1798. By the Code 
Napole'on in 1810, the sentence of tra- 
vaux forces included forfeiture, infamy, 
and branding. Branding was abolished 
in 1832, and travaux forces in 1852. 

Gallia. The country of the Galli or 
Gauls. The Latin Galli and Greek Va\- 
Aarat are classic forms of the word 
Keltai (Celts). The German form is 
Waelchs, whence our word Welch. 
Gallia, Wales, and Walloon, all mean the 
' land of the Celts.' 

For a familiar instance of the interchange of G 
and W compare Guillaume and William. 

Gallia Bracca'ta. Later on, Gallia 
Narbonensis. Called ' Braccata ' from the 
hraccce or trousers worn by the natives. 



856 



GALLIA 



GAPING 



Gallia Coma'ta. All Transalpine 

Gaul excei^t Gallia Braccata [q-v.). So 
called from the long hair worn {coma). 
It included Belgica, Celtica, and Aqui- 
tanica. 

Gallia Warbonensis corresponded 
with the ancient provinces of Languedoc, 
Provence, and Dauphine. 

Gallic Caesar (The). Napoleon I. 

Gall-' can Chureli [The). The 
liberiies of the Gallican Church were as- 
serted in 1438 in the Pragmatic Sanction 
Xq.v.) ; and in 1512 by the Concordat [q.v.) 
between Pope Leo X. and Francois I. ; 
and were distinctly defined by Bossuet in 
1682 in his famous ' Four Articles ' (q.v.). 

Gall^'c Confession {The), 1599. 
One oi the chief continental confessions 
of faith by ihe Calvinistic or Reformed 
Church of France. See ' Confessions.' 

Gallican Liberties, 1682. As 
opposed to Ultramontanism {q.v.) were 
thus summarised by Bossuet : — 

Que I'EgUse doit etre regie par les canons ; que 
eaint Pierre et ses successeurs n'ont recu de 
puissance cjue sur les choses spirituelles ; que les 
regies et les constitutions adniises dans le 
royaume doivent etre maintenus, et les bornes 
posees par nosperes demeurer inebranlables ; que 
les decrets et jugements du pape ne soiit irre. 
formables qu'autant que le consentement de 
I'eglise est intervenu . . . &c. 

*,* The defenders of the Uhn-tes gallirnni'x were 
Hinomar, Gerson, Bossuet, the Abbe Fleury, the 
Cardinal de la Luzerne, Bausset, Frayssinous, 
Guillon, Boyer, Alire, &c. 

Gallican Liturgy {The). Dates 
from before the time of Pepin (9th cent.). 
It is based on the Oriental liturgies, be- 
cause the first missionaries of Gaul were 
from Greece. It remained in use till 
Charlemagne introduced the Gregorian 
liturgj'. The liturgy now used in France is 
the Roman, with some slight alterations. 
See ' Ambrosian Liturgy,* ' Spanish 
Liturgy,' &c. 

Gallican Missal. See above. 

Galileans {The). Catholics who 
insist on what they call the liberies 
gallicanes, one of which is the distinct 
separation of the spiritual and temporal 
powers. They place ' infallibility ' not in 
the pope, but in the whole church pre- 
sided over by the pope. They acknow- 
ledge the authority of General Councils. 
See ' Gallican Liberties.' 



Gallcwglasses and Kernes. 

' Gallowglasses ' were ancient Irish heavy- 
armed foot-soldiers ; but ' Kernes ' were 
Irish foot-soldiers of very mean condition, 
ana without armoux. See the ' Cent. 
Mag.' 1890, p. 296. 

Game Chicken {The). Pearce, 
the prize-fighter. He fought with John 
Gully, who was taken out of the debtors' 
1 risen by Colonel Mellish to fight this 
champion of the ring. Gully was beaten, 
but afterwards fought Gregson twice, and 
then retired, to settle at Newmarket. 

Game Laws. Before the Carta de 
Foresta, 1224, the killing of game was 
punishable with death. Qualifications 
to kill game were introduced in 1389. 
Annual certificates required by 25 Geo, 
III. c. 50 (1785). Permission to sell 
game given by 1, 2 Will. IV. c. 32 (1831). 

1 1 France game laws were abolished in 1789. 

( a 13 includes hares, pheasants, partridges, 
g o..s^, iieath and moor lowls, black-game, and 
bi sD ids. The close season is their respective 
times oX breeding and rearing. 

Gangway. To sit below thegarig- 
way in the House of Commons, to sit 
among the independent members. The 
gangway is a passage running across the 
house, which separates the supporters of 
the government and the opposition from 
the independent members. 

In a ship the gijngway is the way out or into 
the ship. Ang.-Sax. yantjan, tu go. 

Gants Glacis {Les). The Black 
Mousquetaires during the Fronde war. 
Very dandified, but brave and daring. 
See ' Mousquetaire.' 

Gaoler of Wapoleon at St. 

Helena {The). Sir Hudson Lowe, 
military governor of St. Helena wliile 
Napoleon was there in banishment. 

Ga.ping Gulf {The). A book pub- 
lished by John Stubbs, a student of Lin- 
coln's Inn, showing how undesirable it 
was that Queen Elizabeth should marry 
the Due d'Anjou, especially after the 
frightful massacre of the Huguenots on 
St. Bartholomew's eve. Stubbs and his 
publisher were seized and taken to the 
market-place of Westminster, where both 
had their right hand cut off by driving a 
cleaver through the wrist with a mallet. 
The moment Stubbs lost his hand, he 
waved his cap with his left hand, crying 
* Long live the queen 1 ' 



GARDE 



GARDEN 



857 



Ga^de Doloureuse. A castle in 
the marches of "Wales, so called because 
it was greatly exposed to attacks by the 
Welsh. 

Garde Imp^riale {La), 1804. Called 
before the Garde Consulaire, and orga- 
nised in 1799. It first consisted of 9,775 
men, but in ISli the number was in- 
creased to 102,706 men. In 1809 it 
was subdivided into the Vieille Garde 
and the Jeune Garde, and admission into 
it was given only as recompense for 
merit, and after having served in three 
campaigns. 
It -was re-established In 1856 by Napoleon III. 

Garde Mobile {La), 1848. Com- 
posed chiefly of young soldiers, and 
ranking between the Garde Nationale 
and the general army. It was a species 
of Garde Nationale Mobile for Paris 
only. It consisted of 24 battalions of 
IjOCO men each. 

Garde Municipale de Paris 

(La), 1802-1813, and again 1830-1848. 
The guard charged with the preservation 
of good order in the city of Paris. In 
the old monarchy this guard was called 
the guet, sujipressed in 1792, when it 
was supplanted by the gendarmerie, 
changed in 1795 into the Legion de 
police generale of 5,844 men. In 1813 it 
took the name of the Gendarmerie Iin- 
periaJe de Paris, and in 1816 the Gen- 
darmtrie Boy ale de Paris, and consisted 
of 1,021 men and 471 mounted police. 
From 1830-1848 it was called the Garde 
Municipale, and consisted of twelve 
companies, four of which were mounted. 
It was suppressed in 1848, and its place 
supplied by the Garde Bepuhlicaine and 
the Gendarmerie Mobile. It next became 
la Garde de Parts, and in 1852 the 
Gendarmerie de Paris. 

Garde Wa,tionale {La), 1789. Im- 
provised by the municipality of Paris on 
13 July, and called at first the Garde 
Sourgeoise. Its badge was a blue and 
red cockade (the colours of the city) ; 
white, the royal colour, was afterwards 
added by its general, Lafayette. Charles 
X. disbanded the guard in 1827 for 
insubordination. It was reorganised in 
1830. In 1848 it became a mere mob 
army of some 200,000 volunteers, but 
Napoleon III. reduced it to order in 1852, 
and gave it for motto ' Libert i, ordre 
public' 



Garde Royale (La), 1815. A corps 
instituted by Louis XVIII. , and consist- 
ing of picked men, to which were added 
two regiments Suisses. Dissolved in July 
1830, when they tried in vain to defend 
Charles X. 

Gardes de la Marche (Les), 
who accompanied the king wherever 
he went. They consisted of 24 picked 
noblemen from the Gardes du Corps 
die Boi {q.v.). See ' Gold Stick.' 

Gardes du Corps du Roi {Les), 
or ' Garde Ecossaise,' 1448. Organised by 
Charles VII. of France. They consisted 
of 300 archers, all of whom ranked as 
gentlemen, and were sumptuously armed, 
equii)ped, and mounted. Each one was 
allowed a squire, a valet, a page, and 
two yeomen, with corresponding equip- 
age ; so that cadets of the best families 
in Scotland were sent to serve in this 
honourable corps. They wore the Scotch 
bonnet and feather, and, in the reign of 
Louis XL, a massive silver brooch, called 
a ' Virgin Mary,' the Virgin Mary being 
made by him their colonel. They wore 
a loose surcoat of rich blue velvet, with 
a large white St. Andrew's cross of silver 
bisecting it before and behind. Sup- 
pressed in 1791, but restored by Louis 
XVIII. in 1814, and formed into six 
companies, called tho Corps Ecossaise, 
the Corps de Gramont, the Corps de 
Poix, the Corps de Luxembourg, the 
Corps de Wagram, and the Corps de 
Baguse. Finally disbsmded in 1830. 

One of the two yeomen attached to these 
guardsmen was called his ' knife-man ' (i-OH/c/icr), 
from a large knife which he carried to despatch 
those whom his master had thrown to the ground 
in a melee. 

Gardes-c6tes {Les). French coast- 
guards, created in 1791 ; reorganised in 
1799 ; suppressed in 1814 ; and re-esta- 
blished in 1831. 'lis se ferment six 
compagnies de canoniers.' 

Gardes Franpalses {Les), 1553. 
Formerly a part of the royal household 
troops, consisting of ten companies of 
100 men each, and having barracks in 
the faubourgs of Paris. This guard took 
rank above all the rest of the army. In 
1789 it fraternised with the insurgents, 
and became a part of the Garde Nationale 
de Paris. 

Garden of England. Worcestershire 
and Kent. Both so called. 



GAEDEN 



GATES 



Garden of Erin. Carlow, in Leinster. 

— Europe. Italy and Belgium. 

Both so called. 

— France. Amboise, in the cle- 

partement of Indre-et-Loire. 

— India. Oude. 
• — Italy. Sicily. 

— South Wales. The southern 

division of Glamorganshire. 

— Spain. Andaluci'a. 

— the Argenti?ie. Turcuman, a 

province of Argentinia. 

— the East. Ceylon and Burmah. 

Both so called. 

Ceylon is also called 'The Re- 
splendent ' ; the ' Jewel of the 
Eastern Sea'; the * Gem of Para- 
dise.' Its climate and produc- 
tions are quite unrivalled. 

— the West. Illinois and Kansas. 

Both so called. 

— the Wo7-ld. The region of the 

Mississippi. 

Garden and the Lane (The). 

Covent Garden Theatre and Drury Lane 
Theatre. 

The old-fashioned friendly rivalry between the 
Garden and the Lane is renewed this year [Dec. 

1887J. — Newspaper x>ara(jrti2'f>- 

Garden of the Mid-West (The). 
Evesham, in Worcestershii'e. Famous 
for table-fruit and kitchen produce. 

Garden Sect {The). The disciples 
of Plato were so called because they 
attended his lectures in the Academy, a 
garden in the suburbs of Athens which 
once belonged to Academes. Epicures 
taught in his own private garden. 

Garigliano {Bout of the), 1503. 
The rout of the French, Ted by Saluce and 
Bayard (the chevalier sans j^eiir et sans 
reproche),\)Y Gonsalvo the Great Captain. 
Above 4,000 French fell in this rout, with 
all their standards and baggage, tents, 
provisions, stores, and splendid artillery. 
A capitulation was signed the next day. 
In 1860 (Nov. 3) Francis I. king of 
Naples was routed on the banks of the 
same river by Victor Emmanuel. 

Garrick Fever {The), 1742. A con- 
tagious disorder which broke out in 
Dublin, ascribed to the heat of the 
theatre crowded to hear Garrick during 
unusually hot weather. 

Garter King of Arms {The), 

1417 ; also ' Principal King of Arms.' 
Two sex^arate offices held by the same 



person. It was Henry V. who instituted 
the Garter King to attend upon knights 
at their solemnities, call them to their 
installation, see that their arms are hung 
over their stalls, to grant arms, and to 
marshal national funeral processions. 
See ' Heralds.' 

There are altogether four Kings of Arms, for 
England : Garter and Bath ; and the two provin- 
cial kings Clarenceux and Norroy: the former 
having jurisdiction over all parts south of the 
Trent, and the latter over all parts twrth of that 
river. Bath King of Arms, though not a mem- 
ber of the college, takes precedence next to 
Garter. The ofSce was created in 1725 for the ser- 
vice of the Order of the Bath. The King of Arms 
of Scotland is ' Lyon,' and for Ireland ' Ulster." 

Gas from coal. Described by Clayton 
in 1739. First applied to illumination 
in 1792 by Murdoch. Introduced into 
Paris in 1802, into London by Winsor in 
1803. Came into general use in London 
in 1814, and in Paris about 1820. The 
Gas Company was chartered in 1810 
(50 Geo. III., c. 163). 

The meter was invented by Crossley in 1815, 
Clegg's meter in 1816. 

Gastein Convention {The), 1885. 

In which Austria and Prussia agreed to a 
joint occupation of Schleswig, Holstein, 
and Lauenburg. See ' Schleswig-Holstein 
Question.' 

Gate of France {The Iron) 
Longwy, a strong military position. 

Gate of Italy {The). That part of 
the valley of the Adige (3 syl.) which is 
in the vicinity of Trent and Eoveredo. 
It is a narrow gorge between two moun^ 
tain ranges. 

Gate of Science {The), or 'Daur 
ul Ilm.' Shiraz was so called of old. 
Sadi and Hafiz were both born in Shiraz. 

Gate of Tears {The). Babelman- 
deb, the passage into the Red Sea. 

Like some ill-destined bark that steers 
In silence through the Gate of Tears. 
MooEE, Lalla Rookh (The Fire Worshippers). 

Gate of the Mediterranean. 

Gibraltar. 

G-ates {The). In Scripture language 
means the towns and fortresses. 

Thy seed shall possess the gate of his enemies. 
—Get), xxii. 

•-• Gates of Hell = the power or dominion ol 
Satan. 

Gates of the Grave = the brink ol death. 

Gates or Mountain Passes of Asia 
Minor. 
The Albanian Gates. Either the pass 



GATES 



GAUTAMA 



559 



of Derbend along the Caspian Sea or else 
the Sarmatian Pass. 

The Amanian Gates. Tamir Kapu 
(or the Iron Gate of the Turks), a Cyclo- 
pean arch, where the hills come down to 
the sea-beach at the head of the gulf. 

The Cappadocian Gates. The pass 
described by Strabo and explored by the 
Euphrates expedition, leading through 
Taurus to Marash (ancient Germanica). 

The Caspian Gates, ' Caspiae Portae' 
or ' Caspiae Pyloe,' a defile near Teheran 
[Teh-ran'], in ancient Media. 

The Caucasian Gates. A defil-e in the 
Caucasus range leading from Mosdok to 
Titlis. In this narrow valley Strabo 
tells us the river Aragon flows. Now 
called 'Dariel.' 

The Cilician Gates. The Taurus 
Pass (Kulak Bughaz or Golek B(5ghaz). 

Darius^s Pass. Across the Amiinus, 
north of Issus, and near the Amanian 
Gates. 

The Gates of Syria. The Pass of 
Ballan. Pictanus of the 'Jerusalem 
Itinerary'; Ei-ana of Cicero. Near this 
pass was the battlefield of Issus. 

Thermojyylce, or ' the Hot Gates,' gene- 
rally called ' Pylse ' or ' The Gates.' The 
celebrated pass between Tiiessaly and 
Locris, immortalised by the heroic de- 
fence of Leontdas and 300 Spartans 
against the enormous host of Xerxes. 

Gsites of China, (The). The cluster 
of rocky islets called ' the Ladrones.' 

Gates of the Caspian, or 'Pylae 
Caspiae.' See above, ' Caspian Gates.' 

Gates of the Occult Sciences 

{The). Forty, or as some say forty-eight, 
books on niagic in Arabic. The first twelve 
on sorcery and enchantment ; the thir- 
teenth on disenchantment. 

Gatton and Old Sarum. Although 
wii bout inhabitants, had the right, befoi'e 
I80I, of returning two members of par- 
liament. In the reform agitation ' Gatton 
and Old Sarum' proved a tour deforce. 

Gaudents {Les Chevaliers), 1201. A 
religious order of Italy, whose special 
work is to protect the widow, the orphan, 
and the poor. They wear a white dress 
with a red cross, surmounted with two 
stars, and follow the rule of the Domini- 
cans, but may marry if they like. Both 
father and mother must be of noble 
birth. 



Gaul. See ' Gallia.' 

Gaultier. * As aspish as Gault.er. 
Claude Gaultier was a French advocate 
(1590-16G6), referred to by Boileau. 

Dans vos discours chagrins plus aigre et plus 

mordant 
Qu une femme en furie, ou Gaultier en plaidant. 

Sat. ix. 

Gaurian Dynasty (The). So 

called from Gaur in West Afghanistan, 
because Hussein Mahmoud Ghori was 
governor of Gaur under the Gaznevides 
(3 syl.), before he declared himself inde- 
pendent in 1155. He overthrew them in 
1158, and usui'ped the kingdom; but the 
Gaurians were in turn overthrown by 
the Khans of Kharism in 1213. 

The second Gaurian Dynasty was the 
'House of Khilji,' which succeeded in 
1288. The last of the house (Khusru) was 
dethroned and put to death, 22 Aug., 1321, 
by Ghiizi Khan Toghlak, who founded 
* The House of Toghlak.' 

Gau'tama {Prince). Prince Sid- 
dar'tha, born on the borders of Nepaul 
B.C. 600, died B.C. 543 at Kusinag'ara in 
Oudh. He became a Buddh, and was 
the founder of the Buddhists, which em- 
brace more than a third of the human 
race. 

Father, Suddhod'ana king of Sak'ya. 
Mother, Queen Maya. Wife, Yasod'hara. 
Cit>/, Kapilavas'tu. Son, Pv,ahula. 

His horse was Kantara ; his pleasure- 
palace Vish'ramvan' ; his charioteei 
Channa. 

As Buddha he dwelt first on the rock 
Munda by the village of Dalidd' ; then 
in the solitudes of Sena'ni ; his dress a 
yellow robe. 

*^* Buddhism consists of four truths 
and eight precepts which lead to Nir- 
va'na, i.e. sinless rest which never 
changes. The four truths are : Sorrow ; 
desire the cause of sorrow ; the conquest 
of self; and the victory over sorrow. 
Eight precepts lead to victory. The five 
commandments of Buddha are : (i.) Kill 
not ; (ii.) Give freely ; (iii.) Bear no false 
witness ; (iv.) Shun intoxicating drinks ; 
(v.) Touch not thy neighbour's wife. 
The eight precepts are : Right doctrine, 
right purpose, right converse, right con- 
duct, right purity, right thought, right 
lowliness, and right rapture. (Sir Edwin 
Arnold, ' The Light of Asia,' bk. i.) 

'Lord Buddha — Prince Siddartha styled in 
oartk.' 



360 



GAVELKIND 



GENERAL 



Gavelkind. A law whereby all tlie 
sons succeed alike. By this tenure an 
estate does not escheat to the lord (in 
case of felony), the maxim being 'The 
father to the bough [gallows], the son to 
the plough [land].' In default of sons 
the property descends to daughters. 

Suppose A, B, C, to be three sons, and A dies, 
leaving a daughter ; then A's daughter takes her 
third with B and C. 

Gay [Joseph). The pen-name of 
Captain John Durant Breval, who wrote 
' The Confederates,' 1717 ; ' The Progress 
of a Rake,' 1733 ; ' The Lure of Venus,' 
1733; &c. 

The fabulist and author of the 'Beggars 
Opera ' was John Gay (ie»8-1732). 

Gay Science (The), or 'The Joyous 
Science,' that of minstrelsy. In Norman 
French, the Joyeuse Science. 

'[I am] an unworthy graduate of the Gay 
Science, my lord,' said the musician, ' yet let me 
say for myself, th t I will not yield to the king of 
minstrels, Geoffrey Rudel, though the king of 
England hath given him four manors for one 
Bong.'— Sir \V. Scott, The Betrothed, eh. xix. 

Gazari, Gazeri, or Gacari. The same 
as the Cathari or Paterini, meaning 
Puritans. Called in Italy 'Paterini,' 
* Cathari,' or ' Gazari ' ; in France, ' Les 
Vaudois,' and ' Les Pauvres de Lyon.' 

The Albigenses were quite another sect, although 
both protested against the dogmas of the Catholic 
Church, and the evil lives of its clergy. 

Gazette (The). Published at Venice 
in 1563. 

Published at Paris by Renaudot, 25 
May, 1631. 

Published at Oxford 1665. See ' Pall 
Mall.' 

The gazette now means with us an 
official newspaper in which proclama- 
tions, notices of appointments, bank- 
ruptcies, dissolutions of partnership, and 
so on are published by government. It 
is issued every Tuesday and Friday. 

Gaznevides (3 syl.). A Tartar and 
Musulman dynasty which lasted 184 
years (999-1183), so called from Gazne, 
the birthplace of Alp Tekin the founder. 
It succeeded the Samanides (3 syl.). 
The greatest of the Gaznevides was Mah- 
moud, who reigned in the eastern pro- 
vinces of Persia (967, 927-1030). He was 
' the slave of the slave of the commander 
of the faithful,' and was the first who 
was ever called sultan. 

Gelal'ean Era (The). This era 
began 15 March, A.D. 1079. So called i 



from Gelal Eddin Malek Shah, who 
reformed the old Egyptian calendar. 

The reign of Malek was illustrated byithe Gelal- 
ean Era, which surpasses the Julian and ap- 
proHches the accuracy of the Gregorian style. 
Gibbon, chap. Ivii. 

Gelosi (J.). A celebrated troop of 
Italian comedians who acted in Venice. 
They went to Blois in 1577, and then to 
Paris. In 1588 a fresh company of 
Gelosi appeared at Blois, and then at 
Paris, where they acted till 1604. 

Gema'ra (The). The second part 
of the Talmud, or commentary on the 
Mishna, regarded as the text. There 
are two commentaries — viz. the Baby- 
lonian Gemara (completed a.d. 500), and 
the Jerusalem Gemara (middle of the 
4th cent.), the former of which is by far 
the better one. 

Gemblours [Battle of), Jan., 1578. 
In which Don John of Austria defeated 
the Dutch, and spread consternation 
throughout the Netherlands. 

Gemon'ise Scalse. The staircase 
in Rome down which criminals con- 
demned to death descended from their 
prison cells to execution. It was near 
the Tiber. 

Gemotes (2 syl.). There were several 
in the Saxon period, as — 

The Shire-gemote, or county court, 
which met twice a year. 

The Burg-getnote, met thrice a year. 

The Hitndred-gemote, met monthly. 

The Halle-gemote or ' court-baron.' 

The Witena-gemote, which corre- 
sponded to the Reichstage (2 syl.) of the 
Franks. A national assembly. 

Gendarme (2 syl.), i.e. gens armdta. 
The men who accompanied a feodal lord 
to battle. In 1453 Charles VII. ap- 
pointed a permanent gendarmerie. In 
the reign of Louis XVI. it was replaced 
by the Gendarmerie de Luneville. In 
1791 the Constituent Assembly converted 
it into the Gendarmerie departementale; 
under Napoleon I. it was called the 
Gendarmerie d'elite ; at the restoration 
it was called the Gendarmerie Boy ale ; 
in 1830 it was replaced by the Garde 
Municijoale, called in 1848 the Garde 
Bepublicaine, and in 1852 the Gen- 
darmerie de Paris. 

General [The). Of religious orders in 
the Catholic Church. The supreme head 



GENERAL 



GENERALISSIMO 



8G1 



(under the pope) of each of the leading 
rehgions orders. 

The Superior of an individual convent, &c., is 
an abbot, prior, rector, superior, &c. 

A Provincial has authority over ail the con- 
vents, &c., of a province. 

A General has authority over all provinces. 

General Assembly {The), 1G89. 
The supreme court of the Scotch Kirk, 
composed of delegates from every pres- 
bytery in the church. Two elders are 
elected by the Town Council of Edin- 
burgh, one by each burgh, a representa- 
tive is elected by the senate of each of 
the four universities, and an elder by 
the church in India. It meets annually 
in May, and sits for ten days ; and if any 
business is left over it is settled by a 
commission nominated by the General 
Assembly. 

G-eneral Assembly of the Pres- 
byterian Church, of Ireland 

{The), 1840. The union of the General 
and Secession Synods. It contains 
about 500 congregations under forty 
presbyteries. 

General Baptists. Those dis- 
senters of the Baptist connection who 
uphold the doctrine of general redemp- 
tion in contradistinction to the Particular 
Baptists, who maintain the Calvinistic 
doctrines of election, predestination, and 
reprobation. See ' Free Communionists.' 

General Bourn. Niclmame of 
Mons. Thiers the French historian (1797- 
1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' 

Thiers, pronounce Te-air. 

General Councils. The first at 
Nice, A.D. 325, against Arius, who denied 
the divinity of Christ. The second at 
Constantinople, 381, against Macedonius, 
who denied the true humanity of Christ 
and the Holy Ghost. The third at 
Ephesus, 431, against Nestorius, who 
said the Virgin Mary was the mother of 
Jesus, but not BeoT6K.o<; (the mother of 
God). The fourth at Chalcedon, 451, 
against Eutyches, who maintained that 
the human nature was merged in the 
divine nature. The fifth at Constanti- 
nople, 553, which condemned Origen's 
doctrine that parts of the scripture are 
either allegorical or figurative. The 
sixth at Constantinople, (i80, against the 
Monoth'elites (4 syl.), who maintained 
that, although Christ had two natures, 
He had but one will, that of his divine 
16 



nature. These are the only councils of 
acknowledged authority. 

Council 1 declared Christ to be God 6,\r,9S(; 
(truly). Council 2 declared Him to be God and 
Man reXcojc (perfectly). Council 3 declared Him to 
be God and Man (iffi..ii/>e'r<uc(indivisilily). And Coun- 
cil 4 declared him to be God and Man navyxiTuit 
(distinctly). The decisions of these four councils 
are acknowledged by the Church of England. See 
' Ecumenical Councils.' 

Of the Western Church : 

I, 2, 3, 4. All of the Lateran in Rome, 
A.D. 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215 (or 10, 11, 12, 
13). 

5, 6. Both at Lyons, ad. 1245, 1274 (or 
14, 15). 

7. Council of Vienne in France, A.D. 
1311 (or 16). 

8. Council of Constance, a.d. 1414 to 
1418 (or 17). 

9. Council of Basel, Ferrara, Flo- 
rence, A.D. 1431 to 1443 (or 18). 

10. Council of the Lateran, ad. 1511 to 
1517 (or 19). 

II. Council of Trent, a.d. 1545 to 1563 
(or 20). 

12. Council of the VaticsCn, 1869-1870. 

Numbered from 10 to 20 if taken from the Council 
of Nice, A.D. 32.5, v.'hen the Eastern and Western 
Churches were not divided. 

General ISTon - subscribing 

Presbyterian Association {The), 
Ireland, 1850. The union of the three 
non-subsci'ibing presbyteries of Ireland — - 
viz. ' The United Presbytery or Synod 
of Munster,' ' The Presbytery of An- 
trim,' and ' The Remonstrant Synod of 
Ulster.' They claim the right of private 
judgment and non-subscription to creeds 
or confessions of faith. 

General Privilege of Peter 

III. The Magna Charta of Aragon, 
1283. The Fueros de Aragon contain a 
series of provisions against tallages, 
spoliations of property, sentences of the 
justiciary without assent of the Cortes, 
appointments of foreigners to judicial 
offices, trials of accused persons in places 
beyond the kingdom, the falsification of 
the coin, bribery of judges, absolute 
power, and so on. It was an improve- 
ment on our own charter. 

Generalissimo Procession {A). 

An extraordinary religious procession, in 
which all the chief men of the state took 
part. In the Generalissimo Procession of 
Paris, 29 Jan., 1535, the king, Franc^ois I., 
all the clergy, ambassadors, lords, presi- 
dents of the courts of justice, and all the 
notables took part. The reliquary of the 



8C2 



g:^nekalite 



GENTB 



St. Chapelle was carried through the 
streets ; the head of St. Louis ; a piece of 
the true cross, the crown of thorns, a real 
nail, the spear-head, and the shrine of Ste. 
Genevieve. The king went bare-headed, 
holding a lighted torch. Every house 
passed by was lighted with tapers, and 
the inmates holding lighted candles sank 
on their knees. 

G^ndralitd, in the ancient regime 
of France, was the jurisdiction of an 
intendant-general of finance. The num- 
ber of these go'neralites varied. In the 
14th century there were four; under 
Francois I. the number was increased to 
sixteen ; in 1787 there were thirty-two. 
Abolished in 1789. 

G-eneva — Home, Protestantism- 
Catholicism. Strictly speaking, Geneva 
means Calvinism. 

I -^vould have you know 1 care as little for Geneva 
as ior Rome ; as little for homilies as for pardons. 
—Sir W. Scott, The Abbot, ch. xvi. 

Gene'va Bands, 1652. Clerical 

bands in imitation of those worn by the 
Calvinistic Protestants of Geneva. Till 
the last quarter of the 19th cent, they 
were worn by the clergy of the established 
church and university men ; but since the 
Oxford Tract movement both the bands 
and the black gown have been ahnost 
entirely abandoned by clergymen. 

Gene'va Bible (The), 15G0. The 
Bible translated by the English exiles at 
Geneva. The exiles who assisted in this 
translation were Knox, Coverdale, Good- 
man, Gibbs, Samson, William Cole, Whit- 
tingham, and Gilery. It was the first 
Bible in Roman letter, divided into verses. 
This is the famous ' Breeches Bible,' based 
on Tyndale's translation. See ' Bibles.' 

Coverdnle had already produced his own trans- 
lation in ]5:;5, and had superintended the produc- 
tion of the ' Great Bible,' 1539. 

Geneva Catechisms (The), 1530. 
A larger and shorter formulary, the work 
of Calvin. A standard work in Switzer- 
land, the Netherlands, France, and Hun- 
gary. 

Luther published a larger and smaller cate- 
chism 1529 ; and a larger and shorter catechism 
■were compiled in the reign of Edward VI., the 
shorter one by Crannier, and the larger one by 
Poynet or Ponet. There is also a larger and 
shorter catechism of the Presbyterian Churches, 
the shorter one publislied in 1G47, and the larger 
one in 1()48. These form part of the ' Westminster 
Confession of Faith.' 

Geneva Convention (The), 1863. 
An international agreement to respect the 



persons and property of those who give 
voluntarily their services in times of war 
to attend on the sick and wounded. They 
must have a recognised costume, flag, and 
arm-badge (a red cross on a white ground). 
If taken prisoners they are to be dis- 
charged without ransom. Often called 
« The Red Cross Society.' 

First brought into operation in the Franco- 
German War 1870-71. The idea was popularised by 
a book written by M. Durant, Un Souvmir de Snlfe- 
rino, 18G2, and the Convention was held the follow- 
ing year at Geneva, attended by delegates from 
Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, France, Great 
Britain, Hanover, Hesse-Darmstadt, Italy. Prus- 
sia, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden, Switzerland, 
and Wurtemberg. 

Gene'va Formula (The), 1543. 

Published six years before the First Book 
of Edward VI. It was the first to origi- 
nate the idea of making the singing of 
psalms take the place of vocal response on 
the part of the people. Provision was 
made for extemporaneous prayer, and for 
prayer on special occasions. 

Grene^j-ieve {Canons Begular of Ste.), 
1615. Ratified by Gregory XV. The 
abbey of Ste. Genevieve was built by 
Eugenius III. in 1148. 

Pronounce Jhan'-ve-ave, 

Gengiskha'nians (The), or *Gen- 
gisk'hanides ' (4 syl.). A Persian dynasty 
(1225-1258), which supplanted the Kha- 
riz'mians {q-v.). 

The four Idngs were Gengis Khan, 1225 ; OktaT, 
1229 ; Kaiouk, 1242 ; and JNIangou, 1250. Mangou sent 
his younger brother Houlagou to conquer the west 
of Asia. This done, the conqueror fixed his resi- 
dence at Tauris, in Persia; took Bagdad in 1258 
from the Califs ; and carried his conquests into 
Syria. Hp succeeded Mangou in 1258, and formed 
a branch line of the Gengiskhanians, which con- 
tinued to 1336, when it gave place to the Ilkhan- 
ians. 

Genoese War (The), 1378-1381. 
The Venetians call the ' War of Chiozza ' 
(q.v.) the ' Genoese War.' And the new 
nobles aggrandised after the war they call 
'The Nobles of the Genoese War' ('I 
Nobili della Guerra di Genova.') See 
* Nobles of the, &c.' 

Genovefains. Canons of the abbey 
de Ste. Genevieve, which formed what is 
called the ' Congregation de France,' in- 
stituted by Clovis in 500. They followed 
the rule of St. Augustine, and wore a 
white robe with a rochet, but when abroad 
a black cloak. 

Gente Grassa (The). The substan- 
tial tradesmen of Italy, like the Medici. 
Gento i2 syL). 



GENTILHOMME 



GEORGE 



8G3 



Gentilhomme de la Peinture 

(Le). Rubens (1577-164U) is so called by 
Charles Blanc. 

- Gentiluom'ini (The). The mas- 
ters of Venice both by sea and land, 
corresponding with the burghers of Flo- 
rence. The lowest class was the popo- 
lari or plebeians, then the cittadini, then 
came the gentiluomini, about 3,000 in 
number. 

Gentle (The). Izaak Walton, the 
Angler (1593-1683). Angling is called 
'The Gentle Craft.' Probably there is 
something of a pun in the phrase, refer- 
ring to the bait of gentles used by anglers. 

Gentle Shepherd. George Gren- 
ville (1712-1770). 

In ITfiS Sir Francis Dashwood proposed a tax 
upon cider and perry, which Pitt (.Earl Chatham) 
objected to. Whereupon George Grenvillo declared 
the tax inevitable, and added, if Pitt objected to it, 
' Let him tell me where the money is to be raised, 
let him tell mo where,' he repeated. Pitt, who sat 
opposite, hummed, in tone mimicking Grenville, 
the beginninfiof a popular tune of the day, ' Gentle 
Shepherd. tf>ll me where?' The House was con- 
vulsed with laughter, and Pitt walked out. 

Gentleman George. George IV., 
also called Handsome Al Raschid. See 
' Fum.' 

Gentleman IIighwaynian(T/^^). 
I. Tom King, friend of Richard (Dick) 
Turpin ; the ' Pylades and Orestes of the 
road.' Accidentally shot by Turpin in a 
scuffle, in 1739. 

II. Claude Duval, executed 1670. 

Gentleman's Magazine {The), 
1731. Originated by Cave. 

Gentlemen Commoners. Stu- 
dents in the Oxford University who dine 
at the Fellows' table, and wear a dis- 
tinctive college costume. Called in Cam- 
bridge University Fellow Commoners 
(g'.w.). They are generally either noble- 
men or married men. 

Gentoo. An obsolete term at one 
time applied to the natives of Hindustan. 
It is the Portuguese gentio, meaning a Gentile. 

Geology {Professcrskip of). In the 
University of Cambridge, 1727, founded 
by Dr. Woodward ; and hence the pro- 
fessor i^ also called the Woodwardian 
professor. Stipend, 5001. a year. 

George I. First of the Hanoverian 
dynasty in England. He died on his road 
to Osnaburg, and was buried in Hanover 
(1660, 1714-1727). He could not speak a 
word of English, and looked on Great 



Britain only as a useful appendage to 
Hanover. 

Father, Emestus duke of Brunswick, 
&c. ; Mother, Sophia daughter of Eliza- 
beth, granddaughter of James I. of Eng- 
land ; Wife, Sophia Dorothy of Zell, only 
daughter of George William duke of 
Brunswick and Zell ; Issue, Geokge [II.], 
his successor, and Sophia, who married 
Frederick William of Prussia, and was 
the mother of Frederick II. the Great. 

His style. — George, Dei Gratia, of 
Great Britain, France, and Ireland, king ; 
Defender of the Faith. 

His Mistresses were the Countess Platen and 
Madame Herrengard Melusina von Schlcmberg, 
who said to the London rabble : ' Mein people, 
why do ye abuse us thus ? We do be come here 
to Kngland only for all your goods.' 

*»* Of course George I. had no hereditary right 
to the throne of England, but only a parliamen- 
tary ri^;ht. His mother was a granddaughter of 
.James I., and the line of his father runs back to 
Maud, daughter of our Henry II. 

George II. King of Great Britain, 
second king of the House of Hanover 
(1683, 1727-1760). He died on Saturday, 
25 Oct. Like his father, he looked on Great 
Britain only as the appendage of Hanover. 

Father, George I. ; Mother, Sophia 
Dorothy daughter of George William 
duke of Zell; Wife, Caroline Wilhel- 
mina of Anspach ; Issue, three sons and 
five daughters. Frederick Lewis (Prince 
of Wales), father of George III., died 
about ten years before his father, George 
II. His nichyianie was Prince Tite. 

His style and title. — George, Dei 
Gratia, of Great Britain, France, and Ire- 
land, king ; Defender of the Faith. 

From Frederick Lewis prince of Wales the 
Princess Alexandra is detcended, thus : His 
youngest daughter, Caroline Matilda, married 
Christian VIII. of Denmark, the son of whom was 
Frederick VI. of Denmark ; the son of Frederick 

VI. was Frederick VII,; the son of Frederick 

VII. was Christian IX., whose daughter is 
Alexandra princess of Wales (great-great-great- 
grandchild of George II.). 

George III. Son of Frederick Lewis 
prince of Wales, and grandson of George 
II. (1738, 1760-1820), born in London, 
and the first of the line of Brunswick 
who was a Briton born. He married 
Charlotte daughter of Charles duke of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, by whom he had 
fifteen children, viz. nine sons and six 
daughters. The eldest son George [IV.] 
succeeded to the throne, but he had pre- 
viously been prince-regent. Familiarly 
called ' Farmer George,' or ' the Farmer 
King.' 

Style and title. — From 1760 to 1800: 



8G4 



GEORGE 



GERMAN 



George, D.G. of Great Britain, France, 
and Ireland, king ; Defender of the Faith. 
From 1800 to 1820 : George, D.G. of the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, king ; Defender of the Faith. 

George III. was the father of Geohge IV., 
\ViLi,iAM IV., and Edward duke of Kent (the 
father of Queen Victoria.) 

G-eorge IV. King of Great Britain, 
&c.. Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lune- 
burg, Duke of Cornwall and Roth say. 
Earl of Chester and Carrick, Baron of 
Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, hereditary 
Grand Steward of Scotlaiad, &c. Born 
1762, regent from Feb. 1811, king 1820, 
died Saturday, 26 June, 1830. 

Father, Geokge III. ; Mother, Sophia 
Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; Wife, 
his cousin Caroline, daughter of the 
Prince of Brunswick; Issue, Charlotte, 
who married Leopold (afterwards king 
of Belgium). Nicknames : The Magni- 
ficent (from his love of gorgeous apparel). 
Prince Florizel, Fum the Fourth, The 
Fat Adonis of Fifty, the First Gentleman 
of Europe. Style and title, as George 
III. after 1800. 

At the age of sixteen he fell in love vrith Mrs. 
Robinson, an actress, who received an annuity of 
500i. a year ; in 1785 he married Mrs. Fitzlierb' it, 
a widow, but the man i 'ge was a 'German one.' 
After his marria,ge with Caroline of Brunswick 
his favourite lady was the Countess of Jersey. 

George {A St.). A badge worn over 
the armour by every English soldier in 
the 14th cent., and subsequently. On 
the invasion of Scotland by Richard II., 
in 1386, and at the battle of Agincourt, it 
was ordained that 

Everiman, of what estate, condicion, or nation 
they be of, so that he be of oure partie, shall here 
a signe of the acmes of St. George, large (botlie 
before and behynde) upon parell that yf he be 
slayne or wounded to dcth, he that hath so doon 
to hym shall not be putte to deth for defaulte of 
the crosse tliat he lacketh. And that non enemy 
do bere the same token or crosse of St. George, 
notvvithstandyng if he be prisoner, upon payne of 
deth. 

*j,* The St. George is a red cross on a white 
field. In the Order of the Garter it is a figure of 
St. George on horseback piercing the fallen 
dragon, on a mount. 

George {Knights of St.), 1. 1201. A 
military order of Alfana, in Spain. Con- 
firmed by John XXII. in 1317 ; united to 
the order of Montesa by Benedict XIII. 
in 1399. Extinct. 

II. In Burgundy, 1400, founded by 
Philibert de Miolans. Extinct. 

III. 1273, in Carinthia, founded by 
Rudolf of Hapsburg. Revived in 1468 
by Frederick III. Extinct in 1598. 

rV. 1470, in Austria, founded by Fre- 1 



derick III. to guard the frontiers of 
Bohemia and Hungary. 

V. 1492, at Borne, instituted by Alexan- 
der VI., and abolished in 1578 by Gregory 
XIII. 

VI. 1500, in Germany, founded 1500. 
Extinct. 

VII. 1535, at Bavenna, founded by 
Paul III., and abolished in 1578 by Gre- 
gory XIII. 

VIII. 1729, in Bavaria, refounded by 
Karl VII. 

IX. 1769, in Bussia, founded by Ca- 
therine II. ; and restored by Alexander I. 
in 1801. 

X. 1819, in Sicily, instituted by Fer- 
dinand I. 

XI. 1833, in Lucca, instituted by Duke 
Charles Louis. 

XII. 1840, in Hanover, instituted by 
Ernest Augustus. 

George the Magnificent. See 

above, George IV. 

Georgia, in N. America. So named 
in honour of George II., in whose reign 
the first white settlement thex'e was 
effected (1733). The nickname of the 
inhabitants is Buzzards. 

Geougen [The). A gang of Tartar 
robbers, enlisted under Moko, slave of a 
Topa prince. The gang swelled into a 
camp, then into a tribe, and then into a 
numerous people. The posterity of Moko 
assumed the title of Klian or Cagan a.d. 
400. 

German Athens. Wittenberg was 
so called by Giordano Bruno. 

German Catholics. A religious 
party in the German Catholic Church 
with independent congregations. They 
call themselves ' Christian Catholics.' 
They are not Protestants. This party 
sprang into being in 1844, when Bishop 
Arnoldi ajipointed a pilgrimage to the 
Holy Coat at Treves, which called forth 
a, protest from J. Ronge (2 syl.), a priest 
of Silesia, who characterised the relic as 
the ' coat of idolatry.' 

German Confederation (The). 
I. ' Der Deutsche Bund,' 8 June, 1815 ; 
constituted by treaty of Vienna, after 
the battle of Waterloo, to create a barrier 
against French aggression. Its object 
was to grant to the thirty-nine states of 
Germany external and internal security. 
Of the states Austria and Prussia were 
large kingdoms, and Bavaria, Saxony, 



GEEMAN 



GHAUTS 



865 



Hanover, and Wiirtemberg were minor 
kingdoms; the other thirty-three states 
were grand duchies, free cities, &e. Each 
state was bound to supi)ly 1 per cent, 
of its population to form an army iu 
time of war. Austria presided, but in 
18u6 was exckided from the Bund by the 
treaty of Prague. 

The princedom of Gotha became extinct in 1826 ; 
the duchy of Anlialt-Cothen was annexed to 
Anhalt Dessau in 1847 ; the principalities of Hoheu- 
zollern-Hechingen and of HohenzoUern-Sigma- 
ringen were annexed to Prussia in 1849; the ducliy 
of Anhalt-Bernberg became extinct in 1863 ; and 
in 180(5 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, 
and part of Hesse-Darmstadt were annexed to 
Prussia. 

II. 1871. During the Franco-Prussian 

war (Nov. 1871), Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxony 
joined the North German Confederation, 
which consisted of Prussia and the states 
north of the Main. By this extension 
the North German Confederation was 
changed to the ' German Confederation,' 
and on 18 Jan., 1871, the king of Prussia 
was elected German emperor. 

After the Seven Weeks' War, 18G6, the following 
Btates formed a part of Prussia :— The kingdom of 
Hanover (annexed) ; Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and 
Frankfort (annexed) ; Lauenburg (since ISiio^ 
Schleswig and Holstein (annexed); Kaulsdorf, 
Gersfeld, and Orl (ceded by Bavaria) ; Hesse- 
Komburg. Amt-Homburg, Amt-Meisenheim (ceded 
by Hesse-Darmstadt). 

German Emancipation War 

{The), 1813. That is, to emancipate Ger- 
many fi'om the hands of Napoleon. The 
battles fought in 1813 were Liitzen and 
Bautzen, Grossbeerin, Katzbach, Dres- 
den, Culm, Dennewitz, Leipzig, and 
Hanan. The last of the battles was that 
of V/aterloo in 1815. 

German Emparor. Not 'Emperor 
of Germany,' but either ' Deutscher Kai- 
ser ' or ' Kaiser des Deutschen Reiches ' 
(Kaiser of the Gennan Dominion). See 
' Prussia {King of) ' for his various titles. 

German Florence {The). Dres- 
den, noted for its architecture and col- 
lections of art. 

German Herriek (The). Paul 
Flemming of Silesia (1009-1()4U). Some of 
his Anacreontic odes are etjual to those 
of the great Greek erotic j)oet. His 
sonnet on ' Myself,' and his ' Epitai^h,' 
are gems of heaven-born poetry. 

German Iliad {The). The Nibel- 
ungen Lied, the most important poem of 
the middle ages. It is in thirty-nine 
books, and is about as long as Milton's 



' Paradise Lost.' The poem is divided 
into two parts. The first part contains 
the marriage of Siegfried and Kremhild, 
and ends with the death of the bride- 
groom ; the second part is the marriage 
of the widow with Etzel, in order to 
revenge the murder of her first husband. 

German Knights of the Cross 

{The). The ' Teutonic knights ' {q.v.). 

German Literature {Father of). 
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781). 

German K"estor of Philosophy 

{The). Ernst Platner (1744-1818). 

German Odyssey {The). 'The 
Kudrun,' and second best poem of the 
Hoheustauft'en school. It is divided into 
three parts. (1) The Hagen; (2) the 
Hilde ; and (3) the Hedel ; so called 
from the chief characters. 

German Pliny {The), or 'the 
Pliny of Germany.' Koiu'ad von Gesner 
of Ziirich (1516-156,5). So called from 
his ' Catalogue of Plants,' in four lan- 
guages, and his ' History of Animals ' (in 
Latin), a marvellous production, which 
from that day to this has been accounted 
a memorable treatise. 

German School of Painting 

{The), 1490-1520. Founded by Hoi- 
bein, Albrecht Diirer, and others. 

German Strabo {The). Sebastian 
Munster of Ingelheim (1489-1521), author 
of a ' Universal Cosmography.' 

German Version of the Bible 

{The). Old Testament, at the expense of 
the Kaiser Wenceslaus, 1405, first printed 
in 1466 ; Luther's version, 1522-1530. 

German'icus {The French). Louis 
the dauphin, son of Louis XV. (1729- 
1765), father of three kings ; Louis XVI., 
Louis XVIIL, and Charles X. 

Gesta Romano'rum. A legen- 
dary book of the middle ages, in Latin. 
The stories are short, with religious 
morals. The compiler was Elinandus, a 
monk, and the morals were added sub- 
sequently by Peter Bercheur of Poitou. 

Ghauts. Buildings on the banks of 
the Ganges and other rivers of Northern 
Hindustan for the use of bathers. The 
steps down to the river form lounging 
places where the idle or devout pass 
their happiest hours. 



866 



GHAZNEVIDES 



GrBRALTAE 



Ghaz'nevides (3 syl.). A Tartar 
Musulnian dynasty, which reigned over 
a large part of Persia and Hindustan. 
So called from Ghazna or Gazna, the 
birthplace of Alp-Tekin, who drove ^ 
the Samanides (3 syl.)- There were on.y 
four kings of this dynasty — viz. Alp Tekin 
(9G0-975), Sebek Tekin (975-999), Mah- 
moud (999-1028), and Masoud (1028-30). 

The Ghaznevides, called the sixth dynasty, con- 
temporary ^vith the Califs, reigned only over a 
part of Persia. It was succeeded by the Seldjiiks 
of Persia. 

Ghib'ellines (3 syl.). A political 
party in Italy which maintained the 
supremacy of the German kaiser-kings 
over the Italian states in opposition to 
that of the pope. The Guelfs were sup- 
porters of the pope and of Italian inde- 
pendence. The Ghibellines were the 
imperial party, the Guelfs were the 
papal party. The strife began with a dis- 
pute about investiture between Gregory 
VII. and the kaiser-king Heinrich IV. 
The first time the names were used as a 
battle-cry was at the combat of Weins- 
berg, between Konrad of Franconia and 
Heinrich the Lion, in 1140. The names 
continued in use till 1450. 

The commander of the Imperialists at the battle 
of Weinsburg was Friedrich duke of Suabia (tlio 
khig's cousin), who lived a.t Vv'eblingeu, corrupted 
into Ghibelline. Guelf was the name of the leader 
of the papal army. 

Ghebres {The), i.e. infidels. All 
non-Musulmans except Jews and Clii'is- 
tians. The appellation is more especially 
aiM>lied to the followers of Zoroaster 
t-.o fire-v/orshipper. Also called Parsees, 
from Farsistan, their originiil locality. 
They are gentle, faithful, benevolent, and 
hospitable. (Persian ghebr, an infidel.) 

Ghebres, pronounce Ge' bsrs (hard g). 

Ghengis Khan (Dynasty of), 1222- 
1259. Ghengis (the Great Warrior) is a 
Chinese title given to Temudgin for his 
vast exploits. His empire included Per- 
sia. In 1250 his fourth son, Mangou, 
succeeded his brother in China, and for 
eight years Persia had no separate sove- 
reign. 

Ghent. Notorious for its rebellions. 
In the public library of Flanders is a 
book entitled ' The 120 revolts of the 
good city of Ghent.' 

Ghent, pronounce Gah n (with n nasal). 

Ghent (Peace of). 24 Doc, 1814. 
Between Great Britain and the United 



States, bringing to an end the second 
American War. 

Ghorides (2 syl.), * Gaurides,' or 
' Ghorians.' A dynasty which reigned in 
Persia from 1158 to 1213, founded by 
Hussein Mahmoud Ghori, governor of 
Gaur or Ghor in Afghanistan. Under 
Ala Eddin they conquered all Persia and 
drove out the Ghaznevides (3 syl.) in 
1158 ; but in 1213 they were supplanted 
by the khans of Kharizm. 

A branch of the House of Ghor reigned in Hin- 
dustan from llS'J to 1215. when the Kharismiaus 
drove them out ; but the Kharismians, in 1398, were 
in turn supplanted by the Pathans. 

Giants' Stairs of Venice. A flight 
of forty-five stone steps leading to the 
doge's palace at Venice. Marino Falie'ri 
was beliea,ded on the landing of the stair- 
case Friday, 16 April, 1355. On the same 
landing the doge was accustomed to take 
the oath after his election, before he 
entered the palace. The giant stairs are 
guarded by two noble statues of Mars and 
Neptune, emblems of the military and 
naval power of Venice ; the works of San- 
sovi'no of Florence (1479-1570). 

Giaour, a corruption of the Turkish 
'Yaoor,' is applied by Moslems to a 
Christian, and means a,n infidel. 
Pronounce, djoicr. 

Gibraltar (Siege of), Sept. 1782. 
Gibraltar was taken by Sir George 
Eooke in 1704, and ceded to the English 
in 1713 by the treaty of Utrecht. Several 
efiorts have been made to wrest it from 
our hands, but the most serious was the 
siege in Sept. 1782, when the Spaniards 
invested the fort, which was gallantly 
defended by General Elliott. When all 
hope of reducing the place was aban- 
doned, the Spaniards determined to 
intercept the supplies and starve the gar- 
rison into a surrender; but Lord Howe 
succeeded in supjilying abundant food, 
and the Spaniards raised the siege. 

Gibraltar of America, or the 
IJqw V/orld. Quebec, a city on 
Cape Diamond in the province of Quebec. 

Gibraltar of Greece. A preci- 
pitous rock 700 feet above the sea. 

Gibraltar of the West Indies 

(The). The Bermudas. 

These islands were discovered by Juan Beimu- 
dez, a Spranard, in lfi5'2 ; but, being colonised by Sir 
Goorge Somers, they are Bouietimes called ' Souicrs 
Ibles.' 



GILBEET'S 



GIUNTA 



Gilbert's Act, 1782. To incor- 
porate parishes into unions, whereby 
parishes under the power of hxndlords 
'were not depopulated in order to save 
poor rates. 

Gril'bertines (3 syl.). A religious 
order founded by St. Gilbert of Sempring- 
ham in England, who lived 108i-1190. 

Gilded Youth. {The). See ' Jeun- 
esse Dore'e.' 

The prisons of Lyons, Avignon, Marseilles, Tar- 
ascon, and Toulon were no sooner filled with 
Jacobins than they were broken open by what 
were called the "gilded youth,' and the prisoners 
massacred.— HOWITT, Hist, of Engl. (Geo. III. 1795, 
p. 143). 

Gillies' Hill (The), 1314. The hill 
behind which the gillies were stationed 
at the battle of Bannockburn to guard 
the luggage. "When they saw the battle 
was going in favour of the Scotch, they 
could restrain themselves no longer, but 
rushed forwards to share the victory and 
the booty. The English, thinking them 
to be a body of reserves, lost heast and 
fled, and the Scotch obtained a complete 
and signal victory. 

The g of ' Gillies ' is hard, and not like J, as in 
gin. 

Gilt Lance (A). A symbol of vas- 
salage. A royal vassal, when he first paid 
homage, received a gilt lance to denote 
that he was henceforth the king's man 
[puer regis]. 

Gin Act [The), 1736. Sir Joseph 
Jekyll, greatly concerned at the excess of 
gin drunk by the poor, proposed to put a 
heavy tax on it, so as to put it out of tlie 
reach of the operative. The duty he 
suggested was to be 20.s. a gallon on all 
gin sold retail, and 50Z. yearly for the 
licence to a retailer. 

Gipsy {The). 1. Dudley earl of Lei- 
cester (1532-1588). 

II. Antonio Sola'rio, the painter and 
illuminator, was called ' Zingaro ' (li)82- 
1455). 

The fp.vourite greyhound of Charles I. was 
named ' Gipsey.' See ' Jlemoirs," 329. 

Giraldus Gambrensis, i.e. 
Gerald the Welshman. His father was 
a Norman and his mother Welsh. His 
name was Gerald or Girauld de Barri 
(1147-1222). 

Gir'lingites (3 syl.). The followers 
of Mary Ann Girling, of Tiptoe, Hordle, 
Hampshire. According to her manifesto, 
dated 18S3, Jesus Christ was not only 



God and man, but man and woman ; the 
only visible part being the man nature. 
Mrs. Girling says : ' I am the second 
appearing of Jesus, the bride, the Lamb's 
wife, the God-mother, and there will not 
be another.' This crazy woman had some 
thousands of deluded followers. 

Girls' Friendly Society {The), 
1875. The objects are (1) to band 
together in one society ladies as asso- 
ciates, and girls as members, for mutual 
help, sympathy, and prayer. (2) To en- 
courage purity of life, dutifulness to 
parents, faithfulness to employers, and 
thrift. (3) To provide the privileges of 
the society for its members, wherever 
they may be, by giving them an intro- 
duction from one branch to another. 

Giron'dins {Les). In English ' The 
Giron'dists.' The pure republican party 
in the National Assembly and National 
Convention of the first French revolu- 
tion. So called because it consisted 
mainly of the deputies of the Gironde. 
Tliis party was distinguished for its 
oratory, and for a time dominated the 
assembly ; but, horrified at the September 
massacres, they condemned the Reign of 
Terror, and tried to bring in more mode- 
rate measures. This drew upon them 
the hatred of the demagogues ; and on 31 
May, 1793, some twenty-nine of the Giron- 
dists were arrested at the instigation of 
Robespierre, and on 31 Oct. twenty of 
them were guillotined, amongst whom 
were Brissot, Gensonne, Vergniaud, Du- 
ces, and Sille'ry. Valaze stabbed him- 
self while he stood in the dock under 
his mockery trial. 

They were oalled Federal hti, because they 
wanted to unite all the deptrtments of France 
into a Fciteracy like that of the United States of 
America. 

Girton College, 1873. A college 
for ladies, about two miles from the town 
of Cambridge. 

Gisors', in Normandy {Peace of), 
March 1114. A treaty between Henry I. 
of England and Louis VI., in settlement 
of certain disputes respecting the riglits 
of William the son of Henry I. to certain 
tei-ritories in France. By this treaty 
Maine and Brittany were ceded to Henry. 

Giunta(r/ie). Of Venice. Consisted 
originally of ten patricians, but at a 
later period of twenty. It was sometimes 
called ' The Twenty.' 



SC8 



GLADIATOEIAL 



GLORIOUS 



Gladiatorial War {The), b.c. 73. 

Headed by Spartacus, a Tliracian, who 
had served in the Roman army, but had 
turned brigand, and, being captured, 
was made a gladiator. Crassus brought 
this war to an end at Brundusiuni, but 
Pompey claimed the honour because he 
accidentally intercepted 5,000 fugitives 
and put them to the sword. Crassus 
hanged 6,000 of the captives along the 
road from Rome to Capua. 

Glasgow Arms {The). A tree, a 
bird, a bell, and a ring. For the legend 
see ' Phrase and Fable,' p. 345. 

Here is the tree which never grew ; 
Hf^re is the bird -wliich never Hew ; 
Here is the boll whicli never rang ; 
Here is the fish which never swam. 

The tree is the hazel, which supplied 
St. Kentigern with the torch with which 
he lighted the lamps of Culross Cathe- 
dral. 

The hird is St. Serf's robin-redbreast 
restored to life by St. Kentigern. 

The hell is the one brought by the 
Baint from Rome, and hung in the tree 
to summon the people to prayer. 

The fish is the salmon caught in the 
Clyde, containing the ring given to 
Oina, the faithless queen, as a love-token 
by the king (7th cent.). 

Glass Houses. Those who live in 
glass houses should not throio stones. 
>Vhen the Scotch came over in throngs 
with James I., the English were greatly 
enraged against them- ; and, instigated by 
the Duke of Buckingham and others, 
the windows of the houses occupied by 
these interlopers were broken in all 
directions. A party of Scotchmen com- 
bined and retaliated by smashing the 
windows of Buckingham's mansion, 
which was called ' the Glass House,' and 
the duke brought his complaint to the 
king, who answered, ' Those who live in 
glass houses, Steenie, shouldn't throw 
stones.* 

Glassists or ' Glassites ' {The), 1728. 
Followers of John Glass, afterwards 
called ' Sandemanians ' {q.v.). This 
Scotch sect was founded in the 18th cent. 
Zvlembers are admitted by a holy kiss, and 
abstain from all animal food that has not 
been well bled. John Glass condemned 
all national establishments of religion, 
and maintained the 'congregational 
gystcm.' 
Robert Sandeman was a disciple of John Glasa. 



Glencoe. See 'Massacre of Glen- 
coe.' 

Glipping. Eric V. or VII. king of 
Denmark was so called because of his 
incessant habit of winking (ISiO, 1259- 
1286) ; murdered 22 Nov. 

Globe Theatre {The). Of which 
Shakespeare was a shareholder ; was 
built in 1593, and a patent for it was 
granted in 1603 by James I. It was 
burnt down in 1613, rebuilt in 161-1, and 
demolished somewhere between 1610- 
1650. 

Glomerel Schools, 14th cent. 

Grammar schools in Cambridge con- 
nected with the University. In these 
schools the lads were taught the ele- 
ments of Latin. A dozen glomerel 
schools were under the inspection of a 
Master of Glomery {Magister Glomaricp), 
who had a bedell to attend him. On 
these glomerels the University conferred 
the degree of ' Master in Grammar.' 

Gloria {The), or 'Great Doxology* 
(Luke ii. 14). 'Glory to God in the 
highest, and on earth peace, good will 
towards man.' The ' Gloria in excelsis,' 
sung in the Latin Church after the 
introitus (except on the penitential days 
of Advent and during Lent). 

Called the ' Great Doxology ' to distinguish it 
from the ' Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, 
and to the Holy Ghost,' sung at the end of each 
psalm. 

Glorieuse Rentrde {La). The 
' Glorious Return,' 16S9. The return of 
certain of the Vaudois under the leader- 
ship of Arnaud. They had been driven 
from their homes by Duke Victor Ama- 
deus, at the command of Louis XIV., who 
threatened to invade Savoy if the Vau- 
dois were not driven out. Slost of them 
took refuge in Switzerland, and about 
800 contrived to get back. 

Glorious First of June {The^. 

I. In English history, 1 June, 1794. 
The victory of Lord Howe, with 25 ships, 
over the French fleet, with 20 ships. 
Probably the phrase is French, and refers 
to the sinking of ' Le Vengeur.' 

II. In French history, 1 June, 1794. 
When it is said that ' Le Vengeur ' refused 
to surrender to Lord Howe, but,. instead 
of so doing, the crew sank the ship, and 
all went alive into the deep, shouting, 
* Vive la Republique ! ' Villaret de 
Joyeuse had command of the vessel. 



GLORIOUS 



GNOSTICISM 



869 



The English version is that Lord Howe, 
with 25 ships, encountered the French 
fleet of 26 ships off Ushant. In less than 
an hour the French admiral fled. The 
English captured two ships of eighty- 
guns, and four seventy-fours. Another 
seventy-four sank immediately after it 
was captured. As for the ' Le Vengeur,' 
the crew craved help, and many were 
picked up by the victorious English. All 
London was illuminated for three nights 
for this victory, and King George visited 
Lord Howe personally on board his flag- 
ship, gave him a sword, and made him a 
linight of the Garter. 

Glorious Fourth (TJie), i.e. of 
July. The day on which Americans 
celebrate the anniversary of theii inde- 
pendence (1776). 

Glorious Three Days (The). In 
French history. Tuesday, Wednesday, 
and Thursday, 27, 28, and 29 July, 1880, 
when Paris rose in arms against Charles X., 
compelling him to flee and abdicate. 
Thursday the 29th is called ' The Glorious 
Third.' 

Glory and Sun of the East 

(The). Kharim Khan, vakel (regent), 
1753-1779. He constituted Shiraz the 
capital of Persia, and restored peace to 
the country. 

He never would take the title of shah. 

Glory of Bristol (The).^ The 
' Great Britain,' an iron steamship built 
at Bristol. Its dimensions were 1,795 tons 
register, and 3,270 tons burden. Launched 
in 1815. The engineers were I. Brunei, 
jun., and Mr. Bremner. 

Gloucester. Called the ' Good Duke 
of Gloucester,' Lord Protector of Eng- 
land. Was born 1391 and ' found detid ' 
in 1447. He was the brother of Henry V., 
and named protector during the minority 
of his nephew Henry VI. He married 
Eleanor Cobham in 1435, who was 
accused of witchcraft and imprisoned in 
1441. Gloucester was arrested for high 
treason 11 Feb., and found dead (probably 
the work of Cardinal Beaufort) 28 Feb., 
1447. 

Glover's Roll, 1586. A copy of the 
famous Roll of Arms made by Glover, 
Somerset Herald, and preserved in the 
College of Arms. It goes back to the 
reign of Henry III. The original vellum 
roll is lost. 



Gloves. Bishops, in the Catholic 
Church, wear violet gloves, cardinals 
scarlet, and popes white. 

In maiden assizes, both in England and Scot- 
land, the presiding judge is presented with a pair 
of white kid gloves. 

Women first used gloves in France in the reign 
of Henri III. They were knitted gloves. Leather 
gloves were not introduced till the reign of Louis 
XIV. Their importation into England was for- 
bidden in 1706 (6 Geo. III. c. l!i). 

The Greeks and Romans did not wear gloves, 
but used an armour to protect their hands in war. 

Gluckists, 1774-1780. Followers of 
Johann Christoph von Gluck, of Bohemia, 
in the great musical war between Piccini 
and Crluck. Gluck tried to reform the 
Neapolitan school, in which the dialogue 
and bushioss of opera were wholly sub- 
sidiary, and the music was the only 
thing regarded. The scenes were un- 
connected, and only served as vehicles 
for the airs and orchestra. Those who 
thought Gluck's reform an improvement 
were called Gluckists, but those who 
thought the music only was worth con- 
sideration in opera were called Piccinists, 
from Nicolo Piccini of Naples, a con- 
temporary composer. 

Piccini's fame rests on his 'Didon,' ITS.S, and 
' Koland,' 1778 ; Gluck's fame rests on liis ' Orfeo,' 
'Alceste,' 'Armida,' ' Iphigenie en Aulide,' and 
' Iphigenie en Tauride.' The 'Alceste' (of Euri- 
p.^des), ' Iphigenie en Aulide ' (of Racine), and the 
'Iphigenie en Tauride,' are in the French language. 
Tiie ' War ' in France was musico-political. Blaria 
A'ltoinette, a German by birth, was a Gluckist, 
and therefore all her enemies were Piccinists. 
Wagner followed Gluck in his operatic reforms. 
A free translation of a French squib : — 
One day the Bluses had a quarrel 
To whom tliey sliould present the laurel— 

Whether to Gluck or to Piccini ; 
They could not for the world ^igree 
'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee ; — 

' There's not a pin to choose between ye. 
So Pic or Gluck (say I) or neither, 
Or both, for aught I care, or either ; 
More undocided than Babouc, 
Here's heads for Pic, and tails for Gluck.' 



Glutton-masses. Celebrated five 
times a year. The people in the vicinity 
brought to the secular clergy all sorts of 
roast and boiled meats, with jiasties and 
other viands, with strong drinks of every 
sort. As soon as mass could be de- 
spatched, the clergy and people of the 
difl!erent parishes set to in good earnest 
to see who could devour and drink the 
most in honour of the Blessed Virgin. 

Gnosticism. The Gnostics taught 
that God lived in divine light, called 
TT\rip<j>ixa, and was all in all. The next 
stage was a long succession of aeons, in 
which the Demiurgos, or Cx'eator, ap- 
peared. Then followed Man, an earthy 
BB 



370 



GNOSTICS 



GOD'S 



compound with an imprisoned soul. 
Those souls which shall be able to throw 
off corruption will join the pleroma, the 
rest will pass into other bodies. They 
supposed man to be tripartite, having a 
TTi/eviua or spirit derived from the ple- 
roma, a ij/vx-n or soul bestowed by the 
Demiurgos, and a body or liArj of 
matter. Christ came to liberate the 
pneuma from the psyche and hyle. They 
despised the body and mortified it, and 
of course preferred celibacy to wedlock. 
For the same reason they denied the 
resurrection of the body, and maintained 
that its only resurrection was in baptism. 
They rejected the divinity and humanity 
of Jesus. His divinity, in that He was 
inferior to God ; his humanity, in that his 
body was only a sort of phantom. All 
diseases they ascribed to malignant imps 
who had power over nature. 

Evil, say the Gnostics, Is the opposite of Good, 
and therefore of God. If God is a spirit, matter 
is the opposite, and evil must be in matter, and 
hence the antagonism between matter and God. 

Of Gnostics there were more than fifty sects, of 
which the chief were the Basilidians, Valenti- 
dians, Ivlarcionites, and later on the Manichiseans. 
They flourished in the 3rd cent., and disappeared 
in the 5th. 

G-nostics. All those multifarious 
sects which welded Greek, Roman, and 
other philosophies with Christianity. 
Such as the systems of Aristotle, Plato, 
Pythagoras, Heraclltos, Empedocles, 
Mysticism, Demonology, and the science 
of Cabbala. Thus, accepting the person 
of Christ, the Gnostics taught that he 
was an aBon sent from heaven to reclaim 
the better part of the human race. Some 
maintained that the divine and human 
nature of Christ united at baptism, and 
separated at the crucifixion, when ' God 
forsook him.' Others maintained that 
his humanity was a mere illusion. Their 
canonical books are widely different to 
those received by the Christian Church 
in our days. 

They are the ' Prophecies of Cain,' the ' Writings 
of Pachnr,' the ' Psalms of Valentliius and Bnrde- 
Bancs,' ' Gnottic Hymns by Marcos, the ' Books of 
Adam, Enoch, Moseh, Eliah, Is:i,jah,' with books 
called ' Barkor,' 'Armagil,' 'Barbelon,' 'Balsa- 
mum,' ' Lensiboras," &c. 

G-nostics. Of Syria : Saturninus, 
Bardesanes, Tatian, and Severus. 

Of Asia : Cerdo, Marcion, Lucian or 
Lucan, and Apelles. 

Of Alexandria : Valentinus, Basilides, 
Carjiocrates, Heracleon, Ptolemseus, Se- 
cuudus, Marcus, Colobarsus. 



Lesser Gnostic Sects : Sethians, Cain- 
ites, and Opliites. 

All in the first two centuries. 

Gobbo (JZ). The Hunchback. I. Peter 
Paul Bonzi of Cortona, the famous 
painter (1580-1640). 

II. Lonati of Milan, the famous violinist 
(I7th-18th cents.). 

Gobelin Tapestry, or 'Tapestry 

of the Gobelins.' A famous tapestry 
made in the Faubourg St.-Marcel, Paris, 
and so called from the brothers Gobelin, 
dyers from Reims, who made a fortune 
by their scarlet dye in the reign of 
Francois I. Louis XIV. in 1667 con- 
verted the business into a royal manu- 
facture, and employed eminent artists, 
like Lebrun, to invent designs. It was 
then designated ' Tlie Royal Hotel of the 
Gobelins,' and the manufactures pro- 
duced were called ' The Tapestry of the 
Gobelins.' 

The tale is that a dyer of Leyden one day left on 
a window seat lined with tin a bottle of aqua 
regia near some cochineal which he was using. 
The bottle was accid ntally thrown down, and 
mixing with the cochineal produced an exquisite 
scarlet dye. The man thought the tin had some- 
thing to do with it, and by mixing in cream of 
tartar first some flnely-pov.dered cochineal and 
then some tin in solution succeeded in discover- 
ing the famous dye. 

God of Flowers (T/ie). So Simon 
Varelst, the great flower-painter, called 
himself. 

God save the King. The national 
anthem of Great Britain and of Prussia. 
Was (according to Cappell) the work of 
Dr. Henry Carey, both words and music 
(1G96-17'13). Cappell says it was com- 
posed as a birthday hymn for George II., 
and performed for the first time in 1740 
at the Mercers' Company. 

The words are an imitation of the ' Domine sal- 
vum fac regem ' of the Catholic Church service. 
Some still as-cribe the words and music to Dr. 
John Bull iirjOlMSOD, professor of music in Gresham 
College, and chamber-musician to James I. 

G-od-Bote. An ecclesiastical fine 
paid for offences against God. 
Man-bote was a fine paid for slaying a man. 

God's Congregation of poor 
unarmed Christian Brothers, 

1537. So Simon Menno of Friesland 
called his followers. See ' Mennonites.' 

God's House {The League of). *La 
Ligia de la Chiada.' Switzerland ; for the 
independence of the territory previously 
subject to the Bishop of Coire. Formed 
between 1424-1436. 



GOD'S 



GOLD 



C71 



God*S Peace, 1035. See 'Holy 
Peace.' 

, God's Truce, 1040. A suspension 
of arms from sundown on Wednesday 
till sunrise on the Monday following, and 
on all festivals. It superseded the ' Holy 
Peace ' {q.v.), 1005, which was an entire 
cessation of arms. All princes and 
barons bound themselves to abstain from 
feuds and spoliation on the days pro- 
hibited. 

Goddess of Liberty [The), 10 

Aug., 1793. The Goddesses of Liberty 
and of lleason were entiu'oned by the 
French Convention at the suggestion of 
Chaumette, and the cathedral of Notre 
Dame de Paris was desecrated for the 
purpose. The wife of Momoro the prin- 
ter was the best of these ' goddesses.' The 
procession was attended by the municipal 
officers and national guards, while troops 
of ballet girls carried torches of truth. 
Incredible as it may seem, Gobet (the 
archbishop of Paris), and nearly all the 
bishops, vicars, canons, priests, and curc'S 
of Paris, stripped themselves of their 
canonicals, donned the red nightcap, and 
joined in this blasphemous mockery. So 
did Julien of Toulouse, a Calvinistic dis- 
senting minister. See ' Goddess of 
Keason.' 

Mrs. Momoro, it is admitted, made one of the 
best goddesses of Reason, though her teeth were 
a little defective. — Cahlvle, French lievoUiUou, 
Vol. iii. bk. v. 4. 

Goddess of lleason (The), 10 Nov., 
17i'3. A festival was given at Notre 
Dame, Paris, in honour of the ' Goddess 
of Reason,' who was personated by Mile. 
Candeille of the Opera, one of the 
earliest of these ' goddesses.' She wore 
a red Phrygian cap, a white frock, a blue 
mantle, and tricolour ribbons. Her head 
was filleted with oak-leaves, and in her 
liand she carried the pike of Jupiter- 
Peuple. In the cathedral a sort of temple 
was erected on a anouud, and in this 
temple (called the Temple of Philosophy) 
Mile. Candeille was installed. Young 
girls crowned with oak-leaves were her at- 
tendants, and sang hjmins to her honour. 
See ' Goddess of Liberty.' 

The two goddesses — one of Liberty and one of 
Eeason— have caused some conlusion of naiues; 
and similar installations were repeated at Lyons 
and other places, as well as at Notre Dame and 
BC. Sulpice. 

Mile, ilaillard, the actress, is mentioned by 
LmiHrtine as one of the goddesses, -who was 
Cuui^eiltjd, uiuch at,aiubt iier ^vill, to play the part. 



And Mile. Aubray vras one of the goddesses of 

Reason. 

A new religion. Demoiselle Candeille, of the 
Opera ; a woman fair to look upon when well 
rouged. She, borne on palnnquin, shoulder high, 
with red woollen nis^htcap, in azure mantle, gar- 
landed with oak, holding in her hand the pike of 
the JupilerPeuple, sails in, herilded by white 
young women girt in tricolor. This .... is our 
new divinity— Goddess of Reason, worthy, and 
alone worlhv of revering.— Caklyle, French Be- 
volution, vol. iii. bk. v. 4. 

Goderic. A nickname given by the 
Normans to Henry Beauclerc. They 
called his wife Matilda by the nickname 
of Godithe or Godiva, because, as Wace 
says, they ' tint la terre si sagenienfc.' 
The sneer would be better understood by 
' The goody king and queen.' 

Gold Coined. By Darius, son of 
Ilystaspes, B.C. 521-485. First coined at 
Rome A.D. 207. First coined in England 
by Henry III. in 1257. 

Gold Keys [The). The badge or 
token of office given to the groom of the 
stole and mistress of the robes. 

The queen [Anne] had repeatedly infiisted to 
Marlborough that the duchess should deliver up 
the gold keys .... but that resolute woman re- 
fused to comply.— HowiXT, Hist, oj' England (Anne, 
274). 

Gold Mine of Europe (The), So 
Transylvania was once called; but the 
supply of gold now obtained thence is so 
much decreased that the title is no longer 
applicable. 

Gold People (The). So the Arabs 
style the peoi:)le of the towns of Barbary; 
the injiabitants of the Tell or cultivated 
lands they call the Silver people ; and 
the inhabitants of the Sahara they call 
the Camel people. 

Gold Purse of Spain (r/ie). An- 
dalusia, the city from which Spain derives 
her chief wealth. 

Gold Rings. By Roman law, were 
restricted by Tiberius (a.d. 22) to citizens 
with certain property qualifications. Se- 
verus (193-211) conferred the privilege 
on the army. Justinian in 529 removed 
all restrictions, and allowed any one who 
liked to wear them. 

Gold Stick. The colonel of the 2nd 
Life Guards, who stands next to the 
sovereign on state occasions, and carries 
an ebony staff surmounted with a gold 
head engraved v.'ith the royal cypher and 
crown. He is assisted by anotiier ofticer 
called the Silver Stick, The following 

B B 2 



S72 



GOLD 



GOLDEN 



extract from the standing orders of tlae 
2nd Life Guards was supplied to me 
direct from the Lord Chamberlain's 
Oftice, St. James's Palace, July 1890. 

' In consequence of a conspiracy exist- 
ing in 1528, the king's person [Henry 
VIII.] was supposed to be in danger. It 
was, therefore, ordered that one of the 
captains commanding the Life Guards 
should wait next to his Majesty's person, 
before all others, carrying in his hand an 
ebony staff with a gold head engraved 
with his Majesty's cypher and crown. 
Another principal officer, carrying an 
ebony staff with a silver head, was 
ordered to be near the captain to relieve 
him occasionally. They were to be in 
attendance on the king's person v/hen- 
ever he walked, from his rising to his 
going to bed, except in the royal bed- 
chamber.' See ' Golden Staff.' 

The 'Morning Post,' describing the investiture 
of the royal princes in 1890, says : 'General Earl 
Howe, C.B., was introduced to her Majesty s pre- 
Ecjice by the Lord Chamberlain, and received 
from her Majesty the gold stick of office as 
colonel of the '2nd Regiment of Life Guards.' 

Gold of Affliction {The). A per- 
sonal tribute in the Eastern empire on 
the industry of the poor. Abolished by 
Anastas'ius about 500. 

Timotheus of Gaza chose this tax as the subject 
of a drama. He made it necessary for a father to 
send out his own daughter to earn money to pay 
the tax by the wages of unrighteousness. Tins 
play contributed in no small measure to the aboli- 
tion of the tax. 

Gold of Tolo'sa, or Toulouse Gold, 
ill-gotten and ill-starred wealth. It is 
said that Caepio the consul, on his march 
against the Cimbrians, stole from the 
temple of Tolosa the gold and silver de- 
posited there. His subsequent defeat 
was regarded as a divine punishment for 
this sacrilegious act ; and hence arose the 
Latin proverb, Aurum Tolosanum hahet, 
meaning ' his ill-gains will never prosper.' 

Golden Age [The). The Greeks 
and Romans ijlaced their golden age 
under the rule of Saturn. 

Hesiod described five ages, and Byron adds a 
Bixth, the ' Age of Bronze.' Hesiod's five ages : — 

The Golden Age, or patriarchal, under the rule 
of Saturn. 

The Silver Age, or voluptuous, under the rule of 
Jupiter. 

The Brazen Age, or warlike, under the rule of 
Neptune. 

The Heroic Age, or renaissant, under the rule of 
Mprs. 

The Iron Age, or utilitarian, under the rule of 
Pluto. 

The Prnnze Age (of Bjron), under Napoleon 
Boni'.L'.'ito. 



Golden Age of England (The). 

The reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558- 

1G03). 

Statrsmnn : William Cecillord Burleigh 1520-1508 

Dimnntists : Shakespca re (wrote 35 plays) 1564-1016 

Ben Jonson (' Rare Ben ') 1574-1G37 

Beaumont (1580-1007) and Fletcher ... 1570-1625 

Massinger 1583-1639 

Poets not dramatists : 

Spenser, ' Faery Queen ' 155.S-1599 

1 usser, ' 500 points of Good Husbandry" 1515-15B0 

Buchanan (elegant Latin verse) .. 150e-158'2 

Ecclesiastics : John Knox (Scotch Re- 
former) 1505-157^ 

Hooker, ' Ecclesiastical Polity ' ... 1053-10 1 

J7i</orirt(i.s- : Camden, ' Britannia' ... 15~l-li>i3 

Stow, 'Chronicle.' &c 15J5-10i)5 

Holinshed, ' Chronicles' .. died 15ti0 

Schi.lar : Sir Philip Sidney, 'The" tnrcel- 

lus of England,' Author of ' Arcadia ' 1554-1586 

To these add ' The Admirable ' Crichton. a -.vii- 
vcrs.'il genius (1551-1583), Sir Thomas Greslikm, '..ho 
f reat merchant, and a host of others not so well 
known. 

*/ It is rather remarkable that our three chief 
queens have all marked epochs in English history. 

Elizabeth : The Golden Age. 

Anne : The Silver Age. 

Victoria : The Iron Age and Age of Science. 

Golden Age of France (The). 
Louis XIV. It contained the following 
great men : — 

Army: Turenne, Conde. Luxembourg, Catinat, 
Cr.iquy, Vendume, and Villars. 

Nni-ji : Duquesne, Tourville, and Duguay 
Trouin. 

Ministers : Colbert, Lou vols, and-Torcy. 

Clergt/vien: Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Masaillon. 

Statesmen: Mole, Lamoignou, Talon, D'Agues. 
Beau. 

Military Engineer '. Vauban. 

Architects: Mansard and Perrault. 

A rtists : Pujet, Girardon, Le Poussin, Le Sueur, 
and Lo Brun. 

Landscape Gardener: Le Vautre. 

Poets: Racine, Corneille, I\tolit're, Quinault, 
Lafontaine, La Bruyere, and Boileau. 

Tutors to his child rcn : Montausier , Fenelon, Huct, 
rit^chier, and De Fleury. 

This galaxy gave him a title to be called ' Le 
grand monarque.' 

Golden Age of German Lite- 
rature {The), 1750-1850. It con- 
tained : — 

Klopstock, author of 'Messiah' 1708-1803 

Lofising, poet and prose writer .. 1729-1781 
Herder, ' Outlines of the Philosophy of 

the History of Man ' ... 1744-1R13 

Wieland, the ' Voltaire of Germany' ... 1733 1S13 

Goethe, author of ' Faust ■ _. 1740-1832 

Schiller, the poet 175!i-18J5 

Kant, the philosopher... ... ^. ... 17:M-1804 

Fichte, „ ... „. ... ... 1712 1 14 

Schelling, „ «. ^ ... ~. 1775-ls.j4 

Hegel, „ 177U 1831 

Burger, Voss, Kotzebue, Schlegel, Gesner, Zim- 
mermann, Sturm, Richter, &c. 

l; lumgarten, Moses Mendelssohn, Hamnnn, 
Haller, Winckelmann, Mesmcr, Sir William Her- 
Bchel, Lavater, Pestalozzi, Hahnemann, Gall, .tc. 

With the musical composi-rs, Beethoven, 
Hummel, Meyerbeer, Spohr, Weber, and others. 

Golden Age of Italian Art 

{Tlie). See ' Cinque Cento.' 



GOLDEN 



GOLDEN 



Golden Age of Poland {The). 
That of Sigismund I., the Great, and his 
son Sigismund II., Augustus (1506-1572). 

Grolden Age of the Roman 

Empire {The). The age of Antonmus 

Pius (138-161). 

The reign of Augustus is called the Augustan 

Age. 

Augustus B.C. G3— A.D. 14 

Livy thistorian^ ... o9-17 

Ovid (' Metamorphoses') 43-18 

Horace (poet) fi5-B.C. 8 

Vii-gil (poet) _ 7d-B.C. 19 

And many others. See ' Augustan Age.' 

Golden Angel, Golden Fleece, 
Golden Spurs. See under ' Order,' 
&c. 

Golden Ass {The). A romance by 
Aj)puleius. It is the adventures of 
Lucian, a young man, metamorphosed 
into the form of an ass, but still retaining 
his manly intelligence. This satire con- 
tains the exquisite episode of Cupid and 
Psyche {Sl'-ke). 

Golden Book {The). 'H Libro 
d' Oro.' The register of Venetian no- 
bility. Anyone enrolled in the ' Golden 
Book,' if 25 years old, was a member of 
the Grand Council. 

When Bonaparte took possession of Venice in 
17'J7, the ' Golden Book ' was burned at the foot of a 
Tree of Liberty. 

The attainment of the chancellorship was 
more than once preferred to inscription in the 
'Golden Boo^.'— History of Venice, vol. L p. 206 
(Murray, 1831). 

Golden Bull {The). 

I. Of Hungary, 1222. Wrung from 
King Andrew II. by his nobles, just as 
Magna Charta was extorted from John. 
Anclrew II. of Hungary, surnamed 
' Hi'erosolymitanus,' was a feeble, self- 
willed, worthless king, like our John. 

The nobles and the church -were to be exempt 
from taxes. 

The daughter of a noble without male heir shall 
inherit one-fourth of his prop rty. 

No noble shall be obliged to follow the king in 
any foreign war. 

The palatine (/.?. mayor of the palace) shall be 
the supreme judge. 

No foreigner to hold office or dignity without 
consent of the council of the realm. 

The king shall not grant counties or offices of 
any kind in perpetuity. 

If the king violates any of the laws in this bull, 
it shall not be treason to levy war on him. 

Called the ' Golden Bull ' because the attached 
seal was enclosed in a golden case or box. 

*»* It is rather remarkable that one of the very first 
couutries in Europe to effeet the liberty of subjects 
should havebeen one of the last-born nations, the Iluns 
of Hungary. 

II. Bulla Aurea of the Empire, 1356. 
Published by Kaiser Karl IV. at the Diet 
of Niivuberg. Considered the Magna 



Charta of Germany. It prevented a 
repetition of the contests which had 
hitherto arisen whenever a vacancy in 
the throne occurred ; and regulated the 
functions, number, and privileges of the 
electors. Called ' golden ' because the 
seal attached to the parchment was of 
gold instead of lead, or else that it was 
enclosed in a golden case. 

Since 1440 the electorate has been merely 
nominal, as the House of Rudolph has been per- 
manently established. 

It limited the number of electors to seven (three 
prelates and four lay princes*. The prelates were 
the three Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and 
Treves ; the lay princes were the King of 
Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Margr^if of 
lirandenburg, and the Pfalzgraf of the Rhine. 
Their persons were declared sacred. Every ques- 
tion was to be decided by majority and without 
appeal. Frankfort was appointed the place of 
session, and Aixla-Chapelle the place of corona- 
tion. 

Golden Cord {The Society of the), 
1888. Organised by Mr. Scadding, an 
American minister, among the boys of his 
parish. The majority of the members 
are newsboys, from nine to thirteen, and 
they are pledged to keep five rules: 
(1) To be loving and lovable; (2) to be 
pure in heart, mind, and body ; (3) to 
pity and help the poor and weak ; (4) to 
be kind to dumb creatures ; (5) to hate 
all shams, meanness, and dishonesty. 
Having signed this pledge, the boy re- 
ceives the badge— a knot of golden cord. 

Golden Dragon of Bruges {The). 
Taken in one of the crusades fi'om St. 
Sophia, in Constantinople, and placed on 
the belfry of Bruges (1 syl.). 

Philippe van Artevelde transferred it to Ghent, 
where it is still. 

Golden Election {The). The 
election of Addison, Hugh Boulter (after- 
wards primate of Ireland), and Wilcox, 
as demies of Christ Church, Oxford. 
Addison was born 1672, Boulter 1671, Wilcox 1673. 

Golden - footed Dame {The). 
Leader of a troop of women who rode in 
the attitude and armour of men, under 
the banner of Conrad, in the second 
crusade. The leader of the Amazonian 
baud wore buskins and gilt spurs. 

Golden Gate {The). 

I. The entrance of the land-locked 
bay on which San Fi-ancisco is seated. 

II. Or ' Gate of the Seven Towers ' 
(Jedicula Kapi) of Constantinople. Dr. 
Smith says that over this gate was the 
following inscrii3tion : 

Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata Tyrannl 
Aurea Becla gerit, qui portam construit auio, 



874 



GOLDEN 



GOLDEN 



and adds, ' cited by Sirmond, in his notes 
upon Sidonius.^ It still exists ; and near 
it is a smaller arch, also called the Golden 
Gate. 

Golden Gate of Constanti- 
nople {The). The entrance of the 
Golden Horn {q.v.) or port of Constanti- 
nople. It has no connection whatever 
with the Lofty Gate or Sublime Porte of 
the vizier's official residence. 

The Bosphorus and the Hellespont may be con- 
sidered as the two gates of Constantinople. . . . 
When these gates were shut, the capital still 
enjoyed every production which could supply the 
wants or gratify the luxury of its inhabitants 
. . . but when the passages of the straits were 
thrown open, they admitted the natural and arti- 
ficial riches of the north and south, the Euxine 
and Mediterranean. — GIBBON, xvii. 

Strange, after this, that Gibbon should more 
than once speak of ' battering the Golden Gates 
of Constantinople with axes.' 

Golden Gate of Salo'na, {The). 
A gate in the palace of Diocletian, in 
Dahnatia. It was to his palace in Dal- 
niatia that the emperor retired after his 
abdication. The gate, which still opens 
into the market-place, was probably gilt 
when it was first built. 

Golden Girdle. Louis VIII. made 
an edict that no courtesan should be 
allowed to wear a golden girdle under 
very severe penalties. Hence the pro- 
verb : ' Bonne renommee vault mieux que 
ceinture doree.' 

Golden Hand. General Zelislaus 
lost his right hand in battle, and Boles- 
laus III. gave him a gold hand. See ' Silver 
Hand,' ' Iron Hand,' and ' Steel Hand.' 

Zelislaus ducis pariter atquemilitis officio func- 
tus contra Moravos dextram aniisit. Eum Bo), s- 
Ihus III., Polonorum rex, collaudatum pro meii is 
et virtute, aurea manu donavit.— Hisi. I own. 
bools V. 

Golden Hind {The). Sir Francis 
Drake's ship, on board which Queen 
Elizabeth on one occasion dined. 

Golden Horde (The), or ' La Horde 
d'Or.' The Tartars of the Kaptschak, 
who established themselves in 14G3 in 
the Crimea, the chief city of which penin- 
sula was called Or or Perekop, the Greek 
Taphros. The Tartar word Or, the 
Slavonic word Perekop, and the Greek 
word Taphros, all mean the same thing, 
that is, a ' ditch or trench.' The Horde 
d'Or simply means the ' Horde of the 
Isthmus.' Our ' Golden Horde ' is a blun-- 
dering translation of La Horde d'Or, 
which should be the Horde of Or, or of 



Perekop. Compare Greek oupos, opo? (a 
channel, a boundary). 

The usual explanation is this. The horde was 
called ' the golden ' from the girgeous tapestry of 
the Khan's tent, and that a pressnt of the emjaeror 
of China to Ghengis Khan of a rich tent suggested 
the title. The suggestion is utterly worthiets. 

Golden Horn (The). A branch or 
gulf of the Bosphorus, called also the 
Port of Constantinople. It runs from 
Galata north-w^estward, and is called 
golden from its great beauty and the 
wealth of the cities on each side. 

The harbour of Constantinople obtained, in a 
very remote period, the denomination of the 
Golden Horn. The curl which it describes might 
be compared to the horn of a stag or of an ox. 
The epithet of golden was expressive of the riches 
which every wind wafted into the capacious port. 
Gibbon, ch. xvii. 

Golden Legends {The), 13th cent. 
A collection made by James de Voragine 
(3 syl.), a Dominican. There are 177 
sections, each of which is devoted to a 
particular saint. That of Felix listening 
to a bird, rendered into verse by Long- 
fellow in 1851, is what is distinctively 
meant by ' The Golden Legend.' 

Golden Mass. 'Missa Aurea,' a 
mass in celebration of the Virgin Mary ; 
so called from its great pomp and mag- 
nificence. See ' Mass.' 

Golden Mouth {The). I. John of 
Antioch, called Chrysostom (a.d. 347-407). 
He was archbishop of Constantinople. 

II. Dion the rhetorician (90-117). 

Golden IMumber {The). The 
' Meton'ic Cycle ' or ' Cycle of the Moon,' 
B.C. 432, devised by Meton. It ranges 
from 1-19, because 19 years make a 
cycle. The number used to be engraved 
in letters of gold on pillars of marble. 

Add 1 to the date of the year, and divide by 19. 
The remainder is the golden number. If no re- 
mainder, then 19 is the golden number. This 
number determines the epact, and the time of 
Easter. Thus thS epact for 18S0 is 9. 

Golden Rose {The). Arose wrought 
of gold, and blessed by the pope on Mid- 
Lent Sunday (Lsetare Sunday, q.v.), and 
presented to some Catholic whom the 
pope thinks proper to honour. Du Cange 
fixes the origin to Innocent IV. (1243- 
12.54). 

Isabella of Spain, and Eugenie the wife of 
Napoleon III., have both received the Golden 
Rose. Isabella of Spain was certainly no model 
queen. Henry VIII. also received one from Cle- 
ment VII. (! !) 

Golden Rule {The), la Arithmetic, 
the Bule of Three. 



GOLDEJ^ 



GONFALONIERE 



875 



In Morals, *Do unto others as you 
would be done by.' 

G-olden Shield {Knights of the). 
A French miUtary order instituted by 
Louis II. for the defence of the country. 
Motto : ' AUons.' 

Golden Spears {The). The title 
and ornament of the best army of the 
Persians, consisting, in the days of . 
Chosroes II., of 50,000 men. Cut to 
pieces in the great battle of Nineveh, 
1 Dec. A.D. 627 (Gibbon, xlvi.). 

Golden Speech, or Chrysolngus, 
Pietro bishop of Ravenna (*433-450). 

Golden Spurs {Order of the), 1.530. 
Instituted by Pope Paul III. Regulated 
anew by Gregory XVI. in 1840. 

Golden Staff. Thomas Mowbray 
first earl marshal of England was so 
created by Richard II. He and his succes- 
sors were authorised by charter to carry 
before the king a gold staff surmounted 
with the royal arms, and having the Mow- 
bray arms at the lower end. All other 
marshals carry a wooden staff. See 
'Black Rod,' ' Gold Stick,' &c. 

It is said that William Marshall, who married 
Isabel daughter of Sbrongbow, by whom ho came 
into possession of the paliitinate of Leinster hi4d 
by her father, carried a gold staff at the corona- 
tion of Richard I. 

Golden State {The). California, in 
North America. 

Golden Stream {The), or 'Chrysor- 
roas,' Joannes Damasconus (676-756). 
The first to apply the logic of Aristotle 
to Christian dogmas and doctrines. 

Golden Tongued {The). See 
' Golden Speech.' 

Golden Valley {The). The eastern 
part of Limerick is so called from its 
great fertility. 

Golden Veil {The). The Khalif of 
Bagdad was inaugurated by a golden veil, 
strongly perfumed with musk, being 
thrown over his head. 

Golden Verses of Oppian {The). 
The KvinffyeTLKa, a Greek poem on 
hunting, for which the Emperor Caracalla 
jiaid him a piece of gold for every line. 
He also wrote a poem on fishing. Oppian 
died A.D. 213, aged 30. 



Golden Verses of Pythagoras 

{Tlie). May be thus rendered into Eng- 
lish : — 

Ne'er suffer sleep thine eyes to close 

Before thy mind hath run 
O er every act, and thought, and word, 

From dawn to set of sun ; 
For wrong take shame, but grateful feel 

If just thy course hath boen : 
Such efforts day by day renewed 

Will keep thy soul from sin. 

Golden Violet {The). The original 
prize given by the 'Gaie Societe des Sejit 
Troubadours de Toulouse,' founded in 
1328, for the best poem sent in by May- 
day every year. This society was the 
origin of the ' Academy of Floral Games,' 
in France. 



Company {The). 
Incorporated by 



Goldsmiths' 

London, 1393. 
Richard II. 



Goldsmiths' Wotes. Bank-notes 
were originally so called, because the 
bankers were all goldsmiths. 

Golspie Stone {The). A stone in 
Svitherland, with an Ogham inscription. 
See ' Dogmael's Stone.' 

Other stones in Scotland with Inscriptions in 
Ogham are the Newton Stone and Logi'^ Stone in 
Aberdeenshire, and the Bressay Stone in Shetland. 

G. O. M. ' The Grand Old Man.' So 
W. E. Gladstone, in his last premiership 
(1881-1885), was called, half in ridicule 
and half in admiration. Born 1809. 

Go'marists or ' Anti-Remonstrants,' 
1611. Calvinists, so called fx'om Frans 
Gomar of Bruges (1563-1641), who put 
forth a strong ' Counter-Remonstrance ' 
against the Ai'minian ' Remonstrance ' 
{q.v.) presented to the States of Holland, 
in 1610. This Counter-Remonstrance dog- 
matijally affirmed the dogmas of absolute 
predestination and reprobation. 

Gombette {La loi), a.d. 502. A 
Burgundian code of considerable re^Dute, 
often printed, even so late as 1855. It was 
so called from Gombaud or Gondebaud, 
the third king of Burgundy, who died 
A.D. 516. A second part was added in 
519 by Sigismond, the son and successor 
of Gondebaud. Gombette (2 syl.). 

I observe that this code is often erroneously 
called by English authors La loi Gourbelic, origi- 
nally, without doubt, a typographical error. 

Gonfalon'iere {The), 1292. The 
title given to the chief magistrate of 
Florence. Subsequently, a gonfalonier 



376 



GONFALONS 



GOOD 



of justice, with eight priors, constituted 
the Signoria, held office for two months, 
and Uved in the palazzo at the pubhc 
charge. In other. Itahan repubhcs the 
gonfaloniers were officers of justice, vary- 
ing in number, and commanders of 
regiments. In France, a gonfalonier 
was the person who carried the gonfalon, 
or grand banner of the church. This 
sacred flag was always committed to 
the charge of the avoues, or temporal de- 
fenders of the churches and abbeys. 

Gop.'falons {The). Of Florence, were 
the sixteen standards of the four quarters 
of the city. The quarters were named 
from the four chief churches (Santo 
Spirito, Santa Croce, Santa Maria Novella, 
and San Giovanni) ; the gonfalons were 
named after the devices blazoned on 
them. 

The four gonfalons of the Santo Spirito 
quarter were the Ladder, the Shell, the 
Whip, and the Dragon. 

The four gonfalons of the Santa Croce 
quarter were the Car, the Ox, the Golden 
Lion, and the Wheels. 

The four gonfalons of the Santa Maria 
Novella quarter were the Viper, the Uni- 
corn, the Red Lion, and the White Lion. 

The four gonfalons of the San Giovanni 
quarter were the Black Lion, the Dragon, 
the Keys, and the Vair. 

The standard-bearers were called the 
'Sixteen,' and next to the Signory the 
office was the most honourable in 
Florence. 

Gongorlsm. A stilted bombastic 
style, called sometimes Estilo culto. The 
word is derived from Luis de Gongora y 
Argote, a Spanish poet born at Cordova 
(1.561-1627). 

G. H. Lewes, speaking of Calderon, says : ' I 
seriously declare that his poetry does not seem to 
me a whit richer in thought or feeling than that of 
Lope de Vega, while it is even more defaced by 
hyperbolical conceits and frigid Gongorisms.' 

Gonville Hall, Cambridge, 1348. 
Founded by Edmund Gonville, rector of 
Terrington and Rushworth, in Norfolk. 
See 'Caius College' (Keys College), by 
which name it is now generally called. 

Gonville Hall was enlarged by Bishop Bateman 
in 1353. 

Gronza'ga {The House of). A long 
line of sovereign dukes of Mantua and 
Montferrat (1328-1665), when the terri- 
tory was taken possession of by the kaiser- 
king Joseph L 



Good Bishop of Marseilles 

{The). Henri FrauQois Xavier de Bel- 
sunce (1671-1755), who night and day, 
with heroic courage, exerted himself to 
succour the dying during the plague of 
1720-21, to cheer the despairing, to com- 
fort the afflicted, and to j)oint all to that 
source of help which alone holds the 
issues of life and death. 

A similar devotion was shown in the 19th cent, 
by Father ]Jami<?n, a Belgian priest, who spenb 
sixteen years at the leper settlement at Molokai, 
a H^iwaiian island. This devoted priest caught 
the disease, and died from it in Blay 1889. 

Good Cousins, 1808. The initiated 
of the Carbonari. There were (1) appren- 
tices, (2) masters. 

Good Duke {The). Edward duke 
of Somerset, lord Seymour, governor of 
the person of the king's [Edward VL] 
Majesty and protector of all his realms; 
lieutenant-general of all his armies, both 
by land and sea ; lord high treasurer, earl 
marshal of England, knight of the most 
noble order of the garter, &c. If honours 
make goodness, he must have been ' good ' 
indeed. Yet all his greatness and good- 
ness did not save him from a traitor's 
death. He was made lord protector in 
1547, and was beheaded on Tower Hill 
22 Jan., 1552. 

Good Diike Humphrey {The). 
Brother of Henry V. and lord protector 
of England during the minority of 
Henry VI. His brother John duke of 
Bedford was regent of France (1391- 
1447). 

He was arrested for high treason 11 Feb., 1447, 
and found dead '28 Feb. Probably murdered by 
Cardinal Beaufort. 

Good Duke of Argyll {The). 
John Campbell, duke of Argyll (1678- 
1743). 

Good Friday. The Friday before 
Easter Day. Kept sacred in commemo- 
ration of the crucifixion on Calvary. It 
seems to have been set apart by Con- 
stantino the Great, who forbade ' the 
holding of law-courts and markets' on 
that day. In England and Ireland it is a 
dies nan. 

The day of the Crucifixion is by no means cer- 
tain. Supposing tho ' Last Supper ' to be the 
pascha, the three synoptists say tliat the Cruci- 
lixioii took plicetheday ((/(.-/■, i.f. loth Nisan; bub 
John informs us that the pascha occurred after 
the Crucifixion. 

Good Friend, 1854. A nickname 
given to Napoleon III., from a letter 



GOOD 



GOODY 



C77 



which he wrote to the Emperor Nicholas 
of Eussia. The letter began ' Sire,' and 
not ' Sire, my brother,' and ended ' Your 
Majesty's good friend.' The letter was 
published in the ' Moniteur,' and was like 
a red flag to the Russian autocrat. 

Good Lord James {The) of 

Douglas, the friend of Bruce (died 1330). 
He was entrusted with the heart of 
Bruce, to carry it to the Holy Land and 
bury it there ; but, on reaching Seville, 
he entered the service of Alfonso against 
the Moors, and was slain. The heart was 
brought back and buried in Melrose 
Abbey. 

Goodman of B alien ^eich. The 

name assumed by James V. of Scotland 
when he made his disguised visits in the 
districts round Edinburgh and Stirling. 

Goodman's Fields, Whitechapel, 
London. So called from a large farmer 
of the name of Goodman. 

At this farm I myself in my youth have fetched 
Bfiiny a hap orth of milk, and never had less than 
throe ale-pints in summer and one in winter, 
always hot from the kine and strained. One 
Trolop, and afterwards Goodman, was the farmer 
there, and had thirty or forty kine to the pail.— 
SX'uW, Survey of London (loiJb). 

Good Men. So the Waldenses (q.v.) 
were called in Germany, from the sin- 
cerity of their persuasion and purity of 
their lives. 

G-ood Men of St. Martin (The). 
' Buonomini di San Martino.' A chari- 
table society of twelve men, founded in 
the middle of the 15th cent, by Antonino 
(afterwards archbishop of Florence, and 
known as St. Antonio). Called ' San 
Martino ' from the little homely church 
of St. Martin, the headquarters of the 
brotherhood. It still exists in Florence. 
The object of this charity was the relief 
of those who had fallen into poverty, but 
were unable to earn their bread, and were 
ashamed to beg. 

Dante was married In thi3 church, and was 
born within sight of it. 

Good Parliament (The), 1376. In 
the reign of Edward III. So called from 
its sturdy opposition to the illegal govern- 
ment of the Crown, or royal council. 
Tiie speaker was Sir Peter do la Marc, 
and the Black Prince most heartily sup- 
ported the Commons. It denounced the 
mismanagement of the French war, the 
oppressive taxation, and Jol-n of Gaunt 
the duke of Lancaster, who was obliged 



to withdraw from the council. It de- 
manded a strict account of how the public 
money had been expended. It exposed 
a terrible list of abuses j not sparing the 
king himself and his mistress Alice 
Perrers. Alice was driven from the court, 
and made to swear never to return again. 
It impeached Lord Latimer and William 
Lyons ; and presented 160 petitions of 
grievances. It demanded the annual as- 
sembly of parliament and freedom of elec- 
tion ; denounced the papal aggressions, 
and demanded a more vigorous prosecu- 
tion of the war. See ' Parliament.' 

The taxes levied for the pope were five times 
those levied for the king. 

Good Queen Anne (The). The 
wife of Richard II. of England. On her 
marriage she was 15 and Richard 16. She 
was the daughter of Karl VI. kaiser "of 
Germany, who attended his father, the 
blind old King of Bohemia, at the battle 
of Cre'cy, and was gi-anddaughter of 
Sigismund. Anne of Bohemia was good 
looking and most amiable. She married 
Richard 14 Jan., 13S2, and died at Sheen 
7 June, 1394, aged 27. 

Many suppose the phrase is meant to apply to 
Anne daughter of James II., because she trans- 
ferred to the church the money called ' Queen 
Anne s Bounty ' (q.v.) ; but Anne Stuart was the 
mere tool of stronger minds. 

Good Queen Maud. First wife 
of her cousin Henry I. of England, and 
daughter of Malcolm of Scotland. Married 
1100, died 1118. 

Good Recent (TJie). James Ste- 
wart, earl of Murray (or Lloray), natural 
son of James V. of Scotland, by Mar- 
garet, daughter of John 4th lord E'rskino. 
Assassinated by Hamilton of Bothweil- 
haugh 21 Jan., 1570. 

Good Swordsman {The). 'Le 
bon sabreur,' Joachim Murat, marshal of 
France (1771-1815). 

Good Templars {The Indcjiendeni 
Order of). This order is pledged to total 
abstinence. It was formed in New York 
in 1851, and introduced at Birmingham 
in 18GS. The president is styled the 
' Grand Worthy Chief.' 

This order has no connection with the ' Knights 
Templars ' (i/.w.). 

Goody Palsgrave. So Anne (wife 
of James I. of Phigland) used to call her 
daughter Elizabeth, after her marriage 
with Frederick elector palatine and 
' king of Bohemia.' She had eight son3 



878 



GOORKHA 



GOSPELLERS 



and five daughters. * Goody ' was a term 
of contempt. Elizabeth is often called 
' queen of Bohemia.' 

Grave Maurice [i.e. the Graf Moritz] and Prince 
Rupert, &o celebrated in the wars of England be- 
tween Charles I. and his parliament, were her 
sons ; and Sophia, the mother of George, was her 
daughter. 

GrOOrkha (India). A cow-herd; a 
name applied to every native of Nepaul. 
It properly belongs to the Gorkhalis, a 
Hinduised and warlike race of Nepaul. 

Goose Moon {The). So the North 
American Indians call the month in which 
the flocks of geese from the Arctic shores 
arrive. These geese supply the Indians 
with a much-coveted food in winter. 

Goose Tower [The). The tower of 
the Castle of Gurve, built by Valde- 
mar I. of Sweden in 116G. In this tower 
captives taken in war, called geese, were 
confined. 

Gordon Riots {The), 1778. Riots 
organised by Lord George Gordon as a 
l^rotestation against the relaxation of the 
penal code against English Roman 
Catholics. 2 June, 1780, Lord George 
Gordon, with some 100,000 followers, left 
St. George's Fields, with the view of jjre- 
senting a monster petition (containing 
120,000 names) for the repeal of the late 
act. The soldiers were called out ; only 
eight persons in the House voted with 
Lord George ; but the mob were riotously 
inclined, and went about destroying 
Roman Catholic chapels, the shops of 
Roman Catholics, and molesting those 
who resisted their foolish fanaticism. 
This went on for six days ; on the ninth 
Lord George Gordon was apprehended on 
a charge of high treason. Twenty-one 
of the rioters were executed in July 1780, 
but Lord George was acquitted as of 
unsound mind. He ultim.ately died in 
Newgate of a fever in 1793. 

On 2 June, 1780, the chapel of the Sardinian 
minister was razed to the ground. 

On 5 Juno a Catholic school and three priests' 
houses were destroyed. 

On 6 June Mewgato was forced, and .300 prisoners 
were released ; and in the evening several houses 
■were set on fire. 

On 7 June King's Bench Prison, the Fleet Prison, 
Bridewell, and Beveral private houses were de- 
stroyed. 

Gorham Case {The). A dispute 

between the Rev. George C. Gorham and 
the Bishop of Exeter, who refused to in- 
stitute him to the vicarage of Bramford 
Speke in Devonshire, in 1848. Gorham 



applied to the Court of Arches, and his 
application was dismissed by Sir Herbert 
Jenner Fust (2 Aug., 1849). An appeal 
was then made to the Privy Council, 
which reversed the order of the Covirt of 
Arches (8 March, 1850). The bishop then 
applied to the Court of Queen's Bench, 
but was cast (15 April, 1850). Another 
application by the bishop to the Court of 
Common Pleas also failed (2 May, 1850). 
Ultimately Gorham was instituted, 
7 August, 1850. The case created an 
immense sensation, as it was a combat 
between the Evangelical Church party, 
represented by Gorham, and the High 
Church party, represented by the Bishoj) 
of Exeter. 

A somewhat similar contest occurred in 1889, 
when the Bishop of Lincoln was sunmioned to 
appear before the Arclibishop of Canterbury for 
wliE't were called ' Kubrical offences.' iS'ee 'Lin- 
coln Impeachment,' &c. 

Gorlitz Process {The), 1850. A 
celebrated trial which took place in Ger- 
many. The Countess of Gorlitz was 
strangled by a servant named Johann 
Stauff, whom she had caught stealing 
articles from a desk in her sitting-room. 
The case was tried at Darmstadt, and the 
jjrisoner pleaded ' Not guilty,' but was 
imprisoned for life. The main interest of 
the case rested on this point : the body of 
the countess was burnt, and Dr. von Sie- 
bold maintained it was desti'oyed by 
spontaneous combustion, while the che- 
mists Bischoff and Liebig denied the 
possibility of such combustion. 

Gortonists. A religious sect in New 
England, so-called from Samuel Gorton 
(1()U0-1G77), a sectary who denied the 
humanity of Christ. Extinct. 

Go'schens, 1888. A Stock Exchange 
term for the new 2f per cent, stock, which 
was for the first time officially quoted 
30 March, 1888. Named after George 
Joachim Goschen, chancellor of the exche- 
quer, who projected the conversion. 

Gospellers, 1549. A religious party 
in England, said to have been very profli- 
gate in their lives, and thus to have 
brought scandal on the Reformed Church. 
Article 38 of the Church of England is 
aimed at these men : ' The goods of Chris- 
tians are not [in] common ... as certain 
Anabaptists do falsely bf)ast.' 

When two ministers read the communion ser- 
vice, the one who stands on the norLli hide of the 
table is called the Gospeller because he reada the 
j GospeL 



GOSPELS 



GOVERNMENT 



879 



Gospels {Spurious). 



The Gospel of 

Andrew 

Apelles 
' Barnabas 

Cerinthus 

Eve 

James the Greater 

Judas Iscariot 

Lucianus 

Lucius 

Matthew (false) 



The Gosr'el of 
Matthias 
Marcion 
Nicodemus 
Peter 
Philip 

Tatian^?;^ Diatcssaron 
Thaddeus 
Thomas 
Valentinua 



The Gospel of Perfection 
The Gospel of the Ebionitcs (4 syl.). 
The Gospel of the Infancy of Ciuist 
The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary * 
The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles 
The Gospel according to the Kgvptians 
The Gospel according to the Hebrews 
The Gospel according to the Syrians 
The Everlasting Gospel (i:Uh cent.) 
The Four Gospels of the Manicheans 
The History of Joseph the Carpenter 
The Protevangelium of James [Toldoth Jeschu] 
*,* It is from these that Mohammed derived his 
hnowlrdge of the Saviour. 

Irenseus (i. 17) tells us that the Gnostics, in the 
2nd cent., had an innumerable multitude of 
spurious books ; and in the following ago the num- 
ber greatly increased. In the 4th cent, there were 
at least 80 gospels. See under ' Gnostics.' 

Grotescalc, sumamed The Second 
Effulgence. A German heretic (806- 
8G8). His 'heresy' seems to have been 
the Calvinistic doctrines of absolute 
election and reprobation. He was con- 
demned by the Council of Mayence in 
848, imprisoned by the order of Ilincmar 
archbishop of Eeims, and died in gaol 
in 8G8. 

Go'thamite. A New Yorker. 

Gothamist, a man of Gotham, in Nottingham- 
Bhire. 

Gothic Architecture {Pointed 
style). Originated about IICO. 

Gothic Code {The), or ' Codex Le- 
gum Barbarovum.' The laws of the 
barbarians codified by Alaric, king of the 
Visigoths, and augmented by his suc- 
cessors. See ' Codex.' 

Gothic Liturgy {The). Same as 
the ' Mozarabic Liturgy ' {q.v.). 

Gothic War {The), a.d. 331. The 
Sarmatians being threatened by Alaric, 
king of the Goths, applied to Constan- 
tine the Great for protection. The 
emperor gladly responded to the request, 
and after three or four engagements of 
varying success, the Goths retreated across 
the Danube, and Constantine received the 
honours of a triumph. 

Goth'icus. Claudius II. of Rome was 
BO called because he defeated the Scyth- 
ians, Heruli, and Goths, who had invaded 



Moesia, A.D. 269. In the great battle at 
Nai'ssus there were more than 320,000 
Goths, and as many as 50,000 were slain. 

Goths {The). Part of the great 
Teutonic swarm at one time dispersed 
about the southern and eastern shores of 
the Baltic. Afterwards they moved to- 
wards the Black Sea, where, in the middle 
of the 3rd cent., thej^ split into two parts. 
Those who remained in the east of Europe 
were called the Eastern [Ostro] Goths ; 
and those who journeyed westwards were 
called the Western [Visi] Goths. 

Gottesfreunde {The), or ' Society of 
the Friends of God,' who strove to esta- 
blish the 717110 myst'ica, or loving inter- 
course with deity. 

Gourides (2 syl.). A dynasty which 
reigned in Persia in the 12th cent., 
founded by Hussin Mahmoud Gouri, 
governor of Gour under the Gaznevides. 
He declared himself independent in 1155. 
Under Alah Eddyn the Gourides con- 
quered all Persia, and drove out the Gaz- 
nevides in 1158; but in 1213 they were in 
turn driven out by the Carizmians. 

Government {The Act of), 1657. 
The act which made Cromwell the Lord 
Protector. The Speaker, in the name of 
the Commons, invested him with a mantle 
of state, placed the sceptre in his hand, 
and girt the sword of justice by his side. 
By this act of government Cromwell was 
allowed to name his successor, but in all 
after cases the office was to be elective. 

The Commons had previously offered Cromwell 
the title of iiiiig. but the army disapproved; and 
Cromwell told the Commons he could not under- 
take the government burdened with such a title. 

Government of July {The). The 
Eoyal Republic, with Louis Philippe, an 
elective king, called ' King of the French,' 
not ' King of Prance.' From 9 Aug., 1830, 
to 24 Feb., 1818. 

Government of the Cortes 

{The), 1814-1823. The constitutional 
monarcliy established in Spain after the 
fall of Napoleon. 

Government of the ITational 
Defence {The), 2 Sept., 1S70, to 13 Feb., 
1871. After the battle of Sedan, when 
the French emperor (Napoleon III.) 
yielded up his sword to William king of 
Prussia, certain persons arrogated to 
themselves the offices of state under the 
title of ' The Government of the National 



GOVEENMENT 



GEACE 



Defence * ; but they resigned their office to 
the National Assembly, when M. Thiers 
was appointed president of the new 
republic. (Thiers, pronounce Te-air.) 

G-overnment of the 400 {The), 
B.C. 411. An oligarchy instituted in 
Athens for the democracy, by the i^er- 
suasion of Alcibiades. The 400 were 
chosen by five presidents, and in them 
•B'-as lodged absolute power. This form 
of government lasted only four months. 

Governor-General of India, or 

' Governor-General of the United Colony,' 
i.e. Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, 1786. 
Each of these provinces has a governor, 
but that of Bengal has precedence. 

Gower. Apart of Glamorganshire, 
colonised by Flemings in the reign of 
Henry I. These colonists did not speak 
Welsh. 

Gownsmen. Men who had risen 
by their wise counsel in civil affairs ; in 
contradistinction to military heroes, called 
Men of the Sword. The terms were 
common in Queen Elizabeth's reign. We 
still use the phrase ' Carpet Knights ' for 
lord mayors and other civil ofticers who 
receive the order of knighthood. 

Gowrie Conspiracy {The), 5 
Aug., IGOO. The king's version is that 
during a hunting expedition Alexander 
Euthven informed him that a mysterious 
stranger with stores of gold was in Euti;- 
ven Castle, and that it would be desirable 
for the king to see him. The king went 
to the castle with a few attendants, and 
was taken by Alexander to a high tower, 
where, instead of a stranger, he found 
Henderson, one of Gowrie's servants. 
He says that Alexander tried to murder 
him, but he called out ' Treason,' and, 
some of his attendants coming to his 
rescue, Alexander was slain. The noise 
of the scuffle roused the house, and the 
Earl Gowrie, with seven retainers, rushed 
into the tower, whereupon a scuflle en- 
sued, and Gowrie fell dead at the hand 
of Sir John Eamsay. Some say the whole 
tale is most improbable, and that it is 
more likely that James was the aggressor, 
and murdered the twobrot'iers to avenge 
an insult offered to him by their father, 
in the 'Eaid of Euthven' {q.v.). The 
clergy generally disbelieved the king's 
version, and refused to offer up thanks to 
God for his deliverance; but a day was, 



nevertheless, set apart for the purpose. 
The truth of the matter seems to be that 
the two brothers wanted to kidnap the 
king, but met with their death and the 
king escaped. 

Graal {The), or 'The Holy Graal.' 
A miraculous chalice made of a single 
emerald, which possessed the power of 
preserving chastity and prolonging life. 
Said to have been the cup from which 
Christ drank at the last supper, and in 
which Joseph of Arimathea caught the 
last drops of blood as Christ was taken 
down from the cross. In 1170 Chre'tien 
of Troyes sang of the search by knights 
for this miraculous cup, which was a very 
favourite subject in the middle ages. 

Grace was the title assumed by 
Henry IV, of England on his accession 
in 1399. ' Excellent Grace ' was assumed 
by Henry VI. in 1425, and was retained 
till Henry VIII. adopted the word ' Ma- 
jesty ' {q.v.). An archbishop or duke of 
the United Kingdom is still addressed as 
' Your Grace.' 

Grace {A). In the University of 
Cambridge means a proposal by the 
Council offered to the Senate to be con- 
firmed. All laws, all degrees, all permits, 
all licences, connected with the University 
are graces before they take effect by the 
authority of the Senate {q.v.). 

A grace for a degree is called a supplicat. 

Grace {The Act of), 1G96. Provides 
maintenance for debtors in Scotland 
when imprisoned by their creditors. 

In England general pardons at the beginning of 
a new reign, or on other special occas-ions, are 
called Acts of Grace. In the reign of William and 
Mary, at the dissolution of the United Ministry 
of Whigs and Tories, a general pardon for all 
political offences, called an Act of Grace, was 
Bent down to the House, 1689. 

Grace {Days of). See ' Days of Grace.* 

Grace Darling, 6 Sept., 1838. 
The ' Forfarshire ' steamboat, with sixty 
persons on board, was wrecked on its 
passage from Hull to Dundee. A few 
escaped in the larboard quarter-boat, bub 
the vessel itself went to pieces on a rock 
near the Fame Islands. Half the ship 
was carried away, with aU the persons in 
the cabin or on the stern and quarter- 
deck, but the other half stuck fast on the 
rock. Grace Darling, who was living 
with her father in the Longstone light- 
house, heard the screams, and induced 
her father to go with her in a lifeboat to 



GRACELESS 



GEAND 



881 



the rock. The sea was very rough, the 
wind high, and the rain heavy, but Grace 
and her father saved nine persons. This 
heroic maiden died 20 Oct., 1842, of con- 
sumption, aged 25. 

Graceless and Godless Florins 

(The). The florins struck in 1849 by Mr. 
Sheil, Master of the Mint. The le.L'end 
was only ' Victoria Regina,' both F.D. 
{fidei defensor) and D.G. {Dei gratia) 
being omitted. This gave great offence, 
and the coins were called in the same 
year. 

Graces (T/ze). Articles of the cove- 
nant between Charles I. and the great 
landed proprietors of Ireland. Charles 
had quartered a large military force on 
the Irish ; and the chief proprietors 
agreed to pay the king 120,000^. to be 
secured in their rights and properties.* 
The Graces provided : That the king's 
claim to lands in Ireland sliould be 
limited to sixty years ; that the pro- 
prietors of Connaught should receive 
new patents ; that the exactions of the 
soldiery should be restrained ; that the 
fees of the king and the powers of the 
court should be defined ; and that a gene- 
ral pardon for past offences should be 
granted. The articles were never carried 
into effect. 

* That is, that the Discoverers {q.v.) should not 
be sent to examine the titles ol their estates. 

Gradual. That part of the Mass 
which intervenes between the epistle 
and the gospel; it consists of a few 
verses of the psalms chanted on the steps 
[gradus) of the altar. 

Gradual Psalms. * Psalms of the 
Steps,' ' Songs of Degrees,' Psalms 120- 
134. The meaning is uncertain. Pro- 
bably they were the psalms sung during 
the time of burnt-sacrifice, called olut, 
m-olut (of degrees). 

Graf. In Germany a reeve, as in our 
word sheriff, i.e. shire-reeve. Subse- 
quently it was a mere honorary title, 
somewhat like the French count. The 
original function of the reeve was to 
collect the revenues of his district. The 
word is very old, and occurs in the Lex 
Salica (5th cent.). Charlemagne divided 
his vast empire into grafschaften or 
districts, over each of wliich was a chief 
magistrate called a graf. See 'Mar- 
graf,' 'Pfalzgraf.' 



Graham's Dyke. The rampart 
running along the line of the detached 
forts which Agricola planted a.d. 81 
between the firths of Clyde and Forth, 
to serve as a defence against the Picts 
and Scots. Also called the ' WaU of An- 
toninus.' 

Called the ' Wall of Antoninus ' because it was 
made by Lollins Urbicus, general of the Emperor 
Antoninus. The ' Dyke of Urbicus ' connects 
these forts together. Hee ' Grimes Dyke.' 

Grahamise. To open letters at the 
post office in order to trace crime. ' Har- 
courting ' is a word of the same meaning, 
introduced while Sir "William Harcourt 
was home secretary (1880-1885). 

Grammarians, or ' GrammatTci.' 
Philologists of ancient Rome. Suetonius 
has written a history of the Grammatici. 
The most famous were Aristarchus, Dio- 
nysius, Didymus, Flaccus, and Quin- 
tilian. But of the second century of the 
Christian era the following names are 
well known: Pollio, Eutychius, Athe- 
neeus, Julius Pollux, Macrobius, and 
Aulus Gellius. 

Gramota Soudebnaia. The code 
of laws drawn uj) for the people of Novo- 
gorod by Jaroslaf I. of Russia (1015- 
1055). The code is still in force. 

Granary of Athens (The). The 
district about Kertch. The buckwheat 
of this district carried off the prize in the 
Great Exhibition of London in 1851. 

Granary of Europe {The). Hun- 
gary, famous for its cereals. Sicily was 
so called at one time. 

Granary of Turkey {The). So 
Egypt used to be called. 

Grand Alliance {The). I. Of 
Kaiser Leopold and Holland against 
Louis XIV., signed at Vienna 12 May, 
1689. Joined by England 20 Dec, 1681) ; 
by Spain 6 June, 1690 ; and by Saxony 
2 June, 1694. 

II. Against Louis XIV. and the Spanish 
Succession. Between the kaiser. Great 
Britain, Holland, Prussia, and Hanover ; 
signed at the Hague 7 Sept., 1701. 

III. Against Napoleon I., 3 March, 
1813. This was the 6th and last coalition 
against Napoleon, encouraged by the 
disastrous Moscow expedition. The alli- 
ance, signed at Reichenbach, consisted 
of Prussia and Austria, Russia, Sweden, 
and Great Britain. Denmark joined 14 



382 



GRAND 



GRAND 



Jan., 1814. Before this Denmark had 
thrown in her lot with Napoleon. 

Grand Assize [The). Appointed 

by Henry II. to supersede trials by 
battle. A freeholder might refer his dis- 
pute to twelve legal knights, and, if tbey 
agreed in their verdict, their judgment 
was final ; if not, others were selected till 
the verdict was unanimous. 

Grand Climacteric {The) of 

man's life is 63, the compound of the two 
mystic numbers 7x9. Of course it needs 
hardly be added that this year is not 
more fatal to man than any other. 

Certainly 9x9 is far nearer the psalrcist's 'four- 
Bcore ' years. As a rule, five times the years of 
full growth is the natural term of animal life. 

Grand Companies {The), or ' Free 
Companies.' Troops of adventurers that 
desolated France in the reign of Jean II. 
le Bon, and the first part of the reign of 
Charles V., his son. The nucleus of these 
bandits was the disbanded German mer- 
cenaries after the battle of Poitiers (1356). 
Being without employment, they enlisted 
under any daring leader that would hire 
them, and spread themselves abroad 
as a desolating scourge. To free the 
country of this pest Charles induced 
them to take service under Duguesclin, 
and sent them to the Spanish war, where 
they were either slain or took service 
under the Black Prince (1367-1369). 

Grand Corneille {Le). Pierre 
Corneille (1606-1684). Thomas Corneille 
was also a dramatist (1625-1709). 

Grand Corrupter {The). Sir 
Robert Walpole (1676-1745). He was 
expelled the House 17 Jan., 1712, being 
found guilty of ' a high breach of trust, 
and notorious corruption.' There is no 
doubt that he always had a profound 
faith in bribery, and never scrupled to 
exercise it. 

Grand Council {The). 'Consiglio 

Grande.' An assembly of Venetian noble- 
men over the age of 25. All persons 
eligible were inscribed in the Golden 
Book. The Grand Council chose a com- 
mittee of 11 to elect the members of the 
Grand Council ; the Grand Council, after 
5 ballots and 5 scrutinies, elected the 
Council of Forty; and the Council of 
Forty elected one of the Grand Council 
for doge, 



Grand Coutu'mier of "Nov- 
mandy {Tlie). A collection of the 
ancient laws of Normandy, compiled in 
the 3rd year of Henry III., and contain- 
ing the laws and customs prevailing in 
the reigns of Henry II., Richard I., and 
John. 

Grand Days. Those days in tho 
term which are ' dies non juridici,' in the 
Inns of Court and Chancery, as Candle- 
mas day in Hilary — Ascension day in 
Easter — St. John the Baptist's day in 
Trinity — and All Saints' day in the 
Michaelmas term. 

In the French monarchy the annual 
assizes were called the Grand Jours, es- 
pecially the extraordinary assizes of the 
kings of France in the provinces. In the 
reign of Francois I. there were many 
such, e.g. in Poitiers 1531, and again 
1541 ; at Moulins in 1534, 1540, 1545 ; at 
Troyes in 1535 ; at Angers in 1539, &c. 
The last Grand Jour was held by Louis 
XIV. in 1665 at Clermont-Ferrand. 

Grand Duke of the West {The). 
The Duke of Burgundy. Philippe III. 
le Bon (1396, 1419-1467) was 'due de 
Bourgogne, de Lorraine, de Brabant, de 
Limbourg, et de Gueldres; comte de 
Flandre et d'Artois ; comte-palatine de 
Hainault, de Zeeland, de Namur, et de 
Zutphen ; seigneur de la Frise, de Salins, 
et de Malines.' 

Grand Master. The head of the 
Hospitallers, Templars,Teutonic Knights, 
and Freemasons respectively. 

Grand Monarque(ie). LouisXIV. 
(1638, 1613-1715). He was for twenty 
years the pupil of Mons. Beauchamp, the 
dancing-master, and in his wars with 
Marlborough reduced France to the 
verge of bankruptcy. His religious per- 
secutions were almost as disastrous to 
France as his wars with England. It is 
well for a nation not to have such ' great 
kings ' as Louis XIV. 

It is truly pitiable to call such a man as George 
IV. ' the First Gi?ntleman of Europe,' or Louis XIV. 
the ' Grand Monarque ' of France. Honri IV. was 
twice as ' Great ' as the pupil of M. Beauchamp. 

Grand Old Man {The), or G.O.M. 
I. William Ewart Gladstone was so-called 
in his last administration, 1881-1885. 
Lord Rosebery first used the expres- 
sion 26 April 1882, and the Right Hon. 
Sir W. Vernon Harcourt repeated it, 
18 Oct. the same year. 



GRAND 



GRANGERITE 



883 



II. Dr. Hook, when vicar of Leeds 
(18o7-1859), addressing a working class, 
said, in refei'ence to the ' Messiah,' Han- 
del, 'the Grand Old Man,' entertained 
the town with that oratorio for a whole 
week [Leeds Weekly Express, 9 Nov., 
Local Gossip). 

Grand Pensionary {The). In 
Holland, or ' Assessor juris peritus,' the 
chief minister of the States, and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. The office 
lasted for five years, but the same person 
was eligible for re-election. The most 
famous were Jean de Witt (died 1672) and 
Heinsius (1689-1720). Office abohshed 
by Napoleon I. in 1795. 

There used to be a pensionary in each of the 
main cities of Holland. 

G-rand Privilege {The). 'Groot 
Privilegie.' The Magna Charta of Hol- 
land, granted 1477 by Mary duchess of 
Burgundy. 

Grand Remonstrance {The), 
22 Nov., 1G41. Adopted by the Long Par- 
liament against the measures of Ciiarles 
I. It was brought in by Pym, who de- 
clared it was not the intention of the 
parliament to abolish episcopacy, but 
only to limit and reduce the power of 
the bishops. It repudiated the charge of 
being revolutionary. It demanded the 
observance of the laws against papistry ; 
securities for the even administration of 
justice ; and the employment of ministers 
who had the confidence of parliament. 

Grand Serjeanty. An ancient 
English tenure by which a man holds his 
lands and tenements of the king by ser- 
vice, such as carrying the royal banner 
or king's lance ; leading an army ; carry- 
ing the coronation sword ; being the 
king's carver, butler, chamberlain, and 
so on. 

Grand Tour {The). The tour 
made by wealthy Englishmen through 
France, Switzerland, Italy, and home by 
Germany. 

Grand Vizier. Cliief minister of 
the Ottoman empire, introduced by Amu- 
rath I. in 1386 ; abolished by Mahmoud II. 
in 1838 ; but restored by Abdul Medjid 
in 1839. 

In 750 the chief minister of the kallf was called 
vizier. 

Grande Mademoiselle {La). 
Anne Marie Louise d' Orleans, duchess of 



IMontpensier, and first cousin of Louis 
XIV. She was the daughter of Gaston 
due d'Orle'ans, and 3Iarie de Bourbon- 
Montpensier. Louis XIII. was her uncle. 
La Grande Mademoiselle was one of the 
richest heiresses in Europe. 

Grande Semaine {La), 27, 28, 29 
July, 1830. Tuesday, Wednesday, and 
Thursday of the Insurrection of Paris 
which drove Charles X. from the throne, 
and substituted for him Louis Philippe, 
called the Citizen-king. Semaine (2 syl.). 

Grandees, 1648. So the members 
of the council of officers were called in 
the reign of Charles I. The members of 
the inferior council were called Adjutors, 
and subsequently Agitators. 

Grandes Compagnies {Les), 14th 
cent. Gangs of adventurers which deso- 
lated France in the reigns of Jean II. 
and Charles V. They were recruited by 
strangers of all nationalities, especially 
by the Germans whom Edward III. had 
set at liberty after the treaty of Bretigny 
in 1360. The populace rose up against 
them and put them down for a time, but 
they reappeared in 1361 under the name 
of Tards- Venus. Duguesclin had the wit 
to enrol them in the army of Enrique of 
Trastamare, and employed them in the 
Spanish war against Pedro the Cruel. 

Grandes Pr^cieuaes {Les). The 
learned women of the HOtcl Rambouillet, 
in contradistinction to the Precieuses 
Ridicules. 

Ljs Grandes Precieuses sont de ces choses ex- 
cell-ntes aptes a etre imitees par de mauvais 
Binges.— MOLIEKE. 

Grandison-Cromwell. So La- 
fayette (1754-1834) was called by Mira- 
beau. He wanted to appear a Christian 
gentleman, like Richardson's ' Sir Charles 
Grandison,' but in his heart of hearts he 
had the ambition of a Cromwell. 

[Paris rang] with endless talk about English 
Monk, nay about Cromwell. O thou poor Grandi- 
son-Cromwell !— Caelylb, French Jievolutioii, vol. 
ii. bk. vi. 1. 

Grangerite {A). One who extends 
and supplements a book by collateral 
matter culled from all sorts of sources, as 
prints, maps, newspaper cuttings, selec- 
tions frona other books, pamphlets, auto- 
grai^h letters, and so on. So called from 
the Rev. J. Granger (1710-1776), who 
' grangerised ' a biographical historv of 
Engla'.id (17G9) with ' supplement ' (1774). 
See BoWDLEfiisE. There are also the wordJ 



384 



GEANITE 



GRAVE-CLOTHES 



' Grangerlse,' ' Grangerism,' ' Grangerisation," &c. 
Forster's 'Life of Diokcns," 3 vols, was ' gran- 
gerised ' to 9 vols, in America, by plaj'bills, engrav- 
ings, portraits, views, catalogues, illubtrations, 
and other supplemental matter. 

G-raniteCity (T^e). Aberdeen, Scot- 
land. Many of the houses are built of 
the granite which abounds in the neigh- 
bourhood. 

Granite Redoubt [The), 14 June, 
1800. The grenadiers of the Consular 
Guard of Bonaparte (First Consul) were 
so called from the stand which they made 
at the battle of Marengo against the Aus- 
trians. 

Grailth. Tire sacred book of the 
Sikhs. There are really two Granths : 
one the Adigranth by Arjunmall, and 
the other by Guru Govind Sinh. Both 
are metrical and very bulky. 

Under me (Govind) the bows of the Singhs have 
proved triumphant over the sabres of the Mos- 
lems ; and the precepts of the Granth over the 
cowardly doctrines of the Vedas and Shastras.— 
Govind, History of his IVars. 

Grape-stone [Killed by a). Ana- 
creon the poet was choked by a grape 
stone, B.C. 478, aged 85. The favourite 
concubine of Yezid II., kalif of the Sara- 
cens, was also killed in the same manner, 
A.D, 726. See ' Eating Fruit.' 

Grasshopper (The). Callimidr>s, an 
Athenian, in the time of Philip of Mace- 
don ; so called on account of his vivacious 
wit and liveliness. 

Grateful Order of St. Cathe- 
rine (The), 1712. A Eussian order 
founded by Peter the Great, in gratitude 
to his wife for delivering him from cap- 
tivity by bribing the Turkish vizier. 

Grateley {Synod of). During the 
reign of Edgar. Made ten regulations 
for the Church, by far the most important 
ever passed : 

1. Regulated tithes. 

2. Authorised judges to execute sen- 
tence on those condemned by the trial of 
ordeal. 

3. Against witches and highwaymen. 

4. Names the towns authorised to coin 
money. 

5. Awards the punishment for debasing 
coin. 

6. Regulates ordeals. 

< 7. Forbids buying and selling on Sun- 
' days. 

8. Against perjury. 



9. Commands bishops to assist the 
judges. 

10. Against remiss and negligent 
magistrates. 

Gratian's Decretal, or ' DecrG- 
tum Gratiani.' A part of the ' Corpus 
Juris Civllis' collected by Gratian, a 
Benedictine monk of tlae 12th cent, in 
Tuscany. The collection took him twenty- 
four years to compile. 

Grattan's Parliament. Consisted 
of a house of lords and house of commons. 
It was altogether Protestant, and was 
elected exclusively by Protestants till 
towards the close of its career, when 
Catholics were admitted to the franchise. 
It was eminently the representative of the 
property class of Ireland, and many of its 
members were the nominees of the IBritish 
government. Pitt based his argument for 
the Union mainly on the ground that the 
Irish Parliament was not workable. In 
1780 Grattan proposed in the Irish Par- 
liament the abolition of ' Poyning's Act ' 
iq-v.). It was not then carried, but in 
1782 he moved what is called the 'Decla- 
ration of Rights ' — that any claim out of 
Ireland to bind the kingdom of Ireland 
is illegal. In April the same year he as- 
sumed the question to be carried, and de- 
clared that henceforth no body of men, 
excej)t the Irish Parliament, has any 
right to make laws by which Ireland shall 
be bound. In May C. J. Fox repealed the 
bill of 6 Geo. I., and Ireland was set free. 
Grattan was rewarded by a grant from 
the Irish Parliament of 50,000Z. See 
' Parliaments.' 

Grattan's Parliament passed 54 coercion acts. 
It began in one revolution, and ended alter the 
pvitting down of an insurrection. The Irisli par- 
liament was united to that of Great Britain in 
1800, by what is called the 'Act of Union.' Grat- 
tan's statue in Dublin was erected in 1876. 

Grave of the Russians (The), 
1733. On the death of Augustus II. of 
Poland, Stanislaus Leczinski was elected 
king, but his election was opposed by 
Austria and Russia. Stanislaus fled, and 
shut himself up in Dantzic, where he was 
besieged by the Russian army, but made 
so stout a defence that a place is still 
shown on the fortifications of Dantzic 
called ' The Grave of the Russians.' 

Grave-clothes (The), in which the 
body of Christ was wrapped after the 
crucifixion, are thus tabulate'd by hagio- 
graphers ; Aix-la-Chapelle contains some; 



GRAVE-STONES 



GREAT 



885 



the parts deposited at Bosan^on were 
thrown away at the Revohition ; Cadouin, 
in the diocese of Pe'rigueux, claims to 
possess a cloth, somewhat more than two 
yards and a half in length, and a yard and 
a quarter in breadth ; Cahors is especially 
rich in the sacred gi-ave-clothes, it claims 
to possess the cloth which covered the 
head of Jesus, it is of Egyptian linen 
' trois doubles superposes ' ; Carcasso, in 
Italy, contains some of them ; Chambery 
has one beautiful bit of linen cloth, said 
to have been employed on the occasion ; 
Mayence has some of the grave-clothes ; 
in Rome several churches profess to con- 
tain some of these relics ; Toulouse has 
some ; and in Turin is a square of linen 
four and a half yards long, spotted with 
blood, and said to be the napkin wrapped 
round the head. See ' Crucifixion, Relics 
of the: 

If all the grave-clothes said to be relics were used, 
It must have taken considerable time to have 
folded them up neatly and placed them on the seat 
where the body was laid. 

Grave-stones {Jewish). An image 
or effigy with uplifted hands, signifies a 
Jewish priest. A vase of water delineated 
on a grave-stone signifies a Levite, who 
bathed the hands of priests or poured 
water over them. 

In Catholic symbolism figures with their hands 
on their breasts, and chalices, denote priests. 

Figures v ith crozier, mitre, and poiatiflcals, re- 
present prt'/K.'-'s. 

Figures with armour represent knicjhis. 

Figures with legs crossed represent either cm- 
$a<1-rs or rruirrifd men. 

Figures with mantle and large ring represent 
num. 

Gray. See ' Grey.' 

Gray's Inn. One of the four Inns 
of Court, having the sole power of calling 
persons to the degi-ee of barrister. 

The four Inns of Court are the Inner Temple, 
the Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. 
Now Inn is aifiliated to the JMlddle Temple; 
Thavies Inn and Furnival s Inn to Lincoln s Inn ; 
Clifford s Inn and Clement s Inn to the Inner 
Temple ; Barnard s and Staple's to Gray's Inn. 

Greased Cartridges, 1857. -In 
January, a man employed in India 
in making cartridges for the new 
Enfield rifles just supplied to our native 
soldiers, asked a sejioy of the 2nd Grena- 
diers for a draught of water from his 
drinking-pot. The high-caste sepoy was 
indignant, for if the pot but touched the 
lips of the artisan, it would have be^n 
polluted for ever. The man replied, with 
a sneer that the sepoy need not fce so 
Bqueamish, as the new cartridges were 
17 



greased with bullock fat, and every sepoy 
would lose caste in biting off the end. 
The horrible tale spread like wildfire. 
The Hindils were told the grease was that 
of the sacred cow, the Moslem soldiers 
were told it was the grease of the unclean 
swine. Others asserted it was a mixture 
of cow and pig fat. And this led to the 
Indian Mutiny {q.v.). 

Great Antiquity {The). The re- 
vised records and chronicles of Ireland by 
the suggestion of St. Patrick. Parts 
existed for many centuries, as ' The Book 
of Armagh,' ' The Psalter of Cashel,' 
' The Book of Glandaloch,' ' The Leabhar 
Gabala,' and others, from which much of 
the ancient history of Ireland is derived. 
' The Psalter of Cashel ' was compiled by King 
Cormac. It was a book of annals, very valuable, 
but unhappily lost. 

Great Bear {The), or ' Ursa Major.' 
The finest of the northern constellations, 
consisting of seven great stars. Called 
' Ceorl's Wain ' (the churl's v/aggon), cor- 
rupted into King Charles's Wain. Also 
called the plough. The figure of a bear 
with a fox's tail is certainly a funny 
anomaly. 

Great Beds. I. Deut. iii. 11. The 
bedstead of Og king of Bashan was 
9 cubits long and 4 cubits wide, after the 
cubit of a man, i.e. 18 in. In English 
measure the length was 13 ft., and the 
width 6 ft. 

II. The Great Bed of Ware is 12 ft. 
long and 12 ft. wide, said to have been 
made for Warwick, ' the King-maker.' 

III. The bed of Reims Cathedral in 
which Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 
slept at their coronation was 7 ft. 10 in. 
long, and 7 ft. 8 in. wide. Its height was 
8 ft. from the ground, which must have 
been most inconvenient. 

Great Bible {The), or 'Great Eng- 
lish Bible,' 1539-1541. Published in the 
reign of Henry VIII. A translation under 
Archbishop Parker, who induced the 
bishops and other learned men to under- 
take it in portions. The different parts 
were afterwards joined together and 
printed with short notes in folio. In 1589 
an octavo edition was brought out. In 
1572 another folio edition was printed 
with corrections, and several prolego- 
mena. This was called ' Matthew Parker's 
Bible.' See ' Bibles.' 

The Great Bible was based on Tyndale's trans- 
lation. 

CO 



GREAT 



GREAT 



Great Britain. A name adoj)ted 
on the legislative union of Scotland and 
England by the Act of Union passed 16 
Jan., 1707. It was provided by this act 
that the two kingdoms of England and 
Scotland should be united into one under 
the name of Great Britain. 

Great Bullet-head (The). George 
Cadoudal, the French royalist (1709- 
1804). He was head of the Chouans after 
the death of Jean Cottereau, and in 1802 
joined Pichegru's conspiracy {q.v.). 

Great Captain {The). I. Hernan- 
dez Gonzalo de Cordova y Aguilar (144o- 
1515). Called El Gran Capitan in 1496 
after reducing Upper Calabria, surprising 
Laino, and going to the aid of Ferdinand 
at Atella in the first half of the year 149G. 
He finished up the year by expelling the French 
from Naples. 

II. Manuel I. emperor of Trebizond 
(1120, 1143-1180). 

Great Cham ofLiterature {The). 
Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784). 

Great Civil ^^ar {The). The war 
in the reign of Charles I. 

Nor was he less affected when his aunt narrated 
the sufferings and fortitude of Lady Alice . . . 
during the Great Civil War.— Sir W. ScoTT, 
Waverlcy, chap. v. 

Great Commoner {The). I. Sir 
John Barnard, who, in 1717, proposed to 
reduce the interest of the National Debt 
from 4 to 3 per cent. Any creditor, how- 
ever, was at liberty to receive his princix:>al 
in full, if he liked. It was William Pitt 
(Lord Chatham) who gave this designa- 
tion to Sir John Barnard. 

Mr. Goschen in 1888 reduced the interest from 
SI. to 22?. per cent. 

II. WiUiam Pitt (afterwards Earl of 
Chatham), 1708-1778. Buried in West- 
minster Abbey. 

Great Company {The). I. 1343. 
The first was commanded by the German 
Guarnieri or Duke Werner, who wrote on 
his corslet ' Enemy of God, of Pity, and 
of Mercy.' It was employed against the 
Visconti by the league of the Montferrat, 
La Scala, Carrara, Este, and Gonzaga 
houses. 

II. 1353. Bands of adventurers under 
the command of Fra Moriale, and after- 
wards of Conrad Lando. It consisted of 
40,000 men, of whom 5,000 were cuirassiers. 
It hired itself out to anyone who wanted 



a ready-made army, and exacted black- 
mail from cities and castles to be secure 
against depredations. See 'Pind'aris.' 
{See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' vol. i. p. 498.) 

Les Compacinies Gronitr/t were the condottieri or 
free-lances of France ; the chief were under Sir 
Hugh Calverley, Sir Matthew Gournay, and the 
Chevalier Verte. Under Duguesclin they en- 
listfd in the Spanish army, and disappeared from 
history 13G0. 

Great Cond6 {The). Louis prince 
de Conde'. , Died 1674, aged 65. 

Great Council {The), 1173. A 

Venetian council of 480 members, who 
represented the general assembly of the 
whole peoj)le, and was renewed every 
year. The electors were a committee 
of twelve, two from each of the six dis- 
tricts or Sestieri. From this body a 
committee of sixty formed the senate, 
and assisted the doge. 

Great Council of the Peers 

{The), 24 Sept., 1640. Assembled at York 
by Chai'les I., who was unwilling to 
summon a parliament because the par- 
liament always insisted on redress of 
grievances before they would grant sup- 
plies. This great council was called to 
grant supplies to raise an army to resist 
the Scots, who had recently encamped on 
a hill called Dunse Law, and threatened 
to advance. 

Great Council of the Realm 

{The). The witenagemote, or parlia- 
ment of the Norman kings of England. 
All tenants who held directly of the 
crown, all bishops, and the greater abbots, 
with the great officers of the court, con- 
stituted this council. It was not so much 
an assembly of ' wise men ' as an as- 
sembly of feudal vassals. In the reign 
of Henry I. the lesser barons were 
excused attendance, though their right 
of doing so remained. In 1265 Simon de 
Montfort summoned knights from each 
county and two burgesses from each 
town to his parliament. From 1295 the 
great council had become the parlia- 
ment of the realm, in which every order 
of the state was represented, and having 
the control of the legislation and execu- 
tive government of the nation. 

Great Cromwell Bible {The), 
1538-39. The first edition of the foho 
Bible, printed in the reign of Henry 
YIII, The edition contained 2,500 
copies, one of which was set up in every 
church in England, and secured to a 



GREAT 



GEEAT 



887 



desk by a chain. Within three years 
seven editions were pubhshed. See 
• Bibles.' 

This was not Oliver Cromwell, but Thomas 
Cromwell,- who was beheaded in 1540. 

G-reat Dauphin {The). Louis, son 
of Louis XIV. (1661-1711). 

The son of the Great Dauphin was called ' The 
Little Dauphin.' Both died before Louis XIV. 

G-reat Disease {The). Leprosy. 

G-reat Duke {The). The Duke of 
Wellington (1769-1852). 
Bury the Great Duke 

With an empire's lamentation ; 
Let us bury the Great Duke 
To the noise of the mourning of a great nation. 
Tennyson. 

Great Earl of Cork {The). Eichard 
earl of Cork, lord high treasurer of 
Ireland in the reigns of James I. and 
Charles I. 

Great Eastern {The). The iron 
'leviathan ' steamship built by Brunei in 
1857. It made its first voyage across the 
Atlantic in 1860. It was broken up in 
1888. 

G-reat ElcM {The). Stratford Can- 
ning (Lord Stratford de Eedcliffe), ambas- 
sador to the Ottoman Porte 18-41-1858 ; 
born 1787, died 1880. 

The Turkb called him the 'Padishah of the 
Padishah.' 

Great Elector {The). Frederick 
William elector of Brandenburg (1620- 

1688). 

G-reat Fire {The), or 'The Great 
Fire of London,' 1666, the year after the 
Plague, which it put an end to. It broke 
out at a bakehouse near London Bridge. 
Only six persons perished in the fire, 
though 600 streets, 13,000 houses, 80 
churches, St, Paul's Cathedral, the 
Custom-house, GuildhaU, and 4 stone 
bridges were destroyed. The people, to 
the amount of 200,000, camped out in the 
fields of Islington and Highgate. 

Great Harry {The), 1509. The 
first double-decker built in England ; it 
had three masts. It was 1,000 tons 
burden, and cost 14,000Z. This ship was 
built by order of Henry VII., and was 
completed in the year of his death. It 
was accidentally burnt at Woolwich in 
1553. {See ' Archteologia,' vol. iii. p. 266.) 
See ' Henri Grace a Dieu.' 

The second great ship was the ' Henri GrAce h, 
Dieu,' and the third was the ' Sovereign of the 
Seas.' See ' Great MichaeL' 



Great-head, or * Caenmore.' Mal- 
colm III. of Scotland, who married Mar- 
garet sister of Edgar Atheling (1024, 
1057-1093). See also ' Grostcte.' 

Great King {The). The King of 
Persia was so called during the prosperity 
of that empire. 

Great Light {The), or Llever Mawr. 
Cyllin or Linus (2 Tim. iv. 21), brother of 
Claudia (wife of the senator Pudens, and 
grandfather of King Lleirwg [Lucius], 
who is said by some to have introduced 
Christianity into Britain a.d. 59). 

Of course the introduction of Christianity into 
Britain by King Lucius is generally denied ; but 
other conjectures, no less fanciful, are : St. James 
the son of Zebedee (Ussher); Simon Zelotes (Cave) ; 
Joseph of Arimathea (Gildns); St. Paul (£i(S('6(!(s) ; 
St. Peter ; Aristobulus, &c. All that is certain 
is this : Christianity was introduced by someone, 
probably in the 1st or 2nd cent. In the Council of 
Aries, 314, the British Church was represented by 
three bishops (York, London, and Lincoln). 



Great Magician of the IQ"orth 

{The). Sir Walter Scott is so called by 
Professor John Wilson (1771-1832). 

Great Marquis {The). 

I. James Graham marquis of Montrose 
(1612-1650). 

II. Dom Sebastiano Jose de Can-alho 
marquis of Pombal, the greatest of all 
the Portuguese statesmen (1699-1782). 

Great Michael {The). A monster 
ship constructed by James IV. of Scot- 
land. Its sides were 10 ft. thick; ita 
length was 240 ft., breadth 36 ft. It 
required 300 mariners to work her, and 
would hold 1,000 soldiers. A cannon ball 
would not pierce her sides. See ' Great 
Han-y,' and ' Henri Grace a Dieu.' 

Great Mogul {The), 1526. A title 
first assumed by Baber, fifth in descent 
from Tamerlane. The sovereigns of 
Delhi continued the title. 

Great Mogul Diamond {The). 

The history of this diamond runs back 
to B.C. 56, but little is known of it till the 
14th cent., when it was held by the rajah 
of Malwa. Later on it fell into the hands 
of the sultans of Delhi, after their con- 
quest of Malwa. Tavernier tells us he 
saw it among the jewels of Aurengzebe, 
and says in the rough state it weighed 
793g carats. The Shah Djihan sent it to 
Hortensio Borgio, a Venetian lapidary, to 
be cut, when it was reduced to 186 carats. 
Djihan was so enraged at this great waste 
that he not only refused to pay the lapi- 
c c2 



GREAT 



GREAT 



dary, but he also fined him 1,000 rnpees. 
This is all that is known of the ' Cxreat 
Mogul Diamond,' but it is supposed that 
the Koh-i-noor is the same stone — under 
which name the rest of its history will be 
found. See ' Diamonds.' 

Q-reat Moralist {The). Dr. Samuel 
Johnson (^1709-1784). 

Great O {Tlie). Daniel O'Connell 
(1775-1847). 

As to O ConncU, depend upon it that whatever 
Mr. Stanley may wish to do, Jlr. Stanley s masters 
have other uses to make of the great O thAU to 
gag him Gleig, Life of Wellington (year 1830). 

Great Pan [The). Voltaire (1094- 
1778). Also called the * Dictator of Let- 
ters.' 

Great Paschal Period {The). 
53*2 years. See the ' Dionj-sian Period.' 

Great Peace {The), 8 May, 13G0. 
The peace-treaty of Bre'tigny between 
France and England, whereby Edward III. 
renounced his pretension to the crown of 
France, and his claim to Normandy, 
Anjou, and Maine. He still, however, 
retained Calais, Guisnes, Guienne, and 
Poitou. 

Great Plague {The). In French, 
'La Grande Peste,' 1580. It began in 
Poi'tugal, and Lisbon was well-nigh de- 
populated. It was very fatal in Provence 
and Aix. In 1581 it appeared in Mar- 
seilles, where it carried off all the m- 
habitants, except 3.000. In Paris it 
appeared, and the city was overrun ^vith 
thieves. See ' Plagues.' 

Great Power of God {Th^). 
Simon Magus (Acts viii. 10). 

Great Rebellion (T/^e). The civil 
war in England which broke out between 
Charles I. and the Parliament. It began 
22 Aug., 1642, and practically terminated 
with the defeat of the king at Naseby in 
1645. 

Great Roll of the Pipe {The). 
A record made up year by year of the 
revenue accruing to the crown in the dif- 
ferent counties of the realm. The certain 
revenues consisted of farms, fees, castle- 
guard, and other rents; the casual 
revenues consisted of fines, amercements, 
wards, marriages, reliefs, and other profits 
which fell to the crown by A-irtue of its 
prerogatives. The series of these pipe 
rolls, according to Madox ('History of 



the Exchequer') goes back to 1155, 
continues unbroken to 1834, and con- 
tains invaluable notices of distinguished 
persons in English history through all 
that time by contemporaries. There is 
one roll of a still earlier date. It has 
been printed, and Mr. Hunter has shown 
that it belongs to tlie 31st year of Henry I. 
These records and ' Domesday Book ' are 
documents unequalled for antiquity in 
all Europe. 

The ofllce (Clerk of the Pipe) is so called because 
the whole receipt of the court, says Lord Bacon, 
is finally conveyed into it by divers small pipes, 
as water is conveyed into a cistern. 

Great Sabbath {The), or Holy 
Saturday. The day between Good Friday 
and Easter Sunday. 

Idem dicitur Sabbatum Luminum, in Chronico 
Orientali (page 125), quod in eo baptismi fierent 
quos ^ojrKTMoit vocant Grieci.— Du Cakge. 

Great Schism of the West 

{The), 1378-1429. The time when there 
were two or more contemporary popes, 
one chosen by French cardinals and the 
other by Italians. On the death of 
Gregory XI. the Italians chose Urban 
VL, a Neapolitan, for his successor ; but 
the French cardinals, who were far the 
greater number, nominated one of their 
own countrjnnen, who was crowned by 
them as Clement VI. (1378). Urban held 
his court at Rome, and Clement at 
Avignon. England, Italy, Bohemia, Ger- 
many, Prussia, Poland, and the Scandin- 
avian kingdoms acknowledged the Roman 
pope ; but France, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, 
and Cyprus acknowledged the French 
pope. 

In this unseemly schism sometimes there were 
three contemporary popes, as for example Gregory 
XII., Benedict XIII.. and Alexander V. ; and some- 
times as many as four, as John XXIII., Gregory 
XII., Benedict XIII., and JIartin V.; andagain.lohn 
XIII.. Gregory XII., Clement VIII., and Martin V. 
This disgraceful schism continued for more than 
half a century. 

Great Sea {The). The Mediter- 
ranean was so called by the ancient Jews, 
Greeks, and Romans. 

Great Storm {The), 27 Nov., 1703, 
in the south of England. The damage in 
London was some two millions sterling, 
and at Bristol about a quarter of a million. 
In Little Wild Street chapel, Lincohi's-Inn 
Fields, a sermon is annually preached 
on the 27th Nov. to commemorate this 
national calamity. 
It suggested to Addison that happy line— 
lUdes on the whirlwind and directs the storm. 



I 



GREAT 



GEEEK 



E89 



Great Unknown (The). Sir Walter 
Scott. So called because his principal 
romances and novels were not issued 
under his name, and speculation was agog 
'as to the real author (1771-1832). 

Great Unpaid (The). Justices of 
the peace, whose sentences on offenders 
have given gi-eat dissatisfaction to those 
who love even-handed justice. Thus at 
Dulverton, March 1886, Sarah Ann Black- 
more was sentenced to 12 months' hard 
labour for stealing turnips to the value 
of id. The very same week Riva Eugene, 
accused of stealing a policeman's cape, 
was dismissed, ' because the weather was 
cold, and policemen should not leave 
their capes about to tempt cold people.' 
In the same week William Maltby, aged 
10, was sentenced to one month's im- 
prisonment and four years in a reforma- 
tory for stealing a shilhngsworth of 
onions, at Southampton. 

Great Unwashed (The). The 
artisan class were first so called by Sir 
Walter Scott. 

Great 'Wall of China (TJie). 
Completed B.C. 214 by Chi-Hwang-Ti of 
the Tsin dynasty. Every third man of 
the Vv'hole empire was employed on the 
work, and half a million of them died of 
starvation. All the houses of Great 
Britain would not suffice to build such a 
wall, the contents of which would be 
enough to build two walls 6 ft. high and 
2 ft. thick round the equator. 

Great Week (The). Hebdomada 
Magna. The 13 days between the 5th 
Sunday of Lent and Easter Sunday 
(neither of the Sundays included). These 
13 days were called Passion Week (q.v.). 

Great "Western (The). A steam- 
ship which sailed from Bristol to New 
York in 1838. See ' Great Eastern.' 

Grecian Year of the "World 

(The). This was 1 Sept., B.C. 5598. 

Grecizing Jews. Descendants of 
Abraham born in foreign countries where 
Greek was spoken. They were the Grf ek 
Hebrews, in contradistinction to the 
Flebrew Hebrews, who spoke Aramaic 
or debased Hebrew. 

Greco. An Italian who made an 
attempt on the life of the Emperor Napo- 
leon III. iq.v.), U Dec, 1SG3. 




Greek {The Pronunciation of). Set 
' Greeks and Trojans.' 

Greek Cap (TM- Was 
egg-shaped ; made, accord- 
ing to a bust of Ulysses, 
thus : — 

See * Caps,' and ' Hats.* 

Greek Church {The). ' The East- 
em Church,' and ' the Russian Church,' 
at one time united with the Church of 
Rome. In 588 the bishop of Constan- 
tinople assumed the title of patriarch, 
and in GOO the title of pope v/as re- 
stricted to the bishop of Rome. The 
Greek Church rejects the dogma of pur- 
gatory, the celibacy of the clergy, and of 
course the infallibility of the pope. It 
administers the eucharist in both kinds, 
and objects to images, though not to 
pictures. Greek Catholics believe in con- 
substantiation, and, like the Roman 
Catholics, adore the Host. 

WTiat is absurdly called The Schismatic Greek 
Church is that which dciiies the procession of the 
Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, called 
the FiUoquc (q.v.), introduced into the creed in C8') 
by Recared, and sanctioned by the Council of 
Toledo. Of course, if there is any schism at all 
about the matter, it was not by those who adhered 
to the old creed, but by those who introduced the 
new departure and their followers. 

Greek Church Catechism {The), 
1642. Prepared by Peter Mogilas. It 
received authority as a standard or sym- 
bolical book from the sjaiod of Jerusa< 
lem in 1672, and is often called the 
' Larger Russian Catechism,' to distin- 
guish it from the Smaller Russian Cate- 
chism prepared by the order of Peter the 
Great. 

Greek Fathers (T/^e Tew). Called, 
with five Latin ones, the ' Later Fathers ' 
(4th cent.), viz.: Eusebius, Athanasius, 
Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of 
Nj'ssa, Cyril of Jeiusalem, Chrysostom, 
Epiphanius, Cyril of Alexandria, and 
Ejihrem the Syrian. See ' Latin Fathers.' 

Greek Fire. A terrible weapon 
invented by Callinlcus, a native of Helio- 
polis in Syria, who imx)arted the secret 
to the Greek government. It was used 
in battles and sieges, by sea and land. 
It was either poured from the ram- 
parts from large boilers, or hurled in red- 
hot balls of stone or iron. Sometimes 
fire-ships were charged with it, and some- 
times it was blown through long copper 
tubes from the prows. We are told it 



590 



GREEKS 



GREEN 



•was made of naphtha, that it caTicht fire 
immediately it came in eontdct with the 
air. and that it produced a great smoke, 
a loud explosion, and a fierce flame. 

It seejns to have bees rock oil. as the inflam- 
ZQ&ble liquid sprang from the earth, and to have 
been mixed -vritli sulphur and pitch from eversrreen 
fir-tre^s. It -was treason to reveal the secret. It 
continued in use till the 14th cent., -when gun- 
povrder look its place.. 

Greeks and Trojans (The). L 
The advocates of Greek literature in the 
reign of Henry Till, were called the 
Greeks, and those who held fast t-o the 
old Latin schoolmen were called the 
Trojans. Both Oxford and Cambridge 
furiously resisted the introduction of 
Greek literature, and denounced tlie 
Greek Testament as heterodoxy. It was 
prohibited in the University of Cam- 
bridge under very severe penalties. 
Henry VHI. commanded Greek to be 
taught in Oxford, and established a Greek 
professorship at Cambridge. Erasmus 
taried to teach it, but was unable to resist 
the opposition he met with. 

n. A fiery contest respecting the pro- 
nunciation of Greek introduced by Sir 
John Cheke (1514-1557). Regius Profes- 
sor of Greek in the University of Cam- 
bridge. Sir John (then a Protestantl 
introduced a new pronunciation of Greek 
which Gardiner, the chancellor, con- 
demned. Sides were chosen by the 
scholars : those who supported Sir Jolin 
were called ' Trojans,' those who opposed 
him called themselves ' Greeks.' As Gar- 
diner was a CathoHc the contention was 
really Protestants r. Catholics. Many a 
street fight was fought by the scholars ; 
but at length the king in coxmcil com- 
manded the innovation of the regius pro- 
fessor to be discontinued. See ' Ramists.' 

Green was tlie colour consecrat-ed to 
the Fatimites ; JVliite to the Ommiades; 
Black to the Abbassides (each S syl.). 

Green-aprons (Th^). Xonconfor- 
niist preachers. 

Unbeneficed Xoncons that live by alms, and no 
Pateruost-er no penny, say the Green-aprons.— 
HiCKEEJXGiLL, l^rUttcrafi, pi. i. p. -21. 

Greenbacks. A popular name 
for the paper currency of tlie United 
States, from the colour of the printing 
on the backs of the notes. 

Green Bag Inquiry (The). I. On 
8 Feb.. 1S17, the celebrated green bag 
vras sent by the Prince-regent to the 



Lords, and another on the following day 
to tlie Commons. These green bags 
(always referred to as one), stuffed with 
documents regarding the occurrences in 
the Midland counties, as the Derbyshire 
insurrection (q.v.). the Blanketeers (^.r.), 
&c. were to be examined by secret 
committees in both houses. The Lords 
committee produced their report on 
23 Feb., the Commons produced theirs 
on the 27th. From documents dated 1816 
they said there could be no doubt that 
schemes of conspiracy were iu agitation, 
and the events in 1817 in Derbyshire and 
Yorkshire confirmed these averments. 
The msurrections, however, were not for- 
midable, and the mass of the "people took 
no part in them. The committee con- 
demned the ministry for their arbitrary 
measure in suspending Habeas Corpjis, 
for having executed three men at Derby, 
and for imprisoning or transporting 
twenty others. Mr. Tierney called the 
whole affair 'absurd, contemptible, and 
ludicrous.' See ' Spencean Philanthro- 
pists.' 

II. 1820, an inquiry into the conduct 
of Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV., 
accused of adultery with Bergami, her 
chamberlain. The evidence was inclosed 
in sealed green bags, wliich were laid on 
the table of the House of Lords and 
Commons for investigation. The bags 
contained documents connected with a 
commission sent to Mihrn in 1S18 ; but 
as far back as 180(3 the queen was charged 
with having given bu-th to a cliild at 
Blackheath, after her separation from the 
king. The queen was tried and acquitted. 

Sir Siamuel Romilly says the boy -was BiUy 
Austin, son of Sophia" Austin, born in Bro-srnlo\v 
Street Hospital 11 July. lts>2, and taken by the 
iqueen]. then Princess of Wales, into her house the 
same year. 

Green Book (The). The register 
of the South Sea Company, so called 
from the colour of its covers. "Wlienthe 
bubble exploded. Mr. Knight, the casliier, 
fled to France, carrymg the green book 
with him. GeneriU Ross declared the 
swindle to be ' the greatest villany and 
fraud ever contrived to ruin a nation.' 

Green Books iT/jfl. In Italy. Cor- 
responds to our blue-books (q.v.). They 
contain all sorts of government reports, 
papers, and other documents. 

Green Cap. To wear a green cap, 
to be a bankrupt. In France, ' porter le 



GREEN 



GREEN 



891 



bonnet vert.' This phrase rose from an 
ancient custom which was common even 
in the 17th cent, of compelling bankrupts 
to wear a green cap, out of disgrace, and 
to put men on their guard against them. 

G-reen Cloth {Board of). A court 
of justice held in the counting-house of 
the British monarch's household, and 
composed of the lord steward and inferior 
officers. To this court is committed the 
charge and supervision of the royal 
household in matters of justice and go- 
vermnent, with power to correct offenders, 
and to maintain the peace of the juris- 
diction of the court-roj'al, which extends 
200 yards, every way, from the gates of 
the jialace. Without a warrant from this 
court no servant of the household can be 
arrested for debt. It takes its name from 
the green cloth spread over the board at 
which it is held (Wharton, 'Law Dic- 
tionary '). 

The Board of Green Cloth executed in 1849 the 
remaining functions of the ' Marshalsea Court." 

Green Cockade (The\, 1789. The 
cockade worn by the French insurgents at 
the commencement of the Great Revolu- 
tion. Camille Desmoulins, on one occa- 
sion, snatching a green twig from a tree 
after addressing the mob, stuck it in his 
hat as a cockade. The whole mass of 
people followed his example, and a woman 
brought out a great roll of green ribbon 
and cut it into bows as far as it would go. 
This was the revolutionary cockade till 
the militia of 48,000 was embodied, when 
a cockade of red and blue (the Parisian 
colours) was substituted instead. 

Green Count (The), 1348. Ama- 
dous VI. count of Savoy (1334, 1343- 
1383) was so called because he appeared 
in green at a tournament and was so 
announced. 

Green Crescents. 

the orthodox Moslems. 
Turbans.' 

Green Flags {The). The soldiers 
of the Fatimites. Hence the banner of 
the sultan of Damascus was a crescent 
on a gi-een flag. The Abbassides (3 syl.) 
ha«73 a crescent on a black flag, and tlie 
Ommiades (3 syl.) a crescent on a white 
flag. Ordinarily by ' green flags ' we 
mean the Arab troops. 

A.B a railway signal a green flag signifies caution. 



The symbol of 
See ' Green 



Green Isle (T^e). Ireland is so called 
from its brilliant verdure. 

Green-Mountain Boys {The), 
1775. Three hundred men, led by Ethan 
Allen, who, in the American war of in- 
dependence, joined the volunteers, who 
undertook to secure the passes into 
Canada. They came from the Green 
Mountains which run through a large 
part of Vermont. 

Green-ribbon Club {The). An 
anti-popery club held at the club-house in 
Fuller's Rents, London, in the reign of 
Charles II., known in history chiefly 
by its procession on 17 Nov., 1080, 
'organised under the auspices of the Earl 
of Shaftesbury. It went from Moorgate 
to Temple Bar, where, in front of the 
club-house, the whole array of popish 
effigies which had been carried in the 
procession were burnt amid fireworks 
and tremendous shouts. It is said there 
were at least 100,000 spectators. 

The club-house, says Roger North, was a sort of 
carrefour at Cliancery Lane. 

Green Room {The). The actors' 
muster-room in theatres. So called be- 
cause it is painted green to relieve the 
eyes of the actors distressed with the 
glare of the foot-lights. To this room 
they retire when they make their exit 
from the stage. 

Green Scarfs {The). The badge of 
Mazarin, Isabella, and the family of 
Conde. 

Red Scarfs, the badge of Henri III. and Charles 
IX. ; White Scarfs, the badge of Crusaders. Arnia. 
gnacs.and Huguenots ; Tricolour Scarfs still woin 
ia France by the municipal magistrates andcom- 
missaire of police. White Hoods, the badge of the 
Burgundians. 

Green Silver. A halfpenny tax 
paid yearly to the feudal lord, as rent, by 
every tenant in the manor of Writtel, 
Essex, whose front-door opens on Green- 
bury. 

Green Spectre {The). Irish Re- 
bellion. See ' Irish Associations.' 

It is worth while to consider what means can be 
adopted to prevent the periodical reappearance 
of the Green Spectre of Ireland.— Iiis/j Seditions 
from 1792 to 1880, p. 04. 

Green Standard {The). Of the 
Turks ; never unfurled except in danger. 
Said to have been given to Mohammed 
by the Angel Gabriel, and hence called 
' The celestial standard.' 



392 



GEEEN 



GEESHABI 



Green Thursday, or 'Dies Viri- 
dium ' (Luke xxxiii. 31). Maundy- 
Thursday, the day of absolution in the 
Lutheran Church, preparatory to the 
Holy Communion, which is celebrated 
the day following {i.e. on Good Friday). 
Tn German called ' Griindonnerstag.' 

Green Turbans. The descendants 
of Fatima, in Turkey, called emirs or 
shereefs, wear gi-een turbans ; but the 
Fatimites of Egypt wore red ones, like 
the unorthodox Persians. 

In Afghanistan every synd, or Afghan doscend- 
ant of the Prophet, is entitled to wear a green 
turban. 

Green Vault of Dresden (The). 
Griine Gewulbe ' ; is in the Z winger, a 
group of buildings erected by Augustus 
11. as a vestibule to his new palace. It 
is called ' Green ' from the colour of the 
paper or hangings with which it was 
originally covered. The regalia used at 
the coronation of Augustus (a present of 
Karl V.) are still kept in the seventh 
apartment. The ' Emerald of the Green 
Vault ' is in the eighth or last apartment. 

Greens and Blues {The). The 
livery colours of opposed charioteer 
factions in Constantinople, which in the 
time of Justinian verged on sedition. 
Like our Light and Dark Blue, which 
are the livery colours v/orn by the con- 
tending Universities of Cambridge and 
Oxford in athletic contests such as the 
boat race. The Blues in Constantinople 
denoted the votaries of Justinian, and 
the Greens those of Anastasius. 

Cambridge is Light Blue. Oxford is Dark Blue. 
In Constantinople there were two minor factions, 
called the Whites and the Rsds ; but these merged 
into the other two, the Whites into the Blues, and 
the Reds into the Greens. 

Gregorian Calendar {The), 1582. 
The calendar reformed by Pope Gregory 
XIII. by expunging ten days, in order to 
restore the equinox to March 21, the day 
on which it fell in the Council of Nice in 
A.i>. 325. In order to prevent the re- 
currence of a like error in future, he 
ordered that of years ending centuries 
only those divisible by 400 should be 
accounted leap years (excepting 400, and 
all multiples of 400). Introduced into 
Italy, Spain, and Portugal in 1582 ; into 
France a few months later ; into Catholic 
Switzerland, Germany, and the Nether- 
lands in 1583 ; into Poland in 1580; into 
Hungary and Denmark in 1700 ; into Pro- 



testant Switzerland in 1701 ; into England 
in 1752 ; into Sweden in 1753 ; but Russia 
still retains the old style. 

The centuries 1700, 1800. 1900 are not leap years, 
because 17, 18, 19 will not divide by 4 ; but the 
years 1600, 2000, and 2100 are leap years, because 
16, 20, 24 are multiples of 4. 

Gregorian Chant {The). The 
chant of Ambrose (bishop of Milan), 
which had only four tones, extended to 
eight tones by Gregory the Great (591- 
604). It was taken from the Greek chant 
used in the mysteries of Eleusis. 

The Arabrosian chant had four tones or modes, 
called the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixo- 
lydian. 

Gregorian Epoch {The). Begins 
March 1582, when the New Style or 
Reformed Calendar was introduced by 
Gregory XIII. 

Gregorian Liturgy {The). This 
is the Roman liturgy {q.v.). 

Gregorian Mass. 'MissaS. Gre- 
gorii,' a mass ' quo3 juxta ritum Gregoria- 
num celebratur.' See ' Mass.' 

Gregorian Year (T/V). The civil 
year of the Gregorian Calendar. 

Gregorians {The), 1376. A religious 
society named after Gregory the Great, 
founded in Holland by Geert Groote and 
Florentius Radewin. Not unlike the 
subsequent society known as Moravians 
or the United Brethren. They acknow- 
ledged no conventual distinctions, and 
enjoined community of goods, ascetic 
habits, and the use of the vernacular 
tongue in all religious services. 

Gregory Act {The). By which 
tenants in Ireland could not get relief 
from the workhouse if they held mora 
than a quarter of an acre of land, with- 
out surrendering their holding. 

Grenville Collection {The), 1846. 
Added to the British Museum Library 
by the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville. It 
consists of 20,240 volumes, and cost 
about 54,000L It contains the Mazarine 
Bible (2 vols. 1455), a copy of ' Livy * 
on vellum (14G9), the Ald'ine 'Virgil' 
(1505), a Shakespeare (1623), Azzoduidi's 
' Ovid,' a series of early editions of 
* Orlando Furioso,' &c. 

Gresliam Lectures {The), 1575. 

Lectures on the seven sciences (divinity, 
astronomy, music, geometry, law, physic, 
and rhetoric), delivered in Gresham 



GRETNA 



GRIMM'S 



COS 



Col'ege, and founded by Sir Thomas 
Gresliam, the merchant. The lectures 
were neglected from 1700 to 1762, and 
then the building was sold to the govern- 
ment for the site of an excise office. 
Some attempts have been made to revive 
the lectures, which were delivered in the 
Royal Exchange till the fire of 1838. 
The new buildings were opened in 1813. 

The lectures were established in 1575, but the 
college was not completed till 1579. 

Gretna G-reen Marriages. Wlien 

Lord-Chancellor Hardwicke, in 175-4, 
brought in his bill for the virtual aboli- 
tion of Fleet mai-riages by compelling 
the publication of banns on three succes- 
sive Sundays, or else an expensive licence ; 
he wished to extend the operation of the 
bill to Scotland also ; but, failing in this, 
marriages ^t Gretna Green without 
banns, notice, or licence continued to the 
close of the year 1856, when by 19 & 20 
Vict. c. 96, 8. 1, they were declared to be 
irregular. 

Grey {Lady Jane), 1537-1554. 
Reigned ten days, and was beheaded. 
She was persuaded or forced by her 
father-in-law (the Duke of Northumber- 
land) to usurp the crown. Her name is 
not received in the list of English 
monarchs. 

Henry VII. was the father of Henby VIII. and 
Marv. 

Henry VIII. was the father of Edward VI., 
Mary, and Elizabeth (no issue). 

Now take Mary, Henry VII. 's daughter: her 
Becond husband was Charles Brandon duke of 
Suffolk, by whom s^he had Frances [Brandon], who 
married Henry Grey ; and the Lady Jane was 
their daughter. 

Lady Jane Grey married Lord Guilford Dudley 
(fourth son of the Duke of Northumberland), aged 
sixteen. 

*,* Lord Guilford Dudley was the grandson of 
the scandalous lawyer of the firm Empson and 
Dudley so notorious in the reign of Henry VII. 

. Grey Friars (The). So the Fran- 
ciscans were called from the colour of 
their drf ss, as the Dominicans were 
called ' Black Friars,' and the Carmelites 
were called ' White Friars.' 

Grey League (The), 1424. *Grau- 
biinden ' or ' Lia Grescha,' one of the 
three unions of the Grisons. So called 
from the grey homespun worn by the 
unionists, whence the word ' Gris-ons ' 
and the German ' Graubiinden.' In 
1427 the three leagues united into a 
general federation, and formed an alliance 
with the Swiss cantons. 



The other two unions are the Cadeian League 
(q.v.) and the League of the Six Jurisdictions. 

Grey Sister of Hearts (The). 
Julienne Wittinghoff, baroness von Kru- 
dener (1764-1824), a mystic, credited with 
prophesying Na])oleon's flight from Elba 
and his fall at Waterloo, Alexander I. of 
Russia was one of her disciples ; and when 
she went to Paris during its occupation by 
the allies, her religious ' drums ' were the 
fashion of the hour. 

The baroness promoted the ' Holy Alliance ' in 
18-j, and died in the Crimea, 13 Dec. 1824. 

Grey Sisters (The), 1634. Sisters 
of Chavity, so called from their grey dress. 
A society of unmarried women, whose 
functions are to nurse the sick, and do 
what they can to relieve the sufferings of 
all inmates of hospitals. The society was 
founded in France by Vincent de Paul 
and the widow Lcgras. Suppressed at 
the Revolution, but restored by Napoleon 
in 1807, under the presidency of the 
empress-mother. 

Greysteil. Lord Ruthven, son of 
the Lord Ruthven who mui'dered David 
Rizzio, was so called from Sir Greysteil, 
the hero of a metrical romance very 
popular at the time. He was honoured 
for his courage and hardihood, in which 
respect he resembled Greysteil. 

Griffith's Valuation, 1826. To 
provide for the more equal levying of 
grand jury cess and county charges. 
Made by Richard Griffith, the commis- 
sioner appointed under Act 7 Geo. IV. 
c. 62, for Ireland. 

The Tenement Valuation, 1846-7, amended by 
Act (1852) was used for all public and local assess- 
ments, as well as for all imperial purposes, till the 
new assessment came into operation. 

Grimes Dyke, a.d. 140-141. A 

rampart and ditch formed by Lollius 
Urbicus, general of Antoninus Pius, from 
Dunglass Castle (on the Clyde) to the 
heights above Caer Ridden Kirk. It had 
nineteen forts, with an average interval of 
two miles. Also called Graeme's and 
Graham's Dyke. 

Grimes is Keltic for ' great." 

Grimm's Law. The formula of 
Jacob Louis Grimm, the j)hilologer, for 
the variation of consonants as a word 
passes out of one country into another. 

For example : the Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit p 
becomes/ in English: thus pater becomes /aincr, 



394 



GrJSE 



GUERCINO 



Grise League {The), 1424. The 
second league of the Grisons for inde- 
pendence. 

Grisognel the Grey Cloa'k. 

Geoffrey of Anjou, father of Henry 11. 
(1113-1151). 

His son was called ' Curtmantle.' 

Grist Tax {The), 1815. An absolute 
prohibition on the delivery of wheat out 
of warehouse, and its importation for 
home consumption till the price reached 
80s. per quarter was imposed. In 1822 
this act was amended, and in 1828 a slid- 
ing scale was established (' Notes and 
Queries,' 2 May, 1889, p. 180). 

Groans of the Britons {The), 
A.D. 426. A letter addressed to Aetius, 
the popular captain of the day, to come 
and help the English against the con- 
stant irruptions of the Picts and Scots. 
But the Romans were at the time dread- 
ing the advance of Attila; and the Britons, 
left to the tender mercies of their ra- 
vagers, invited over the Saxons. 

Grost§te or Grosseteste. Robert 
Copley, bishop of Lincoln (1175, 1235- 
1253). Sometimes Anglicised into ' Great- 
head.' 

Grub Street Journal, London. 
Grub Street is now called Milton Street, 
famous at one time for trashy literature. 
The journal was a folio in size, and con- 
tinued to be issued to the end of the year 
1737. It then became a quarto, and was 
entitled ' The Literary Courier oi Grub 
Street.' 

He, honest man, was deep in Grub Street and 
polemical divinity.— Andrew Marvell, T/te Re- 
hearsal, &c. See also ' Dunciad,' i. 38. 

Grumbletonians, 1C92. The anti- 
court party, or out-of-office party. By a 
refined euphemism the court party was 
called ' The Patriot Party ' and the 
Grumbletonians the ' * Country Party.' 
Bolingbroke and Walpole were the two 
representative men in 1723 (Macaulay, 
' Hist, of Eng.,' chap. xix.). 

Grypus {ypviros, Hooked Nose). So 
Antiochus VIII., king of Syria, was 
called (B.C. 141-196). 

Guard. See ' Garde.' 

Guardian and Lieutenant of 
the Realm. So George I. called the 
Prince of Wales, when left in charge of 
the United Kingdom, in 1716. He was 



extremely jealous of his son, and would 
not hear of his being called regent. It 
was not, however, a new title, as the 
Black Prince had borne it in 1338, &c. 

Guebres [Infidels], So the Moslems 
call all, except Jews and Christians, who 
do not profess Islamism ; but generally 
the Parsees are meant. See ' Giaours.' 

Guelf Fund. A considerable 
amount of money which falls annually to 
the emperor of Germany, and is not de- 
pendent on the consent of parliament. A 
part is paid to subsidise newsj)apers, and 
50,000Z. is spent yearly in secret service. 
It is called the ' Guelf Fund ' because 
it arises from the interest of the seques- 
tered property of the Hanoverian dynasty. 

Guelfs and Ghibellines {The), 
12th cent. The Guelfs were dukes of Ba- 
varia, who contended with the house of 
Hohenstauffen for pre-eminence. From 
a mere German feud the contention ad- 
vanced to a long and bitter struggle be- 
tween the civil and spiritual powers. 
The Guelfs were the pope's party, and 
laboured to set the pope above the 
crowned princes. The Ghibellines were 
the imperial or civil party, and tried to 
set the kaiser above the pope. 

In consequence of this rivalry, we find two rival 
contemporary popes, Alexander III. (a.d. 1159) the 
Guelfic pope, and Victor IV. (a.d. 115;)) the kaiser's 
pope. Of course the latter was called an anti- 
pope by the Roman party. Guelf was duke of 
Saxony ; Ghibelline, or rather Waiblingen, is a 
town of Wiirtemberg, the patrimonial seat of the 
HohenstaufEen family. . . . The words were first 
used as the battle cries in 1138 when Guelf, the 
brother of Henry the Proud, was defeated by Kon- 
rad of Hohenstauffen at Weinsberg. 

*^* [After the reign of Kaiser Heinrich 
VII., in 1313, the terms 'Guelf and 
* Ghibelline ' completely changed their 
original meaning. The Ghibellines were 
originally the imperial party, but from 
1313 Italian rebels were called Ghibel- 
lines. This was because the German 
emperors were for ever disturbing the 
government of the Italian states ; and as 
these emperors were Ghibellines, so the 
word came to denote a disturber of the 
state, a rebel, or insurgent. Of course, 
the insurgents were not slow to retort on 
the government party the nickname of 
Guelfs. The Hanoverian British line is 
that of the Guelfs. See ' Tories.' 

Guereino {Squint Eye). Gian Fran- 
cesco Barbieri, a famous painter of the 



GUEPJNETS 



GUINEVER 



895 



Bolognese school. His masterpieces are 
the fresco of ' Aurora ' in the Villa Ludo- 
visi, the ' Persian Sibyl,' and ' St. Petro- 
nilla ' (1590-1666). 

Gue'rinets {The), 1684. Enthusiasts 
and visionaries in France ; a sort of Illu- 
minati. 

Guerra de las Comunerades 

(5 syl.), 1520-1521. The insurrection of 
the Comuneros under Padilla, a young 
nobleman of Toledo. The insui-gents 
were defeated at Villala, and Padilla was 
executed. See ' Comuneros.' 

Guerra di Cand^a {Una). 'War 
to the knife.' A Venetian expression 
alluding to the siege of Candia by the 
Turks (1667-1G68). This siege cost the 
lives of 30,000 Christians and 120,000 
Turks. Candia was ultimately obliged 
to surrender. 

Guerrillas. Petty wars, or partisan 
warriors; armed bands of peasants are 
so called in Spain. The insurrections of 
Jack Cade, Wat Tyler, and Robert Kett 
would be so called in Spain. From 1808 
to 1814 guerrillas were regularly organised 
against the French, and the names of 
Empecinado, the Pastor Merino, and 
Mina, as leaders, are well known. 

Miua's band joined Wellington, and did good 
BRrvice in the Peninsular war. The guerrillas 
also joined the Carlists, and distinguished them- 
selves. 

Guet {Le). The police of the old 
regime of France, changed, in 1789, into 
the Garde Mu.nicipale de Paris. It was 
reorganised in 1254 by St. Louis [IX.], 
who subdivided the corps into the Gnet 
Royal, and the G^iet assis or des mestiers. 
The Guet Royal consisted of twenty ser- 
gents a cheval and twenty sergents a 
pied. The Guet assis consisted of bour- 
geois and artisans, the former being the 
night watch, and the latter orderlies of 
the Guet Royal. The Constituent Assem- 
bly replaced the Guet by the Gendarmerie. 

Pronounce Gu-ay. 

Gueux. 16th cent, ragamuffins. The 
revolutionists in Spain and the Nether- 
lands in 1566. There were 300 deputies 
of the Calvinistic j)arty, headed by H. de 
Brederode (a descendant of the counts of 
Holland) and Louis count of Nassau, 
who demanded of Margaret, the governor, 
the abolition of the Inquisition. When 
Margaret seemed about to give way the 
Count of Barleymont, her counsellor, re- 



commended her to dismiss the deputation, 
saying to her, ' Ce ne sont que des gueux.' 
The word was cau;;ht up ; they called 
themselves ' Les Gueux,' and took for 
their badge a Avallet and porringer. The 
' Gueux des bois ' combated on land, the 
' Gueux de mer ' sought a refuge at sea. 

Pronounce Lay getrz ; Geicda bicd ; Geicd mair. 

Guillemites (3 syl.), 1153. A reli- 
gious congTegation founded at Pescara 
by St. Gulielmus of Malaval. They 
soon spread over Italy, France, and Ger- 
many. From 12L6 they had a monastery 
at liontrouge, near Paris. They w< 
called White Mantles {Blancs-Manteaux) 
from the great white mantles which thoy 
wore. They ceased to exist long before 
the Revolution. 

Guillotine {The\ 31 May, 1791. 
Joseph Ignace Guillotin, M.D., induced 
the Legislative Assembly of France to 
adopt the machine which bears his name 
for the execution of criminals condemned 
to death. But it was not till 20 March, 
1792, that a special decree was made for 
its universal use. It was not the inven- 
tion of Dr. Guillotin, for a like instru- 
ment was used in England in the time of 
Edward III. ' The Maiden ' of Scotland 
was used in 1578. The Halifax ' Maiden ' 
was well known. And a similar instru- 
ment had been used in Germany, Bohe- 
mia, and Italy. 

The Regent Morton, -who introduced the 
' Blaiden into Scotland, was (according to tradi- 
tion; the first to sutler by it. 

Guinea. The English gold coin, 
equal to 21s., first coined in 1662. With- 
drawn from circulation in 1817. 

Physicians, barristers, schoolmasters, clergy- 
men in temporary office, artists, &c., still preserve 
the word ' guinea,' and are paid by guineas 
instead of sovereigns. Honoraria and many sub- 
scriptions to charities are also paid in guineas. 
In fact, it is esteemed a more ' aristocratic ' pay- 
ment. The gold of the first specimens came from 
the coast of Guinea. 

Guinegate, or ' Guinegatte.' In 
France. Noted for the ' Battle of the 
Spurs ' [p. 80, col. 1], won by Henry VIII. 
over the French. Here, on 7 Aug., 1479, 
had been fought another battle, Ijetween 
Louis XL and Maximilian of Austria, to 
which Philippe de Comines (2 syl-JL re- 
fers : — 

Remember Guynegate, a warning against the 
allurements either of plunder or of prisoners ; for 
Guynegate was lost in the very moment of victory 
by our too great eagerness for pillage. 

Guinever {The Canons Begular of 
St.). See ' Genevieve.' 



896 



GUIRLANDE 



n 



G-uirlande de Julie. This Julie 
was the celebratedJuHe Lucie d' Angeiines, 
daughter of the Marquis de Rambouillet, 
who presided over the society called 
L'Hotel de Rambouillet, and married 
the Due de Montausier. When the due 
was paying his court to the witty Julie, 
he made her a present of a MS. book of 
select poems, which he called the ' Guir- 
lande de Julie,' illuminated with flowers 
painted by Robert. The poems were in 
the handwriting of Jarry. The book was 
in the family of the Due d'Uzbs in 1870, 
and probably is there still, but it has 
been printed and published. , 

Pronounce Gir-land d'zhu-le. 

Gulistan {Peace of), 1813. Between 
Persia and Russia, 

Gunpowder Plot, 1605. A con- 
spiracy to destroy the king, lords, and 
coinmons, by springing a mine secreted 
under the houses of parliament, on 5 Nov., 
the day of the king's speech. The plot 
was projected by Robert Catesby, who 
was joined by many Roman Catholics of 
high rank. Guido Fawkes (Guy Faux) 
was employed to fire the train, but was 
apprehended in the vaults under the 
houses of parliament. Sir Everard 
Digby, Rockwood, Winter, Garnet (a 
Jesuit), Guy Faux, and some others Avere 
executed 31 Jan., 1606. Robert Catesby 
was shot 8 Nov., 1605, while attempting 
to raise an insurrection in Worcestei*- 
shire ; and Thomas Percy, of the family 
of Northumberland, was slaot at Ilolbeach 
the same day. 

Gunter's Cliain, 1624. A chain 

used for land-measuring. It is 22 yards 
long, the square of which is 484. Now 
an acre is 4,840 square yards, and there- 
fore a square chain is a tenth of an acre, 
or 10 = 1 acre. Again, a chain contains 
10,000 square links, and, as 10 chains 
= an acre, it follows that 100,000 square 
links = an acre. Lo that, in measuring a 
field by a Gunter's chain, all that is re- 
quired is to divide the result by 100,000, 
or (which is the same thing) to cut off 
the last five figures, to obtain the area in 



Gunter's Line. A logarithmic 
line engraved on scales and sectors, 
serving to perform the multiplication and 
division of numbers instrumentally. 



Gunter's Q,uadrrvnt. A quadrant 
for finding the hour of the day, the sun's 
azimuth, and other problems of the 
sx^here. 

Gunter's Scale. For resolving 
questions in navigation by the aid of a 
pair of compasses. Called by seamen 
' The Gunter.' 

Gurgoyles (2 syl.), familiarly called 
' The Gurgs,' 1775-1855. A "society 
which flourished for eighty years at Li-- 
coln's Inn, being a revival of the old 
Cambridge Shakespeare Society. It was 
never formally dissolved. 

Guy's Hospital, 1721. Fomv^sd 
by Thomas Guy, a London booksell*jr, 
who was M.P. for Tamworth (1694-1707). 

Gwynn (Nell, or Eleanor). It is said 
that her real name was Margaret Sjmicott. 
The dukes of St. Albans are descended 
from this mistress of Charles II. 

Gymnos'opllists (4 syl.), or ' Naked 
Philosophers.' Indian philosophers, so 
called by the Greeks because they went 
about naked. The two best known are 
Calanus and Zarmenochegas. The for- 
mer followed Alexander the Great from 
India, and, being taken ill, burnt himself 
alive in the presence of the Macedonian 
army, B.C. 323. Ilu latter burnt himself 
alive at Athens in the i^resence of 
Augustus. 

Thej'' are now represented by the 'sky-clarV 
branch ot Ihe Jains. At present they eat their 
without any clothing. 



G-ypsy {plu. Gypsies). Called 

also ' Egyi:)tians,' ' Bohemians,' ' Gitanos,' 
' Zingari,' or ' Zingali.' Are mentioned 
in 1122 in the German paraphrase of 
Genesis. They appeared in Hungary, Wal- 
lachia, and Cyprus in 1320 ; in Germany 
between 1416-1420; at Ziirich in 1418; 
in Italy in 1422 ; at Paris in 1427 ; in 
Scotland in 1500. 

Gypsies forbidden to dicell in the 
la7id : — 

1492, by Ferdinand the Catholic of Sipain. 
1500, by the Diet of Augsburg . . Germany. 

1530, by Henry VIII England. 

1540, by James V Scotland. 

15G0, by the States of Orleans . France. 
1740, by Friedrich II. ... Prussia. 

H, on pennypieces, 1875, &c., stands 
for H[eaton] — the firm of Ralph Heaton 
& Sons of IBirmingham, which supplied 
the mint with 100 tons of the bronze 
pennypieces. Their first issue was 1875 ; 



HABEAS 



HAIR 



897 



and the officers of Tower Hill, in order to 
identify the coin, had the letter H im- 
pressed on the dies. 

Habeas Corpus [Suspension of 
the). In times of great political excite- 
ment the operation of the Habeas Corpus 
Act is usually suspended, by which per- 
sons committed are not allowed to be 
bailed. The committing magistrate has 
to bear, in such cases, all the responsi- 
bility of the commitment. 

Habeas Corpus Act (TJie), 1679, 

(31 Car. II. c. 2), securing English sub- 
jects against arbitrary imprisonment. 

This is provided for by the writ called ' Habeas 
Corpus ad Subjiciendum ' which is addressed to 
any person who detains anotlier in custody, com- 
manding him to produce the body of the prisoner, 
and to state the day and cause of his capture and 
detention. This done, the court decides whether 
the prisoner shall be liberated, admitted to bail, 
or remanded. 

Habsburg^ (House- of). Incorrectly 
written ' Hapsburg.' I. Furnished Ger- 
many with Rodolf I., Adolf of Nassau, 
and Albert I. of Austria (1273-1308). 

The word Habsburg or Habichts-bxirg, built in 
the 11th cent., means ' hawk's castle.' The castle 
stood on the right bank of the Aar, in the Swiss 
canton of Aart,au. 

II. Of Austria. Began with Albert 
[AlbrechtJ II. the Illustrious (son of Al- 
bert IV. duke of Austria), and son-in-law 
of Siegmund the preceding kaiser. Albert 
was also called ' the Magnanimous ' and 
' the Grave.' This line of kaisers began 
in 1438, and still continues in that part 
of Germany called Austria and Hungary^ 

The Habsburgcrs of direct male descent ceased 
In 1806; Karl Yll., son of Maria Theresa, was a 
Habsburger on his mother's side only. 

Hadith. Traditions about Moham- 
med the prophet, complementary to the 
Koran. 

Hadrian's Ileseript. A letter to 
Serenius Granianus, proconsul of Asia, 
respec.ting the way he was to treat Chris- 
tians. ' If anyone shall prove any offence 
against the laws to have been committed 
by Christians, proceed against them as 
the law directs ; but if the charge brought 
against them be mere calumny, then 
punish the accuser as he deserves.' See 
' Trajan's Rescript.' 

Haeceeity. A term in school divinity 
meaning the principle of individuation. 
The Realists maintained that universals 
only were real, and that they formed in- 



dividuals by the intervention of the prin- 
ciple of hajcceity. 

Hseret'ico comburendo (Be). A 
writ against heretics, who, being convicted 
of heresy by a bishop abjured it, but 
afterwards relapsing, were delivered over 
to the secular power to be burnt alive. 
Abolished by the pension parliament in 
1677 {tempore Charles II.). 

Hag'gada. The rabbinical inter- 
pretation of scripture for homiletical 
purposes. See 'Midrash.' 

Haileybury College, 1806. 

Founded by the East India Comjiany at 
Great Amwell, Herts, for the education 
of 105 students intended for the civil 
service in India. 

Hair. 

Gkeeks. The Spartans combed and 
dressed their hair carefully, especially 
when about to encounter any great 
danger; as Leonldas and his 300 did 
before starting for Thermopylae. Sailors 
both in Greece and Rome shaved off 
their hair after a shipwreck or other 
calamity, and dedicated it to some deitj\ 
In mourning, Greek and Roman women 
cut their hair short, but the men in both 
countries left their hair rough and un- 
kempt, as if their grief was too great for 
their concerning themselves about per- 
sonal adornment. 

In childhood both Greeks and Romans 
wore long hair, but the boys, on reaching 
puberty, had their hair clipped and 
dedicated to some river-god. At Athens 
this ceremony took place on the third 
day of the festival called ' Apaturia.' 

Slaves, both in Greece and Rome, were 
alwaj^s shaved, and vestal virgins, like 
Catholic nuns, cut off their hair when 
they took their vows. 

One way of supplicating was pulling out one's 
hair. After this manner .\gamemnon present-^d 
himself before Zeus, when Hector had given tha 
Greeks an overthrow. — Iliad, xx. 15. 

Romans. Men wore their hair long till 
about B.C. 300, when short hair and 
shaving came into vogue. Scipio Afri- 
canus (B.C. 234-183) was the first Roman 
who shaved. Under the empire the 
style of dressing the hair was extremely 
finical. Mark Antony (b.c. 80-30) is 
represented as wearing his hair in sausage 
curls arranged in rows all round his head. 
The Emperor Gallienus (a.d. 260-268) 
had his hair powdered with gold-dust. 



398 



HAIR 



HAIR 



In Hadrian's time (76, 117-138) full 
beards and short hair were in vogue, and 
this fashion continued to the end of the 
empire. 

The GrAULS and ancient Britons. The 
Teutonic tribes wore their hair long, as 
did the ancient Gauls and Britons. That 
part of Gaul the furthest remote from 
Roman influence was called Gallia 
Comdta (long-haired Gaul), to distinguish 
it from the half-Romanised Gallia To- 
gdta. 

The Saxons and Danes wore longhair 
and long beards, but the Normans 
shaved their chins, and sometimes the 
back of their heads also. 

England. In the reign of Henry I. 
(1100-1135) the gentlemen rivalled the 
ladies in the length of their hair, . and 
long hair prevailed till the time of 
Henry VIII. (1509-1547), when short 
hair came into vogue. In the reign of 
Charles I. (1625-1649) ringlets and love- 
locks were affected by the Cavaliers, but 
Puritans cropped their hair close to the 
head. In the reign of Charles II. (1661- 
1685) enormous wigs flowing over the 
shoulders were worn, and this fashion 
continued up to the reign of George III. 
(1760-1820). 

In 1765 the -wig-makers petitioned the king 
against the discontinuance of wigs, praying for 
their reintroduction. An excellent satire was set 
on foot praying his Majesty to introduce the 
farihiou of wooden legs for the benefit of carpen- 
ters. 

At the close of the 18th cent, the dis- 
gusting habit of plastering the hair with 
flour, powder, and pomatum, to the 
amount of 2 lbs. or more, was introduced. 
My father used to tell us how, when he 
was a young man, and was going to a 
public entei'tainment, the hairdresser was 
generally obliged, from stress of business, 
to come the day before 'to make hishead,' 
which was the usual phrase ; and that 
he was obliged to sleep in an armchair 
for fear of deranging his hair. When the 
head was ' unmade ' the lard and powder 
taken out would fill a small basin. He 
said that every gentleman used to carry 
a ' scratcher,' with an ivory hand at one 
end to scratch the back, and a sharp 
point at the other to scratch the head, 
because the parasites were so trouble- 
soine. In my young days, gentlemen 
wore their hair smooth, with a pig-tail 
and bag or pig- tail and knocker. Not 
long after William Pitt introduced his 



tax on hair-powder, the hair was cut 

short as it is at present (1890). 

The style of dressing hair among ladies is far 
too long a subject for this note-book, but foolery 
reached its climax in the time of Marie Antoinette. 
My mother says that in her days the hairdresser 
was provided with steps, that he might pile up 
the hair high enough. 

Hair as a sign of Rank. 

The Parthians and ancient Persians 
of high rank wore long flowing hair. 

Homer speaks of the 'long-haired 
Greeks ' by way of honourable distinc- 
tion. Subsequently, the Athenian cavalry 
wore long hair, and all the Lacedaemonian 
soldiers did the same. 

The Gauls considered long hair a 
mark of honour, for which reason Julius 
CcBsar obliged them to cut off their hair 
in token of submission, for all slaves were 
shorn. 

The Franks and ancient Germans 
considered long hair a mark of high 
birth. Hence Clodion, the Frank, was 
styled * the Long-haired,' and his succes- 
sors were spoken of as les rois chevelures. 

The Goths considered long hair a 
mark of honour, and short hair a mark 
of thraldom. 

For many centuries long hair was i»i 
France the distinctive mark of kings 
and nobles, and in the time of Charles II. 
the Cavaliers gloried in long hair. 

Hair shaved ofiF. 

Mohammedans shave the scalp, but 
leave a tuft of hair for the ' angel to lay 
hold of when he carries the dead to 
paradise.' 

The Chinese shave all the head except 
the top, where the hair is suffered to grow 
into a long pig-tail. This was a Tartar 
custom. 

The Buddhist priests shave all the 
head. 

Catholic priests shave their head more 
or less. The part shaved is called the 
'tonsure.' St. Peter's tonsure is quite 
round the head, to indicate the crown of 
thorns. St. Paul's tonsure is the whole 
head shaved like a Buddhist priest's. 
Simon Magus's tonsure is a semicircle 
shaved from ear to ear above the fore- 
head, but not extended to the back of the 
head. This sort of tonsure is natural 
baldness. 

Catholic priests shave their faces quite 
clean, and the same custom is affected 
by the ' High Church party ' of the 
Anglican Church. However, Christ and 



HAIR 



HALL 



899 



his apostles are always represented with 
nioustaches and long beards. 

Hair Powder, 1590. An aristocra- 
tic badge of the Guise party, opj)osed to 
Henri IV. The Guise party put forward 
the old Cardinal de Bourbon whom they 
called king, and in courtly flattery whit- 
ened their hair, and wore white plumes 
or white cockades. Originally hair- 
powder was an aristocratic distinction 
of the high church and state party in 
France. It was taxed in England in 
1795 {11. 3s. 6^.), which brought in 20,000Z. 
a year. Nowadays hair-powder is worn 
only by some of the footmen of the 
nobility and higher commoners. The 
number of powdered footmen in 1890 was 
under 900. 

Hakem (A). A Musuhnan magis- 
trate under a cadi. 

Hal'danites (3 syl.). Followers of 
James Alexander Haldane (1708-1857) of 
Aithrie, near Stirling. They are the 
Scotch Baptists, commonly called ' Mac- 
lean's People.' 

Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia, 
1749. So named in honour of the Earl 
of Halifax, then president of the Board of 
Trade in England. When the army was 
reduced in consequence of the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, a great number of sol- 
diers and sailors were thrown out of em- 
ploymeijt. It was resolved, therefore, to 
grant to every settler in Nova Scotia a 
free passage, 50 acres of freehold land, 
and another 10 acres for each child. 
Some 4,000 men with their families ac- 
cepted the offer, sailed to Nova Scotia 
under Colonel Cornwallis, and founded 
the town of Halifax, now the capital of 
the pi'ovince. 

Halifax Law. Whoever committed 
a theft exceeding ISd. in value in the 
liberty of Halifax was summarily exe- 
cuted on the 'jyn' of Halifax, a kind of 
guillotine. Taylor the Water-poet (1030) 
refers to this law and this jyn. 

Hall — College. Colleges are cor- 
porate bodies. Halls are not incor- 
porated. 

Hall Marks of gold and silver 

articles. 

Silver articles have now four marks 
and a cartouch. Beginning on the left 
hand we have (1) the head of the reign- 



ing sovereign ; (2) the date-letter ; (3) the 
leopard's head, the company's mark ; 
(4) the lion passant, the national mark ; 
and (5) the cartouch containing the 
initials of the manufacturer. 

The head of the sovereign was first 
added to the marks in 1784. 

The leopard's head was adopted as the 
company's mark in 1300. 

The date-letters have been in use since 
1438. The custom for the last 200 years 
has been to use capitals and small letters 
alternately every twentieth year. 

As all common alphabets have been 
exhausted, the shape of the shield will 
distinguish a modern mark from a more 
ancient one of the same character. Thus 
in 1876 Roman capitals were employed ; 
so they were in 1790. But the shields 
were different ; the shield of 1870 beinsr 



and that of 1796 



y 



and of course the sovereign's head differs. 

A is the 1st year, B the 2nd year, G 
the 3rd year, and so on, omitting J and 
the last six letters. 

The character of letters hitherto used 
are as follows : — 

1438-1457 Lombardic, simple, small letters. 

1458-1477 „ ■with external cusps. 

1478-1497 ■„ with double cusps. 

1498-1517 Black letter, small. 

1518-1537 Lombardic. simple, capitals. 

1538-1557 Roman caps, with border. 

1558-1577 Black letter, small. 

From this date the letters are placed in shields. 

1578-1597 Clarendon caps, in shield. 

1598- 1G17 Lombardic, with external cusps, In 
shield. 

1618 -1637 Italic, small, in shield. 

1638-1657 Court hand „ 

1658-1677 Black letter caps „ 

1678-1696 Black letter, small „ 

1696-1715 Court hand „ 

1716-1735 Clarendon caps ,, 

1736-1755 Clarendon, small letters, in shield. 

1756-1775 Old English caps 

1776-1795 Clarendon, small letters „ 

From this date caps and smalls aW^rnate. 
/1796-1815 Roman capitals, in shield, flat bottom. 
U816-1835 Roman small letters „ 
(■1836-1855 Old English caps, in shield, pointed 
I bottom. 

11856-1875 Old English smaUs, in shield, pointed 
[ bottom. 

fl876-l«95 Roman caps, in shield, pointed bottom. 
11896-1915 Roman smalls „ „ 

Clarendon, i.e. Roman letters ■with no fine 
strokes, but all black alike. 

*^* The assay-marks guarantee the 
exact proportion of alloy contained in the 
article. The standard of perfect purity 
being assumed to be 24 carats ; the figures 
— such as 12, 15, 18, 20, &c. — market' on 
gold and silver articles mean that 12, 15, 



400 



HALL 



HAMILTON 



18, or 20 carats of the 24, are pure metal, 
and the rest is alloy. 

Some silver has been assayed out of 
London, and instead of the leopard's head 
the following marks are used : — 

For Birmingham ... An anchor. 

,, Chester Three g irbs and a dagger 

(the City arras). 

„ Exeter A castle with 3 towers. 

„ Newcastle-on-Tyne Three castles. 

„ Sheffleld A crown. 

„ Edinburgh ... ... A thistle. 

„ Glasgow Tree, fish, and bell (the 

City arms). 

„ Dublin A harp crowned. 

(A garb in heraldry is a sheaf of grain.) 

Hall Mote. The court held in Saxon 
times in the castle hall of the lord of a 
town or tithing, to punish by fines 
thieves, vagrants, and disorderly persons. 
It was inferior to the ' Folk Mote ' {q.v.). 

Hallamshire. So called from the 
manor of Hallam, or Hallun, north of 
Eivelin, and ' in the parish of Sheffield.' 
Before the conquest Attercliffe and Shef- 
field were integral parts of Hallam manor, 
but after the conquest the manors of 
Hallam, Ecclesfelt, Biadfield, and Hans- 
worth were all occupied by one baron, and 
called the Manor of, Sheffield. Leland 
says : — ' Halamshire beginneth a ii mile 
from Rotheram. Sheffield iii miles from 
Rotheram, wher the lord of Shreusbyre's 
castle is, the chese-market towne of Hal- 
amshire. And Halamshire goith one 
way vi or vii miles above Sheffilde 
by west, yet as I here say, another way 
the next village to Sheffilde is in Derby- 
shire. Al Halamshire go to the sessions 
of York, and is counted as a membre of 
Yorkshire. jEglesfild and Bradfield ii 
townelettes or villages long to one paroche 
chirche. So by this meanes ther be but 
iii parodies in Halamshire that is of 
name, and a great chapelle ' (' Itin.,' vol. v. 
f. 94). See ' Hoyland.' 

Hallelujah Band {The). A Pro- 
testant religious sect whose services con- 
sist entirely of thanksgiving. 

Halleluj ah Victory ( The), or ' Vic 
toria Alleluiatica,' 30 March, a.d. 430. A 
legendary victory of St. Germanus bishop 
of Auxerre and Lupus bishop of Troyes 
over the Picts and Saxons at Mold in 
Flintshire. So called because the Britons 
led by them shouted 'Hallelujah' so 
loudly that the enemy was panicstruck 
and fled. 

St. Germanus was chosen commander against 
the Saxons ; and not by the clang of trumpets and 



clash of arms, but by singing hallelujah, he routed 
tlie foe, and they perished in tlae sea. — NENNIUS, 
Hist, of the Britons, § 47. 

Halley's Comet, 1682. Dr. Halley 
determined the recurrence of this comet 
by supposing it to be the same as that 
which appeared in 1607 and 1531. If so 
it would appear again in 1759, and so it 
did. M. Damoiseau calculated that it 
ou'^ht to appear again in 1835, and so it 
did. 

It will be seen that these intervals vary from 70 
to 80 years ; the variation is occasioned by tlie 
attraction of the planets on the motion of the 
comet. 

Hallow Eve Fires, 1 Nov. The 
bonfires kindled in Scotland for the htxr- 
vest-home festival. The Highlanders 
keep their bonfire festival, called Belteia 
iq.v.), on May-day, old style. Gregory IV". 
changed the feast of All Saints or All 
Hallows from May-day to 1 Nov. Hence 
the double feast. The Romans held the 
festival of Cybele on May-day, and 
Gregory IV. changed the day for the sake 
of changing ' Cybele and all the gods ' 
into ' St. Mary and all the saints.' 

Hallow-e'en. The eve of All Hal- 
lows (31 Oct.), or day before All Saints', 
which is 1 Nov. 



The pen-name of 



Halt {Bobert). 
M. Vieu. 

Hamadanites (4 syl.), 892-1001. Of 
the tribe of Hamadan. A dynasty of 
Mesopotamia, including Mosul and 
Aleppo, occupied by Arabian princes of 
the tribe of Hamadan. Their history is 
a tissue of treachery, parricide, and 
assassination. 

The poets of their court said the Hamadanites 
were formed v/ith beauty of person, eloquence of 
speech, and arms of valour. 

Hamadites (3 syl.), 1015-1091. A 

Spanish dynasty, established by Soliman, 
after the defeat of Mohammed II. of 
Cordova. 

Hamburg {Treaty of), 22 May, 
1763. A treaty of amity between Sweden 
and Russia, on the death of the Czarina 
Elizabeth. 

Hamilton {Patrick), 1504-1528. A 
Scotch reformer and martyr, of whom it 
was said, ' The reik of Patrick Hamilton 
will infect as many as it blows upon.' 

This sentiment was like that uttered by Bishop 
Latimer, at tlie stake, 1.555: 'We shall this day 
light up such a blaze in the land as shall never be 
put out.' 



HAMMER 



HANDSOME 



401 



Hammer and Scourcce of the 

English {The). William Wallace, the 
Scotch patriot (1270-1305), is so called by 
Fordun. 

Hammer of Scotland [The). So 
Edward I. is styled on his tomb in West- 
minster Abbey. 

Hampden Clubs, 1816. To pro- 
secute the cause of parliamentary reform, 
and to unite the reformers in one system 
of action. These clubs were established 
in every town ia the kingdom, and in 
many villages ; but the great central club 
was held at the ' Crown & Anchor,' Strand, 
the president being Sir Francis Burdett. 
The leading members were William Cob- 
bett. Major Cartwright, Lord Cochrane, 
and Henry Hunt. 

Hampton Court Conference 

{The), 12 to 18 Jan., 1604. Between pre- 
lates and Puritans ; James I. px-esided. 
This conference was convened to take into 
consideration the ' Millenary Petitioii ' 
{q.v.), and it was decided that no change 
was required. On 16 Jan. the petitioners 
were called before the king, and, according 
to the account of James himself, he ' pep- 
pered them soundly.' On the 18th judg- 
ment was given adverse to the petitioners 
and the Puritan party. 

Han Dynasty {The), b.c. 202— a.d. 

25. The second historical and fifth impe- 
rial dynasty of China. It was divided 
into two parts : the first sixteen emperors 
being Si-Han or Western Han, and the 
last fourteen being Tong-Han or Eastern 
Han. It was preceded by the Tshin 
dynasty, and succeeded by the SAn-Kuo 
or Three States. It gave 16 emperors, 
lasted 227 years, and held its seat of 
government at Yn. 

Fro^n A.D. 25 the dynasty was called 
Tong-Han, which gave 14 emperors and 
continued to a.d. 220. So that some say 
the dynasty of Han lasted 422 years and 
gave 80 emperors. 

This was ono of the most illustrious of all the 
dynasties of China. 

Hanaper. A treasury, answering to 
the modern termexcheciuer. From/ic/na- 
/)erij<.?/i, a hamper or basket used anciently 
by our sovereigns for holding their money 
when they journeyed from place to place. 
' Hanap ' is French for a goblet or cup, and those 
gold and silver vessels being packed in hampers, 
like the coined money, was the origin of the word 
hcmiiiierium. 



Hanaper OfB-ce. An office belong- 
ing to the common-law jurisdiction of 
the Court of Chancery. So called be- 
cause all writs i-elating to the business of 
a subject, and their returns, were formerly 
kept in a hamper {in hanaperio]. 

Hand {The). The hand engraved on 
the keystone of the arch of the Gate of 
Justice in the Alhambra, and on seA^eral 
Mahometan mausoleums, signifies the five 
prophets — Mahomet, Ali, Hassan, Hosein, 
and Fatama. 

Handelists. A musical faction in 
England in 1720-1730, opposed by the 
Bononcinists or the Italian school. The 
Prince of Wales was a leader of the 
Handelists, supported by Pope and Dr. 
Arbuthnot ; while Marlborough and many 
others of the nobility were adherents of 
Bononcini and the Italian music. Some 
of the admirers of Handel erected an 
academy in the Haymarket, to secure a 
supply of operas by Handel, and under 
his direction. It succeeded for about ten 
years, when it was closed, because the 
rage for Italian music was so great that 
Handel could not resist it. In 1742, how- 
ever, his popularity returned. 

Handkerchief {The) with which 
Seraphia is said to have wiped the face of 
Jesus on his way to Calvary, and on 
which was miraculously impressed a 
likeness of the sufferer, is preserved at 
Rome. It was placed in the Vatican by 
John VII. in 707 ; and it is now enshrined in 
one of the four huge supports of St. Peter's 
dome. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 

Philip of Bergamo says that Tiberius Caesar sent 
his friend Volusian, a valiant soldier of the impe- 
rial guards, to escort Seraphia to Rome. The 
emperor was ill at the time, but the moment he set 
his eyes on the handkerchief he was completely 
cured. This miracle, he adds, made so great an 
impression on Tiberius, that he wanted to enrol 
Jesus amongthe Roman gods ; but the senate would 
not listen to the proposnl, so the emperor was 
obliged to content himself with a statue of the 
Nazarene in his palace. Of course the tale is a 
mere myth. 

Handsome Al Raschid. George 
IV., also called Gentleman George. 
Called Al Raschid on account of that 
oriental toy palace built by him at 
Brighton. 

Handsome Englishman {The). 
John Churchill duke of Marlborough 
was so called by Turenne, 'and his 
manners were as wmning as his perdou * 
(1050-1722). 

DD 



402 



HANGING 



HANOVEEIANS 



Hanging Hill. On Haywood Oaks 

Manor, near Black Gate, is where forest 
dogs were ' expeditated,' and forest offen- 
ders were ' swung to death.' 

Expeditate is to cut out the balls or claws of a 
dog's forefeet for the preservation of the king's 
game.— 0;d Foiv!<t Law. 

The 'canes Leporarii,' which as our record sings, 
' iilight never be expeditate,— they are our lord the 
king's.' 

TheEegarde of Brian d' Insula, 1202. 

Hanging Judge {The). 1. Sir 
Francis Page (1718-1741). 

II. John Toler earl of Norbury, Chief 
Justice of the Common Pleas in Ireland 
from 1820 to 1827. 

Hango Massacre (The), 5 June, 
1855. By Russians, on a party covered 
by a white flag. While the allied fleet of 
Great Britain and France was off Cron- 
stadt, certain prizes had been made by the 
allies, who agreed to set at liberty seven 
of the prisoners. These were sent in a 
boat under a flag of truce to Hango ; but 
no sooner had they been set ashore, than 
a party of Russians from ambush fired on 
the defenceless crew, spite of the white 
flag, killed 6 and wounded 4 of the crew, 
and 4 of the Russian liberated captives. 
The entire crew consisted of only 11 men. 
See ' Massacre.' 

Hanifites, or Hanefites (3 syl.). 

The most ancient of the four principal 
orthodox sects of the Musulmans, founded 
by Abou-Hanifa, called the Socrates of 
the Musulmans, put to death in 767. 

Hannibal of Batavia {The). Ci- 
vllis (1st cent.). 

Hannibal of China (I'M- Chee- 
wang-tee the Great, who reigned thirty- 
seven years (b.c. 246-209). He com- 
pletely reorganised the Chinese empire, 
and finished the great wall begun by 
Tchao-siang-wang. Chee-wang was con- 
temporary with Hannibal. 

Hannotin of Flanders. The 

nickname given to Jean Sans-Peur duke 
of Burgundy by his Flemish subjects. 

Hanover {Line of). George* I., 
George II., George III., George IV., 
William IV., Victoria. 

George I. was the son of Sophia and 
Ernest Augustus duke of Brunswick, 
both descendants from Henry II. of 
England 

Sophia thus: Henry II., John, 



Henby III., Edward I., II., III., Lionel 

duke of Clarence, Philippa, Roger Mor- 
timer, Ann Mortimer, Richard duke of 
York, Edwaiid IV., Elizabeth wife of 
Henry VII., Margaret wife of James IV. 
of Scotland, James V. of Scotland, Mary 
queen of Scots, James I. of England, 
Elizabeth wife of Frederick king of 
Bohemia, Sophia. 

Ernest Augustus thus: Maud daugh- 
ter of Henry II., Otto duke of Brunswick, 
Albert I., Albert II., Magnus, Bernard, 
Frederick, Otto II., Henry, Ernestus, 
William, George, Ernest Augustus, who 
married Sophia. 

AH either sons or daughters of the name pre- 
ceding. 

Hanover {Treaty or Convention of), 
3 Sept., 1725. Signed at Hanover between 
Great Britain, France, Prussia, and after- 
wards by Denmark and Holland, to 
balance the alliance recently made be- 
tween Spain, Austria, and Sweden. It 
protected England from the demand of 
Spain to surrender Gibraltar ; and it de- 
fended Hanover from the aggressions of 
Russia. {Tern. Geo. I.) 

Maria Theresa refused to join the treaty, and 

Prussia withdrew in 1727. 

Hanover Rat {A). Originally 
meant a partisan of the first George 
elector of Hanover. As these partisans 
were converts from the true royal line to 
the German indirect line, a rat soon 
became a contemptuous word for a turn- 
coat. 

The origin of the term was this. About the time 
of the Hiinoverian succession it was observed 

that the English black rat was being supplanted 
by the larger and fiercer grey rat from Astralfhan, 
which first appeared in Europe at the beginning 
of the isth cent., and reached Britain about the 
middle of the cent. The Jacobites chose to asso- . 
ciato the Hanover kings and the grey rat together, 
for both came into England at the same time. 

Hanoverian Succession {The). 
The crown of Great Britain settled on 
Sophia duchess dowager of Hanover in 
1702 (by 18, 14 Will. III., c. 6). Further 
secured by 6 Anne cc. 41 and 66. 

Hanoverian Tories, 1705. A 

party bent on securing their interest with 
the house of Hanover, after the Hanovei'ian 
succession was resolved on. The Jacobites, 
strange to say, joined this party, to 
weaken the government and strengthen 
the chance of the Pretender. 

Hanoverians {The). So the Whigs 
or Court party were called in the early 



HANOVERIANS 



HAEGRAVB 



403 



part of tlie reign of George I., because 
tliey were favourable to the Hanoverian 
section. Those opposed to them were 
called Jacobites or favourers of James II., 
who had abdicated. 

The whole history of England shows that our 
kings owe their accession to the sanction of par- 
liament only, and not to the ' divine right,' blood 
inheritance, or royal succession. See 'English 
Sovereigns.' 

Hanoverians and Jacobites. 

So Whigs and Tories were called in the 
reign of George I. The Whigs or Hano- 
verians suj)ported George I. and the 
Hanoverian succession. The Jacobites 
supported Jacobus (or James) the Pre- 
tender (son of James II.). 

Hanse Parisienne {La). An as- 
sociation of Paris ' marchands d'eau,' 
constituted under Philippe Auguste. It 
had a monopoly of the navigation of the 
Seine. Suppressed in 1672 by Louis XIV. 

Hanse Towns {The). The three 
republics of Hamburg, Bremen, and 
Lubeck. Hanse means a league or 
union. See helow. 

Hanseat'ic League {The), 1241. 
A trades-union to protect merchandise 
from pirates and the pillage of nobles. 
It began with the three towns of Ham- 
burg, Bremen, and Liibeck, but ulti- 
mately contained 85 trading towns. The 
league was divided into four colleges, 
viz. Liibeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and 
Dantzig. Of these Liibeck was the chief, 
and presided in all the conferences. The 
league had four principal factories in 
foreign parts, viz. at London, Bruges, 
Bergen, and Novogorod. 

In the loth cent, it reached its culminating 
point ; in 16JS it came into collision with England; 
in 1630 most of the cities fell off. 

Harakiri. Disembowelling oneself; 
either by legal sufferance, to prevent a 
public execution, whereby a man's goods 
are confiscated and his family attainted, — 
or to save the dishonour of failure, the 
scandal of insult, or the sickness of dis- 
appointed hope. A Japanese custom 
{hara = the belly, hiri = cutting open). 
See R. M. Jephson, &c., ' Our Life in 
Japan,' pp. 392, 393 (18G9). Abolished. 

The practice of harakiri in duelling had a 
quaint touch of humour. The chidlenger and 
challenged went home, arranged their afiairs, and 
then disembowelled themselves. 

Harcourt*s Round Table. A 

private conference in the house of Sir 
William Harcourt, 14 Jan., 1887, with the 



view of reuniting, if possible, the Liberal 
party, broken up by Mr. Gladstone's Irish 
policy. In March a quarrel between Mr. 
Gladsto'ie and Mr. Chamberlain broke up 
the conference. 

The phrase ' Round Table' is American, mean- 
ing what the French call a cercle, or club meetings 
at each others houses. 

Har'courted. Letters secretly 
opened at the Post Office to learn their 
contents. The word was adopted by the 
Parnellites when Sir William Harcourt 
was secretary for the home department 
(1880-1885). The word 'Grahamise' 
means the same thing. 

It was not unusual for the Parnellites to write 
on their letters ' Not to be Harcourted.' The sub- 
ject of Harcoiirting letters was brought to the 
attention of parliament. 

Hardham's "No. 37. A particular 
mixture of snuff made by John Hardham, 
tobacconist and snuff merchant. Fleet 
Street, London. This Hardham, by a 
puff of Garrick, realised in a few years a 
fortune of 22,000/., which at death he left 
to the poor of Chichester, his natal town. 
The interest amounts to G82^. yearly. 

. . . Each connoisseur, a transient heaven 
Finds in each pinch of Hardham s 37. 

CoLTuN, Hypocrisy. 

Hardwieke's Act {Lord), 1753. 
Directing all marriages to be by licence 
or banns, and to be solemnised in some 
church or chapel where banns are usually 
published. 

By this act St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster 
Abbey were excluded, as no banns are ever pub- 
lished in these places. It also rendered Fleet 
marriages unlawful, and thus abolished an abo- 
minable church scandal. 

Hare {Knights of the). A military 
order of twelve knights instituted by 
Edward III. while he was in France. It 
is said that a hare ran before the French 
camp, when the soldiers raised a loud 
shout. Edward thought it was the crj 
of battle, and hence the order. Obsolete. 

Hare Prize {The). For an essay 
on Greek or Roman history or philosophy. 
Given once in four years to any member 
of the University of Cambridge who has 
not graduated more than ten years. 
Value about 50Z. Founded by the Uni- 
versity in honour of Archdeacon Hare, of 
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1861. 

Hargrave Collection of MSS. 

{The), 1813. Purchased for tlae library 
of the British Museum for 8,000Z. of the 
representatives of Francis Hargrave. It 
D D 2 



404 



HAEKLENSIAN 



HAEP 



consists of 500 volumes, chiejay belonging 
to the faculty of law. 

Harklensian Version. See 

* Philoxenian,' &c. 

Harkness Scholarship. For geo- 
logy and palaeontology. Value 250Z., 
tenable for one year by any member of 
the University of Cambridge. Founded 
in honour of Eobert Harkness, professor 
of geology at Queen's College, Cork, 
1887. 

Harla^W {The). I. A municipal regu- 
lation made after the battle of Harlavv (24 
July, 1411), in which the provost of 
Aberdeen was killed — that the chief 
magistrate of Aberdeen should in future 
leave the precincts of the liberty only a 
very brief space. 

n. The battle of the Harlaw. 

.Tames I. also reduced to obedience the Highland 
chiefs who . . . had forgotten the terrors of the 
Harlaw.— Sir W. Scott, Rist. of hcotland, xviii. 

Harleian MSS. {The). A collection 
of MSS. formed by Robert Harley earl 
of Oxford (1661-1725), and purchased by 
government in 1754 of the Duchess of 
Portland (his grand-daughter) for 10,000/. 
There are 14,236 original rolls, charters, 
and other deeds, besides 7,639 volumes. 
The collection is very miscellaneovis, but 
its main character is historical. It is 
rich in heraldic and genealogical MSS., 
in county visitations, parliamentary and 
legal proceedings, original records and 
calendars, abbey registers, missals, anti- 
phonaries, and other Catholic service- 
books, ancient English poeLry, and works 
on arts and sciences. It is kept in the 
British Museum library. 

It also contains the oldest known MS. of 
Homer s ' Odyssey," two very early copies of the 
Latin Gospels in gold letters, 3it0 JiS. Bibles or 
Biblical books, 200 volumes of the Fathers, &c. 

Harmony {The Patriarch of). 
Nicholas Porpora of Naples (16H5-1767), 
author of thirty-eight operas. He was a 
pupil of Scarlatti, and Farinelli (the 
best male singer on record) was his 
pupil. 

Harmony Hall, 1844. A building 
and family collected together in Hamp- 
shire by Robert Owen, organised on his 
socialistic principles. Religion, marriage, 
competition, rivalry, were either abo- 
lislied or remodelled, and all the inmates 
were to live in perfect harmony, seeking 
only the general good, without regard to 



personal or individual ambition or in- 
dulgence. The scheme proved an utter 
failure. 

Harmony of the Spheres {The). 
Pythagoras taught that the motions of 
the stars through space must of necessity 
produce sounds, like the motion of any 
body through the air. As the stars differ 
in size and ^■elocity, the sounds must 
differ in tone, and these different notes 
produce a harmony called the ' Music of 
the Spheres.' 

Harness Prize {The). For the best 
essay on some subject connected with 
Shakespearian literature. Value about 
50/., and given once in three years to 
any member of the University of Cam- 
bridge who has not graduated more than 
three years. Founded by subscribers to 
a memorial fund of the Rev. William 
Harness, of Christ's College, Cambridge, 
in 1870. 

Harold Blue-tooth {Blaatand). 
The olst king of Denmark, descendant 
of the mytiiical Skioid, founder of the 
Skioldung dynasty (b.c. about 60 to a.d. 
1044). Harold was the son of Gorm, and 
succeeded him to a peaceiul and undi- 
vided kingdom, so that he is often called 
the ' first of the Skioldungs,' or the first 
who reigned over all Denmark (a.d. 930- 
980). 

Harold Harefoot (*, 1035-1040). 

Harold L, a king of England before the 
Conquest. Swiftness of foot is often 
spoken of by Homer as a great military 
virtue. Thus his great hero was called 
by him ' The swift-footed Achilles.' 

Harp {Cradled in a). Aslauga, wife 
of Ragner Lodbrok the sea-king, was 
cradled in a golden harp. 

Etenlm tractus illius incolfe constanter refer- 
unt, seque a niajoribus suis accepisse perhibent, 
inventain apad se in exiguo sinu -mgulove maris 
citharam auream, cujus cavitati inclusa fuerit 
parvula virgo.— i>'e)ic« Hrij. Dan. iv. chap. 4. 

*,* Ragner or Regenfrid was surnamed Lod- 
brok (Hairii-breeclws) from the magical garment 
(daubed with sand, pitch, and hair) which hf 
wore when he slew the guardian serpent of the 
Princess Thora, his first wife. 

Harp Lords {Cromwell's). Those 
soldiers and partisans of Cromwell put 
into the Irish confiscated estates after 
the ' Irish Rebellion ' had been crushed 
out in 1648. On the return of Charles 
II. these lords of the soil were turned 
out, and the estates restored to their 



HARP 



nATS 



405 



original possessors. Called Harp lords 
from the Irish harp ; meaning Brumma- 
gem lords, as Harp shillings (worth about 
9d. each) mean counters current for a 
time and then called in. Lords in this 
phrase do not mean noblemen, but lords 
of the confiscated soil. 

Harp of Ireland {The). One of 
the very early lords of Ireland was named 
David, who took for his cognisance a 
harp, in honour of the harp of the sweet 
singer of Israel. 

Harrisburg (Pennsylvania). So 
named from Mr. Harris, by whom it was 
first settled, in 1783, under a grant from 
the Penn family. 

Harry {Blind), 15th cent. Author 
of a poetical romance entitled ' Sir 
William Wallace,' 1488. It contains 
11,861 lines of ten syllables in rhyming 
couplets. 

Harvard University, 1639, New 
England. Founded by John Harvard, 
whose father carried on his business at 
the Boar's Head, exactly opposite St. 
Mary Overies, in London (1607-1088). 

Harvest Months. 

jANUAiiY. — The greater part of Chili, 
portions of the Argentine Republic, 
Australia, and New Gu'nea. 

Febkuaky to Makch. — The East 
Indies. 

Apkil. — Mexico, Egypt, Persia, and 
Syria. 

May. — Japan, China, Northern Asia 
Minor, Tunis, Algiers, Morocco, and 
Texas. 

June. — California, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Sicily, Greece, and some of the 
southern departments of France. 

July. — The larger part of France, 
Austria, Southern Russia, and the larger 
part of the United States of America. 

August. — Germany, England, Bel- 
gium, Netherlands, part of Russia, Den- 
mark, part of Canada, and the N.-E. 
States of America. 

September. — Scotland, the larger part 
of Canada, Sweden, Norway, and the 
nox'th midlands of Russia. 

October. — The northern parts of 
Russia, and the northern parts of the 
Scandinavian peninsula. 

Hash'eniites (3 syl.). The followers 
cf Haschem the Scherii, who declared 



himself to be of the issue of Mahomet. 
He was king of Fez in 1508, and founded 
the dynasty of the Scherifs in 1509. 

Hassan ben Sabah. 'The Old 
Man of the Mountain,' founder of the 
Assassins or Hassanis. 

Hastings {hnpeachment of War- 
ren), from Feb. 1786 to April 1795. 
Warren Hastings was governor-general 
of India 1774-1785. He was born 1732, 
and died 1818. Burke brought before 
the House of Commons the first charge 
against Hastings Feb. 1786. Sheridan 
the third charge (Hastings's treatment of 
the Begums). This speech lasted five 
hours, and produced such a sensation 
that the House arose after it and ad- 
journed till the next day. The fourth 
charge (Hastings's selfish contracts and 
high salaries) was made by Sir James 
Erskine. The sixth charge (Hastings's 
conduct to Fyzoola Khan the Rohilla 
chief) was brought before the House by 
Wyndham. Sheridan made the seventh 
charge (Hastings's receipt of bi'ibes). 
Francis, the su^jposed author of ' Junius's 
Letters,' made the eighth charge (Hast- 
ings's mismanagement of the revenues). 
The case being carried to the House of 
Lords, it was appointed to begin at 
Westminster 13 Feb., 1788. The defence 
began 2 June, 1791. The trial termi- 
nated in an acquittal 23 April, 1795 
(having lasted over six years). See 
' Sheridan's Begum Speech,' ' Begums,' 
and ' Fyzoola Khan.' 

Hate of Englishmen {The). So 
Shane O'Neill, lord of Ulster, called the 
fortress which he built on his border. 

Hats. I. The Petdsus. A felt hat 
with broad brim and low crown, used by 




the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was 
very much like the felt hat still worn 
by agricultural labourers, only it was 
fastened with a thong either under the 
chin or round the back of the head. In 
the British Museum the horsemen in 
the Panathenaic procession are repre- 



408 



HATS 



HEADS 



sented wearing tliese sorts of hats. See 
Caps.' 
II. The Pilios. The ancient Greeks 
wore a close-fitting skull-cap called a 




•pilTos.' Ulysses is generally repre- 
sented wearing such a cap. 

III. The GaUrus. The Romans wore a 
skull-cap of some animal with the hair 




left on, outside, called ' galerus.' The 
pontifical galerus Lad a spike of olive 
wood at the top, and strings. See ' Caps.' 

Hats and Caps {The), 1738. Two 
political factions which arose in Sweden 
in the reign of Adolf Frederick (1720- 
1771). The Hats were the anti-Russian 
I-,arty, who were violently opposed to the 
late treaty with Russia, and wanted to 
recover all the provinces ceded to that 
power. This was the French or Chapeau 
party. The Caps were for peace with 
Russia, economy, and retrenchment. 
This was the Russian party, and the dis- 
tinguishing characteristic of a Russian 
was the Muscovite cap. The accession 
of Gustavus Vasa in 1771 put an end to 
these factions. No kins^ of Sweden since 
the time of Charles XII. (1697-1719) to 
that of Gustavus III. (1771-1792) could 
siDcak the language of the country. 

Count Gyllenborg was the leader of the Hats, 
and CountHorn of the Caps. 

Hatted King: {The). Kaiser Joseph 
II., son of Maria Theresa, was so called 
by the Hungarians, because he refused 
to be crowned. 



Hatti-sherifi", or * Scherif .' An 
irrevocable order issuing immediately 
from the sultan. A Turkish word brought 
into use at the time of the battle of 
Navarino (1827). 

Lord John Russell in 1828 said : ' The govern- 
ment issued a sort of hatti-sherifl for the pur- 
pose, calling upon everyone within their influence 
wlio possessed the faith of a true Mussulman to 
follow them in opposing the measure ' [i.e. the 
repeal of the Test Act]. 

Haudriettes (S syl.). Religious 
Hospitallers who followed the rule of St. 
Austin ; so called from their founder, 
Etienne Haudri, secretary of Louis IX. 
Haudri followed his master to the Holy 
Land. He abandoned his house to 
twelve religious paupers, and endowed 
the society. 

Haute Justice {La). The gallows- 
tree. 

Romsey Abbey possessed many extraordinary 
privileges, amongst others the rare and anoma- 
lous right of In. hniiti'jxistir.i', or gnllows-tree ; a pri- 
vilege of which the records do not mention any use 
having been made.— Cassetis History of England, 
vol. i. p. 149. 

Haw'kubites (3 syl.). A turbulent 
set of young men in the reign of Queen 
Anne, whose delight was to molest and 
ill-treat the old watchmen, women, chil- 
dren, and feeble old men found after 
sunset in the ill-lighted streets of London. 
The Mohocks, Scourers, and Hawkubites 
were contemporaneous, about 1711-1714. 
Hawkubites, an Indian tribe of savages. 
See ' Street Bullies.' 

' From Mohock and from Hawkubite, 

Good Lord deliver me, 
Who wander thro' the streets at night 

Committing cruelty : 
They slash our sons with bloody knives. 

And on our daughters fall ; 
And if they murder not our wives 

We have good luck withal. 
Coaches and carts they overturn . . .' 
An Argument to prove the present race of Mo- 
hocks and Hawkubites are the Gog and Magog 
mentioned in the Revelation. 

Head-Centres. The leaders of 
the Fenian Brotherhood of Ireland; 
their lieutenants were called 'centres.' 
James Stephens was appointed the first 
head-centre of Ireland 11 Nov., 18G5. 
O'Mahoney was the first head-centre of 
the brotherhood in America, 1858. 

Head Pacificator {O'ConneU's). 
Tom Steel, who looked up to his hero 
with the veneration of Boswell for Dr. 
Johnson. 

Heads of Houses or Colleges 

{The). 



HEALING 



HEBDOMADA 



407 



In Cambridge : The Head of King's is 
styled the Frovost; of Queens', the Pre- 
sident ; of all otlier colleges, the Master. 

In Oxford : The Heads of University 
College, Balliol, and Pembroke are styled 
the Master; of Oriel, Queen's, and Wor- 
cester, the Provost ; of Trinity, St. 
John's, Magdalen, and Corpus, the Pre- 
sident ; of Merton, All Souls', Wadham, 
New College, and Keble, the JVarden ; of 
Jesus, Brasenose, and Hertford, the 
Principal ; of Lincoln and Exeter, the 
Bector ; of Christ Church, the Dean. 

Healing Declaration (The), 6 

Nov., 1660. The declaration of Charles 
n. for the settlement of most Church 
matters by ' competent persons ' ap- 
proved of by the king. The idea was to 
have a united convention of suffragan 
bishops and synods, or presbyterians ; 
but the bishops refused to meet the 
synod. It was ultimately decided to 
unite the presbyterian and episcopal 
establishments, and of these the king 
was to select a certain number to revise 
the liturgy, and consider such moot 
points as standing or kneeling to receive 
the sacrament, signing infants with a 
cross, bowing at the name of Jesus, and 
wearing surplices. The bill was thrown 
out by the parliament, which re-assem- 
bled 6 Nov. 

Heart of Midlothian (T/ie). The 

Tolbooth (a prison), of Edinburgh, is 
popularly so called. Sir Walter Scott's 
novel of the same name gives a graphic 
description of the Porteous riot, and the 
execution of Capt. Porteous by the mob. 
See * Mids of Mar.' 

Hearts of Steel, 1764. Irish in- 
surgents in Ulster, roused to rebellion 
by high rents and the rapacity of the 
agents of absentees. It was a part of 
the great southern brotherhood called 
Whiteboys. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Hearth-tax {The), 1662. A tax of 
two shillings for every fire-hearth and 
stove, ' payable on the feast of St. 
Michael and the feast of the Blessed 
Virgin Mary ' (13 & 14 Car. 11. c. 10). 
Repealed by the special desire of Wil- 
liam III. in 1089. A hut with two 
chimneys paid as much as a house or 
hall with the same number. The hearth- 
tax and the window-tax were certainly 



the worst and most oppressive taxes 
ever laid on the people. 

Heaven {The). A public-house in 
Whitefriars, kept in the reign of Charles 
II. by Bradley. Charles, with Bucking- 
ham, Monmouth, Lord Howard, and 
other debauchees, visited this house, and 
drank punch there till their wits were 
out. Colonel Blood and Titus Gates 
also frequented the house. See ' Gone 
to the " Devil." ' 

Heaven-born Minister {The). 
William Pitt was so called in a parlia- 
mentary oration by Mr. Drake. Prime 
minister 1783-1801, and again 1804 ; died 
1806. 

Heavy Peg, 1412, &c. A heavy 
cannon by which Friedrich count of 
Hohenzollern, who had lately bought 
Brandenburg of the Kaiser Siegmund, 
reduced the turbulent barons to order 
by blowing up their castles. 

Hebdom'ada. For other weeks see 
the English equivalent. For example — 

For Hebdomada Casta see Chaste V\'eek 

„ Crucis ,, Week of the Cross 

„ Expectationis,, Week of Expec- 

tation 
„ Magna „ Great Week 

„ Muta „ Silent Week 

„ Paschalls ,, Easter 'Week 

„ Passionis ,, Passion Week 

„ Penitentialis „ Penitential Weeb 

,, Pentecostes ,, Whitsun Week 

„ Triniiatis „ Trinity Week 

Hebdom'ada de Excepto. The 

last week in Advent is so called in the 
Ambrosian ritual. 

Hebdom'ada Grassa(Meat Week). 
The week preceding Quinquagesima Sun- 
day, the last week before Lent. The 
third day after Quinquagesima Sunday 
is Ash Wednesday, therefore the week 
preceding was the last in which meat was 
allowed to be eaten. 

Hebdom'ada in Albis. An oc- 
tave, beginning the Sunday after Easter 
and ending the following Sunday, when 
those baptized on Palm. Sunday laid 
aside their white stoles. 

Hebdom'ada Indulgentiae, or 

Absolution Week. Between Palm Sun- 
day and Holy Saturday, when penitents 
received indulgence or absolution. 

Hebdom'ada Major. Same as 

Holy Week {q.v.). Passion Week, which 
lasted thirteen days, was Hebdomada 



408 



HEBDOMADA 



HEHOO-WOO-TAE 



Magna ; but the last seven of these days 
constitute Holy Week, or the ' Greater 
Week ' of the ' Great Week.' 

Hebdom'ada Mediana. Begin- 
ning with the third of Lent, called in 
French Mi-careme (Mid Lent). In this 
week some slight relaxation was allowed 
of the long Lenten fast. 

Hebdoni'ada Poena'lis, 'Labo- 

riosain Hebdomadam ' vocant Latini 
Patves. Also called HebdomadaPoenosa. 
Du Cange says : ' Ilia qua Christus crucem 
subiit, et quod jejuniis et laborlbus 
transigatur ad memoriam passionis 
Christi.' 

Hebdom'adal Council [The), 
1631. Oxford University. So called be- 
cause it assembles weekly. This weekly 
board discusses all measures of reform 
before they are sent to the House of 
Congregation {q.v.). The ex-officio mem- 
bers are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, 
ex- vice-chancellor, and the two proctors. 
There are also eighteen members — viz. 
six heads of houses, six professors, and 
six members of Convocation, of not less 
than five years' standing. The council 
meets every Monday during term time. 

H^bertists. The followers of 
He'bert, the coarsest and most vulgar- 
minded of the three leaders in the Reign 
of Terror, the other two being Danton 
and Robespierre. It was He'bert who 
instituted le culte de la raison. 

Anacharsis Clootz, Ronsin, Vincent, and Mo- 
moro were Hebertists. 

Hebrew of the Hebrews {A). 

A descendant from Abraham. 
Hebrew Prize. Worth about 20Z. 

Founded in the University of Cambridge 
by subscription, 1866 ; increased 18G7. 
See ' Tyrwhitt Scholarship.' 

HecataBOS the Abderite (3 syl.). 
Said to have been the author of a ' History 
of the Jews,' frequently referred to by 
Josephus, but pronounced by Origen to 
be spurious. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Hee'atomphon'ia. A sacrifice 
made to the Ithomtean Jupiter by such 
as had slain 100 men in battle. Aris- 
tomenes of Messenia thrice offered this 
sacrifice. 

Hectors. Street bullies and brawlers 
wlio succeeded the ' Tityre tu-s,' and 



delighted to be as rude as possible to 
women and tlie defenceless. Robbei-y 
was not their object, but simply to annoy 
and get talked about. See ' Street 
Bullies.' 

To hector is to bully or treat with insolence ; but 
the noble Hector of Troy was as unlike a bully as 
possible. 

Hedgebote (2 syl.), or ' Haybote 'in 
English law. The right of a tenant to 
cut wood on the farm to repair his 
hedges, gates, and fences, to make rake- 
handles and handles for forks, &c. 

Hedonism. The system of Aristip- 
pus, the Cyrenai'tic philosopher, born at 
Cyrene about B.C. 435. He said that the 
aim of life should be rj^oviq {hedone, plea- 
sure), and he passed his life in the court 
of Dionysius the Tyrant amidst delicacies 
and indulgences. 

He was very wittv. One day being rebuked for 
casting himself at the feet of Dionysius he replied, 
' Well, it is not my fault if his ears are in his feet.' 

He'donists. Philosophers who 
placed the suvimum bonicrn in pleasure 
(igSorri), before Epicurus improved upon 
their teaching by the dogma that psychic 
pleasure is sujjerior in degree and dura- 
tion to physical enjoyments. 

Hegelianism. The philosophical 
system of Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel of 
Stuttgart (1770-1831). It may be called 
an idealistic pantheism. In the Spinozan 
system God is a substance ; in the Hege- 
lian system God is spirit. In the Spinozan 
system God is endowed with both jnatter 
and mind — the phenomena of the mate- 
rial and spiritual universe may be com- 
pared to two parallel streams. In the 
Hegelian theory God objectifies Himself 
in nature, rises out of nature, and returns 
to Himself. 

Heg'ira {The), 16 June, 622. The day 
that Mahomet fled from Mecca to Medina. 
The people of Mecca were exasperated 
because those of Medi'na believed him 
to be a prophet. From this day the Ma- 
hometan era begins. 

Generally called Hegira. The Arabic word is 
' Hijra,' and means the ' flight ' or emigration. 

Hegu'meni or Mandrites (2 syl.). 
Superiors of convents in the Greek 
Church. 

Hehoo-Woo-tae, or the Five 

Hehoo races, being the 14th, 15th, 16th, 
17th, and 18th imperial dynasties of 
China, called Hehoo-Leang, Hehoo- Tang 



HEIDELBERG 



HEINRICH 



409 



flehoo-Tsin, Hehoo-Han, and Hehoo- 
Cliew, From 907 to 960. During this 
period the Tartars held the north of the 
empire. The ' five successions ' ter- 
minated with the 19th or Tsong dynasty. 

Hehoo, sometimes written in English 'Heou' 
or ' How ' ; and Chew is written ' Chow." 

Heidelberg Catechism {The), or 
the 'Palatinate Catechism,' 1563. A 
religious formulary compiled by the Hei- 
delberg theologians — Caspar, Olivetan, 
and Zacharias tjrslnus — at the request of 
the Elector Friedrich III. of the Palati- 
nate. This catechism was sanctioned by 
several synods, and was revised by the 
Synod of Dort. 

Heidelberg Confession {The), 
1575, or the ' Palatine Confession.' One 
of the chief confessions of the continental 
Calvinistic or Reformed Churches. See 
'Confessions.' 

Heiltum. {Hile-tum), or 'Heilig- 
thnm.' That is, holy relics of Nureniberg, 
exliibited the second Friday after Easter, 
and consisting of the insignia of the city ; 
the sword, sceptre, and crown of Charle- 
magne ; a piece of the true cross, part of 
the manger of Bethlehem, Longlnus's 
spear, and portions of the respective 
claains with which Peter, Paul, and John 
were bou^-:d, with many other relics. 

The church of the Holy Ghost at 
Nuremberg, in which the Heiltum was 
formerly kept, was recently restored; 
but Nuremberg is now a Protestant city. 

Heinel {Mile.). A famous dancer in 
London in the last quarter of the 18th 
cent. See ' Walpole's Letters,' vol. v. pp. 
827, 355, 383, 431. 
Dotes upon dancing, and, in all her pride. 
Swims round the room, the Heinel ot Cheapside. 
Epilogue to She Sloops to Conquer. 
Pronounce High'nel. 

HEINRICH OF GEKIIANY. 
(Heinrich, pronounce Iline-reek.) 

Heinrich. I., or 'Henry I. the 
Fowler,' surnamed ' the father of his 
country.' Founder of the Saxon dynasty 
of Germany. He succeeded Konrad of 
Franconia (876, 918-936). This dynasty 
gives five kings — viz. Heinrich I., Otto 
I., II., III., and Heinrich II. His father 
was Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony. 
His empire embraced Holland, Flanders, 
and Switzerland, as well as Germany. 
With Heinrich I. the Fowler the modern 
18 



history of Germany begins, as that of 
France with Hugues Capet, and that of 
England with WiUiam the Conqueror. 
See ' Fowler.' 

Father, Otto the niustrious. Wife, MechtildeB. 
Contemporary with Edward the Elder and ALhel- 
stan. 

Heinrich II,, called ' The Saint ' 
and 'The Lame.' "Was the cousin of 
Otto III., the grandson of Heinrich the 
Quarrelsome, and great-grandson of the 
Fowler. As he died without issue, in him 
the Saxon dynasty of Germany came to 
an end. It was Heinrich II. who founded 
Strasburg Cathedral. 

Heinrich I. (Henry the Fowler), founder of the 
Saxoa dynasty. 

Otto I. the Great and Heinrich the Quarrelsonte, 
sons of the Fowler. 

Otto II. son of Otto I. 

OXTO III. son of otto II. 

Heinrich the Fowler 



Otto I. Heinrich the Quarrelsome 

Otto II. Heinrich the Kegent 

Otto III. Hkinrich II. 

Both otto III. and Heinrich II. were great- 
grandsons of the Fowler. 

Fatluir, Heinrich duke of Bavaria (late regent). 
Wife, Cunegunda(no children). Contemporary witli 
Etiielred, Edmund Ironsides, and Canute. 

Heinrich III. the Black King. 
Second of the house of Franconia (1017, 
1039-1056). He died at the age of 39. 
In 1056 he created the title of ' King of 
the Romans' for the heir-elect of the 
throne. Called ' Black ' from the colour 
of his hair. He was an excellent king. 

The kings of Germany were elective, but a father 
before death generally got his son elected. Hein- 
rich III. was elected in 1026. 

Father, Konrad II. Mother, Gisela of Burgundy. 
Wives, (1) Kunihild daughter of Canute ; (2) Agnes 
mother of Heinrich IV. Contemporary with 
Hardicanute aud Edward the Confessor. 

Heinrich IV. kaiser-king of Ger- 
many (1050, 1056-1106). Died at Liege 
of starvation at the age of 56. The whole 
reign was one incessant struggle with 
the pope for mastery. He was three 
times excommunicated, and once his 
kingdom was put under the ban of Rome. 
His eldest son Konrad revolted against 
him, and died 1101. His second son 
Heinrich [V.] then revolted, arrested his 
father, and confined him in a castle. The 
kaiser made his escape, and died at 
Liege on the doorstep of a religious 
house, ' clemmed with hunger and starved 
with cold.' 

Father, Heinrich III. Mother, Agnes of Aquitaine. 
Wives, (1) Bertha ; (2) Adelaide of Russia. Contem- 
porary with Eo 
the Conqueror. 



410 



HEINRICH 



HELL 



Heinricll V. the Parricide, kaiser- 
king of Germany. Fourth and last of 
the laouse of Franconia. Son of Heinrich 
IV. the kaiser-king, and son-in-law of 
Henry I. of England (1081, 1098-1125). 

Father, Heinrich IV. Mother, Bertha. Wife, 
Maud daughter of Henry I. of England.* Contem- 
porary with Rufus and Henry I. 

" Soon after the d*ath of her royal husband, ifnud 



married Godfroi earl of A iijmi, by whom she became 
of ox 



the mother of our Henry II. surnamed ' Curtmantle. 



Heinrich VI. the Cruel, kaiser-king 
of Germany, son of Friedrich I., called 
Barbarossa (1163, 1190-1197). He was 
poisoned by his wife Messina, Sunday, 
28 Sept., 1197, at the age of 32. This 
was the dastard who imprisoned Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion in 1192, and kept him 
captive for two years. 

KONRAD III., founder of the royal hooee ot 
HohenstaufEen. 

Friedrich I., Barbarossa, Konrad's nephe-w. 

Father, Friedrich I., Bnrbarossa. Mother, Bea- 
trice of Burgundy. Wife, Constance of Sicily. 
Contemporary with Bichard I. and John. 

Heinrich VII. of Luxemburg. One 
of the promiscuous kaiser-kings of 
Germany (1263, 1309-1313). Said by a 
Dominican monk to have been poisoned 
by Politian (a Dominican monk), by the 
sacramental wine, administered to him 
in the House of God. The only kaiser 
since the time of Friedrich II. (1220). 

•»* Horrible as this appears, it was not un- 
common. At least nine other monarchs, we are 
told, were despatched in the same ^vay. 

Father, John count of Luxemburg. Wife, Mar- 
garet of Brabant. Contemporary with Edward II. 

Heir. 

I. Apparent. The eldest son is heir 
apparent, because he is certain to succeed 
if he outlives his father. 

II. Presumptive. The person who 
would succeed under present conditions, 
but who maybe set aside if ihe statu quo 
is altered. Thus a daughter is heir pre- 
sumptive, but if a son is born later on 
the daughter does not succeed. 

Heirs to the Crowns of Europe. 

Austria-Hungary, Prince Imperial. 

England, Prince of Wales. The heir 
or heiress presumptive is the Prince or 
Princess Royal. 

Germany, Crown Prince. 

Italy, Prince of Naples. 

Portugal, Prince or Princess Royal. 

Russia, Czarevich and his wife Cza- 
revna. 

Spain, Prince of Asturias ; the heiress 
is called the Princess Royal. 



Sweden and Norway, Crown Prince 
or Princess. 

Helena {The Tyrian). The mistress 
of Simon Magus. They called themselves 
Jupiter and Minerva, and gave out that 
those who believed in them were ab- 
solved from all obligations to the moral 
law, seeing they would be saved by 
grace and not by works. Epiphanius 
tells us that Simon Magus claimed to be 
the Messiah, and Helena, he said, was 
the Holy Ghost. 

Helisea, or ' Court of Helisea.' An 
Athenian tribunal, fluctuating in number, 
but usually consisting of several hun- 
dreds, chosen by lot from the whole body 
of citizens. It was before this tribunal 
that Socrates was brought, and by it was 
he condemned to death. 

Heliastae {The Tribunal of the). 
An Athenian tribunal which assembled 
at Helisea. It took cognisance of only 
very grave offences. The ordinary num- 
ber of members was 200, but in some 
cases it amounted to 500, 1,000, and even 
1,500 members. 

Heliogab'alus. A Roman em- 
peror (201, 218-222), who had been from 
infancy high priest in the Temple of the 
Sun at Emissa, in Syria, where he re- 
ceived the title of Heliogabaal (Lord of 
the Sun). 

It will be remembered that Samuel, like Hello- 
gabalus, was consecrated to the Temple from in- 
fancy. 

Heliop'olis. The City of the Sun. 
Baalbek in Sj-ria was so called by the 
Greeks ; so was On in Egypt, noted for 
the temple of Actis. 

HelL Called by the ancient Egyp- 
tians 'Amenthes'; by the GauJs 
' Ifurin * ; by the Greeks ' Tartaros ' ; by 
the Indians ' Patala ' and ' Naraka ' ; by 
the Jews 'Sheol'; the Mohammedans 
believe in seven infernos ; by the Persians 
' Douzakh ' ; by the Bomans ' Avemus ' ; 
by the Scandinavians ' Niflheim.' 

Hell (from the verb helian, to cover) means a 
place covered over, hence a grave. 'Helings' 
means the eyelids or covers for the eyes ; ' hellier ' 
is a thatcher or one who covers witli thatch. 
Chaucer calls Elysium 'Helise.' Then there is 
the participle 'helling' or ' heling ' = hidden, 
' helen ' = caves ; and many other similax words 
more or less archaic. See beloic. 

HelL So the cellar under the House 
of Commons, in the reign of Charles I., 
was called. See ' Pride's Purge.' 



HELLENISTS 



HENOTICON 



411 



Hellenists. Those Jews who spoke 
the Greek language, chiefly resident in 
Asia Minor, Greece, and Eg^'pt. The 
Jews of Jerusalem spoke Aramaic, a 
bastard Hebrew ; whence Paul, when he 
was permitted to address the Jewish 
mob, spoke to the people in the Hebrew 
[Aramaic] tongue. They could hardly 
be called a sect, although without doubt 
they corrupted the pure Jewish faith with 
Greek philosophy and mythology. They 
had a temple of their own certainly at 
Leontopolis. {See Josephus, 'Antiqui- 
ties,' xiii. 3, 1-3.) 

The Ilellejiists were certainly looked on by the 
strict Jews as unsound, and were accused of ' read- 
ing the Scriptures in the Egj'ptian manner.' 

Hell-fire Club (The), 1721. Pre- 
sident, the Duke of "Wharton, a most pro- 
fligate young nobleman. The central 
club was in London, but it had affiliated 
clubs both in Edinburgh and in Dublin. 
The members were of both sexes, and 
had such nicknames as Pluto, the Old 
Dragon, the King of Tartarus, Lady 
Envy, Lady Gomorrah, and so on. Their 
toasts were revoltingly blasphemous, and 
sulphurous flanies were raised at their 
meetings. Suppressed by royal pro- 
clamation the same year (1721). 

This was the Medmcnham Club, originally held 
in Medmenham Abbey. It consisted of wild 
spirits, euphemistically called 'wits and humor- 
ists," who assumed the name of ' Monks oi St. 
Francis.' The inscription over the club door w:!S 
Fais ce que tu voudras. Langley gives an account 
of it. When I lived in Paris there was an impor- 
tant street called ' Hell Street ' iKue d Emer). 
The name is changed now. 

Helluo liibro'rum (Cicero). A 
devourer of books ; a great reader. 

Charles in Fletcher s ' Elder Brother ' is a mere 
'helluo librorum,' who falls in love with 
Angehna. 

Helmets. The helmet of a king has 
six bars over the face. (Full faced, 
gold.) 

The helmet of a noble has five bars 
over the face. {In profile, steel with 
gold bars.) 

The helmet of a knight has the visor 
thrown back. (Full faced, steel.) 

The helmet of a squire has the visor 
closed. (In profile, steel.) 

The helmet is placed above the escutcheon and 
supports the crest. 

Helvetia. The modem Switzerland^ 
the country of the Helvetii. Helvetia is 
not classic Latin ; the country was never 
80 called, but Ager Helvetiorum. 



Helvetic Confederation {The). 
I. After the battle of Morgarten, in 1315, 
the three cantons of Uri, Schweiz, and 
Unterwalden formed themselves into a 
perpetual league, and declared themselves 
free from Austria. In 1332 Lucerne joined 
the confederacy; in 1351 Ziiricti; in 
1352 Zug and Glaris ; in 1353 Berne. 
Two other victories over the dukes of 
Austria (one at Sempach in 138(?, and the 
other at Naefels in 1388), made the name 
of Switzerland respected in Europe ; and 
the two subsequent battles of Granson 
and Morat in 1476 greatly added to this 
renown. Five other cantons joined the 
confederacy in 1841; Bale and Schaff- 
hausen in 1501, and Appenzell in 1513, 
completed the thirteen cantons. In 1648, 
at the peace of Westphalia, the Helvetic 
Confederacy was declared by Austria and 
all the rest of the European powers to 
be independent of the empire. 

II. 1814. The old constitution of 
Switzerland, restored after the banish- 
ment of Napoleon to Elba. Each can- 
ton enjoys ' home rule,' but all unite in 
matters pertaining to the confederacy. 

Helvetic Confessions (T^e). Are 

those of BAle in 1530, and of Bullinger 
in 1566. The former was an exposition 
of faith drawn up by Zwingli, and being 
solemnly sworn to at Bale in 1534, was 
called the * Confession of Bale.' The 
other was the exposition drawn up chiefly 
by Theodore Beza and Bullinger. In 
this ' confession ' images were proscribed, 
predestination was acknowledged, only 
two sacraments were admitted, and the 
eucharist was regarded as commemora- 
tive only. The phrase ' Helvetic Confes- 
sion ' is sometimes used to designate 
' Calvinism ' ; and sometimes the ' Re- 
formed Church of Germany.' 

The religion of Calvin, or the Helvetic Confes- 
sion, had such a hold on the Ilungaiians tliat it 
Wi.s soon designated . . . the Hungarian faith.— 
Vambery, Hungary, ch. xii. 

Helvetic Republic {The), 12 
April, 1798-1814. A kind of polyarchy 
vested in French officers and their par- 
tisans by Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
compelled Switzerland to become vir- 
tually a French province. 

Heno'ticon {The), a.d. 482. A con- 
cordat published by the Emperor Zeno 
for the reconciliation of the churches of 
Constantinople and Alexandria. It was 
issued at the solicitation of Acacius 



412 



HENRI 



HENEICIAN3 



patriarch of Constantinople. Whatever 
its merits, it proved no better than eccle- 
siastical dynamite, by exciting in the 
Eastern Empire angry disputes and 
relentless persecutions. In 484 Pope 
Felix III. condemned it. In 496 the 
Emperor Anastasius confirmed it. In 
519 it was revoked by Justin I. (Greek 

e^WTKcdr). 

Gibbon says, xlvii. : ' The Henoticon was most 
pleasing to the Egyptians ; yet the smallest blem- 
ish has not been descried by the jealous and even 
jaundiced eyes of orthodox schoolmen, and it 
accurately represents the Catholic faith of the 
incarnation without adopting or disclaiming the 
peculi r terms or tenets of the hostile sects." 
Petavius says, Chalccdonensinn ascivit, but, adds 
Gibbon, this proves ' he had never read it ' (Greek 
ivoTi]i, unity). 

Henri Grdce h. Dieu {The). Was 
built at Erith in 1515. It measured 1,000 
tons, had four masts, and was the first 
three-decked ship built in England. It 
carried 80 guns of various calibres. 

This ship appears in a list of 1552 as ' The Ed- 
ward,' and all trace of her then ceases. The 
next British ship of note was ' The Soveraigne of 
the Seas,' built at Woolwich Dockyard in 1(337 by 
Mr. Phineas Pett. She also was a three-decker. 

James, in his ' Naval History of Great Eritam,' 
says : ' There is reason to believe that Riciiard 
III. owned a few of the ships which he employed ; 
the rest were either hired of merchants, or sup- 
plied under a law of the state by the Cinque 
Ports.' 

The ' Great Harry ' and ' Henri Grace k Dieu ' 
were two entirely distinct ships. 

The • Great Harry ' was built in the third year 
of Henry VII., 1488; the 'Henri Grace a Dieu' 
was built at Erith in 1515. 

The ' Great Harry ' was a <!fo-decker, with three 
masts ; the ' Henri Grace a Dieu ' had thi-ee decks 
and four masts. 

The 'Great Harry' was accidentally burnt at 
Woolwich in 15.j3; the ' Henri Grace a Dieu ' w;ts 
renamed ' Edward ' after the death of Henry VIII. 
in 1647, and there is no record of its destruction. 

I hope this will settle the question of historians 
on the moot point of the identity of these two 



HENBI KINGS OP FRANCE. 

Henri I. of France (1011, 1031- 
1061). Third of the Capetian dynasty. 

Father, Robert le Pieux : Mothi>r, Constance of 
Aries ; H'i/e, Anne of Muscovy ; son and successor, 
Philippe I. I'Amoureux. Contemporary with Ed- 
■Ward the Confessor. 

Henri II. le Belliqueux, of France 
(1519, 1547-1559). Of the Capetian dy- 
nasty, and of the Valois-Angouleme line. 

Fattier, Francois I. ; Mother, Claude, daughter of 
Louis XII. ; Wife, Catharine de' Medici, daughter 
of Lorenzo de' Medici : son and successor, 1'bancois 
II. Contemporary with Edward VI. and his sister 
Mary. His mistress was Diane de Poitiers, whose 
colour was blue. The colour of her rival, the 
Duchesse d Etampes, was lilac. Diane de Poitiers 
was created duchesse de Valentinois. 

Charles V. had two sons, Charles VI. and 
Louis due d' Orleans. 

From the first came, in regular succession, 
Charles VII. ; Louis XI. his son; and Charles 
TU. his sou, who left no issue. 



The second son, Louis due d'Orleans, had also 
two sons, viz. Charles due d'Orleans and Jean 
d'Aiigoulemo. 

Louis XII. was son of Charles due d'Orleans, 
but left no male issue. 

From the second son, Jean d'Angouleme, came 
Francois I., and Henri II. was the son ot 
Francois. 

Henri III. le Mignon, of France 
(1551, 1574-1589). Third son of Henri 
II. (q.v.). Weaker than woman, and 
worse than harlot. 

Father, HENRI II. ; Mother, Catharine de' Medici, 
daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici; Wife, Loui-c do 
Vaudemont ; no issue. Contemporary with Eliza- 
beth. See ' Fatal Three." 

Henri IV. le Grand, first of the 
Bourbon kings of France (1553, 1589- 
1610). He was the tenth in descent 
from Eobert, the sixth son of St. Louis 
(IX.), and was related to the last king 
(Henri III.) only in the eleventh degree. 
He is generally spoken of as le hon roi 
Henri. 

Father, Antoineducde Vendome ; Mother, Jea,Tine 
d'Albret, queen of Navarre ; Wires, Marguerite de 
Valois, daughter of HENRI II. (she was divorced) ; 
Maria de'Medici, daughter of the duke of Tuscany 
and mother of Louis XIII. his successor ; Mistress, 
La belle Gabrielle, daughter of Antoiae d'Estreevi, 
created duchess of Beaufort. Conti mporary with 
Elizabeth and James I. Life attempted by Pierre 
Barriere in 1593, by Pierre Ouen in 1597, by Jean 
de lisle in 1(505, and fatally by Ravaillac in 1(310. 

*,'' Robert comte de Clermont (sixth son of ST. 
Louis ) married the heiress of the Sieur de Bour- 
bon, and died 1317, leaving Louis due de Bourbon 
his son and heir. 

The third son of this Louis was Jacques, whose 
son Jean (Comte de la Marche) married the 
heiress of the Due de Vendume ; and thsir second 
son, Louis (Comte de la Marche), died 1446, leaving 
issue Jean comte de la Marche. 

The son of this Jean was Francois (who married 
Marie de Luxembourg), and their son was Charles, 
who died 1537. 

The son of this Charles was Antoine due de 
Vendome (who married Jeanne d'Albret, queen 
of Navarre), and these were the parents of 
HENRI IV. 

Henri V. of France, like Louis 
XVII. and Napoleon II., was a mere 
nominal king. He was born 1820, after 
the assassination of his father, Charles 
Ferdinand due de Berry (son of Charles 
X.). When Charles X. abdicated, the 
next beir to the throne was Henri his 
grandson, who assumed the title of 
Henri V., but the French people chose 
Louis Philippe for their king instead. 

Charles X. died 183(5; the Due de Berry was 
assassinated by Louvel in 1820 ; and Hem i V. 
(Comte de Chambcrd) died 1883, at the age of G3. 

Henrieians {The), 1140. Followers 
of Henry of Italy, called ' the false her- 
mit,' who was given up in chains to the 
bishop of Toulouse, and died 1147. They 
rejected the Apocrypha ; would have no 
chvu'ches ; administered baptism only to 



HENRY 



HENBT 



41S 



adults; denied the real presence and 
the existence of purgatory ; suppressed 
masses ; proscribed crucifixes, adoration 
of saints, relics, images, and prayers for 
the dead ; they rejected also the separate 
order of the priesthood and the lawful- 
ness of oaths. The Henricians, chiefly 
confined to Switzerland and Germany, 
merged soon alter 1150 in the Albigenses. 
Pronounce Hen-ris' -si-am. 

HENBY KINGS OF ENGLAND, ETC. 

(For those of France, see 'Henri' ; for those of 

Germany, see ' Heinrich.') 

Henry I. 'Beauclerc' (good scholar), 
third son of William the Conqueror 
(10C8, 1100-1185). He married Maud 
daughter of Malcolm III. of Scotland, 
and niece of Edgar Atheling, heiress of 
the Saxon line. Ke had two children by 
Maud : William, who died at sea 26 Nov. 
1119; and Maud, who married (at the 
age of 6) Heinrich V. kaiser of Germany. 
Heinrich died 112G, and the widow mar- 
ried, the same year, Geoffrey Plantage- 
net, from whom descend our long line of 
kings. 

His style and title : ' Henricus rex 
Aiiglorum et dux Normannorum.' After 
HOG we find ' Dei Gratia ' introduced in 
charters. 

Henry I. had three natural children : two sons, 
Eobcrt and William, and one daugiiter. llobert 3 
son was ^Villiam of Gloucester, whose daughter 
Avisa married King John tLacklandj. 

Henry II. First of the Plantagenet 

dynasty (972, 1002-102i). 

Father, Geoffrej' Plantagenet ; Mother, Matilda 
daughter of HENRY I. ; Wi/.-, Eleanor, the divorced 
■wife of Louis VII. of France (she was divorced 18 
Murch, 1152, and married Henry six weeks after- 
wards) ; Mistress, the Fair Rosamond [Clifford]. 

He had three sons and three daughters : — 

1. William, died m infancy. 

2. Henry, d,ed before his father, without issue. 
8. liicHAED [I., CoBur de Lion], died without 

Issue. 

4. Geoffrey, who married Constantia, daughter 
of the Duke ol Brittany, by whom he had two 
children, Eleanor and Arthur. Arthur, heir to 
the English crown, was murdered by his uncle 
John, 1-230 ; and Eleanor was confined in Bristol 
Castle for 40 years. 

6. John. 

His style and title.—' Henricus rex Anglorum, et 
dux Normannorum et Aquitannorum, et comes 
Andegivorum, or ' Henricus rex AnKli®, dux 
Kormannioe et Aquitaniae, et comes Andegaviae.' 

Aquitania is now called Guienne, and Ande- 
gavia is Anjou. 

Maud the eldest daughter of Henry II. married 
Henry V. duke of Saxony and Brunswick, from 
whom our present royal family is descended. 
[Thus : (1) Otto duke of Brunswick and Lunen- 
burg, her son ; (2) Albert I., his son; (3) Albert II., 
son ; (4) Magnus, son ; (5) Bernard, son '. (0) Fried- 
rich, son ; (7) Otto II., son; (3) Heinrich, son ; (9) 



Ernestusl., son; (10) Wilhelm, son; (11) George, 
son ; (12) Ernestus II., son, who married Sophia, 
daughter of the Princess Kli/.abeth, and grand- 
daughter of James I. of England, wliose son and 
heir was GeoegE I. of England.] 

Eleanor, another daughter of Henry II., mar- 
ried Alfonso VIII. of Castile. 

Joan, his youngest daughter, married W^illiam 
II. of Sicily. 

Henry III. of England, called 'Win- 
chester ' from the place of his birth (1206, 
121G-1272). 

Father, JOHN ; Mother, Isabelle of Angouleme, 
TT'( /■ ■. Eleanor of Provence, bj' v hom he had nine 
ch.lJren, five of whom died in infancy. 

Ti'.e four who lived to grow up were: 

1. EuwAUD I., who succeeded to the crown ; he 
was earl of Chester. 

2. Edmund, surnamed Croucbback, earl of 
Leicester and king of Sicily. 

8. Margaret, who married Alexander III. of 
Scotland. Slie had a daughter who married 
Erie king of Norway; and this daugiiter, also 
named Margaret, was the famous ' Maid of 
Norway,' wlio succeeded her grandfather (Alex- 
ander ill.) in Scotland, bvit died on her passage 
from Norway to Scotland, Sep. 1290. 

4. Beatrix, who married John duke of Brittany. 

His stale ami title from 1216 to 12.5'^ was : ' Hen- 
ricus, D.G. rex Angliae, dominus Hibernite, dux 
Normannite et Aquitanite IGuienne], et comes An- 
degaviae [AiiJdu].' 

From 12.59 to 1272: 'Henricus D.G. rex Anglise, 
dominus Hibernise, et dux Aquitanise.' He there- 
fore dropped the titles of ' dux Normannorum ' 
or ' dux Normanniae,' and of ' comes Andegaviae." 

Henry IV. of England, called Bo- 
lingbroke because he was born at Boling- 
broke Castle, in Lincolnshire (1367, 1399- 
1413). First of the line of Lancaster, 
which contained the three Henrys — IV., 
v., and VI.— 

Henry III., son of John. 

Ed^vard I. and Edraund duke of Lancaster, sons 
of Henry III. 

Edward II., son of Edward I. 

Edward III., son of Edward II. 

E.iirard the iilark I'rim-e, William, Lionel, and J^oAn 
of Gaunt, sons of Edward III. 

EiCHARD II., son of Edward the Black Prince 
and grandson of Edward III. 

Philippa (daughter of Lionel), Roger Mortimer 
(son of Philippai, Edmund Mortimer (son of Roger 
Mortimer, and heir to the throne on the death of 
Richard II.)— descendants of Lionel, third son of 
Ed.vardlll. 

Henry IV. was son of John of Gaunt duke of 
Lancaster (4th son of Edward III.). 

*,* Henry IV. had no hereditary right to the 
crown. The legal heir, on the death of Richard II., 
was Edmund Mortimer earl ol March. Henry was 
duke of Lancaster in right of his mother Blanche, 
heiress of Edmund duke of Lancaster. 

i-''7.'/(t;c, Johnof Gaunt. Motlu-r, Blanche, heiress 
of Edmund duke of Lancaster. Wives : I. Mary 
daughter of Humphrey de Bohun, by whom he 
had six children ; II. Joan (daughter of Charles 
II. of Navarre), no issue. 

His sons were HENRY [V.], his successor ; Thomas 
duke of Clarence ; John duke of Bedford, regent 
of France ; and Humphry duke of Gloucester. 

His daughters were Blanche and Philippa. Phi- 
lippa married Eric X. of Denmark. 

Henry IV. was first of the Lancaster line, and 
his usurpation brought about the War of the 
Boses in the reign of Henry VI. 

His stule. and title.—' Henricus D.G. rex Angliffiet 
FrancisB, et dominus Hibernise." 



iU 



HENEY 



HENRY 



Henry V., ' Monmouth,' from the 
place of his birth (1389, 1413-1422), ' the 
Enghsh Alexander.' 

Father, Henky IV. Mother, Mary daughter of 
Huinphry de Bohun. TVi/e, Catherine daughter 
of Charles VI. of France, by whom he had one 
child, Henry VI., -who succeeded him. (After the 
death of Henry his widow married Sir Owen 
Tudor, captain of the guards. Their grandson 
was Henry VII., first of the Tudor line). 

His stt/lfi from 1413 to 9 April, 1420, was : ' Henricus 
D. G. rex AngliEe et Francite, et dominus Hibernise." 
From 1420 to his death it was : ' Henricus D. G. rex 
Angliee, hperes et regens Francise, et dominus Hi- 
bernise.' Henry V. was heir to the French crown. 

*,* The place of his traditional riotous court 
and merry doings, when Prince of Wales, was 
Che5'lesmore, near Coventry, an estate belonging 
to the duchy of Cornwall. 

Henry VI., 'Windsor,' from the 
place of his birth (1421, 1422-1471). 

Father, HENRY V. ; Mother, Catherine daughter 
of Charles VI. of France ; Wife, Margaret of Anjou 
daughter of Rene or Tcni titular king of Najles 
and dulce of Provence and Anjou. He had one 
Bon (Edward), murdered by the York party after 
the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471 

Prince Edward was 18 years old at his death ; 
he was at the time married to Anne daughter of 
the Earl of Warwick. Soon after the prince's 
death his widow married Richard III. 

The regents and guardians of Henry VI. were 
the Dukes of Bedford, Gloucester 'the good duke), 
and Exeter, with the Bishop of Winchester. 

Henry VII. His right to the throne 
was shadowy indeed. He was the son of 
Edmund Tudor, who married Margaret 
countess of Richmond, daughter of John 
Beaufort. This John Beaufort was a 
natural son of John of Gaunt by Cathe- 
rine Swynford, the governess of his 
children, expressly by law disqualified 
for the succession. Another shadowy 
claim was that his grandfather. Sir Owen 
Tudor, captain of the guards, mar- 
ried Catherine, the widow of Henry V. 
Neither of these, nor both together, could 
give Henry Tudor the slightest heredi- 
tary right. Besides, at the time of his 
coronation his mother was alive, who, of 
course, had a prior claim to her son. 
However, at the death of Richard III., 
the legitimate heir was Elizabeth, who 
subsequently married Henry VII. Next 
to Elizabeth daughter of Edward IV. 
came Edward earl of Warwick, then 
Margaret countess of Salisbury. 

It is somewhat remarkable that John Beaufort, 
through whom the father of Henry VIII. laid 
claim to the crown, had been expressly set aside, 
and th3 two daughters of Henry VIII. (Mary and 
Elizabeth) were also expressly set aside, 

Father, Edmund Tudor. Mother, Margaret 
Beaufort. Wi/e, Elizaljeth of York (the \\hite 
Bose). His style and title : ' Henricus D.G. rex 
Anglise et Francice, et dominus Hiberniae.' 

Henry VII. had two daughters and two sons 
Who lived to maturity. 

His eldest daughter, Margaret, was married to 
James IV. of Scotland, and it is by this marriage 



that their descendant James VI. of Scotland 

became James I. of Enylnnd. 

Kis other daughter, 3Iary, was married twice^ 
frtt to Louis XII. of France, and secondly to 
Chnrles Brandon duke of Sutfolk. by whom she 
had two daUj'jhters. Frances and EJeanor. Frances 
was married to Henry Grey marquis of Dorset 
(and afterwards duke of SutTolk), and it was their 
child which was the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey. 

Henry VII. of Japan (The) was 
lyeasu, who, in the name of the Mikado, 
gave peace, prosperity, and laws to his 
distracted country, after centuries of 
civil war (17th cent.). 

Henry VIII. (1491, 1509-1547). 
Father, Henry VII. Mother, Eliza- 
beth of York (the White Rose). Wives'. 

1. (1509) Catalina (daughter of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella of Spain), widow of 
his brother Arthur; mother of Qu(3en 
Mary. This wife was divorced. Shake- 
speare spells the name ' Katharine.' 

Arthur survived his marriage only a few 
months. 

2. (1583) Anne Boleyn (daughter of 
Thomas Boleyn, of Hever Castle, Kent, 
earl of Wiltshire). Mother of Queen 
EHzabeth. Beheaded 1536, 

3. (1536) Jane Seymour (sister of 
Somerset the protector) ; mother of Ed- 
ward VI. Died two days after the birth 
of her son. 

4. (1540) Anne of Cleves. Divorced. 

5. (1540) Catherine Howard (gmnd- 
daughter of John Howard duke of Nor- 
folk). Beheaded. 

6. (1543) Catherine Parr (daughter of 
Sir Thomas Parr). Twice a widow, first 
of Edward Burghe, and next of John 
Neville lord Latimer. On the death of 
Henry VIII. Catlierine married S"r 
Thomas Seymour, uncle of Edward VI. 
If Henry had six wives, Catherine had 
four husbands. 

None of his children had any issue. 

His sttPe and title from l.iOQ to 1521 was : 'Henry, 
D.G., of England, France, and Ireland. King.' 

From 1C21 to 1534 it was : 'Henrv, D.G., of Eng. 
land. France, and Ireland, King. Defender of the 
Fiiiih.' 

From 1584 to 1.547 it was : ' Henry, D.G.. of Eng- 
land. France, snd Ireland, King. DefT.der of 
the Failh, and Supreme Head of the Church of 
England.' 

Henry VIII.'s "Walking Stick. 
A spiked mace in the Tower of London. 
In the head of the mace are four barrels, 
which could be charged with gunpowder. 
The spikes are formidable triangular 
knives. 

Henry IX. of Ens:land, 1788. 
Henry Benedict Maria Clement (la£t of 



HENEY 



HERALDS 



415 



the Stuarts). He was the younger brother 
of Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. 
Henry [IX.] was a cardinal, but on the 
death of Charles Edward he succeeded to 
the mock dignity of king of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and had coins cast with the 
inscription, ' Henricus nonus Angliaa 
rex,' and on the obverse, ' Gratia Dei, 
non voluntate hominum.' Forgetting in 
such cases that ' Vox populi est Dei vox.' 

Henry [Knights of St.), 7 Oct., 1736. 
A military Saxon order. A cross attached 
to a crimson ribbon, 

Henry Beauclerc. Henry I. (q.v.). 

Henry Fitz-Empress {The 
Statute of), 1172. An enactment of 
Henry II. and his council in Ireland 
that, in case of the death of any chief 
governor, the chancellor, treasurer, chief 
justices, and certain other officers should 
be empowered (with the assent of the 
lords spiritual and temporal) to proceed 
to the election of a successor to that 
office (Ireland). 

Henry * Longsword ' (1519, 1547- 
1559). Henry II. king of England, 
grandson of Henry I., his mother being 
Maud daughter of Henry I. 

Also called CURTMANTLE and Fitz-Empress. 
The Anjou sword was longer and mantle shorter 
than the sword and mantle of the Norman kings. 

Henry Town-bull. St. John 
(Henry Viscount Bolingbroke, 1678- 
1751). (Dr. Arbuthnot, 'John Bull.') 

Henry of Monmouth. Henry V. 
of England, born at Monmouth Castle, 
belonging to the great estates of his 
mother, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the 
Earl of Hereford (1388, 1413-1422). 

Henry of "Windsor. Henry VI. 

of England, who was born at Windsor. 

On the news of the birth of a son being brought 
to Henry at Meaux, he eagerly demanded where 
the boy was born, and on being told at Windsor, 
he appeared greatly vexed, and repeated to 
his chamberlain, Lord Fitzhugh, the following 
lines :— 
I, Henry, born at Monmouth, 

Shall small time reign, and much get ; 
But Henry of Windsor shall long reign, and lose 
all.— 
But as God wills. 

So be it. 

Heou-Woo-tae Dynasties (T/ie). 

Five dynasties of China. The 14th 
Imperial dynasty was Heou-Woo-tae 
Leang or L'ang ; the 15th was Heou-Woo- 
tae Tang; the 16th was Heou-Woo-tae 
Tsin; the 17th was Heou-Woo-tae Han; 



and the 18th was Heou-Woo-tae Tche-u. 
These five dynasties lasted only from 907 
to 960, and from 927 a wiirlike Tartar 
horde established itself in the north of 
China, under Tae-tsong. 

These dynasties are called 'The Five Suc- 
cessions.' The seat of government was Kaifong- 
loo. 

Heptarchy (The). The seven king- 
doms founded in England by seven 
different Saxon invaders. See ' Bret- 
walda.' They are : — 

1. Kent founded by Hengist 455 

2. Sussex „ Ella 477 

3. Wessex „ C'ynric 519 

4. Essex „ Eikinwin 526 

5. NORTHUMBRIA „ Ida 547 

6. East Anglia „ O.ia 571 

7. Mercia ,. Crida 584 
Northumbria was divided at Ida's 

death into Bernicia and Deira, and Deira 
was absorbed into Bernicia by Oswy in 
655. 

Egbert, of the Wessex race of kings, 
united in his own person all the separate 
kingdoms, and called the united kingdoms 
England 800. 

Heraelea {Table o/), or 'Lex Julia 
Municipalis,' which was passed B.C. 45, 
discovered in 1732 at Heraelea, in 
Lucania. 

Heralds. I. Of England.— There 
are 14 — viz. 4 kings-of-arms, 6 heralds, 
and 4 pursuivants. 

The 4 kings-of-arras are Clarenceux 
(having power over all parts of England 
so li^/i of the Trent); Norroy, *.e. North- 
roy (who has power over all parts north 
of the Trent) ; and the 2 who serve the 
Orders of the Garter and the Bath : the 
former called Garter King-of-arms, and 
the latter Bath King-of-arms, See ' Gar- 
ter King-of-arms.' 

The 6 heralds are Somerset, Chester, 
Windsor, Kiclimond, Lancaster, and 
York. 

The 4 pursuivants are Rouge Dragon, 
PortcuUis, Blue Mantle, and Rouge 
Croix. 

There are seven colours in English heraldry, 
and nine in French. The seven English colours 
are or (gold), anient (silver), quh-s (ted), azure (.blue), 
sable, (black), rert (gieen), and purpure (purple). 
The two extra colours are tenne (orange), and 
sangitine (murrey). 

II. Of Ireland. — Consists of 5 mem- 
bers. The king-of-arms is styled Ulster 
king-of-arms. 

The 2 heralds are Cork and Dublin. 



416 



HEEALDS' 



HEEEMONIAN 



The 2 pursuivants are Athlone (the 
senior) and St. Patrick. 

III. In Scotland. — The Lyon Court 
consists of 12 members. 

The king-of-arms is styled Lord Lyon, 
or Lyon king-of-arms. 

The 6 heralds are called Albany, Islay 
or Hay, Marchmont, Eoss, Eothesay, and 
Snowdoun. 

The 5 pursuivants are called Bute, 
Carrick, Kintyre, Ormond, and Unicorn. 

Heralds' College {The), or ' Col- 
lege of Arms.' Incoi'porated and chartered 
in 1483 by Eichard III. 

Herbs {The Feast of), or ' Festum 
Herbarum.' In German ' Krautweihe.' 
When women carried herbs and sweet 
spices to commemorate the anointing 
after the Sabbath of the Crucifixion week. 

Hercules. Almost every nation has 
its HercilK'S, or man of marvellous 
strength, some fabulous and some more 
or less historical. Diodorus mentions 
three, Cicero (' De Natura Deorum ') six, 
and Varro as many as forty-three. Thus 
Bel is called the Syrian Hercules, Mel- 
kart the Tyrian, Chon the Egyptian, 
Dorsanes the Hindu, and Ogmios the 
Gaulic Hercules. The following are well 
known : — 

The Attic Hercules : Theseus (2 syl.), 
who went about performing expLats 
similar to those of Herakles or HerculCs. 

The Barbaric Hercules'. Simeon of 
Bulgaria (883-927). 

The Greeks were defeated, and their horn was 
broken by the barbaric Hercules.— Gibbon, Iv. 

The Egyptian Hercules : (1) Sesostris 
or Eamses II. the Great, of the XIX. 
dynasty. A sculptured head of this hero 
is in the British Museum. (2) Chon or 
Son, called by Pausanias ' Maceris son of 
Anunon.' 

The English Hercules : Guy earl of 
Warwick. 

Warwick . . . thou English Hercules. — DRAY- 
TON, Polyolbion, xiii. 

The French Hercules : Jean-Baptiste 
Kleber, the French general, a man of 
prodigious strength and stature (1754- 
1800). 

The Greek Hercules : Alkides, i.e. 
Herakles, who was grandson of Alkseos. 

The Indian Hercules: Dorsanfis, who 
married Pandaja and became the founder 
of a race of Indian kings. 

Sometimes Belus is called 'The Indian Her- 
culcs." 



The Jewish Hercules : Samson, the 
judge of Israel, who died B.C. 1113. 

The Persian Hercules: Eustum son 
of Zal, prince of Sedjistan. Matthew 
Arnold has a poem entitled ' Sohrab and 
Eustum,' which gives an account of 
Eustum slaying his son Sohrab. 

The Boman Hercules : Commodua 
the emperor called himself ' Hercules 
Secundus.' He was a gigantic idiot who 
killed 100 lions and overthrew 1,000 
gladiators in the amphitheatre (IGl, 
lSO-192). 

The Swedish Hercules: Starchaterus 
(1st cent. A.D.). 

Hercules {The Famese). A famous 
statue, the work of Glykon, copied from 
one by Lysippos ; called ' Farnese ' 
(3 syl.) from being placed in the Farnese 
Palace at Eome, but now at Naples. The 
hero is represented leaning on his club, 
and holding an apple in his left hand, 
which rests on his back. There is a 
copy of this statue in the Tuileries 
garden of Paris. 

Farnese, pronounce Far-nay'-ze. 

Hercules {Pillars of). Calpe and 
Abyla; one at Gibraltar and the other 
at Ceiita. Torn asunder (accordijig to 
fable) by Alcldes on his route to Gadea 
{Cadiz). 

Hercules of Music {The). Chris- 
toph von Gluck (1714-1787). 

Herdsman {King Alfred's). It is 
said that the name of the herdsman in 
whose hovel King Alfred was sheltered 
for six months was Dunulf, who was 
afterwards educated, ordained, and made 
bishop of Winchester. 

Hereditary Union {The), 1540. 
An act by which the crown of Sweden 
was declared hereditary in the House of 
Vasa. 

Heregeld, or ' Heregyld ' (3 syl.). 
An army tax. It was first imposed by 
Ethelred II. under the name of ' Dane- 
gelt,' a war tax to resist the invasions of 
the Danes and buy them off. It was 
afterwards called ' Here-gyld,' from the 
Anglo-Saxon words here (2 syl.), an 
army, and gyld, a tax. See ' Danegelt ' 
and ' Hidagium.' 

Heremo'nian Line [of Kings] 
{The). Descendaiots of Hercmon (3 syl.) 
son of Milesius king of Ireland. 



HERETICAL 



HERETICS 



417 



Heretical Baptism. The baptism 
of heretics (3rd cent.). The controversy- 
was this : Is baptism valid only when 
administered in the orthodox church ? 
If so, baptism by heretics is no baptism 
at all, and those so baptized must be 
baptized again in order to be members 
of Christ's Church. This was the view 
of the Eastern Church. The Vv'estern 
Church considered any baptism valid if 
administered in the name of the Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost ; so that whether 
performed by heretics or on heretics it 
mattered not if the orthodox words were 
uttered when the rite was administered. 

The Synod of Iconium and the Synod of Synnada 
in I'hrygia decreed that ' heretical b.ititisia is no 
baptism at all.' Some eight or ten councils con- 
firmed this view of the question. The Westorn 
Church would not give way, and council afier 
council decreed that heretical baptism is valid. 
This is still the belief of Western churches, 
■whether affiliated with Rome or not. 

Heretics are those who differ from 
the dominant power in some reli^aous 
point or points which those who condemn 
them deem essential for the ' true faith.' 
Thus Jesus Christ was considered a 
heretic by the Pharisees and Sadducees. 
The Buddhists are considered heretics 
by the Brahmins. The Shiites are con- 
sidered heretics by the Sunnites. 

Sects are those who differ from a main 
religious body in some point or points less 
grave than heresy. Thus the Jansenists 
and Jesuits, the Dominicans and Fran- 
ciscans, always antagonistic to each 
other, are virtually sects of the Catliolic 
Church — Nonconformists of the A- glican 
Church — and Ismaeliaus of the Shiites. 

In a word, orthodoxy is tlie doxy of the 
judge; heterodoxy is the doxy cf those 
condemned by the judge. Both change 
places asopinions change or the domiKaiit 
power changes. Thus Mary considered 
Protestantism heretical, but Elizabeth 
called it orthodoxy. Laud condemned 
the Puritans, and, like Ferdinand II., 
would have stamped them out if he 
could; whereas the Puiitar.s were evf*/y 
bit as intolerant during the Common- 
wealth. See the following i)i loco : — 

Albiqenses. Condemned by the Third Lateran 
S06. 

Apollinarians. Condemned by the Council of 
Alexandria in 302, and the Council of Constanti- 
nople in 381. 

AKIAN3. Condemned by the Council of Nice 
325. 

Armenians. Condemned by the Council of 
Cha!ccdonl51. 

r.AUDESAMSTS. 

r.ASiLiDiANS. A branch of the Gnostics. See 
below, ' Marcionitea.' 



BOGOMILES. Condemned by the Council of Con- 
st i-tinople 1110. 

L; DDHi.sTS. Called heretics by the T'.rahmins. 

CaLvixists. Condemned by the Council of 
Trent 1545. 

Celestians. Condemned by the Council of 
Carthage 412, and again by the Council of Ephesus 
48J. 

Ckrinthians. a branch of the Gnostics. 
Certnthus denied that John was the auihor of 
the Fourth Gospel. 

ClIRlSTlA.NS. Called heretics bv Moslems. 

Chyixes or Shiites (2 syl.). Called heretics by 
the Sunnites '.2 syl.). 

Cv>PTS or Copri, the Monophysites or Jacobites 
of Eg.-pt. 

D. iCE'T^. A branch of the Gnostics. 

DoNATisTS. Condemned by the Council of Aries 
814. 

DRUSES. 

Ebionites (4 syl.). Supposed to be condemned 
In the Fourth Gospel. 

EUT> CHIANS. Condemned by the Council of 
Clii-lce.lon 45!. They affirmed th it Christ was 
one thing :■. :i.l the Loyos ano' iier ; tint there were 
two natures in Christ before the hypDst itic il 
union, but after that the two were amiilj^amated 
into one. 

Gnostics. 

Greek CnrRCH. Condemned by the Council of 
Aix-la-Chapelle 809. 

Hermesians. Condemned by a papal brief in 

1835. 

Huguenots of France. 

HUSMTE3. Hubs was excommunicated by Alex- 
ander v. 

Iconoclasts. Condemned by severnl councils. 

ISMAELIANS (5 syl.). Deemed heretics by the 
Sunnites (2 syl.). 

JA'COBITES (3 syl.) or Jaco'bians. of Syria. So 
called from Jacob, a disciple oi Eutyches. In the 
7th cent, the Eutychi.ms, Copts, and Monoph'o- 
61*^88 ;4 syl.), who aclvnowled;.'<^<l but one nature in 
Christ. hU merged in the ,)arobites or Jacobians. 

Jan'ssnists. Condemned by Innocent X. 

Lutherans. Condemned by the Council of 
Lyons iryZS, and again by the Council of Trent 1545. 

Macedonians. Condemned by the Council of 
Constantinople 381. 

Maniche'ans. Condemned by several councils. 

Mar'cionites (4 syl.). Similar to the Basilidians. 
Perhaps the same. 

Monoph'ysites (4 syl.). A general term for 
those sectaries of the Levant wlio believe that 
Christ had only one nature. Sff nboci-. ' Jacobites.' 
Condemned by the Council of Chalcedon 401. 

Monoth'elites (4 syl 1. Condemned by the 
Council of Constantinople 680. 

Mon'taxists. Condemned by the bishops of 
Asia. 

Kazare'ans (3 syl.). A Jewish sect. Acts xxiv. 

Nestoi;ia.vs. Condemned by tlie Council of 
Ephesus 4.S1, and again by the Council ol Con- 
stantinople 448. 

Pat'ejuns. Condemned by the Council of 
Lat( ran 1179. 

Paulianists. Condemned by the Council of 
Antioch -270. 

Paulicians. 

Pela'gians. Condemned by the C^-mnl of 
Fplicbus 413, and again by the Council of Carthage 
4.G. 

Priscillianists. Condemned by the Council 

of Sai agriss 1 ;;81. 

PirOTESTANTS. See ' Calvinists ' and ' Lutherans. 

KEF.JR1IATION. Condemned by the Council of 
Trent 1545. 

Sabei.lians. Condemned by the Council of 
Alexandria 261. 

Vaudois. Condemned by the Council of the La- 
tor:in 1179 : by the bull uf John XXll. in 133i ; and 
by Innocent VIII. in 1487. 

Wycltfites (3 syl.). Condemned by the Council 
of Trent 1545. 

Heresy, in Greek aipeati;, simply means a choice, 
or bouielhing chosen. Ahereticisone wliochooses 

EE 



AIS 



HERETICS 



HEEMANDAD 



his own religious opinions, and does not accept 
blindly those chosen for him by others. 

Heretics {Laws against). The first 
laws against heretics, on which all subse- 
quent ones were founded, originated in 
1220 by the Kaiser Friedrich II. They 
were for the extermination of heretics, 
and had been dictated by Pope Hqponus 
III. Confirmed by Innocent IV. in 1243, 
by Alexander IV. in 1253, by Urban IV. 
in 1262, and by Clement IV. in 1265 (four 
popes, all the IVths of the name). 

• These laws ' (says the pope), ' published by our 
dearest son Friedrich emperor of the Romans, we 
praise and approve, so as to be valid for all time. 
And if anyone attempt to infringe them ... he 
will incur the wrath of Almighty God. ... As for 
the persons of heretics, they are all to be burnt 
alive without appeal or possibility of pardon . . . 
all their goods are to be conliscated, and never 
restored to their posterity. Their children and 
grandchildren shall be held incapable of holdmg 
any public office, with this one exception, viz. if a 
Bon informs against the secret lieresy of a father. 
Persons only suspected of heresy shall be put to 
death unless they can clear themselves withni a 
year and a day. llepentant heretics to be impri- 
soned for life.' 

The bull of Paul III., published in 
1538 against Henry VIII., contains some 
new enactments against 'the accomplices 
of heretics.' 

In Section XII. all the faithful are 
admonished, under pain of excommuni- 
cation, 'to avoid and cause others to 
avoid ' all adherents of the king, and to 
'have no commerce, conversation, or 
communion ' with him, his houseliold, 
vassals, and subjects; they are strictly 
enjoined not ' to buy or sell, exchange, 
deal, or chaffer, in any town, fort, castle, 
or city ' in his dominion, nor ' cause wine, 
grain, salt, victuals, arms, clothes, wares, 
or other articles of commerce, to be 
brought by ship, trireme or other vessel, 
by mule, horse, or other animal,' to any 
part of his dominion ; and ' stoutly to 
refuse all assistance, counsel, or favour 
to those who, directly or indirectly, 
secretly or openly, presume to traffic 
with them.' 

Section X. enjoined ' all who possess 
armed forces to set them on the king and 
his adherents.' 

Section XVII. gives everyone full 
liberty of appropriating to himself all 
goods belonging to the king or any of his 
subjects. 

In a word, the bull of Paul IIT. states :— 

1. That no man who refuses to believe all the 
articles of the Catholic Church has any right to 
life or property. 

2. No Christian has any right to respect the life 
cr property of a heretic. 

3. Cliri&tian governments are bound to burn 



alive all heretics and to confiscate all their pro. 

perty. 

4. Children are bound to pry into the secret 
belief of their parents, and denounce them if 
heretical. 

5. Error in faith is infinitely worse than moral 
turpitude. 

6. Anyone may appropriate to himself the goods 
of a heretic. 

7. Every heretic is virtually an outlaw, and all 
contracts made with heretics or debts owing to 
them are nvill and void. 

8. Slavery and the slave-trade should be kept 
up, ii the slaves are heretical. 

(Abriuged from a letter sent to the ' Times ' from 
an English Catholic, and published in that jour- 
nal under the title of 'Papal Infallibility and 
Persecution.') 

Heretics {The Statute of), 1401. 
By this infamous act priests were allowed 
to arrest and imprison all heretical 
preachers in England, all schoolmasters 
tainted with Lollardry, all owners and 
writers of heretical books ; and, on refusal 
to abjure, or relapse after abjuration, to 
send the heretic to the stake, 'to be 
burnt to death on a high place in the 
sight of the people.' The first victim of 
this iniquitous statute was William 
Sawtre of Lynn, in Norfolk. Next fol- 
lowed John Badbie, for denying the dogma 
of transubstantiation. 

This statute, often called 'The Statute of 
Heresy,' was revived by Mary in 1555; but it was 
the first act of Elizabeth to repeal it. Constantino, 
in .S'2.'j, passed a penal edict against heretics ; and 
the Council of Laodicea. in H7'.J, forbade marriages 
between heretics and orthodox Christians. IJut 
what was heresy and what orthodoxy in the 4th 
cent, is impossible to determine. 

Heretics of Brixen. In i486 the 
magistrates of Brixen refused to burn 
heretics, on the ground that heresy being 
an ecclesiastical offence, civil magistrates 
could take no cognizance of it. Innocent 
VIII. forthwith excommunicated them, 
' without appeal, unless within six days 
they carried out the sentences of the 
Inquisition.' 

In 1520 Leo X. condemned the proposition, 
'Htcreticos comburi est contra voluntatem 
spiritus." 

Heretics of Pdrigord and 

Pei'igueux. The Waldenses were so 
called because they abounded inPerigord- 
and Perigueux in the 12tli cent. 

Heretoga (4 syl.). A Saxon word 
meaning a general or commander ; from 
here (2 syl.), an army, and toga, a leader. 
Latin comes, our tarl, the continental 
count. German Herzog = duke ; Graf = 
earl or count. 

Her'mandad {The Santa), or ' Holy 
Brotherhood.' An association of the 



HERMANN 



HEROD 



419 



principal cities of Castile and Aragon, 
bound together by a solemn league for 
mutual defence. The first herinan'^^ad 
in Aragon was established in 1201, that 
of Castile in 1295. These associations 
were defences against the barons, whose 
unruly conduct and depredations were 
the curse of the middle ages. 

Hermann the Cripple (1013- 
1054). One of the most marvellous of men. 
His body was wholly paralysed, so that 
lie could not move without assistance, 
and could scarcely speak so as to be 
understood; yet was his society sought 
by men from all quarters of the globe. 
He has left a book of great merit behind, 
entitled ' A Chronicle of the Six Ages of 
the World,' containing a history of Ger- 
many during the 10th and 11th cents. 

Paul Scarron, the French poet, was a similar 
cripple iliilO-lt)<30). 

Herme'sian Heresy (19th cent., 
about 182s). The substitution of con- 
viction for faith. By conviction is meant 
the persuasion which results from judg- 
ment and sound reason ; by faith is meant 
the persuasion of authority. One is be- 
lief in what sound reason convinces the 
mind is true ; the other is belief in what 
the church pronounces to be true. Her- 
mes of Westphalia was divinity professor 
in the University of Miinster, and thought 
by his teaching to amalgamate Catholics 
and Protestants, as well as Calvinists 
and Lutherans, but his doctrine was 
condemned by a papal brief in 1835. 

Herinippic School (The). Her- 
mippus, the Greek i)hilosopher, placed 
the elixir vita in the health-bestowing 
breath of youth. 

Hermit of Lathom {The). Ro- 
bert Swarsbrick (1740-1821), who lived 
first in a one-roomed and then in a two- 
roomed hut at the bottom of the ' Ladies' 
Walk ' at Lathom. He wrote a journal, 
and was fond of gardening. 

Hernhutters, or ' Hemhutes,' 1721. 
The Moravians or ' United Brethren ' 
were so called, because after the Thirty 
"Years' War they found refuge in Hurn- 
hutt, under the protection of Count Zin- 
zendorf. They profess to take the pure 
precepts of the gospel as their rule of 
conduct, choose their ministers by lot, 
wash each other's feet, celebrate agapse 
or love-feasts, and address prayer to the 
Saviour only. 



Hdro de la Fable {Le). Charles 
de Lorraine, due de Guise (1571-1040), 
the implacable foe of the Protestants. 
He bore arms against Henri IV., but 
tendered his submission; he conducted 
a fleet against Rochelle, but incurred the 
displeasure of Richelieu, and retired to 
Italy, where he died. 

Hero de THistoire {Le). The 
Due d'Enghien. Ever since 1485, when 
the house of Enghien passed into that of 
Bourbon, some member of the family has 
become historic. Amongst others we 
have Francois de Bourbon- Vendome, 
brother of Prince Louis I. de Conde 
(1519-1544); the Grand Conde (1G21- 
1659) ; Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, 
last of the Conde's (1772 -1804). 

Hero of Modern Italy {The). 
Garibaldi (1807-1882). Certainly the 
most disinterested hero that ever lived, 
but treated with scant honour. 

Hero of Rora ( The). Joshua Jana- 
vel, who lived at Rora, and with seventeen 
companions put to flight a troop of Irish- 
men led on by Mario against the Vaudois 
in 1655. 

Hero of the Wile {The). Horatio 
viscount Nelson ; so called for his great 
naval victory over the French, 1 August, 
1798, for which he was created ' Baron 
Nelson of the Nile ' (1758-1805). 

Hero of the Wine Hostages 

{The). Nial the Great, who was suc- 
ceeded in A.D. 406 by Dathy, last of the 
pagan kings of Ireland. Nial was killed 
by a flash of lightning. 

Hero of the Peninsula {The). 
The Duke of Wellington, who, between 
21 August, 1808, and 10 April, 1814, de- 
feated five French marshals in the Penin- 
sula of Spain and Portugal, won nine 
battles, and made three successful sieges. 

A rare hero indeed. Napoleon's prevailing fault 
■was the exaltation of himself and family. Wol- 
lintfton s t;reiit merit was modest patriotism. 
Being asked in l.SOC how he could condescend to 
lead a bri;.iade alter commanding large armies ha 
replied: 'I am »i;w-?ni(A-«Y7i/«/), as we say In the 
Eist; thit is, I have eaten the kings salt, and 
think it my dnty to serve him f-avh fully, wherever 
he finds it convenient to employ me." This is 
magnificent magnanimity ; more honourable to a 
hero than the slaughter of Austerlitz. 

Herod the Great. Son of Anti- 
pater, prime minister of Hyrciinus. He 
mixrried ten wives. 

1st. Doris, by whom he had Anli^iatcr. 

££2 



420 



HER0DIAN3 



HETAIEEIA 



2nd. Mariamne the Asmonasan, by 
whom he had Alexander, Aristohtllus, 
Herod, Salampso, and Cypres [Aristo- 
bulus]. 

King Agrippa, who put James to death, was son 
of Aristobulus. Agrippa's son and davg'ater 
(Agrippa and Berenice) heard Paul make his de- 
fence (Acts XXV., xxvi.). This was Herod H. of 
Judsea. 

3rd. Mariamne, daughter of Simon the 
high-priest, by whom he had Philip 
(whose wife was Herodias). 

4th. Malthace, by whom he had Abche- 
la'us, PhiHp, and Olympias. 

5th. Cleopatra, by whom he had 
Hebod Antipas and Philip. 

6th. Pallas, by whom he had Phasael, 
in honour of whom he built Phasaelis. 

7th. Phajdra, by whom he had Roxana. 

8th. Elpis, by whom he had Salome. 
(Names of the other two wives not known.) 

N.B. — Italics, put to death; capitals, 
the tetrarchs. 

At the death of Herod the Great the Romans 
divided the Jewish state into four parts, called 
tetrarchies — viz. Judisa, G;i,lilee, Iturtea, and 
Samaria. The first three they gave to the sons of 
Herod the Great. To Herod Arehelaus was given 
Judaea; to Herod Antipas was given Galilee (this 
Is the man who slew John the Baptist) ; and to 
Herod Philip was given Itursea (he married his 
niece Herodias, who lived in adultery with her 
brother-in-law Herod Antipas). The tetrarchy was 
abolished A.D. 5(j, and Herod II. (Agricola) became 
sole king of Judsea. Samaria was ruled by Roman 
governors. For tcible of affinity, see ' Maccabees.' 
tiee also next article. 

Hero'dians, A Jewish sect in the 
time of Herod. Dr. Prideaux reduces 
their tenets into two heads : (1) a belief 
that the dominion of the Romans over 
the Jews was lawful, and it was their 
duty to submit to it; (2) that, under 
present circumstances, tbey might follow 
many heathen usages. In fact they were 
trimmers between political policy and 
religious obligations. 

Herpd'otos of China {The). Sse- 
ma-Thsian, author of the Sse-ki, or Annals 
of China. He lived in the reign of Han 
Ho-tee, who reigned 89-106. 

Herodotos of Oldljondon {The). 
John Stow (1525-1605), author of 
* Summary of the Chronicles of England,' 
1561, 'Annals of England,' 1580, and 
' Survey of London,' 1598. 

Heroes scratched off the 
Church Doors. So Sheridan called 
Militia officers who had served four years. 
An act of parliament enjoined that a list 
of all persons between 18 and 45 should be 
affixed in each parish to the church doors 



three clear days before the day of appeal, 
Sunday being one of the days. Commis- 
sioned officers who had served four years 
in the Militia were exempt, and their 
names were ' scratched off the doors.' 

Heroic Age {The). The semi-historic 
age preceding the historic. The heroic 
age of Greece dates from the arrival of the 
first colony under Inachos, and goes to the 
19th cent. B.C., the return of the Hera- 
clldae. China, Persia, and all other civi- 
lised countries have passed through their 
mythical age and their heroic age, before 
they came to their historic period. 

England, Wales, Scotland, and Irel'ud have 
had their heroic ages. Brute, Coibrand, Guy of 
Warwick, Arthur, &,c., will readily recur to the 
mind. 

Herrings {Battle of), Feb. 1429. 
Sir John Fastolfe carrying provisions, 
much of which was salt fish, to the Eng- 
lish army before Orleans, was intercepted 
by an allied army of French and Scotch. 
Sir John succeeded in vanquishing his 
opponents near Rouvrai and reaching the 
English army. 

Herrying of Buchan {The). The 
ravaging of tlae country of Comjm earl of 
Buchan, in 1307, by Robert Bruce, in re- 
venge for the pertinacity with which the 
earl had pursued him when, wasted by 
sickness, he had retreated before him. 

Sir Alexander and Sir Simon Eraser took a very 
prominent part with Bruce in this expedition. To 
herry is to plunder or spoil. 

Hertford College, Oxford, 1282. 
Founded by Elias de Hertford, and called 
' Hertford Hall ' ; but the word ' college ' 
was substituted in 1740. It was dissolved 
in 1805, but in 1874 was re-2stablished. 
The head-master is called the Principal. 

Hertford Scholarship. For Latin, 
value about 30/., and tenable for one year 
only. The funds are derived from the 
interest of 1,100Z. made over to the Univer- 
sity of Oxford at the dissolution of the 
College in 1834. See above. 

Hes'y chasts or ' Hesicastae.' Mystics 
of the Greek Church, very similar to the 
Quietists {q-v.). They either came into 
being or revived in the 14th cent. 

Anachoretoe dicuntur quoque hesicastse tam- 
quam quU'sccntes, ii<rvxaiu> enim quiesco significat. 
— Du Cange, vol.iv. p. &8, col. 2. 

Hetaireia (T/ie), 1820. The Greek 
confederates, whose resolve was to libe- 



nEXAPLA 



HIGH 



421 



rate Greece from the slavery of the 
Moslem. The leader of the confederates 
was Prince Alexander Ypsilanti. 
The confederacy was formed by Rhigas before 
, 1798. but made small progress till 1816. In 1821 it 
brought about the Greek devolution. 

Hexapla {The). Ori^en's Old Testa- 
ment in six columns, each column heing 
a different language. (1) Hebrew, (2) 
Hebrew in Greek characters, (3) the 
Septnagint, (4) the text of Aquila, (5) that 
of Theodotian, and (6) that of Symina- 
chos. The book no longer exists. It 
disappeared in the 7th cent. 

Hia Dynasty, b.c. 2205-1766. The 
first Imperial dynasty of China, and the 
first of the semi-historic period. It gave 
18 emperors, and lasted 440 years. Their 
capital was Yang-tching. 

It was followed by the Ch.'uig dynasty. Yoo the 
Great, founder of the Hia dynasty, is the first 
moiv.irch mentioned in the ' Shoo-king ' of Con- 
fucius. 

Hialmar's Ordinances for pirates. 
His men were forbidden to rob women of 
their money, or to carry them off against 
their consent. They were also forbidden 
to eat raw flesh. (BAiiXHOLiNUS, ' De 
Causis Contemptse a Danis Mortis,' bk. 
ii.9.) 

Hialtland (3 syl.). The Norse name 
of Shetland or Zetland Islands, or rather 
of the mainland of that group. 

Or shall Hialtland's minstrel own 
One note to rival glorious .John ? 

Sir W. Scott, The Pirate, xxi. 

Hibernia. The Roman name for 
Ireland. Diodorus Siculus calls it Irin ; 
Erin is the modern name. Ire-land is 
Iren-land ; and Hibernia is another form 
of lernia or Irinia. It is called the Holy 
Island, and Irin or Erin is connected 
with the Greek lepo^ (sacred or holy), 
Hebrew Ira (to revere). 

Hibernian Roscius (The). Gus- 
tavus Vaughan Brooke (1819-18G2). 

Hiekesites (2 syl.). Non-jurors were 
so called after Dr. George Hickes, a non- 
juror and learned Saxonist (1642-1716). 

Hicksites (2 syl.), 1827. Rational- 
istic Quakers ; so called from Elias Hicks, 
spoken of by Mr. Conway, ' a sort of 
mystical and eloquent Thomas Paine.' 
Walt ^'v hitman wrote in 1887 a life-sketch 
of this mystic. 

Elias Hicks denied the miraculous conception, 
the divinity of Christ, the doctrine of the atone- 
ment, and the inspiration of Scripture. 



Plidage (2 syl.), or 'Hidagium.' A 
tax paid to Ethelred II. for every hide of 
land ; levied in money, provisions for the 
army, armour, ships, &c. By this tax 
every 310 hides were required to furnish 
one ship in defence of the kingdom 
against the Danes, and every 8 hides had 
to supply 'one jack (foot-soldier) and one 
saddle (horse-soldier),' fully armed and 
equipped, in defence of the kingdom. See 
' Danegelt.' 

Hieronymites (5 syl.). I. A reli- 
gious society founded in Holland in 1376 
by Geert Groote and Florentius Eadewin, 
who named the society after St. Jekowe. 
Very similar to the subsequent society 
known as the Moravians or the United 
Brethren. They owned no conventional 
distinctions, enjoined community of 
goods, ascetic habit.^, and the use of the 
vernaculiir tongue in religious services. 
In 1430 the Hieronymites numbered 130 
societies. 

II. Hermits of St. Jerome, founded in 
1380 in Umbria by Pietro of Pisa. The 
austerity of these hermits is almost in- 
credible. 

III. The Hieronimites of the Obser- 
vance, instituted in Lombardy by Loup 
d'Olme'do in 1424 under the reformed 
rule of Thomas. 

High and Low Church, 1700. 

The favourers of the doctrine of divine 
right were the High Churchmen, and 
they, of course, were Jacobites. The 
friends of William of Orange and the 
Hanoverian succession, who denied the 
doctrine of divine right, were the Low 
Churclimen. 

At the present day High Churchmen are those 
who exalt the priestly oince and church rites. 
S<-e bclnic, 'High Church Principles.' The Low 
Churchmen are what may be called the Evan- 
gelists or Simeonites, whose creed is ' by grace 
are ye saved, through faith ; and that not of 
yourselves, it is the gift of God.' 

High and Mighty States {The), 
20 Nov., 1789. The title assumed by the 
States of Brabant when they threw off 
their allegiance to Austria (Kaiser 
Joseph II.). 

High Church Principles. These 

seven doctrines may be termed essentials. 
See 'High and Low Church.' 

1. Baptismal regeneration. 

2. The Apostolic succession of ordained minis- 
ters. 

3. The power of absolution in priests. 

4. The eueharistic sacrifice. 

5. The real presence of Christ in the elements of 
bread and wine. 



422 



HIGH 



HIGHGEREVE 



6. The cotamunion of saints, militant and tri- 
umphant. 

7. The authority of the Church, as a Church. 

High Church and Sache verell ! 

So shouted the London mob in 170i), after 
the trial of the doctor in the House of 
Lords. His offence was alluding to Lord 
Godolphin as ' Voipone ' in the sermon 
preached by him in St. Paul's, London. 
See ' Voipone.' 

High Commission Court {The), 
1 Eliz. c, 1, A.D. 1559 ; abolished by IG 
Car. I. c. 11, A.D. 1G41. This court was 
instituted to vindicate the dignity and 
peace of the church by reforming, order- 
ing, and correcting the ecclesiastical 
state and persons, as well as all manner 
of errors, heresies, schisms, abuses, 
offences, contempts, and enormities. The 
commission was directed in the reigns of 
James I. and Charles I. to tyrannical and 
unconstitutional purposes, and therefore 
the court was abolished. There was no 
appeal from the judgments of this court. 
James 11. partially restored it. 

Kot unfrequently called ' The Court of High 
Commission.' The test of heresy was the Four 
Gospels and first four General Councils. Dr. Alex- 
ander Leighton, for his pamphlet, entitled ' An 
Appeal to Parliament, or Zion's Plea against 
Prelacy,' was thus sentenced by Archbishop 
Laud, in the High Commission Court : ' To be 
imprisoned for life, and to pay a fine of 10,000/. ; to 
be degraded from his ministry ; to be whipped. 
Bet in the pillory, have one ear cut off, and one 
nostril slit up ; then to be branded on the forehead 
with S.S. (seditious slanderer), and carried bacij to 
prison. After a few days to be again pilloried, to 
lose his other ear, to have his other nostril slit, 
and being whipped, again to be restored to his 
dungeon till his death.' 

High Constable {Lord) of Eng- 
land. The seventh great officer of the 
crown. The office existed before the 
Conquest, when it went by inheritance 
to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
next fell into the line of Stafford. Li 
152-2 it became forfeited by the attainder 
of Edward Stafford duke of Buckingham. 
Abolished 1869 (32, 33 Vict., c. 47). 

High Constable {Lord) of Scot- 
land. Keeper of the king's sword, and 
commander of the army. Instituted by 
David I. in 1147, and made by Robert 
Bruce hereditary in the family of Errol. 
The title is only honorary, but it makes 
the earl of Errol the hightest peer in 
Scotland. 

High Court of Justice {The). A 
court formed for trying Charles I. for 
'treason against the sovereign majesty of 



the people.' Bradshawwas the president. 
The king was found guilty by the court, 
and condemned to death. 

High Mass, ' Missa alta.' The cele- 
bration of the Eucharist in the Catholic 
Church, performed musically, and alta 
voce, with a loud voice. Low mass is 
merely read, suhniissa voce, with a low or 
subdued voice. See ' Mass.' 

High K"ational Court {The), 179 ). 

A court which the National Asseniuiy 
substituted for the court of justice at the 
Chatelet. This court was to try all treasons 
against the nation. Barnave was the first 
president of this High Court. 

High School {The), of Edinburgh, 
1577. Founded by the magistrates of 
that city. 

High Steward {The). I. At one 
time the first great officer of the crown. 
Established before the Conquest, but 
abolished in 1265. The olhce is still 
revived at a coronation, or may be so if 
a peer is charged with high treason. 

II. Of the Universities ot Cambridge and 
Oxford. Adjudicates in all cases of felony 
charged against a member of the univer- 
sity if committed within the limits thereof. 
He is also empowered to hold a leet ; but 
he appoints a deputy, subject to the 
approval of the senate in Cambridge, 
and Convocation in Oxford. Appointed 
in Cambridge by the senate ; in Oxford 
by the chancellor. In both universities 
there is a deputy steward. 

The limit of the university is one statute mile 
from any of the suburbs. Stijiend of the high 
steward, in Oxford, is bl., and of his deputy 21. 

Highfliers and Moderates, 1835. 

In the Scotch Presbyterian Church. 
They were also called ' Non-intrusionists ' 
— that is, those who looked on the veto law 
{q.v.) passed by the General Assembly as 
an illegal intrusion or interference with 
the patron's rights. The Highfliers were 
the High Church party. See ' Free Church 
of Scotland.' 

The leaders of the Non-intrusion party were Dr. 
Chandler, Dr. Candlisii, I>r. Gordon, and Messrs. 
Guthrie, Cunningham and Dunlop. 

Highgereve, or * Shire-reeve,' we 
now call a viscount, not meaning a count's 
deputy or vice, but simply the peer next 
in dignity to a count or earl. 

Our high sheriff is of course the same word, but 
its modern meaning is quite diiferent to that of 
viscount. 



HIGHGATE 



HIRAM 



423 



Highficate Prophet (r/ie). William 
Powell (died 1803). For many years he 
walked from Sloane Street to Highgate 
Hill, then started off at a run to the top 
of the hill. Being asked why he did so, 
he replied, that if he ceased to do so, the 
world would be no more. Hence he was 
called ' The prophet.' 

Highland Host {The), 1679. A 
scandalous raid against what was called 
Scotch heretics. Some 8,000 Highlanders 
were let loose by the English Government 
upon the Presbyterians, who refused to 
accept the prelacy which the government 
of Charles II. tried to force upon them. 
The savagery of these Highlanders was 
quite equal to that of the French dragon- 
nades. Neither age nor sex was spared, and 
Alva or Torquemada never showed more 
diabolical ingenuity of torture than these 
' brither Scots ' did to their own coun- 
trymen. 

Highland Plot {The), 1704. A plot 
m -VYl'^i^ii Simon Fraser and Athol were 
deeply concerned. Tlie plot was to raise a 
rebellion in Scotland, to invade England 
with French soldiers, and having sub- 
verted the government of Queen Anne, to 
bring back James, who called himself 
Prince of Wales, but is better known as 
the Old Pretender. 

Bishop Burnet [being told of the plot] remarted 
to the queen that . . thej-did not mean her to live 
any longer than till they thought their designs tor 
the prince were well laid ; on which the queen 
answered very quickly, ' There is no manner of 
doubt about that. — HowiTX, Hist, of Eny. lAune), 
p. 180. 

Highness {His). A title given to 
princes not sovereigns. 'His Roj^al 
Highness ' or ' His Imperial Highness ' is 
given to royal or imperial princes. ' His 
Most Serene Highness ' is given to the 
collateral branches of the blood royal in 
Germany. The Sultan of Turkey is en- 
titled ' His Highness.' 

Till the reign of James I. in England 
kings were generally addressed as ' His 
Highness ' ; so were they in Spain till 
the reign of Charles V. In France, the 
Duke of Orleans was called ' His High- 
ness.' In 1633 the elder sons of the cadet 
branch of the Bourbons took the title 
of 'His Royal Highness' Under Louis 
XIV. all legitimate princes were addres- 
sed as ' HisHighness,' and the Prince of 
Conde as ' His Most Serene Highness.' 

In addressing the 
Sultan of Turkey we say ' Your Highness ' ; 
Koyal princes we say 'Your Royal Highness ' ; 



Imperial princes we say ' Yovir Imperial High- 
ness ' ; 
The collateral branches of the blood royal of 
Germany we s-iy ' Your Serene Highness." 
*,* The king or queen is addressed as ' Your 
Majesty.* See ' Majesty." 

Hilary Term. One of the four 
legal terms of England. It used to be 
from 11 Jan. to the end of the month. It 
now terminates the Wednesday l)efore 
Easter. St. Hilary's day is the 13th Jan., 
whence the name. 

The other three terms are called Easter Term, 
Trinity Term, and Michaelmas Term. 

Hildebrand {The Hrjmn of), 8th 
cent. A popular German legend in 
metre, without rhymes. The story is this. 
Hildebrand thought his father was dead, 
and one day, as he was riding in full 
armour, he was encountered by another 
knight, and said to him : ' Sir Knight, tell 
me thy name and country, but an ye re- 
fuse to do so, ye shall not pass this way.' 
The stranger replied, ' Wit you well, I am 
Sir Hildebrand of Lombardy.' ' Knave,' 
cried the younger man, ' thou liest ' ; and 
so saying he let drive at him, and knocked 
him off his horse. Then going to unlace 
his helm, he discovered that it was his 
father whom he had thus slain. 

Hill Coolies. Hindoo highland 
labourers. 

Hill-men. The Cameronians. 

The religious sect called Hill-men, or Came- 
ronians, was at that time noted for austerity and 
devotion, in imitation of C iTneroii. th^ir founder. 
—Sir W. Scott, Old Mortality (Introduction). 

Hillside Men. Old Nationalists 
(about 1S81). So called because they 
believed that one day they would be in a 
position to fight for their country 
[Ireland] on the hillside. They had, 
however, an utter abhorrence of assassi- 
nation. They were not members of the 
Land League {q.v.). See 'Irish Asso- 
ciations.' 

Hippoc'ratds {The British). 
Thomas Sydenham, M.D. (1624-1689). So 
called over and over again by Boerhaave. 

Hippoc'rates (r/?«?-Ro?nan). Aulus 
Cornelius Celsus (1st cent.) was so called 
because for the most part he followed the 
great fatner of medicine. 

Hiram [exalted]. The common title 
of the kings of Tyre, as Pharaoh [the 
sun] is that of the kings of Egypt. Tiie 
Hiram, in Solomon's days, was by name 
Abibalus. 



424 



HISTOEIO 



HOLSTEIN-GOTTORP 



Historic Register {The). A 

quarterly publication containing an ab- 
stract of historical events for three 
months. Bec^un 1716, discontinued 1738. 
See ' Annual Register.' 

History [The Father of). Herodo- 
tus, the Greek historian (b.c. 484-408). 

History of Formosa [The), 1704. 
By George Psalmanasar, a Frenchman, 
who pretended to be a Japanese, and 
published an ' Historical and Geo- 
graphical Description of Formosa, an 
island belonging to the empire of Japan.' 

The real name of this literary impostor is not 
known. It seems that he was born in France in 
1079, and died in London 3 May, 1763. 

His'triomas'tix. A huge volume 
by William Prynne, of 1,000 pages, 
against the stage. He says ' theatres are 
the chapels of Satan, the players his 
ministers, and that their frevquentors are 
rushing headlong into hell.' He not 
only denounces theatres, but also dancing, 
music, village sports, and even chanting 
in churches. 

Hobbe {King). So Edward I. called 
Robert Bruce. In the statutes of Kil- 
kenny (1367) the new arrivals from 
England were nicknamed ' English 
Hobbes.' {See Du Cange, art. 'Hobel- 
larii.') 

EqiTi quos Hobinos sive Hobbyes vocant ob 
mollem gvessxxm.—Antiquitates Hihernicce, p. 38. 

HohenstaufEen {House of). The 3rd 
German dynasty: 1, the Saxon; 2, the 
House of Franconia. It gave five kings, 
viz. Konrad III., Friedrich I. (Barba- 
rossa), Heinrich VI. the Cruel, Friedrich 
II. and Konrad IV. 

Konrad III. was the son of Friedrich of Hohen- 
staufien, who was son-in-law of Heinrich IV. 

On the death of Heinrich VI. there were three 
contemporary kings of Germany. As Friedrich his 
sonwasonly two years old the GhibelUne b-irons 
elected Philip, and the Guelfic barons elected Otto 
(son of Heinrich the Lion) ; but as Friedrich had 
been created already ' king of the Konians,' or 
kaiser elect, of course the other two were usurpers. 

Friedrich von Buren or Staufien, born 1015, the 
founder of this house, lived in the castle of 
Hohenstauflen, and married the half-sister of 
Konrad II. kaiser-king of Germany. 

Pronounce Ho-hen-aiowf'-fen. 

Holding by the Stra^vs. Similar 
to the old English custom of 'holding 
by the verge,' i.e. by a rod or stick 
handed to the tenant, whereby he is 
admitted into the occupation of a copy- 
hold estate. There was at one time a 
large number of these symbolic transfers. 
Thus a clergyman was presented by one 



of the churchwardens with a sod from 
the churchyard, whereby the freehold 
was conferred on the clergyman so long 
as he remained incumbent of the parish. 

Holland. Was an independent 
country from 8G3 to 1433 ; when Philippe 
of Burgundy united it to his vast estates. 
In 1477 Mary of Burgundy married 
Maximilian, and Holland, with many 
other estates, was united to Austria. 
After Karl V. it passed into the 
Spanish branch of the house, and in 
1523, under the influence of Luther, it 
became Protestant. In 1579 Holland 
united with six other provinces in the 
' Union of Utrecht,' threw off the Spanish 
yoke, and became a republic, called 
' The Seven Provinces,' with William of 
Orange as stadtholder. In 1621 Holland 
was united to France. In 1806 it was 
erected into the kingdom of Holland 
by Napoleon I. and given to his brother 
Louis Bonaparte. In 1810 it was again 
united to France, but after the battle of 
Waterloo (1814) it was united to Belgium 
and formed 'The Kingdom of the Nether- 
lands.' In 1830 Holland and Belgium 
were divided into two kingdoms, called 
the 'Kingdom of Holland ' and the ' King- 
dom of Belgium'; the king of Holland 
Ptill calls himself the ' King of the 
Netherlands.' See ' Netherlands.' 

Holland. One of the three dis- 
tricts of Lincolnshire. Where Boston 
stands used to be called ' High Hol- 
land.' The other two districts are Lind- 
sey (the highest land) and Kesteven (the 
western part). ' Holland ' is the south- 
eastern part or fen district. See ' Hal- 
lamshire.' 

And for that prirt of me [Lincolns.'\, which men 

' High Holland ' call, 
Where Boston seated is, by plenteous Wytham's 

fiiU . . . 
No other tract of land doth like abundance yield. 
Drayton, Polyolbion, xxv. 

HoUiglasses (buffoons). A word 
derived from Howie-glass = Eulen-spie- 
gel, the famous jester, the hero of a 
popular German tale, translated into 
English in the time of Shakespeare. 

Mr. Black, speaking of the council, called them 
holiglasses, cormorants, and men of no religion. — 
Sir W. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xxxix. 

Holstein-Gottorp {The Dynasty 
of). I. Sweden. It succeeded that of 
Deux-ponts, and lasted from 1751 to 
1818. Adolf Frederik was of the house 



HOLY 



HOLY 



425 



of HoIstein-G-ottorp, and was pressed on 
the nation by Russia. It was in this 
reign that the factions of the Hats and 
.Caps arose (q.v.). 

II. Russia. The fourth djmasty, 1762 
* It has given Peter III. {assassi- 
nated) ; Catherine II. his widow ; Paul 
I. their son {assassinated) ; Alexander 
I. ; Nicholas I., who died during the 
Crimean war ; Alexander II. {assassi- 
nated in 1881) ; Alexander UI. 

Holy Alliance {The). 1. 1511-1512. 
Not holy meaning pious and godly, but 
holy meaning in the temporal interest of 
the pope. Li 1509 the pope (Julius II.) 
had joined the ' League of Cambray ' 
{q.v.), the object of which was to seize 
Venetia and divide it between the 
leaguers. Louis XII., being first in the 
field, won the brilliant battle of Agna- 
dello, by which Venice fell into his 
hands. The pope, being thus outwitted, 
formed a new league to oust Louis, but 
died the following year, 1513. The holy 
alliance consisted of the pope, Spain, 
Venice, and Switzerland. 

II. In 1609, formed at Wiirzburg, in 
opposition to the Evangelical Alliance 
{q.v.) formed by Protestant states of Ger- 
many in 1608. 

III. The alliance entered into 26 
Sept., 1815, between the Czar of Russia, 
the Emperor of Austria, and the King of 
Prussia. It was agreed by the three 
contracting parties to pursue no policy 
in future which had not for its object the 
maintenance of Christianity, justice, and 
peace. The three crowns contracted to 
stand fast to each other, and to suffer no 
other power to touch any portion of their 
respective dominions. France entered 
the alliance 26 Sept. It was under the 
strength of this alliance that Austria laid 
claim to Italy. England held aloof, 
feeling the scheme to be Utopian. Only 
think of Metternich, Talleyrand, and 
Castlereagh joining hands to bring peace 
on earth and good-will towards men. 
The inconsistency became a matter of 
ridicule, and feU powerless and abortive. 

Holy Bread. Not the eucharist, 
which is a wafer in the Catholic Church, 
but bread brought to the church to be 
blessed by the officiating priest on Sun- 
days and feast-days at the time of mass. 
The ' pain benit ' is distributed to the 
heads of families and taken home with 



them. The custom dates from 655, and 
was instituted by the great council of 
Nice. Du Cange (vol. v. p. 122) calls it 
' Panis Beatus, eulogia, pauis a sacerdote 
benedictione consecratus ' ; but panis 
beatus is not the synonym of Eulogia 
{q.v.). 

Hallowed Bread would be a better translation 
Of ' Panis Beatus ' than Holy Bread. 

Holy Brotherhood {T7ie), or 
* Santa Hermaiidad.' An association 
which executed summary justice on all 
offenders without distinction of rank. It 
was established in Spain by Ferdinand 
the Catholic for the suppression of. high- 
road robbery (1481, 1516). 

Holy Cities of the Islam {The 
■Four). Jerusalem, Mecca, Medina, and 
Damascus. 

Holy Coat of Treves {The). See 
' Diet, of Phrase and Fable,' p. 411. 
Said to be spun from the wool of a lamb 
by the Virgin Mary, and woven in a 
grey coat by St. Helena on the Mount of 
Olives. Christ wore it at the crucifixion. 
It came into the hands of a Jew, who 
threw it into the sea because the blood- 
stains would not wash out, and a whale 
swallowed it. The whale being caught 
by a fisherman, the grey coat found in 
its belly was sold for thirty pieces of 
silver to Orendel, son of Eygel, a 
Christian king of Treves. Orendel de- 
posited the coat in a stone coffin, where, 
being discovei'ed, it became a venerable 
relic exhibited to the faithful every 
twenty-five years. 

Holy Constitution {The), 'La 
Saiute Constitution,' 817. The division 
by Louis I. le Debonuaire of his kingdom 
between his three sons. Lothaire he 
associated with himself in the empire, 
to Pepin he gave the government of 
Aquitaine, and to Louis that of Bavaria. 

Lothaire, associated with his father, was 
charged with the vice-royalty of Italy. This 
' holy constitution ' was certainly most impolitic, 
and proved to be an Iliad of woes. 

Holy Days observed in the Catholic 
Church. Some are more or less observed 
in the Church of England, and used to 
be marked in the Book of Common 
Prayer either with red letters or italics. 
Sundays are not included in this list 
except they happen to be fete daya. 
{Those without a date are movable.) 



426 



HOLY 



HOLY 



AllSainta « 1 Nov. 

All Souls 2 Nov. 

And^e^v ^ ^.. "^^ ^°^• , 

Annunciation (The), or Lady Pay 2o March. 

Ascension Pay. or Holy Thursday. 
The fortieth day after Easter. 

Ash Wednesday. The first day of Lent. 

Assumption (T^x?), or Ascension ol 
Mary 15 Aug. 

Barnabass Day 11 June. 

Bartholomew's Day 2^ ^ug. 

Christmas Day ^ ..., ... ^■- 2;> Deo. 

Circumr-ision of Jesus. New \ ear's Day 1 Jon. 

Commemoration of the Passion. 

Conception of Mary 8 Dec. 

Conversion of Paul 24 .Ian. 

Epiphany, or Twelfth Day ... 6 Jan. 

Fat Ox d'lw). Called in French ^rardi 
Gras. The day before .Vsh Wednesday. 

Fete Dieu, or Corpus Christi Day. The 
Sunday next after Trinity Sunday. 

Good Fi-iday. The Friday before 
Easter Day. _ , ^^ 

GraveClothes (The). In French the 
Ties Mint Huaite. The Friday next 
to Good Friday. , , „ ^ 

Holy Cross 14 Sept. 

Holy P.clics of Nevers (r;u;) .^ ... SO Oct. 

Innocents' Day - ... 28 Dec. 

James the Elder ... ... ~ ... 2.S .July. 

John the Baptist's Day ^ ~. ... 2^ June. 
Beheaded ~. ... -^'.r'^'^S.-. 

John the Evangelist's Days {27 bee! 

Lammas Day 1 Aug. 

Lord s Prayer (The). Called in French 
L'oraisoii lie Noire Seigiieur. Shi-ove 
Tuesday. ^ 

Lukes Day 18 Oct. 

Mark's Day -. ... 25 .\pr. 

Matthews Day 21 Sept. 

Michaelmas Day 29 Sept. 

Miracles of the Virgin Mary of Deols 21 May. 

Name of Jesus (r/K-Ho/.w) 1 Jan, 

Name of Mary (T}ie Holy). The second 
Sunday in Sept. 

Nativity (r/i<>n or Christmas Day ... 25 Dec. 

Nativity of Mary mother of Jesus .. 8 Sept. 

Patronage of Joseph husband of Mary. 
Fifth Sunday of Oct. 

Patronatje of ISIary wife of Joseph. 
The third Sunday after Easter. 

Pauls Day . 29 June. 

Pentecost, or '^TiitsMnday. The 
seventh Sunday after Easter. 

Peter ' prince of the Apostles ' 29 June. 

Petit Fete Dieu 2 Feb. 

Philip and James ... _ 1 '>ray. 

Presentation of Mary 21 Nov. 

Purification of Mary ... 2 Feb. 

Belies (The). The Sunday In the Octave 
of Ascension. 

Besurrection of Jesus Christ. Uncer- 
tain. MgT. Guerin says : ' II n y a 
point de jour que Dieu n'ait fait, et 
qui nereconnaisse ce grand ouvrier ' 
(vol. xvl. p. GO). This fete is not the 
same as Easter Day. 

Seven Sorrows of Mary 1 Sept. 

Shrove Tuesday. 

Simon and Jude 28 Oct. 

Stephen the first Martyr 20 Dec. 

Stigmata of Francis of Assisi .. 17 Sept. 

Thomas's Day (the shortest of the 
year) 21 Dee. 

Transfiguration (T/u') ... 6 Aug. 

Trinity Sunday. The Sunday nest 
after Whitsunday. 

Vigils. (Those are numerous.) 

Visitation of Mary to her cousin Eliza- 
beth ... 2 July. 

See ' Sundays ' and ' Saints' Days." 

Holy Directing Synod (The). 
A college of bishops established iu Eussia 



by Peter the Great, having supreme con- 
trol and judgment in all matters eccle- 
siastical. The only appeal from this 
synod was to the czar himself. 

Holy Pair {The). A Scotch 
custom of celebrating the eucharist in 
the oj)en air. Burns has a poem on tlie 
subject. This led to such immorality 
that it was abolished. 

Holy Ghost {Knights of the). 

I. A Keopolitan Order, instituted by 
Louis of Anjou, king of Naples, 1352. 

II. A French Order, instituted 1198 
at Montpellier by Comte Guy. In 1672 
it was united to the Order of St. Lazarus. 

III. A French military order instituted 
(1.578) by Henri III., who was both born 
and crowned on "Whitsunday. Kibbon, 
blue moire'. Abolished in 1789 ; re-esta- 
blished in 1815, and again abolished in 
la30. 

Holy Island. I. Lindisfame, about 
eight miles from Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
in the German Sea. Once tiie see of the 
famous St. Cuthbert, but now in the 
bishopric of Durham. 

II. Ireland was so called at one time 
from its numerous saints. 

III. Guernsey was so called iu the 
tenth century from the great number of 
monks residing there. 

IV. Riigen was SO called by the 
Slavonic Varini. 

Holy League {The). I. 1511- 
1512. Between the pope (Julius II.), 
Ferdinand of Aragon, Veiiice, and Switz- 
erland, against Louis XII., to dispossess 
him of Venice and drive him out of 
Italy. Louis now placed a formidable 
army under the command of Gaston de 
Foix, his nephew, who gained three -vic- 
tories over the league in as many months, 
viz. at Bologna, at Brescia, and at 
Ravenna. Li this last victory Gaston de 
Foix was left dead on the field, and the 
success of Louis terminated. 

II. 1565. The league of Bayonne 
{q.v.). 

The Holy League was directed against Scotland 
as well as against other heretical nations, and 
how ready soever the Catholic princes n\ight bo 
to avenge the death of the Catholic Mary, they 
could not be supposed to entertain much zeal in 
the cause of the Protestant James. — Sir W. Sco'i'T, 
Uixl. 0/ Scotland, xxxvii. 

III. 1576. The high Catholic party of 
France, taking umbrage at the ' Paix de 
Monsieur ' {q.v.), whicli gave the Protes- 



HOLY 



HOLT 



427 



tants the free exercise of their religion 
in every part of the kingdom except 
Paris, formed themselves into a ' Holy 
League ' in defence of the ' Holy Catholic 
Church ' against the encroachmeuts of 
the Huguenots. The objects of the 
league were (1) to exterminate the Cal- 
vinists ; (2) to shut up the king Henri 
III. in a monastery; and (3) to crown 
the due de Guise. The pope gave it his 
sanction, but its true strength lay in 
Felipe II. of Spain, who supported it 
with both men and money. 

Holy Maid of Kent {The). 
Elizabeth Barton of Aldington, Kent, a 
religious enthusiast, executed in the 
reign of Henry VIII. She entered the 
convent of St. Sepulchre, Canterbury, 
and was then called ' The Nun of Kent.' 
In 1531 the parish priest gave out that 
the nun was inspired. Elizabeth Barton 
raved against the divorce of Queen 
Katharine, and threatened the king with 
deposition and death. She was brought 
before the Star Chamber, condemned, 
and executed at Tyburn in 1534. 

Holy Mother of the Russians. 

Moscow; celebrated before its destruc- 
tion for its number of churches and 
religious houses. 

Holy Mountain (The). Athos, 
called by the Franks Monte Santo, and 
by the Greeks 'Ayioi/ opo?, for its numer- 
ous monasteries, convents, chapels, and 
other sacred edifices. It is said that 
above 8,000 monks reside on Mount 
Athos. It rises abruptly from the sea 
to the height of 6,849 feet. (Ahnost a 
mile and a quarter.) 

Holy Oflaee {The). The examina- 
tion and extermination of heretics by 
the Catholic Church. The Inquisition 
was so called. The Holy Office existed 
in A.D. 382, when Theodosius I. appointed 
inquisitors to search out and punish 
heretics, and the first person put to 
death by them was Priscillianus of 
Aragon in 385. The epoch of the 
modern Inquisition was 1203, when Inno- 
cent III. was pope ; but ' the modern 
1 Spanish Inquisition ' dated from 1480, 
[was suppressed in 1813, restored by 
I Ferdinand VI. in 1814, and finally sup- 
pressed in 1820. 

Holy Peace {The), or 'Peace of 
God,' 1035. An agreement of the 



princes and barons to cease from feuds, 
spoliation, and wars of aggression. 

The priests read from the churches daily after 
the gospel this bull : ' May they who refuse 
to obey be accursed, and have their portion with 
Cain the first murderer, with Judas the arch- 
traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram who went 
down alive into the pit. Jlay they be accursed in 
the life which now is : and may their hope of sal- 
vation, like the light of these candles, be putor.t." 
So saying the lights were put out, and the people 
said ' Amen.' In 1040 the Holy Peace was super- 
seded by ' God's Truce ' (q.v.). 

Holy Roman Empire {The). 
The western part of the old Roman 
empire, which was severed from the 
eastern part in 800, and was given by the 
pope to Charlemagne, who was crowned 
' Emperor of the Romans.' When 
Charlemagne's empire was divided, Lud- 
wig the German became kaiser ; but on 
the death of Karl the Fat the title fell 
into abeyance for 70 years. In 902 John 
XII. gave the title to Otto I. the Great, 
and changed it into ' The Holy Roman 
Empire.' Francis II. renounced the titles 
of king of the Romans and emperor of 
the Romans in 1800, and Napoleon 
added the Italian states to France 17 
May, 1809. 

Holy Sabbath {The). Sabbatum 
Sanctum, the Saturday next before 
Easter Sunday. 

Holy Sea {The). 'A7101/ TreAayo?, the 
Archipelago. This is D'Anville's ety- 
mology (vol. i. p. 281). It is, however, as 
old as .iEschylus and Plato. Vossius 
says 'Aye? is a corruption of atyato?, 
and that the Dorians called the bound- 
ing waves atyes, goats. We call them 
horses. 

The fifty islands of the Holy Sea.— Gibbon, chap, 
liii. 

Holy Sepulchre {Defender and 
Baron of the). Godfrey, first Latin king 
of Jerusalem. He rejected the title of 
king, and refused to wear a diadem 
' where Christ was crowned with thorns ' 
(1061, 1099-1100). 

Holy Sepulchre {Knights of the), 
328. A military order founded by St. 
Helena on the discovery of the Holy 
Sepulchre. Revived by Godfrey of 
Bouillon 17 July, 1099, again by Baldwin 
in 1103, and confirmed lil4 by Pascal II. 

Holy Union {The), ir09. A con- 
federation organised at Wiirzburg of 
Roman Catholics against the Protestants. 



428 



HOLY 



HOMER 



The cotinter league was called the 
' Evangelical Union,' which was formed 
in 1G08. 

Holy Wars (T/je). The Crusades. 

Holy Week. The last seven days 
of Passion Week {q-v.), or the Great 
"Week. It begins on Palm Sunday, and 
ends with Holy Saturday (tlie day preced- 
ing Easter Sunday). The 4tli day is Spy 
Wednesday, the 5th Maundy Thursday, 
the 6th Good Friday, and the last Holy 
Saturday, or the Great Sabbath. See 
' Hebdomada Major.' 

Holy Week has been called the Silent Week 
(Hebd'oviada Muia), the Week of the Holy Passion 
(Hebdomada Passbods), the Vacant 'iVec.k (Hcbdo- 
viada Innt^ciosa), the Penitential Week (Ilcbdomiuia 
PenitnitUilis); also Hebdomada Indulgentise, Heb- 
domada Luctuosa, Hebdomada Nigra, and Hebdo- 



Homage was either liege or simple. 
' Liege homage ' implied an obligation of 
service to the lord. ' Simple homage ' 
was a mere symbol of feudal dependence. 
ViiiLARET, vol. xii. p. 82 ; vol. xv. p. 199. 
Abolished in England 1660 (12 Car. II. 
c. 24). 

In liege homage the vassal, kneeling on both 
his knees, and placing his two hands between 
those of his lord, spoke thus : ' I confess myself 
your man from this day forward to life and limb, 
and to all earthly worship. Unto you will I be 
true and leal, and will bear you faith for the lands 
and tenements I shall hold of you.' Having thus 
said, the king (without rising from his seat) bent 
forwards and kissed him on the forehead and on 
both cheeks. 

Homburg {Synod of), 1526. The 
First General Reformed Synod, pre- 
ceding the Diet of Augsburg about four 
years. It was convened by the Landgraf 
of Hesse to consider an order for the 
conduct of worship in conformity with 
the new religious views. By order of 
this synod a commission of ecclesiastics 
and laymen was appointed to draw up a 
directory for Divine worship and Christian 
instruction on the base of Melanclitlion's 
'Book of Visitation,' which formed the 
' First Confession of Faith ' of the reformed 
church. 

Home Rule Federation, 1884. 
' The objects of the Home Rule Federa- 
tion of Great Britain were to organise 
the Irish vote in the various constitu- 
encies of Great Britain, and to influence 
the elections by the Irish vote.' Hor 
Secretary Frank Hugh O'Donnell. Alfred 
Henry Ruegg counsel for O'Donnell in 
the ' Parnellism and Crime ' libel case, 
2 July 1888 {q.v.). 



Home Kule League, 1870. Pro- 
jected by Mr. Butt, who stoutly op- 
posed the repeal of the Union, but 
agitated for an Irish parliament which 
should have no power to touch upon 
imperial matters, but should be em- 
powered to deal with matters of Ireland 
of a purely local character. On the death 
of Mr. Butt in 1879 his scheme passed 
into the hands of the Land League, and 
their watchword ' Ireland for the Irish * 
meant separation from Great Britain. 
The term Home Rule survived the death 
of Mr. Butt, and in 1886 Mr. Gladstone, 
then prime minister, brought in a bill 
to give Ireland Home Rule, and ex- 
clude Irish members from Westminster. 
The measure broke up the great Whig 
party under the leadership of Lord 
Hartington, supported by Mr. Chamber- 
lain (a Radical), Mr. Goschen, and others, 
who called themselves Unionists, and 
joined the great Tory party under the 
government of Lord Salisbury. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

Mr. Gladstone's measure was to give to Ireland 
' effective self-government in affairs properly and 
exclusively Irish, subject to the supremacy of the 
Imperial parliament.' In fact, it was Mr. Butt's 
scheme. 

' The objects of the Home Rule League were to 
obtain for Ireland the right and privilege of 
managing its own affairs by a parliament as- 
sembled in Ireland, and to secure for the Irish 
parliament the right of legislating and regulat- 
ing all matters relating to the internal affairs of 
Ireland.'— Alfred Henry Rufgg, counsel for 
OUonnsU, July 2, 1688 ('Parnellism and Crime' 
libel case). 

*,* Imperium in imperio is proverbially a dan- 
gerous hazard. 

Homer, Homeros. Everyone knows 
that it is somewhat doubtful if Homeros 
is a proper name or not. It is said that 
the Iliad and Odyssey were not continu- 
ous poems by one man, but ancient lays 
welded together under the direction of 
Pisistratos. It is not a little remarkable 
that the Greek word Homeros [o/uiyjpo?] 
means united or joined together. The 
great inequality of the poems has also 
been noticed by critics. Thus the inter- 
view between Priam and Achilles is ad- 
mirable, but the death of Hector is con- 
temptible, and the reconciliation of Aga- 
memnon and Achilles, which ought to 
have exhibited magnanimity and gene- 
rosity, is absolutely puerile. 

Homer and Virgil of Portugal 

{The). Luis de Camoens (1522-1579), 
author of ' The Lusiads,' i.e. the Lusi- 
tanians or Portuguese ; a poetic history 



HOMER 



HOMME 



429 



of the people, the hero being Vasco da 
Garaa. 

The subject of the Luslads resembles that of 
the /Eneid, but bears no resemblance to the epics 
of Homer. 

Homer {The British). Milton, 1608- 
1674. 

No more the Grecian muse unrivalled reigns ; 

To Britain let the nations homage pn\- : 
She felt a Homer's fire in Milton's sir lins, 

A Pindar s rapture in the lyre of Griiy. 

Westminster Abbey (Grays Blonument). 

momev {The Keltic). Ossian,sonof 
Fingal king of Morven. 

Homer [The Oriental). Firdusi 
(940-1020). See below, ' Homer of Kho- 
rasan.* 

Homer {The Prose). Henry Fielding 
the novelist, called by Byron 'The Prose 
Homer of Human Nature ' (1707-1701). 

Homer {The Scottish). William 
Wilkie, author of 'The Epigoniad' (1721- 

1772). 

Homer of Ferra'ra {The). ' Omero 
Ferraretie.' Ariosto is so called by Tasso 
(1474-1533). 

Homer of Khorasan {The). Abul 
Casim Firdusi (940-1020), author of 
* Shah Nameh,' an historical romance of 
the Kings of Persia (from Kayomurz to 
Yezdijird), begun by Dukiki, -who was 
assassinated when he had written only 
1,000 lines. It was the labour of 30 years. 
The chief characters in this poem are Rustem 
(the Persian Achilles); Feridun, the model king; 
Zohak, the cruel and impious tyrant ; Kavah the 
blacksmith, an intrepid patriot, whose leather 
apron, set with jewels, became the banner of the 
empire till it fell into the hands of Kudsiah. The 
poem runs to 120,000 lines. The characters are bold 
and various, the diction polished and noble, the 
narrative especially perspicuous, and individual 
parts are of surpassing beauty. 

Homer of Modern Days {The). 
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). 

Homer of Persia {The). Firdusi, 
941-1020. See ' Homer of Kliorasan.' 

Homer of Philosophers {The). 
Plato (B.C. 429-347). 

Homer of our Dramatic Poets. 

So Shakespeare (1564-1616) is called by 
Dryden. 

Shakespeare was the Homer or father of our 
dramatic poets ; Jonson was the Virgil. I admire 
rare Ben, but I love Shakespeare.— Dkyden. 

Homer of the Franks {The). 

Angilbert, who died 814, was so called 
by Charlemagne. 



Homer of the French Drama. 

Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) is so called 
by Sir Walter Scott. 

Hom.er the Younger. PhiHscos 
of Corey ra, one of the seven poets of 
Alexandria, who, in the reign of Ptolemy 
Philadelphos, formed the Tragic Pleiad. 

His six contemporary poets were Lycophron, 
Thoocritos, Aratos, Kicander, Apollonios, and 
Calli machos. 

Home'rides (4 syl.), o/mrjpiSrj?. Those 
poets who succeeded Homer and eitli-r 
followed his style or took analogous sub- 
jects to the Iliad and Odyssey. Also 
called ' Cyclic Poets ' {q.v.). 

Homerites (3 syl.). A people of 
ancient Arabia dwelling in Arabia Felix. 
Gibbon (ch. 1.) says the first silk veil of 
the Caaba or temple of Mecca was an 
offering by a pious king of the Homerites 
700 years before the birth of Mahomet. 

Ho'meromas'tix. Zoilos of Am- 
phipolis (B.C. 259-336). So called for his 
caustic criticism on Homer. 

Homil'.a'rium. A collection of 
homilies. Fifty homilies of the Vener- 
able Bede in general use for a long time. 
The deacon Paul Warnefried, by the 
command of Charlemagne, compiled into 
a volume homilies for every Sunday in 
the year (8th cent.) ; it was printed at 
Speyer in 1482, and again at Cologne in 
1557. A collection of English homilies 
in verse was composed in the 13tli cent. 
It contained a sermon for every Sunday 
and every festival throughout the year. 
It is still extant in MS., and a part of it 
was published by Mr. Small, librarian 
to the University of Edinburgh. See 
' Homilies.' 

Homilies (T/ie). Vol. i. (1547). On 
' Salvation,' on ' Faith,' and on ' Good 
Works ' are attributed to Cranmer ; that 
on ' Brawling and Contention ' is Lati- 
mer's, as appears by internal evidence ; 
that on ' Adultery ' is by Tliomas Becon, 
one of Cranmer's chaplains; that on 
' The Misery of Mankind ' is ascribed to 
Bonner; of the rest nothing is known. 
Vol. ii. published 1562; thought to be 
by Bishop Jewell. 

Some think Latimer was the author of the 
homilies on the ' Nativity ' and on ' Whit- 
Suuday.' 

Homme du Lit de Fer {L'). 
Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, 



430 



HOMEOPATHY 



HONORAEY 



fourth son of the Citizen King (Louis 
PhiHppe of France), born 1822, died *. 
Pronounce Horn deh leed-fair. 

Homoeopathy {The Creator of). 
Hahnemann (1755-1843). That is, the art 
of curing diseases by medicines wliich 
in healthy bodies would produce like 
diseases. His motto is Similia siviili- 
hus curantur, or ' Like cures like.' 

Homoi'an theological party allied 
to the Arians, before 359, founded by 
Acacius, bishop of Cesarea. These Chris- 
tians were called ' Acacians,' from their 
founder. 

Homoi-OUsion means ' of a similar 
nature, essence, or state.' Ho^no-ousion 
{q.v.) means ' of equal essence or consub- 
stantiate.' Applied to the nature of 
Christ, what is called the orthodox faith 
is that He is honio-ousios or consubstan- 
tiate with the Father. The semi-Arians 
maintain that He is only homoi-ousios 
or of similar essence, while strict Arians 
affirm He is neither one nor the other. 

Arius declared that Jesus Christ might be homoi- 
ousios (of a similar nature) to the Father ; but 
could not be homo-ousios (of the same substance). 

Homo-ous'ion {The). Consub- 
stantial, of the same nature. According 
to Aristotle, the stars are homo-ousian 
to each other ; but the word is mainly 
connected with a theological controversy 
of the 4th cent, between Arius and 
Athanasius. The Arians were homoi- 
ousians, the Athanasians were homo- 
ousians. That is, the Arians believed 
the nature of Jesus Christ to be god-like, 
but not divine; the Athanasians be- 
lieved it to be very God of very God. As 
party words the ' orthodox ' were homo- 
ousians, the non-orthodox were homoi^ 
ousians. 

Five times was Athanasius expelled from his 
(archicpiscopal) throne, and almost every pro- 
vince of the Roman empire was witness to his 
sufEerings in the cause of Homo-ousion.— Gibbon, 
xxi. 

Hone {William), 1817. The trial of 
William Hone for publishing parodies on 
Scripture or church subjects was, in 
reality, an attempt to put down the free 
expression of political opinions. His 
first trial was 18 Dec. before Mr. Justice 
Abbot, and the charge was that Hone 
had published parodies on the Catechism, 
the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Com- 



mandments. Hone showed that the editor 
of ' Blaclcwood's Magazine ' had parodied 
part of Ezekiel ; that Martin Luther had 
parodied the 1st Psalm ; that Bishop 
Latimer, Dr. Boys dean of Canterbury, 
the author of the ' Rolliad,' and Mr. 
Canning were parodists, but were never 
accused of blasphemy. The j ury acquitted 
Hone. The second trial was on 19 Dec, 
before Lord Ellenborough, and the charge 
was a parody on the Litany. Hone fol- 
lowed the same line of defence and was 
again acquitted. The third trial was 
20 Dec, for a parody on the Athanasian 
Creed. Hone showed that Lord Ellen- 
borough's own father, the bishops War- 
burton and Tillotson, with hosts of others, 
dissented from this creed, and he was 
again acquitted. So ended this govern- 
ment attempt to gag the press. 

There is but little wit and little worth in these 
literary trifles, which often olfend against ' good 
taste • ; but the trials were an outrage on the 
liberty of free thought. 

Honest Lawyer {The). The 
tablet to Edward Trelawny, in Pelynt 
Church, ends with these two lines : — 

Hero lyes an honest lawyer, wot you what, 
A thing for all the world to wonder at. 

(Died 7 June, 1(530). 

In St. Dunstan's in the West is a tablet to 
Hobson Judkins ' the honest solicitor,' who died 
30 June, 1812. 

Honest Man {The). A man of 
Burton (name unknown), an agent in 
1586 of Throckmorton, Gifford, and Wal- 
singham, and spy upon Mary queen of 
Scots. 

' The honest man ' was in communication with 
the brewer who supplied the castle of Chartley 
with beer, and agreed to carry letters to and from 
Mary. Those intended for Mary were enclosed in 
a water-tight bottle, which floated inside the 
beer-cask : the answers were deposited in a hole 
in the castle wall, where they were covered by a 
loose stone. The brewer and ' the honest man ' 
were both in the pay of Walsingham. The letters 
were all broken open and read, after which they 
were resealed and despatched to their address. — 
HowiTT, History of England, ii. p. 509, &c. 

Honorary Canons and honorary 

prebends, 1838 — that is, canons or pre- 
bends without any stipend — were created 
by what is called the ' Oxford Movement ' 
{q.v.). 'Canon' is now used as an or- 
dinary title of address, as ' Canon A or 
B,' and on letters ' The Rev. Canon A or 
B.' Each bishop has the power of con- 
ferring a certain number of these honor- 
ary titles to clergymen within his diocese. 
Generally fovir. 



HONORIANS 



II. Black with silk lining. 




Hood 


Lining 






velvet 


BKck 


D.D. 


Glasgow 
Edinburgh 


cloth. 


Blue 


LL.D. 


silk 


„ dark 

(•white 


M.A. 


Dublin 




fur border) 


LL.B. 


Edinburgh 


velvet 


Gold-coloured 


D.Sc. 


Glasgow 


cloth 


Green 

„ (white fur 


D.Sc. 


Edinburghi 




border) 


B.Sc. 


Edinburgh 


silk 


Puce 


B.D. 


Lampeter 


„ 


Purple ... .„ 


M.A. 


Durham 


„ 


,,, ,,, 


B.D. 


Glasgow 
Edinburgh 


cloth 


<• ». M. 


D.D. 


silk 


Bed ... ^ ... 


B.D. 


Aberdeen 




„ dark ... ... 


U.A. 


Oxford 






LL.B. 


Glasgow 


velvet 




LL.D. 


Glasgow 


silk 


;: hekther-beU" 


M.A. 


Glasgow 




Eiisset 


M.A. 


London 


' 


Wliite ... _ 


M.A. 


Cambridgo 


» 


Yellow „. ^ 


B.Sc. 


Glasgow 


Blue 


HOOD. 

Pale blue silk hood 
(■with white fur 








border) B.C.C. or LL.D. 


Oxford 


PUBPLE HOODS. 






Hood 


Lining 






cloth 


Blue (pale) 


LL.D. 


Aberdeen 


silk 


(bound 








•with white fur) 


B.C.L 


Durham 


" 


Blue (pale) (bor- 
dered with white 








fur) 


B.D. 


Edinburgh 


cloth 


White ... ... 


D.D. 


Aberdeen 


SCABI 


^ET HOODS. 






Hood 


Lining 






cloth 


Black „. 


D.D. 


Oxford 


,1 


Blue ... „. 


LL.D. 


London 




Crimson 


D.C.L 


Oxford 




Gold-coloured 


D.Sc. 


London 


^ 


Pink D.D.orLL.D 


Cambridge 


cashmere 


Purple 


D.D. 


Durham 


cloth 


Bussot 


D.Liii. 


London 


cloth or 


White satin 


LL.D. 


St. Andrews 


silk 








cashmere 


White silk 


D.O.L. Durham 


ViOLI 


3T HOODS. 






cashmei-e 


-WTiite satin 


D.D. 


St. Andrews 


silk \ 


White sUk 


B.D. 


St. Andre-R's 



Hono'r^"ans (The), a.d. 408. Bar- 
barian auxiliaries in Gaul and Britain, 
consisting of two bands of Scots or Atta- 
cotti, two of Moors, two of Marcomanni, 
Ascarii, Gallicani, and Victores. So 
named from Honorius the emperor. 

Honourable. The younger sons of 
earls, and all the children of viscounts 
and barons. 

' The Right Honourable ' is added to 
the title of peers and peeresses below a 
marquis. All the younger sons of dukes 
and marquises, all privy councillors and 
ex-privy councillors, all the three lord 
mayors (London, York, and Dublin) are 
so styled. 

' The Most Honourable ' is added to 
the title of a marquis and marchioness. 
Not ' Most Noble.' 

Dukes and archbishops are styled ' His Grace," 
and addressed as ' Your Grace.' 

Honours of Scotland (The). 
Tlie Scotch regalia, consisting of the 
crown, sceptre, and sword of state, re- 
garded by the Scotch with superstitious 
veneration. 

Honours ofWar (TJie). The pri- 
■vilege accorded to a garrison surrender- 
ing after a very brave defence. It pev- 
mits them to carry away their arms, and 
in some cases to march out with drums 
beating and colours flying. 

Honveds {The), or ' Defenders of 
home,' 1848-1849. Ten battalions of 
Hungarian insurgents who organised 
themselves for the defence of house and 
home. 

Hoods. As a badge. Red hoods 
the party badge of Paris. Blue hoods 
the party badge of Navarre. Red and 
blue tHe party badge of Charles [V.] when 
dauphin. White hoods the party badge 
of the Burgundians. 

Hoods. See Chaperons. 

Hoods. I. Black without lining. 



Hood 



tilk 
Hlk 



corded 

silk 
stuff 



Trimmed 
Black silk ... 

Blue 

Gold coloured 
Mauve 
Purple 
Kusset-brown 



B.D. Oxford or 

Camlridg 
LL.B. London 
B.Sc. London 
A.K.C. London 
L.Th. Durham 
B.X. London 



Trimnu'd with white fur 
narrow B.A. 



Oxford 
Cambridge 



*,* Hoods for medical, musical, civil engmeer- 
ing, &c. not included. 

Hook-and-Eye-ers. A branch of 
the strict Mennonites who split off from 
the general body in 1554. So called 
because they employed hooks-and-eyes 
in their dress instead of buttons. See 
Mennonites. 

Hope Professorship (The) of 
Zoology, in Oxford University. Founded 
by the Rev. Frederick William Hope of 
Christ Church, 1861. 

Hopkins Prize {The). For mathe- 
matico-physical or mathematico-experi- 
mental science. Founded in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge in memory of W. 



432 



HOEACE 



HOSPITALLERS 



Hopkins, and adjudged every tliree years. 
First adjudged in 1867. 

Horace of France {The). Be'- 
ranger (1780-1857). He was called ' The 
Poet of St. Honorc,' from the street in 
which he lived, and ' The French Burns.' 

The English Horace. I, Ben Jonson 
(1574-1037) is so called by Dekker the 
dramatist. 

II, Cowley (1618-1667) is prepos- 
terously called by George duke of Buck- 
ingham ' The Pindar, Horace, and Virgil 
of England.' 

The French Horace. Jean Macrinus 
or Salmon (1490-1557). 

The Portuguese Horace, Antonio Fer- 
reira (1528-1569). 

The Spanish Horace, Lupercio Argen- 
sola and also his brother Bartolome are 
both so called. 

Horatius Codes of the Horn. 

John Haring, who defended a dyke against 
1,000 Spaniards, till all the men under the 
governor Sonoy, who were put to flight, 
had made good their escape. After which 
he threw himself into the sea and effected 
his escape untouched by either spear or 
gun, 

Horatius Codes of the Tyrol. 

Alexander Davy Dumas, father of the 
novelist. So called because in 1798, while 
in Dumouriez's army, he alone defended 
at Brixen the passage of a bridge on 
which depended the success of the day. 

Horn Fair. An annual fair granted 
by Henry III. (1268) to Charlton in Kent, 
for three days, viz. the eve, the day, and 
the morrow of Trinity, for the sale of 
winding horns, horn cups, and other 
vessels or implements made of horn. 
This fair was abolished in 1872. At 
horn fair it was usual for all persons to 
wear some horn ornament, generally on 
the headgear. 

Horned-Cattle Session {The\ 
1770. So called because the fiiist and 
chief item of the king's speech was in 
allusion to a murrain among horned 
cattle, though questions of enormous 
magnitude required attention. Earl 
Chatham in his speech drew a dismal 
picture of the domestic condition and 
.foreign relations of the country. By the 
1 abandonment of Prussia the nation was 
without an ally. The internal affairs 
were even worse. The people were partly 



starving and wholly murmuring. John 
Wilkes was invading the ancient insti- 
tutions, Spitalfields was in semi-rebellion, 
Ireland was netted with Whiteboys, 
Cork-boys, Levellers, and Hearts of 
Steel ; America was on the verge of war ; 
and yet, as Junius says, the ministers 
make the king a half-ruined grazier 
rather than the monarch of a vast 
empire. 

Horse decides who is to be 

king of Persia [A). Cambyses was 
followed on the throne of Persia by 
Smerdis the pretender, put forward by 
the Magi, but he was put to death by 
Otanes. Otanes then called a council of 
the chief men to determine on a suc- 
cessor, and agreed to meet on horseback 
at sunrise next morning, and he whose 
horse neighed first they agreed should 
be king. When Shares, the groom of 
Darius Hystaspes, heard this he took a 
mare to the spot the preceding evening, 
and showed it to his master's horse, 
which of course neighed next morning 
as soon as it came to the spot. So 
Darius was elected king. 

Horsenails {Counting). By the City 
officers at Westminster Hall. ' Walter 
le Brun, farrier, in the Strand, was to 
have a piece of ground in the parish of 
St. Clement to place a forge there, for the 
nominal sum of 6 horseshoes. This rent 
was paid every year to the Exchequer 
. . . and it is still rendered at the Ex- 
chequer by the mayor and citizens of 
London, to whom in process of time the 
said piece of ground was granted ' (Blount, " 
' Ancient Tenures,' 1815). 

In the reign of Edward I. Walter Marescallus 
paid at the crwevi lapiclcam, six horseshoes with 
nails for a certain building which he held of the 
king in capite opposite the stone cross. 

A similar entry occurs in the 15 Edw. II. &o. 

Hospit'allers, or ' Knights Hospit- 
allers,' or * Knights of St. John of Jeru- 
lem,' or ' Knights of Malta,' 
1050, established to protect 
pilgrims in the Holy Laud, 
Confirmed by statute in 11 18. 
They made themselves mas- 
ters of the Isle of Ejliodes 
in 1310, but were driven from the island 
by the Turks in 1522, and established 
themselves at Malta in 1530. Their dress 
is black, with a white cross of eight points. 
Established in England in 1100. Sup- 
pressed in England in 1540, in France 




HOSPITALLERS 



HOTEL 



483 



1792. Dispersedon the capture of Malta 
by Napoleon I. in 1798. 

Called Hospitallers because they built at Jeru- 
Balem an hospital for the entertainment of 
pilgrims. The order still exists, and its flag is 
Btill seen in Mediterranean commerce. 

Hospitallers of St. Lazarus, 

1119. A religious military order estab- 
lished at Jerusalem by Crusaders, and 
confirmed, in 1255, by the Pope. Its 
special duty was to take charge of lepers. 
Introduced into France by Louis VII., 
but in 1490 united in Italy to the order 
of the Knights of Malta ; in Savoy (1572) 
to the Knights of St. Maurice ; and in 
France (lti93) to the Knights of St. 
Michel. There were 100 chevaliers, who 
might both marry and hold property. 
Their medallion was a cross with eight 
points, alternately green and purple, and 
adorned with images of the Virgin Mary 
and St. Lazarus. 

Hospitals and Asylums. We 
have mention of hospitals in Athens five 
ce^ituries before the Christian era, and 
dispensaries long before that time sup- 
ported by the state. 

The Romans had public physicians at 
a very early date. 

The ancient Mexicans had hospitals iu 
all their principal cities. 

Lidia, however, seems to be the nursery 
of hospitals. King Asoka, B.C. 825, com- 
manded that hospitals should be built for 
the poor, sick, and distressed, at each of 
the four gates of Patna, and throughout his 
whole empire. FaHian,a Chinese pilgrim 
(a.d. 400), says : ' The nobles and land- 
lords founded hospitals for the poor in all 
places, and thither the poor, the cripple, 
and diseased might freely repair. They 
receive every kind of help gratuitously. 
Physicians attend to their diseases, and 
order them medicine, food, and drink, 
according to their judgment. Even when 
cured they may remain till it is con- 
venient for them to retire.' 

The first Christian hospital was built 
by a Roman lady named Fabiola, in the 
4th cent. 

In regard to asylums : The Egyptians 
and Greeks took charge of them in their 
temples. The Mohammedans built 
asylums for the insane at Fez in the 7th 
cent. The first Christian asylum was 
built at Valencia, in Spain, a.d. 1409. 

Hospodar, 13th cent. The sove- 
reigns of Walachia and of Moldavia. In 
19 



1391 the hospodar of Walachia fell into 
the dependence of the Turks, and in 
1536 the hospodar of Moldavia did the 
same, and the sultan nominated the 
hospodar. In 1821 the hospodars were 
nominated by the boi'ards under the inves- 
titure of the Porte. In 1829 the Hospodar 
of the Danubian Principalities was ap- 
pointed for life by the Treaty of Adria- 
nople. Sifice 1861 these provinces have 
formed (with the Dobrudscha) the king- 
dom of Roumania. 

Host of Israel (The), 1681. The 
armed Cameronians so styled themselves. 
They took up arms to dethrone Charles 
II. and set aside James his brother. 

Hostings [of the lord deputies of 
Ireland]. Circuits or progresses for the 
display of military force in terrorem. 
They were more precautionary than 
hostile. In some a collision took place, 
but very many were mere displays or 
military progressesthrough the Pale (g-.v.). 
Sometimes a hosting was made into the 
territory of a rebellious Irish chief. 

Hot Gospeller {The). Edward 
UnderhiU of Worcestershire, an ardent 
Protestant, but yet a devoted partisan of 
Queen Mary. 

Hot Potatoes, 1782. So the 
British sailors called the red-hot balls 
fired from Gibraltar into the combined 
French and Spanish fleet sent to take 
the Rock from the English. This magni- 
ficent defence by Gen. Elliot is wholly 
without a parallel in all history, and the 
humanity of Capt. Curtis, in saving 250 
Spaniards at the peril of his life, is an 
achievement wliich every Englishman 
must be proud of. 

The girl Campen, daughter of a Tyrolese tailor, 
sent with a load of hay while the Bavarians and 
French were fighting against Hofer, kept crying 
' Come on ! Come on with ye ! Who cares for 
Bavarian dumplings ? ' 

H6tel Rambouillet (i')- Very 

influential soirees held at the chateau of 
Charles d'Angennes marquis of Ram- 
bouillet, who married (in 1600) Catherine 
de Vivonne. Their daughter was the 
celebrated Julie [i.e. Julie Lucie d'An- 
gennes] who married the Due de Mon- 
tausier. It was Julie who presided over 
these soirees, which were attended by 
Mme. de Sevigne and Mme. de Lafayette. 
Pronounce Lo-tel liham-boo-yen. 

F F 



134 



HOUGHEKS 



HUGH 



Hougliers, 1785. Irish Volunteers 
belonging to the ' Aggregate Bodies ' 
{q.v.), who went about maiming the sol- 
diers and other persons obnoxious to 
them. The platform was universal suf- 
frage. The introduction of the question 
of Catholic disabilities broke up the asso- 
ciations, and, as Plowden says, ' they dis- 
appeared like a bubble on the face of a 
stream.' See ' Irish Associations.' 
(Houghers, pronounce hok'-hers. 

House of Congregation {The), 
in Oxford University, consists of all 
masters of arts and doctors of every 
faculty of less than two years' standing. 
Called Necessario Begentes. Heads of 
colleges, masters of schools, and deans 
of colleges are called Begentes ad j^laci- 
tum. Duties are ahnost entirely confined 
to granting degrees and the appointment 
of public examiners. In Cambridge 
University ' The Electoral Roll ' corre- 
sponds in a great measure with the Ox- 
ford House of Congregation. 

House of Convocation (The), in 
Oxford University, consists of all persons 
who have taken the degree of M.x\. or 
of doctor, provided their names remain 
on the boards of their college. All the 
business of the university as a corporate 
body is transacted by Convocation, and 
no statute is binding till it has received 
the assent of this house. It also confers 
honorary degrees and degrees of diploma, 
affixes the common seal to all documents, 
and elects all offices in the gift of the 
university. No proposition of legislation 
originates in this house, nor can it amend 
any proposition submitted to it; it can 
only accept or reject. The Council of 
the Senate in Cambridge corresponds to 
the Oxford ' House of Convocation.' 

House of Keys {The), in the Isle 
of Man, consists of twenty-four represen- 
tatives formerly selected by their own 
body, vacancies being filled up by the 
House presenting to the governor ' two of 
the oldest and worthiest men of the land,' 
one of whom the governor nominates, and 
he takes office for life. But since 1866 
they have been elected by the people 
(male and female freeholders voting). 

The civil government of the island is vested in 
three estates : the king or queen in council, the 
governor and council, and the House of Keys. 
The latter two constitute a court of Tynwald. To 
the ' Keys ' or wardens all doubtful and important 
matters of law are referred. 



Houses of Parliament {The 
Burning of the), 16 Oct., 1884 (Will. IV.). 
Caused by overheating the flues with old 
tallies with which the fires were lighted. 

Household Troops {The). Those 
troops whose especial duty it is to attend 
the sovereign and to guard the metro- 
polis. They are the 1st and 2nd Life- 
guards, the Royal Horse-guards, and the 
three infantry regiments called the 
Grenadiers, the Coldstream Guards, and 
the Scots Fusiliers. 

Howard {Sister). So Queen Caro- 
line used to call Mrs. Howard (after- 
wards countess of Suffolk), mistress of 
George II. She even employed ' Sister 
Howard' at her toilet, and otherwise 
about her person. 

Howard of Russia {The). John 
Venning. 

Howard-Arundel Collection 

{The), 1831. In the MS. department of 
the British Museum, and consisting of 
about 600 volumes of interest in almost 
every branch of learning, especially con- 
nected with the history and language of 
our own country. 

Hubert {Knights of St.), 1414. A 
military order of Bavaria founded by 
Guerhard duke of Juliers. Revived in 
1709 by the Elector Palatine. 

Hubertsburg {Treatj/ of), 15 Feb., 
1763. A treaty of peace at the close of 
the Seven Years' war between the 
Kaiser, Prussia, and Saxony. 

Hudson's Bay Company (1670). 
A corporation chartered by Chai'les II. 
It consisted at first of Prince Rupert and 
certain specified associates, who were 
invested with the absolute proprietorship 
of ' Rupert's Land,' which consisted of 
all the regions then discovered and here- 
after to be discovered within the entrance 
of Hudson's Bay. The great traffic of 
the company was in beaver furs. In 
1783 was formed the North-west Com- 
pany of Montreal, which in 1821 coalesced 
with the Hudson's Bay Company. Sur- 
rendered to the croAvn in 1808, and ceded 
to the Dominion of Canada in 1869. 

It still exists as a commercial corporation. 

Hugh "Wolf, or ' Hugh Lupus.' 
Hugh d'Avranches, a near relative of 
the Conqueror. His device was a wolf'a 



HUGUENOTS 



HUNDRED 



head, and William gave to his kinsman 
almost all Cheshire. 

Huguenots (U-gen-oze, g hard). 
Members of the reformed church of 
France, as Protestants are members of 
the reformed church of Germany, Eng- 
land, America, and other countries. The 
Huguenots are called ' French Calvinists.' 

Les uns fontderiver ce nomd'un certain Hugiws 
[Hugon], chef dun parti religieux et politique a 
Geneve ; les autres, avec plus de raison. de 
Tallemand EjVfflreno.ssrwCassocies par serment), nom 
donne d'abord aux habitants de Geneve souleves 
et ligues contre le due de Savoie.— Bouillet. 

Another derivation is Hugon, a gate in Tours, 
near which, it is said, the Huguenots assembled. 
'Les huguenots avoicnt pris leur nom a cause de 
la tour Hugon [in Tours] ou ils B'assemblaient.— 
D'AUBIGNE, Hist. i. 96. 

Hul'sean Lecturer or Chris- 
tian Preacher {The). In the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, 1789, established 
by the Rev. John Hulse of St. Jolm's 
College. The subject to be on the evi- 
dence for revealed religion and exegesis 
of obscure texts. Four sermons. 

Hul'sean Prize {The). For an 
essay on miracles for any member of 
the University of Cambridge under the 
degree of M.A. Value between 70Z. and 
80/. annvTally. Founded by the Rev. 
John Hulse of St. John's College, 1789. 
See ' Reg. Prof, of Divinity.' 

Hul'sean Professor of Divinity 

{The). In the University of Cambridge, 
1728. So called because it was endov/ed 
by eight-tenths of 1,000Z. left by the Rev. 
John Hulse of St, John's College. The 
professor must print and publish six 
lectures in the course of every six years. 
Till 1860 the Hulsean Professor was 
called the Christian Advocate. See 
' Regius Professorship of Divinity.' 

The 1,000/. has to be divided thus: one part to 
maintain two scholars at St. John's College ; 
another part to found a prize for dissertation ; 
a third part to support the office of Christian 
Advocate ; and the fourth part to support the 
Hulsean Lecturer or Christian Preacher. 

Hu'manistS, 16th cent. A literary 
set which devoted themselves to the cul- 
tivation of classical literature {litercB 
hmnariiores). They not only set them- 
selves in opposition to classical professors, 
they also wanted to reform theology. 

Humanita'rians. I. Those Chris- 
tians who deny the divinity of Christ. 

The primitive Ebionites (4 syl.) and the Cerin- 
thians were Humanitarians, but not the Arians. 

n. The disciples of St. Simon, who 
believe in the perfectibility of human 



nature, and ignore the dependence of 
man upon supernatural aid. 

Humanity Martin. Richard Mar- 
tin, of Ballinabench Castle, M.P. for 
Galway, so called from the Martin Act 
(18'22) for the prevention of cruelty to 
animals (1754- ). 

If all had been like me, in fact, 
There'd been no need for Martin's Act. 
// / had a donkey that tcouldn't go. 

Humble Petition and Advice 

{The), 1656. A petition from parliament 
entreating the lord protector to take a 
royal title. A blank was left in the peti- 
tion for the exact designation, which was 
ultimately filled up with the word ' Pro- 
tector.' 

Humble Representation {The), 
1647. After Charles I. fell into the hands 
of Cornet Joyce, the army presented to 
the parliament an ' humble representa- 
tion,' stating : ' We desire a settlement of 
the peace of the kingdom, and of the 
liberties of the subjects. "We desire no 
change in the civil government, but we 
demand toleration in religion. We de- 
mand the repeal of all acts enforcing the 
use of the prayer-book, attendance at 
church, and the enforcement of the cove- 
nant. We ask for triennial parliaments, 
the reform of the franchise, and the re. 
adjustment of taxes.' These petitions, 
with a simplification of law proceedings, 
constituted the ' Humble Representation.' 
Charles, however, resisted. 

Hume, Mr. Hume's motion carried 
without a division, 16 Oct., 1834, by the 
utter destruction of the two houses of 
parliament by fire. Mr. Hume had been 
noted for his efforts to get rid of the old 
houses, and to have new ones more worthy 
of the British Legislature. 

Humiles {Ordre des), 1154. A re- 
ligious confraternity of both sexes, 
founded at Milan by St. John of Meda. 
It was in a great measure of the Bene- 
dictine rule, but had its own badge. 
Suppressed in 1571. 

Hundred {A.) A county division 
mentioned in Domesday Book, and gene- 
rally supposed to include a hundred 
families. Northumberland, Cumberland, 
Westmoreland, and Durham are not sub- 
divided into hundreds, but wards ; York- 
shire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire 
are subdivided into wapentakes. York, 
/F 2 



436 



HUNDRED 



HUNTER'S 



shire is likewise divided into three parts, 
called Bidings. Kent is divided into 
five laths, and these laths into sixty- 
three hundreds. Sussex is divided into 
six rapes, with subordinate hundreds. 

Hundred Days [The). From 
29 March to 22 June, a.d. 1815. From the 
time that Napoleon quitted Elba (break- 
ing his parole) to his abdication. 

In this period occurred the battle of Ligny 
(16 June) ; the battle of Quatre Bras (16 June) ; 
and the battle of Waterloo (18 June). 

Hundred Grievances of Ger- 
many {The), 1522. Presented to Pope 
Adrian VI. by the Diet of Nuremberg. 
During the contention between Luther 
and the pope, Adrian sent a brieve to the 
Diet of Nuremberg, calling on the princes 
of Germany to stamp out the plague of 
heresy. The diet, in reply, sent to the 
pope a memorial of a 'hundred griev- 
ances' which they besought the holy 
father to redress, and that too without 
delay, as the nation neither could nor 
would endure them any longer. 

Hundred Isles {The). Venice. 

Hundred Years War {The),\zzc-,- 
1431. Between England and France. 
From Edward III. to Joan of Arc. The 
origin of this long war was Edward's 
claim to the crown of France. Philippe 
le Bel left three sons, all of whom died 
without male issue, and the nearest male 
heirs were Edward III. (who was the 
nephew of the three sons), and Philippe 
de Valois (who was their cousin). The 
flaw in Edward's claim is the Salic law, 
which passed over women, and Edward 
owed his blood relationship to his mother. 
Edward maintained that, though his 
mother was cut off, being a woman, the 
Salic law could not a]3ply to him, being 
a man ; but Philippe answered, if the 
mother was cut off, the son was cut oif 
also. On this dispute began the war 
which lasted above a century. 

Hun'dreders. The impanelling of 
* hundredors ' on juries in civil actions 
abohshed 1705 (4, 5 Anne c. 16). 

Hung, Drawn, and Quartered. 

The punishment of traitors. It is an 
error to suppose that 'drawn' means 
dragged on a hurdle by a horse to the 
place of execution. It means disem- 
bowelled. The first instance in English 
history is that of David the Welsh prince, 



20 Sept., 1283. He was 'hung' for 
causing the murder of the knights in 
Hawarden Castle ; he was ' drawn ' be- 
cause he had profaned Palm Sunday by 
committing the murder on that day ; he 
was ' quartered ' for conspiring against 
the king (Edward I.). This was the pre- 
cedent in cases of high treason. 

It is misleading and a falsifying of history to re- 
verse these words into ' drawn, hung, and quar- 
tered,' as some historians do, to intimate that 
' drawn ' means dragged on a hurdle to execution. 

Hungarian Anjous (T/ie). Suc- 
ceeded the Arpad dynasty. Charles 
Robert was the founder (1309-1342), 
Louis the Great his son (1342-1382), and 
Sigismund, in virtue of his wife (1386- 
1437). Succeeded by the house of Haps- 
burg. 

Sigismund or Siegmund was king of Hungary, 
king of Bohemia, and kaiser-king of Germany. 
He will always be remembered for violating his 
royal word of safe-conduct, and afterwards assent- 
ing to the martyrdom of Huss and Jerome of 
Prague. 

Hungarian Compromise {The), 
Feb. 1868. Providing the new army 
organisation. 

Hungarian National Anthem. 

Rakolski's March. 

Hungarian Revolution {The), 
1848-1849. Under Kossuth. Kossuth 
resigned 11 Aug., 1849. 

8 June, 18G7, Francis Joseph of Austria was 
crowned king of Hungary. 

Hungarian Sea {The). Lake 
Balaton, forty-seven miles long and nine- 
teen miles wide. Famous for the savoury 
fogas fish. 

Huns {The). A people driven out of 
China by Vou-ti {i.e. Hiong-nu). Many 
left the steppes of Tartary, and made 
their way to the Caspian Sea. A part, 
crossing the Caucasus, came into collision 
with the Eastern Goths in a.d. 375. 

Hunter's Mass. Missa Venatica.' 
Celebrated very early in the morning for 
those about to spend the day in hunt- 
ing, hawking, or the chase. A greatly 
shortened mass, gabbled ov^r as fast as 
possible. 

Hunter's Moon. The moon next 
after the harvest moon, where, as in 
' honey-moon,' the word ' moon ' stands 
for month. The harvest moon is that 
immediately before the vernal equinox, 
and the hunter's moon that which follows 



HUEEICANE 



HYKS03 



437 



after the vernal equinox. The harvest 
being over, hunting may begin. 

Hurricane {The). Comte de Mira- 
beau (1749-1791). Also called ' the De- 
mosthenes of France,' from the over- 
powering force of his eloquence. He 
was so corpulent that he was jocosely 
called the Tuh. 

HUSS [John), 1376, 1415. The great 
charge against Huss was his insistence 
on faith. ' Faith, not in the Virgin, not 
in the saints, nor yet in the pope, nor in 
baptism, nor in holy water and oil, but 
in Christ.' He was burnt alive by order 
of the Council of Constance, though the 
kaiser himself (Siegmund) had given him 
safe conduct. ' I came here ' (he said to 
the council) ' under the public faith of the 
kaiser, here present.' In so saying he 
fixed his eyes on Siegmund, ' who blushed 
scarlet at the just but unexpected re- 
buke.' 

Hussite "War [The), 1419-1486. 
Siegmund was elected kaiser 1410, and in 
1415-1416 Huss and Jerome were burnt 
to death. The Hussites were indignant 
that the kaiser should have pledged his 
royal word for the safety of Huss and 
Jerome, and yet should have presidecl at 
the council which condemned them both 
to death. In 1419 they put themselves 
under Ziska the One-eyed and prepared 
for war. Siegmund also prepared to put 
down the insurgents, but was defeated 
over and over again. Ziska died in 1424, 
and Procop (both the elder and the 
younger) led the insurgent Bohemians, 
and no longer stood on the defensive, 
but carried the war beyond the boundaries 
of Bohemia with wonderful success ; but 
at the death of the two leaders peace 
was made, and Siegmund acknowledged 
king of Bohemia (1437). 

The Hussites' platform was: (1) Freedom to 
preach the gospel; ('2) administration of the eu- 
charist in both kinds to laity as well as clergy; 
(Ji) prohibition to the clergy to follow secular pur- 
suits ; and (4) submission of the clergy to the civil 
power. Their symbol was a chalice. The more 
moderate were called ' Calixtines ' (3 syl.), and 
the more extreme ' Taborites ' (3 syl.). 

Hussites (2 syl.). Followers of John 
Huss of Bohemia (1376-1415), who was 
condemned to be burnt alive by the 
Council of Constance. He was a Wyc- 
lifite of most unimpeachable character, 
and his murder is one of the blackest 
stains in the history of the Eoman 
Catholic Church. 



Hutcheso'nians, 1729. Followers 
of Dr. Francis Hutcheson, whose ' System 
of Moral Philosophy ' was based on the 
ethical notions of Lord Shaftesbury. He 
deduces all our moral ideas from an innate 
moral sense, or instinct, which leads us 
to perform certain acts and to avoid 
others. 

Dr. Hutcheson, professor of philosophy at 
Glasgow, died 1747, aged 53. 

Hutchinsonianism, 1724. The 

doctrines of John Hutchhison of York- 
shire, author of ' Moses' Principia,' in 
which he defends the Mosaic cosmogony 
and assails Newton's ' Principia.' He 
maintained that the Holy Scripture is 
the only divine revelation of true religion 
and true science, and that all science not 
in conformity with Scripture is ' philo- 
sophy falsely so called.' He substitutes 
' a plenum and air ' for Newton's ' vacuum 
and gravity.' 

John Hutchinson must not be confounded with 
Dr. Francis Hutcheson. 

He said that the air from the earth to the sun 
grew more and more rarefied till it became pure 
light ; but from the sun to the fix''d stars it grew 
denser and denser, till it stagnated into ' outer 
darkness.' the very ' blackness of darkness.' 

Hutin (Louis X. of France, 1314- 
1316) means ' headstrong ' or ' obstinate,' 
but applied to Louis it was a mere pun. 
He was sent by his father against the 
Hutins, a seditious set of people of Na- 
varre and Lyons, and this expedition 
gained for him the sobriquet. 

Hydro-parasta'tse, or 'Aquarii.' 
The followers of Tatian (born 130), who 
forbade the use of wine even in the eu- 
charist. (Greek, vStop, water; Trapto-nj/mi, 
I present.) 

Hyksos (The), or Shepherd Kings of 
Lower Egypt. A race of Arabs which 
invaded ancient Egypt, and continued 
dominant, according to Manctho, for 500 
years, but according to others about half 
that time (b.c. 1842-1591). They formed 
or were contemporary with the 15th, 16th, 
and 17th dynasties of Upper Egypt. 
Amosis drove them out and established 
the 18th dynasty in Thebais, contem- 
porary with the 19th and 20th. They 
were driven from the Thebais by Tot- 
mosis or Thotmosis, but continued to hold 
certain cantons of Egypt long afterwards. 

It is supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in 
B C. l^tOG, while the Ifith dynasty was regnant ; and 
that Joseph was viceroy about B.C. 1713, in the same 
dynasty. Ulyk— king, Sos—shephend.) 



438 



HYLO-IDEALISM 



ICILIAIT 



Hylo-idealism, 1883. A system 
thought out by Dr. Lewins, and given to 
the world in 1882-1883. It is not 
idealism, but objective or hylo-idealism. 
The fundamental principle is this : Ob- 
jects or objective phenomena must be 
made subjective or mental concepts 
before they are cognisable. The object 
is the stimulus and the perceiving brain 
the response. The two are like the two 
clocks of a telegraphic wire. The object 
works one clock, sends it to the brain, 
and the brain works the other clock. If 
either clock is out of order, or the tele- 
graphic wire is broken, no message is re- 
ceived, and the objective world is cut off 
from all cognisance or even existence as 
far as the person in question is con- 
cerned. 

Hymnus S. MariaD, i.e. the ' Mag- 
nificat.' 

Hymniis S. Trinitatis. In Latin: 
' Sanctus Deus, Sanctus fortis, Sanctus 
immortalis, miserere nobis.' In Greek : 
Ayio? (b flebs, "Kyios iaxvpos, "Aytos aSai/aros, 

Hypapanti (Greek, vnairavTr,, a 
meeting together). It means the meeting 
of Christ in the Temple by Siineon and 
Anna, who had long waited for Him. The 
Feast of Purification is called ' Festam 
Hypapanti,' ' Festum S. Simeonis,' ' Fes- 
tum Purgationis Mariae Virginis,' or 
' Festum Luminum.' 

' Hypapanti ' is barbarous Greek, and unde- 
clinable. 

Hypos'tasis, in divinity, means 
'person ' ; as the Trinity has one essence 
or nature, but three hypostases or p6r- 
Bons. 

' Person ' is not a good word, as it is so closely al- 
lied to a phenomenon, -whereas hypostasis is mere 
noumenon without phenomenon. The basis or sub- 
Btratum of personality. The plural is ' hypostases.' 

Hypostatic Union (An). A 

union of two or more natures so inti- 
mate as to constitute one person. Thus 
the union of man and God in Christ is an 
hypostatic union. 

The Nestorians held that the union of humanity 
and Deity in Christ was a mere moral union, and 
not an hypostatic one. 

Hypothetical Universalism. 

A doctrine taught by Moise Amyraut 
(1590-1664), professor of Saumur : that 
the death of Jesus Christ was sufficient 
for all men, but efficacious for the elect 
only. 



Iambic Poets of Greece [The). 

The three principal were Archilochos of 
Paros (B.C. 710-690), inventor of iambic 
verse, and father of satire ; only a few 
fragments are extant. Simonides of 
Samos (flourished B.C. 660) ; the chief 
fragment extant is a satire on women. 
He says a slattern has something of the 
swine in her composition ; a cunning 
woman something of the fox ; a stupid 
one shares her nature with the ass, the 
headstrong with the weasel, the vain 
with the horse, the malicious with the 
monkey, &c. The third of this class of 
poets was Hipponax of Ephesus (b.c. 566- 
520), father of parody and burlesque. 

The latter lanihic poets were Nican- 
der (B.C. 200-120), and Meleager of 
Gadara (b.c. 135-60), who wrote 130 ei^i- 
grams and a collection of poems called 
' The Garland,' which no longer exists. 

Simonides of Ceos (B.C. SGci 520), the great lyric 
poet, was quite another person. 

Ibe'ria. The Latin name of Spain, 
the people dwelling about the river 
Iberus [i.e. the Ebro). 

Ica'rians. The colonists led by Ca- 
bet, a French communist (1788-1856), to 
Icaria, in Iowa, with a view of forming 
theha into a model community. In this 
community there is no money, no buying 
and selling, but all work for the commu- 
nity, and all are provided by the com- 
munity with everything required. All 
manufactures and industries are national 
property, and the executive determines 
what each individual is to do. In regard 
to religion all worship the ' unluiown 
God,' but there are no creeds, ceremonies, 
or rites. 

Edward Bellamy of America has a novel called 
' Looking Backward ' which embodies this idea. 

Ich Dien (I serve). The motto 
chosen by the Black Prince when he was 
kniglited by his father after the battle of 
Crecy. (1) It was the motto of the king 
of Bohemia, who fell in battle by the 
hand of the young prince, and served to 
commemorate that achievement ; (2) the 
prince had just been made his father's 
' man ' by knighthood, and no words 
could better express his acknowledgment 
of service and duty to his liege lord. 

Pronounce Eck-deen. 

Icil'ian Law (The), b.c. 454. A law 
for the parcelling out the Aventine Hill 
among the plebeians of old Rome, pro- 
posed by Lucius Icilius the tribune. 



ICOGLANS 



IGNATIAN 



439 



Here the people lived in flats without 
any ground rent. 

Icoglans. Children who attend the 
sultan as pages. 

leo'nia {The). A sacred ensign of 
the emperors of Constantinople. It con- 
sisted of a tall pole surmounted by a 
cross, from which, attached to a cross-bar, 
hung a large flag with a Latin cross. On 
another cross-bar on one end hung the 
Virgin Mary with several relics; to the op- 
posite end a string was attached, and held 
in the hand of some ecclesiastic. Amongst 
the relics were apiece of the lance which 
pierced the side of the Saviour, and a 
tooth shed by him in childhood. It first 
belonged to the Cistercians, fell into the 
hands of the Venetians in 1204, and was 
then deposited in the treasury of St. 
Mark. 

Icon'oclasts, or ' Image Breakers,' 
A..D. 485. A religious sect which con- 
sidered crucifixes, images of saints, 
statues, and pictures in Christian churches 
as idolatrous, and went about destroying 
them. They became very active in the 
8th cent, under Leo the Isaurian. Icono- 
clasts were condemned by the Councils of 
Constantinople held in 78G, 80(3, 809, 812, 

814, but these judgments were reversed in 

815. They were again condemned in the 
Councils held in 842, 847, and 870. The 
Lombards were strenuous opposers of 
images and pictures in churches. 

'Iconoclast' is elxc^v (image), xXi^ta (I break). 

Iconodu'li {The). Those who advo- 
cated and reverenced images and pictures 
in churches. Those who broke them and 
discarded them were called Iconoclasts 
(6th and 7th cents.). See ' Iconolatrists.' 

EJirtiv (image), SovXja (an inferior reverence paid 
to samts, images, and relics, in opiiosition to 

Iconolatrists. Worshippers of im- 
ages. Applied to those Christians who 
admit crucifixes, material symbols of 
deity, and pictures into churches and 
houses, either for direct adoration, as aids 
to religion, or as ' outward visible signs of 
an inward invisible faith.' Iconoclasts, 
or image-breakers, were those Christians 
who opposed iconol'atry, and broke to 
pieces all such material symbols in 
churches, &c. See ' Iconduli.' 

Idaean Boy {The), or Idcpus Puer- 
Ganymede is so called because it was 



from Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, that Zeus 
or Juj)iter seized on him and carried him 
to Olympus to be his cup-bearer. 

Idsean Dactyls {The). Mythical 
priests and priestesses of Cybele, and said 
to have been the original discoverers of 
iron. Called Idcean from Mount Ida, in 
Asia Minor, their hypothetical seat ; and 
Dactyls, or fingers, because they were ten 
in number (five males and five females). 

Idaean Judge {The), or Idceus Ju- 
dex. Paris, who decided from Mount 
Gargarus, a part of Ida, between the rival 
claims of Juno, Minerva, and Venus. All 
the goddesses offered bribes to influence 
the award, which the shepherd gave in 
favour of Venus. Cicero calls Paris the 
' Idaean Shepherd ' {Idceus Pastor). 

These 'dactyls,' like the ' Idoean Boy ' and ' Idseau 
Judge,' belong more to mythology than to histoi-y, 
as we now understand the word. 

Idealism. Two different systems of 
philosophy are so called : — 

I. A system which considers absolutes 
or universale as subjective realities. 
Thus white, black, tree, &c., ^ere sup- 
posed to have a subjective existence in- 
dependent of any special object. Plato 
is the exponent of this system, supported 
in modern times by Malebranche, Kant, 
Schelling, Hegel, and others. 

II. Those who deny the reality of the 
world, and maintain that everything is only 
an idea ; or at any rate, so far as any in- 
dividual is concerned, that his senses 
make his world, and if he had no senses 
tYieve. would be, to him at least, no ex- 
ternal world. Bisho]3 Berkeley, Hume, 
Fichte, &c. were exponents of this sys- 
tem. 

Idle Bible {The), 1809. In which 
the ' idol shepherd ' (Zech. xi. 17) is trans- 
lated ' idle shepherd,' in the new version 
' worthless shepherd,' which does not 
mean the same thing. An idol is a 
counterfeit, and an ' idol shepherd ' is a 
counterfeit or false shepherd, who sets up 
himself for his people's adoration, and not 
God. The Pharisees of old, who did 
their good deeds to be seen of men, were 
' idle shepherds.' See ' Bible.' 

The Hebrew word is of ambiguous meaning. 

Ignatian Controversy {The). 
Whether the Epistles ascribed to Ignatius, 
who died 115, are genuine and authen- 
tic. This is very important, as these writ- 



440 



IGNOEAMUS 



ILLITERATE 



ings are the battle-ground of Episco- 
palians and Presbyterians. They favour 
the hierarchical system, and therefore are 
strenuously defended by Episcopalians, 
but the present opinion of scholars such 
as Daille, Semler, Hermann, Ernesti, 
Neander, &c., is that much is spurious, 
and the rest has been greatly tampered 
with. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

The works of Ignatius are a Litiir/jij, a little book 
callei Didnche (quoted by Chrysostom), and 15 
epijtles (12 in Greek and 3 in Latin). The 7 follow- 
ing epistles— to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Phila- 
delphians, Trallians, Smyrnoeans, Romans, and 
to Polycarp— were long accepted as genuine and 
authentic, but are now suspected. Bunsen thinks 
three may be accepted, but condemns the rest. 
Probably all have been interpolated. It is a 
very sad thing, but too true, that no church lite- 
rature which passed through the hayds of the 
monks can be relied on. 

Ignora'mus Jury {An). A grand 
jury was so called because they wrote 
Ignoramus instead of ' no true bill,' when 
sufficient evidence was wantmg to send 
the case to the common jury. 

If you find that anything proceeds from malice 
. . . you may acquit the person that is so wrong- 
fully prosecuted, and so ... an Ignoramus jury 
may be of no use. — Judge Allibon's charge at the 
Croydon Assizes in 1688. 

Ignoran'tines (4 syl.). The ' Con- 
gregation of the Ignorantines ' was founded 
in 1724 in France by the Abbe de la Salle 
(1 syl.). It was suppressed in 1789, but 
re-established by Napoleon in 1806. 

Ik'shidites (3 syl.), 933-968. A 
dynasty of califs ruling in Syria and 
Egypt founded by Abubekr Mohammed 
Ikdiid, a Turkish slave. 

II Hegno. The half-mocking name 
of the kingdom of Naples. It was so 
called for centuries by all the republics 
of Italy. 

Il'derim (lightning). So Bayazidl. 
of Turkey was called from the extreme 
rapidity with which he executed all his 
designs. He reigned 1389-1403. 

lie du Palais (i'). The larger of 
the two little aits or islets in the river 
Seine (Paris) ; the smaller one is called 
L'lle St. Louis, the two are connected hj 
the Pont de la Cite. The tie du Palais 
for many centuries constituted the whole 
city of Paris. Here a tribe of the Celtic 
Gauls, called the Parisii, built their mud 
huts of a circular form, and thatched 
them with reeds from the river. Here 
Clovis built his palace, and here the kings 
of France resided up to the time of 



Philippe II. Augusta (1180-1223), who 
resided in the old Louvre. The palace of 
Clovis was converted by Charles V. into 
the Palais de Justice. Notre Dame de 
Paris stands on the lie du Palais, or cite. 
fie du Palais is so called because of the palace 
built there by Clovis, and used by the early kings 
of France. 

Iliad [The French). The ' Roman de 
la Rose ' [q.v.) by Guillaume de Lorvis 
(1235-1265). A ' continuation ' was sub- 
sequently added by Jehan de Meung 
(1200-1318). 

One might just as well call the ' Faery Queen 'an 
Iliad. The ' Romance of the Rose ' is a love alle- 
gory in verse : The Rose is the poet's lady-love, 
and the subject matter is the course of true love 
does not run smoothly. Fully described in the 
' Reader's Handbook,' p. 84'2. 

The 'Chanson de Roland,' containing upwards 
of 1,600 verses, is called the ' Iliad of France.' 

Iliad [The German). The Nibel- 
ungen Lied, 1210. 

The plot and tale of this epic are fully described 
in the • Reader s Handbook, p. (384. 

Iliad [The Portuguese). The 'Lu- 
siads ' by Camoens. Fully described in 
the ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 580. 

Iliad {Tlw Scotch). The Epigoniad, 
by William Wilkie. Fully described in 
the ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 297. 

Ilkha'nian Tables [The), 13th 
cent. The astronomical tables and ob- 
servations of Nazir Eddin, the great 
Persian astronomer, in the reign of 
Houlagou Khan, son of Ghengis Khan, 
who reigned 1259-1265. Nazir Eddia 
lived 1201-1274. 

Hassan Bouzruk Ilkani did not found the 
Ilkanian dynasty till 1336, sixty-two years after 
the death of Nazir Eddin. 

Ilkha'nians {The). A Mogul dy- 
nasty of Persia, founded by Hassan 
Bouzruk, or Ilek-khan, who made Bagdad 
his capital. His dynasty only lasted 65 
years (1336-1401), when it was overthrown 
by Tamerlane. 

Illinois {TJ. S. America). So called, 
in 1809, from an Indian tribe of that 
name. The natives are nicknamed 
' Suckers.' Discovered by the French in 
1070 ; ceded to England in 1763 ; and 
admitted as a state of the Union in 1818. 

Illiterate Parliament {The), 
1404. From which all lawyers were ex- 
cluded. See ' Parliaments.' 

It advised the king, Henry IV. to seize the re- 
venues of the clergy, which were more than one- 
third of all the land of England, and to repeal the 
statute ' De Ha3retico Comburendo ; but the king 
feared to ofleud the clergy. 



ILLUMINATED 



IMMORTAL 



441 



IlluTninated Doctor (T7ie). 'Doc- 
tor Illuminatus,' or ' Most Enlightened 
Doctor.' Raymond Lully, born in Ma- 
jorca (1234-1315). He entered the Fran- 
ciscan order, and set himself to convert the 
Moslems, was stoned at Bugia [in Algeria], 
and supposed to be dead (30 June, 1315). 
Some looked on him as a saint, others con- 
sidered him 'un insense et un he'retique.' 
He was the Dest chemist of his age, but spent his 
time in searching for the philosopher's stone by 
distillation. 

Illuminati [The), ICth cent. A re- 
ligious sect, founded by Jacob Boehmen, 
or Boehm, a shoemaker of Lusatia. He 
averred that he was often carried up to 
heaven, like the Apostle Paul. Sweden- 
borgians and Quietists were in a great 
measure ' Illuminati ' ; that is, they pro- 
fessed to have an inner light which illu- 
minated them. See ' Martinists,' ' Gueri- 
nets,' and ' Alombrados.' Also next article. 

IllTimina'tists [The), or The 
Society of Illuminatists,' 1776. A secret' 
society founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, 
professor of canon law at Ingolstadt, his 
avowed aim being ' to illuminate the 
world with a higher philosophy.' This 
society was joined by Mesmer, Cagliostro, 
Condorcet, the Due d'Orleans, Mirabeau, 
and the Abbe Sieyes. The real objects 
were to crush priestly intolerance and 
superstition, to stamp out feudalism, and 
to 'limit regal authority to the popular 
will. In a word, the ' Illuminatists ' were 
the midwives of the first French Revolu- 
tion, though, without doubt, the re- 
volution far outran their programme. 
Suppressed in 1785. 

Also called ' Illuminati.' 

Ill3rr'ian Conservatives {The)^ 
19th cent. The Croatian jDarty which 
Bought the establishment of an indepen- 
dent Slav nationality (about 1847). 

Illyr'ian Provinces {The), 1809. 

So named by Napoleon's decree. They 
consisted of Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, 
Austrian Friuli, the Hungaj'ian littoral, 
and Southern Croatia. In 1810 it was 
augmented ; but after the battle of Water- 
loo (1815) the provinces were restored to 
Austria by the Congress of Vienna, and, 
in 1849, were subdivided into duchies and 
counties. 

Image Worship, introduced into 
Christian churches, was condemned by 
tlie Council of Illiberis (Elvira in Gra- 



nada) between 300 and 305. Calif Yezid 
II. in 723 commanded the destruction of 
all ' religious ' images. See ' Iconoclasts.' 

Images were denounced in Germany 
by Carlstadt in 1522. 

In Switzerland by Zwingle in 1523, and 
removed from the churches of Zurich. 

In England by act of parliament 1549, 
and removed from all churches in Eng- 
land. 

In Austria by Joseph II., 1782. See 
' Iconduli ' and ' Iconolatrists.' 

In the Second Council of Nice, 7^7, a distinction 
was drawn between latreia (worship) and doub-iit 
(reverence). The adoration of God is latreia, the 
reverence paid to images and saints is doiilnia. 



Imam, or 'Imaum.' The 
supreme of the Moslem faith. 



chief 
The 
Sunnites, or orthodox Moslims, use the 
title of ' Imam ' as a synonym of calif, 
their spiritual and temporal head ; but 
the Shiites maintain that the true Imam 
was Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, and 
his direct descendants: as Ali, Hassan, 
Hussein [sons of Ali], Ali-Seinolabiddin, 
Mohammed-Bakr, Giafar-el- Sadie, and 
Ismael, who died 730, leaving an infant 
son, named Mohammed, who was set asido 
for his uncle Mousa. This departure 
created a new schism. Those who fol- 
lowed the direct line called themselves 
Ismaelites, who separated from the Shi- 
ites or followers of Mousa. The Isma,elites 
maintain that Mohammed, one of these 
days, will manifest himself, but till then 
they will acknowledge no one as Imam. 

The ordinary ministers of the Mosluns arecaJle I 
'Imams.' In Arabia certain chiefs are entiLid 
Imams, and their territory an Imamat. klce 
' Mahdi." 

Imaum'ians (The). One of the 
numerous Sliiite sects. They insist that 
the chief point of religious observance is 
to distinguish who is the true imaum or 
head of the Mohammedan Church. The 
people have no will in the matter. See 
* Imam,' ' Khallabians,' ' Zeyds.' 

Immaculate Conception {The 
BeUgionists of the). Were a branch of 
the Franciscans, founded in Toledo, in 
1484, by the venerable Beatrice of Sylva. 
They followed the rule of the Clarisses, 
with certain mitigations. 

Immaculate Conceptionists. 

See under ' Franciscans.' 

Immortal Principles of 1789 

(The). So the French denominate the 
principles enunciated by the Constituent 



442 



IMPANNATION 



IN 



Assembly in their Declaration of Eights 
iq.v.), ' Declaration des droits de rhonime 
et du citoyen,' 1 Oct. 1789, The chief 
were equal taxation for all classes ; equal 
eligibility of all citizens to hold office in 
the state ; unrestricted liberty to all. 

As principles, these are anything but immortal. 
A tax of 4s. in the pound to all alilie would bo any- 
thing but equality of taxation. To a man who 
earns a pound a week it is a fifth of his earnings, 
to another who earns 40,s. a week, it is a tenth part. 
To one who earns 4/. a week it is only a twentieth 
part, and so on. Equal objection lies against the 
other two 'immortal principles,' which would be 
more correctly denominated 'mortal folly.' 

Impannation, i.e. ' consubstantia- 
tion.' Luther taught that the bread of 
the eucharist remained bread after con- 
secration ; but that by consecration the 
body of Christ was imparted to the bread, 
so that the communicants ate both bread 
and Christ at one and the same time. 
Catholics maintain that the bread is trans- 
muted, and no longer remains bread at 
all. Most Protestants believe that no 
change takes place in the bread by con- 
secration, but being devoted to God, like 
a church, it cannot be used for secular or 
ordinary purposes. 

Krauth, in his 'Conservative Reformation," 
affirms that Luther entertained the same views 
as the High Anglican party. 

Imperial Chamber (The), 1495. 
The first law-court established m Ger- 
many. Instead of settling differences by 
the sword, the barons were commanded 
by the Diet of Augsburg (1495) to submit 
their grievances to the Imperial Chamber, 
which consisted of a president named by 
the crown, four judges, and fifty assessors. 

The Aulic Council was instituted to prepare mat- 
ters for the Council ; but in 1654 the Aulic Council 
was recognised as equal to the Imperial Chamber. 

Im.perial Federation League 

(The), 28 July, 1884. For securing a 
permanent unity of the United Kingdom 
and its colonies. 

Imperial Free Cities, in feudal 
times, were those built on the royal 
demesnes. In Germany they owed their 
origin to Heinrich I. (the Fowler), who 
gi'anted them sj)ecial privileges. See 
' Church Cities ' and ' Ducal Towns.' 

No one could open a shop in these towns 
■without a. licence, which was never granted to 
any except ' free burghers.' Those who were not 
town-free could only have their shops beyond the 
city walls. 

Im.perial Parliam.ent (The), 22 
Jan., 1801. George III. so called the 
parliament after the union with Ireland. 
See ' Parliament.' 



Imperialists, or * Melchites,' 537. 
A party of the Monoph'y sites (4 syl.) of 
Alexandria, supported by Justinian and 
favoured by the Empress Theodora. See 
' Corruptibles.' 

They have ceased to be Monophysites, and are 
now Orthodox Greeks. They are still found in 
Egypt, but are very few. 

ImportantS {Les), 1643. Apolitical 
faction formed at the death of Louis 
XIII., consisting of those who had been 
ill-used by Richelieu, in the hope of ob- 
taining justice under the new king. The 
chiefs were Les Guises, Les Vendomes, the 
Due d'Epernon, the Duchess de Chevreuse 
and the Duchess de Montbazon. Besides 
these there were Potior bishop of Beau- 
vais, and the Due de Beaufort. To break 
up this cabal many of them were sent 
into exile, Beaufort was imprisoned, and 
the bishop was sent to his diocese. Most 
of the Importants took part in the Fronde 
iq.v.). 

In Cam'era. With closed doors, the 
public not being permitted to be present. 

It was directed that the inquiry should be con- 
ducted in camei-a. — 2'lie Royal Liver Friendly Society, 
Jan. 1886. 

In Coena Dom'ini, 1568. The 
famous Bull of Pivis V. anathematising 
everyone who dared to question, limit, or 
abjure the absolute authority of the Holy 
See. It was specially directed against 
the League of Schmalkalden, a Gernian 
Protestant association. Next year (1569) 
the pope excommunicated Queen Eliza- 
beth, and absolved her subjects from 
their allegiance. 

Thomas Erastus wrote a book entitled ' De 
Cocna Domini,' in which he contended for the 
figurative interpretation of the words ' This is My 
body,' &c. This Bull was read on Holy Thursday, 
called ' The day of the Lord's Supper,' whence its 
name. 

In Eminenti (The Bull), 1642. By 
Urban VIII. in condemnation of the 
' Augustlnus ' of Corneliiig Jansen. 

The work was designed to prove that (judged by 
the Jesuit s standard) St. Augustine was unsound 
on the points of Grace, Free-will, and Predestma- 
tion. 

In Usum Sarum, 1078. The 
Salisbury Missal, drawn up by Oswald or 
Osmund bishop of Salisbury in the reign 
of Rufus. It is in Latin, and based on 
the Roman Missals. 

There were numberless ' Uses ' or Missals em- 
ployed before the introduction of the Book of 
Common Prayer. Hence in the Introduction of 
that book we read : ' There hath been great diver- 
sity in saying and singing in churches within this 
realm: some following SnUsbury Use, some Here- 
ford Use, some the Use of Banyur, some of York, 



INA 



INCORRUPTIBLE 



443 



and some of Lincoln. But from henceforth all the 
■whole realm shall have but one Use.' 

Ina [Laivs of), a.d. 692. Ina was 
king of Wessex, and promulgated a code 
of laws which was received over the 
whole heptarchy. By these laws the 
British proprietors were' allowed to retain 
their lands ; and alliances by marriage 
were encouraged between the natives and 
the Saxons. 

Inearamina'ti {The). The school 
of painting formed by the Carracci. The 
word means ' progressive,' and the Car- 
racci school was eclectic, seeking to stamp 
out the exaggerations and mannerism of 
contemporary artists. It directed art to 
the study of nature and the best masters. 
The good taste of the Carracci is pro- 
verbial. 

The Carracci were Ludovico (1554-lG19).and his 
two cousins Annibale and Agostino ; the former 
died in 1609 at the age of 48, and the latter in Hh)2 
at the age of 45. Aunibale was the best artist of 
the three. 

Ineas. A Peruvian dynasty (1130- 
1571) which succeeded the Aymara 
dynasty, and was reigning when (in 1533) 
Pizarro conquered Peru. The Incas 
called themselves descendants of the 
Sun. The first Inca was Manco-Capac 
IICO, and his successors were Sinchi- 
Roca, Lloqui-Yupanqui, Mayta-Capac, 
Capac-Yupanqui, Roca, Yahuar-Huacac, 
Viracocha, Pachacutec, Yapanqui, 
Tupac-Yupanqui, Huayna-Capac, Huas- 
car and Atahualpa (taken prisoners by 
the Spaniards and put to death in 1533). 
Tupac- Amaru was beheaded in 1571. 

Incident (TAe), 1641. A supposed plot 
of Charles I. to kill or kidnap the Marquis 
of Hamilton and the Earl of Argyll, at 
the instigation of James Graham earl of 
Montrose. Charles I. contrived to win 
over James Graham, Earl of Montrose ; 
but when the Scotch Covenanters got 
wind of this treachery they arrested the 
earl and imprisoned him. While in 
prison he revealed to the king certain 
treasonable plots which he alleged were 
set on foot by Hamilton and Argyll, and 
he advised the king to summon the two 
Scotch noblemen ostensibly ' to a con- 
Bultation ' ; but when they entered the 
ante-room armed men (headed by the 
Earl of Crawford) were to kidnap them, 
and carry them beyond the seas. If they 
resisted they were to be slain. The two 
noblemen escaped to their castles, and 
the king: denied the scandal. The matter 



was privately investigated, and it was 
given out that the whole tale was a 
mare's nest ; but instead of punishing the 
supposed traitors the king created Hamil- 
ton a duke and Argyll a marquis. This 
strange ' Incident ' will be found in the 
' Hardwicke Papers.' 

Income Tax {The). Proposed by 
Pitt Dec. 1798, repealed 1802. Reim- 
posed as a property tax 1803, abandoned 
1816. Reimposed by Sir Robert Peel, 
22 June, 1842, for three years, but con- 
tinued at varying rates, from 2d. to 8<^. in 
the pound, according to the exigencies of 
government. 

The triennial renewals from 1842 were 1845, 18-18, 
and 1851. In 1853 it was renewed \.^r seven years 
and extended to Ireland. It was doubled in 1854, 
but in 1857 it was reduced, and incomes vinder 
'l50L a year were relieved. 

Incorporated Society for Pro- 
moting English Protestant 
Schools in Ireland {The), 1733. 
Established by royal charter, for the 
education of the poor in Ireland in the 
principles of the Established Church. 
Grant reduced in 1824, and wholly with- 
drawn in 1832. 

Incorruptible {The). I. Robes- 
pierre (1759, 1793-1794). Bouillet says: 
' Robespierre etait un homme froid, cache, 
tenace dans ses opinions, et dominant. 
II affectait le plus pur patriotisme et 
tous les dehors de la vertu, ce qui I'avait 
sumomme par ses partisans Vlncor- 
ruptible.' 

Probably called the Incorruptible from his 
denunciations against corruption at the outbreak 
of the Kevolution. 

II. Fabricius the Roman hero, of 
whom Pyrrhus said : * It would be easier 
to turn the sun from its course than Fab- 
ricius from his path of duty.' 

III. William Shippen, of whom Horace 
Walpole said, ' he is the only man proof 
against a bribe.' 

IV. Andrew Marvell, who refused a 
cheque for 1,000Z., slipped into his hand 
by the Lord Treasurer Danby in 1673. 
The anecdote is given on p. 43, under the 
title of ' Aristides {The British).' 

Incorruptible Lucas* {The). 
Charles Lucas, who in 1746 (George II. 's 
reign) tried to abrogate the law of 
Charles II., which took the power of 
choosing the city magistrates of Ii'eland 
from the Irish commons, and vested it in 
the aldeimen, thus virtually giving the 



444 



INCORRUPTIBLES 



INDEX 



election to the crown, because the alder- 
men were chosen by the privy council. 

Incorruptibles {The), or 'In- 
corruptibilists,' 537-568. A branch of 
the Monoph'ysites of Alexandria which 
fNrose on the death of the patriarch 
'i^imothy. The leader was Gaian, a dis- 
ciple of Julian — whence his followers were 
called Gaianites — a party supported by 
the monks and senators, the city and 
provinces. The Incorruptibles were oj)- 
iwsed to the Corruptibles {q.v.), and so 
bitter the animosity between them that 
Alexandria was filled with the dead 
bodies of the factionists. Women from 
housetops hurled missiles against their 
religious opponents, and it is said that 
200,000 Christians fell by the sword when . 
ApoUinarius was installed patriarch of 
Alexandria. 

The Incorruptibles insisted that the body of 
Christ was a celestial body, and not a body of 
corruptible flesh like ours. The Corruptibles in- 
sisted on the perfect manhood of Christ. 

Incroy'ables (Les). A class of 
young dandies during the time of the 
Directory. They affected great care in 
their dress, a refined manner of speech, 
and elegance of deportment — the very 
opposite of the sansculotte style of dress 
and manner affected by the revolutionary 
party. The Incroyables represented the 
reactionary party. 

Under the Regent ' un Incroyable ' was called 
un talon roufia : under Louis XIV., un libertin ; 
under Henri III., ttw mignon; under Charles IX., 
xm raffine ; under FranQois I., un miu/uet. In 1886 
he was called un becarre ; in 1887 un copurchic. 

Indemnity (Bill or Act of). 12 
Car. II. c. 11, 1660. A bill for the in- 
demnity of all acts of treason and all 
state offences committed between 1 Jan., 
1637, and 24 June, 1660. 

II. 2 William and Mary c. 10, 20 May, 
1690. Indemnity for the adherents of 
James II. 

III. 7 Geo. III. c. 7, 16 Dec, 1766. 
Indemnity for the advisers of the embargo 
on the exportation of corn. 

IV. 41 Geo. III. c. 66, 23 June, 1801. 
Indemnity for protecting authorities from 
penalties, in respect to proceedings during 
the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act. 

V. 21 Vict. c. 1, 12 Dec, 1857. In- 
demnity for the infringement of the 
Currency Acts. 

Independence [Declaration of), 
4 July, 1776. See under 'Declaration.' 



Independence Day, July. The 
Great National Holiday in the U.S. of 
North America. 

Independent Methodists, 1810. 

Separatists from the old Methodist con- 
nection. Chiefly distinguished by their 
rejection of a paid ministry. 

Independent Order of G-ood 
Templars {The), 1852. Seceders from 
the ' Order of Good Templars,' whose 
motto is ' Faith, Hoi)e, and Charity.' Ifc 
is a total abstinence society. 

Independents, 1580. Those Chris- 
tians who, in the reign of Elizabeth, pro- 
tested against a state church. They 
maintain that each congregation is in- 
dependent in the selection of its own 
minister and the laws of church member- 
ship and government ; in contradistinc- 
tion to Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, 
Presbyterians, and Methodists, who have 
no such freedom. 

They were at first called Brownists from Robert 
Brown, a clergyman, 1580, and were not called 
Independents till IHIO ; but they attracted very 
little attention before the opening of the Long 
Parliament, when Hugh Peters returned from 
New England. The first Independent Synod was 
held in the Savoy (Strand) -29 Sept., IG58. See 
'Brownists' and ' Congregationalists.' 

*j,* Besides Independents (who are more or less 
Calvinistic), there are the Independent Metho- 
dists, the Independent Religious Reformers, the 
Independent Unionists, &c. In 1730 was formed 
tiae association of the Three Denominations: Inde- 
pendents, Presbyterians, and Baptists. 

Independents and Presby- 
terians, 1647. Two political parties in 
English history which sprang up during 
the Civil war. The Independents were 
the parliamentarians, but the Presby- 
terians were disposed to make terms with 
the king and the royalists. In 1680 the 
Independents were called Whigs and the 
royalists Tories. Since the middle of 
the 19th cent, the words Liberal and 
Conservative have well-nigh superseded 
those of Whig and Tory. 

Independents' Declaration of 
Faith {The). Their confession of faith, 
contained in 33 articles, 12 Oct., 1658. 

Index. The first index to a book 
was by Valerius Soranus. Pliny says 
that he himself gave an index to his 
' Natural History,' adding these words : 
' Valerius Soranus, one of our Latin 
authors, had done the like before me.' 

Index Expurgato'rius, or ' Index 
Librorum Expurgandorum,' 1 "57. Issued 
by Paul IV. A list of books forbidden to 



INDEX 



INDULGENCE 



445 



be read by Catholics. The books of all 
heresiarchs, whatever the subject, are 
forbidden; all books of an heretical 
tendency, and all versions of the Bible 
by ' heretics.' The list was made out 
originally by the Congi-egation of the 
Inquisition of Rome, but Pius V. ap- 
pointed a special ' Congregation of the 
Index.' See next article. 

Index Librorum Prohibito- 
rum. In May 1B25 Sir Eobert Inglis, 
speaking in the House of Commons, 
said : ' I hold in my hand the " Index 
Librorum Prohibiiorum " (a list of 
books proscribed by the Catholic 
Church under the penalties of the 
Inquisition). It was printed at Eome 
by authority in 1819, and I bought it 
there in 1821.' The first book on the 
list is ' Bacon, De Augmentis Scientia- 
rum.' Then follow ' Locke, on the 
Human Understanding,' Cudworth's ' In- 
tellectual System,' Milton's ' Paradise 
Lost ' . . . ' Algarotte On the Newtonian 
System,' &c. This is also called the 
' Index of the Court of Rome,' or briefly 
the ' Index.' Many of the books of Des- 
cartes, Malebranche, Fleury, Fe'nelon, 
with all Calvin's, Luther's, and Voltaire's, 
are in the Index — Gibbon, Robertson, 
Sismondi, Hallam, Goldsmith's ' History 
of England,' Kant, T. S. Mill, Whately'a 
* Logic,' Dante, Addison, &c. Some little 
tales for children are banned in the 
Index, as, for instance, ' Little Henry and 
his Bearer.' 

Sir Eobert says that Jacqnier, the editor of 
Newton's ' Principia," v/rote on the fly-leaf 'New- 
tonus, in tertio libro, Telluris motoe hypothesim 
assumit . . . Caiterumlatia asunimis pontificlbus 
contra telluris motum decretis nos obsequi pro- 
fitemur. 1739." 

Indian File {In). In single file; 
one at a time ; as North American In- 
dians go on an attack, the one behind 
treading exactly in the footsteps of the 
man before him, the last man carefully 
obliterating the footprmts. 

Indian Mutiny {The), 1857, 1858. 
It began by mutinies of the Sepoys at 
Barrackpore and Berhampore, between 
24 Jan. and 6 May, 1857 ; the Meerut 
massacre {g^.v.) occurred 10 May, the 
mutiny at Delhi 11 May, the mutiny at 
Lucknow 30 May, at Benares 4 June, at 
Allahabad and Cawnpore 5 June. "War 
over June 1858. Also called the 'Sepoy 
War.' See ' Greased Cartridges.' 

In tact, the mutiny was virtually crushed in 



seven months, and by the close of 1857 the Bengal 
Army and East Indian Company ceased to exist. 

India'na (U.S. America). So called 
in 1802 from the number of Indians 
who had flocked thither. A French 
settlement in 1702 ; a separate territory 
in 1800 ; admitted to the Union in 181(3. 
The nickname given to the inhabitants 
o Indiana is Hoosiers. 

Indiction. I. In chronologtj means 
a period of fifteen years. The Indiction 
of Constantinople begins 1 Sept., 312, the 
date of Constantino's victory over Maxen- 
tius. This epoch is still preserved in 
papal bulls, because then Christianity 
was first recognised by the state. But 
the Papal Indiction begins on 1 Jan., 
313. 

Divide the date by 15 and it will give the num- 
ber of indictions, the remainder being the years 
over. Thus 181)0 -i- 15 gives 126 indictions exactly. 

II. In political Jiistory it means the 
recurrence of 15 years when the emperor 
of the East revised and reimposed the 
imposts of his empire. The word means 
the unperial edict. 

Indolent Dick. Richard Crom- 
well, son of Oliver Cromwell (162G- 
1712). 

Induction— Institution. Induc- 
tion is the investing of a clergpnan with 
the temporalities of a benefice or living. 
Listitution is the investing him with its 
spiritualities. If a bishop is the patron 
of a benefice the two ceremonies are 
united in what is termed ' collation ' to 
the living. 

Inductive Philosophy {The 
Father of). Francis Bacon lord Veru- 
1am (1561-1626). 

'Inductive philosophy' is inferring general 
principles from data. Iii'ditctive philosophy goes 
the other way about ; it begins with general prin- 
ciples and then presumes what these principles 
involve. One is the a jwsteriori process, and the 
other is the d i>riori one. All 'science' follows 
the iii,lurtir<- or Baconian plan. ' Theology ' still 
adlieres to the deductive system. 

Indulgence {An). A Papal Indul- 
gence was a grace given or sold by the 
pope, or someone authorised by him, 
granting either partial or plenary immu- 
nity of sin for some meritorious act, 
on payment of a sum of money. The 
price of these notes-of-hand varied from 
20d. to 10^. In a captured vessel 500 
bales of indulgences, each containing a 
million, were found during the Reforma- 



446 



INDULGENCE 



INEXPIABLE 



tion period in Germany. Tetzel, tbe 
great hawker of indulgences, went about 
like a cheap Jack, crying in the streets 
of German towns : ' The very moment 
the ring of the cash is heard in the basin 
St. Peter will throw open the gates of 
paradise to the buyer ; and if for the 
dead, the soul will be instantly taken 
from purgatory to Abraham's bosom.' 
We first hear of indulgences in Nov., 
1095, granted by the Council of Clermont 
to crusaders. Next on 2 Feb., 1300, 
granted by Pope Boniface VIII. to pil- 
grims visiting Rome at the Jubilee. 
Again 27 Jan., 1843, granted by Clement 
VI. Again in 1411, granted by John 
XXIII. to those who joined the crusade 
against Ladislaus king of Naples. But 
the sale of indulgences authorised by 
Leo X. for raising money to complete the 
cathedral of St. Peter at Rome was so 
barefaced a traffic in sin that Luther made 
capital out of it for his reformation plea ; 
and no worse agent could have been em- 
ployed than the charlatan Tetzel. The 
Council of Trent in Dec. 1563 restricted 
the grace by fijced laws. 

Samson, a hawker of indulgences In Switzer- 
land, roused the indignation of Zwingli the re- 
former, just as Tetzel roused Luther. The 
following is an exact translation of one of these 
diplomas, a few words being omitted where the 
dots are made for the sake of brevity : ' May the 
Lord have mercy on thee, and absolve thee by 
the merits of his most holy passion ! And I, by 
God's authority, do hereby absolve thee from ail 
ecclesiastical censures . . . and from all sins . . . 
how enormous soever they may be . . . and I 
remit to thee all the punishment which those sins 
have deserved. I restore thee to the holy sacra- 
ments of the church, to the communion of saints, 
and to perfect innocence of life ; so that when 
thou diest, the gates of hell shall be shut, and 
those of paradise be thrown open to thee ... In 
the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of 
the Holy Ghost.' 

The enormous impudence of this traffic almost 
exceeds belief. Through the Netherlands the 
price current of these indulgences was published 
in every town and village. God's pardon for 
crimes already committed, or about to be com- 
mitted, was advertised according to a graduated 
tariff. Poisoning was absolved for eleven ducats 
(about 50s.).— Motley, Dutch Republic, vol. i. p. 73. 

Indulgence to Scotch ministers, 
16G8, whereby the ejected ministers were 
readmitted to their livings if they accepted 
collation from the bishop, and would 
attend the presbyteries and synods. This 
was the Earl of Tweeddale's Act. 

1670. Lauderdale offered indulgence 
to all ministers who would take the oath 
of supremacy and acknowledge the 
bishops. • 

1673. Lauderdale named eighty ejected 
ministers, and ordered them to oiiiciate 



in their own churches, but nowhere else ; 
but one-fourth of them refused the offer. 
See under ' Declaration.' 

Indulgences {Tariff of). From 
' The Tax of the Sacred Roman Chan- 
cery ' : — 

Adultery 40s. (joint pardon). 

Arson, or setting fire to a house, lis. 

Forgery 8s. 

Fornication 8s. 

Incest by a priest 40s. (joint pardon). 

Keeping a concubine, a priest 9s. 

Murder of a layman 4s. 

Perjury or lying 8s. 

Procuring abortion 6s. 

Rape 40s. (joint pardon). 

Robbery 12s. 

Robbing a church 8s. 

Striking a priest lis. 

Of this list ' Robbery ' and ' Robbing a church ' 
seem the most extraordinary. 

Industrial Schools. Generally 
means ' Ragged Schools,' in which writing, 
reading, and arithmetic are taught, with 
mechanical arts, and in which the children 
are clothed and fed. They scarcely 
existed till 1857, and were not finally 
established till 18G6. 

In Scotland they were established by 
act of parliament in 1861. 

In Ireland in 1868. 

Private enterprise opened such schools before 
these dates, but the first act of parliament bearing 
on the subject was 20, 21 Vict. c. 48. 

Indus'trialists [The), about 1800. 
A school founded by St. Simon for the 
amelioration of the people. He taught 
that producers are the only aristocracy, 
and if men would not work neither should 
they eat. After the death of St. Simon 
in 1825 the society became political and 
communistic. In 1825 they called them- 
selves ' St. Simonians,' and in 1833 were 
abolished by law. 

Inexpiable War {The), or 'The 
War without Truce' (b.c. 240-236). A 
war which sprang up immediately after 
the First Punic War. It was headed by 
Matho, a Libyan, who had been very 
forward in urging the Carthaginian sol- 
diers to demand their pay. The insur- 
gents kept the Carthaginians at bay for 
more than three years, when Hamilcar 
reduced them to famine in Tunis; a 
sortie was made, Matho was taken pri- 
soner and put to death, and the war was 
brought to a close. 



INFALLIBILITY 



INFERNAL 



U7 



Infallibility of the Church of 
Rome means the moral impossibihty of 
the church ever sanctioning the intro- 
duction of a false doctrine, as well as 
perfect immunity of all errors at all times. 
Our Lord said (Matt. xvi. 18), ' Thou art 
Peter, and upon this rock will I build my 
church ; and the gates of hell shall not 
prevail against it.' Not only is the church 
the fans et origo of doctrine, but it is 
deputed to carry its teaching throughout 
the world (Matt. Xxviii. 19, Mark xvi. 15, 
Eph.iv. 11-16). 

Of course the main question is what 
is meant by the Catholic Church ? And 
the answer is the consensus of the pope 
and bishops cither expressly delivered 
by ecumenical councils, or tacitly accepted 
on questions of doctrine or "discipline, no 
matter from whence they originally ema- 
nated. 

What is called the Infallibility of the 
Pope, or, in other words, whether the 
pope alone, as pope, is capable of pro- 
nouncing an infallible judgment, was a 
moot pomt for many hundreds of years 
between Gallican and Ultramontane 
divines. The right was first claimed in 
750, but was not made an article of faith 
till 1870, when it caused a rift in the 
Catholic Church. 

In the 19th Art. of the Church of England we 
read : ' As the Church of Hierusalem, Alexandria, 
and Antioch have erred, so also the Church of 
Rome hath erred— not only in their living and 
manner of ceremonies, but also in matters of 
faith.' 

*,* The Catholic Church distinctly repudiates 
anyintallible judgment in historical and scientific 
matters. 

Infallibility of the Pope. This 
dogma in 1870 was rejected by a party 
which termed themselves ' Old Catholics.' 
They also denied the ecumenical charac- 
ter of the Vatican Council, and rejected 
the Vatican decrees. 

Infant Stockbroker {The). Sid- 
ney Herbert Cronmire, aged twenty in 
1886, when he was charged with mis- 
appropriating cheques which had been 
sent him for specified investments by 
gentlemen residing at Bridgewater. The 
' Infant ' was arrested in Spain, and 
pleaded guilty. 

Infant of Ltibeck (T/^e). Christian 
Heinrich Heineckeu (1721-1725). Tf what 
is told us of this unhappy child is true, it 
is the most pitiable instance of precocity 



on record. His life was written by his 
tutor Schoneich. 

We are told that he spoke when only a month 
old ; that at twelve months of age he knew the 
chief events of the Pentateuch : at thirteen 
months he knew the history of the whole Old 
Testament ; at fourteen months the history of 
the New Testament; at two and a half years he 
could answer any general question of history or 
geography ; at three years old he knew French 
and Latin as familiarly as he knew German, 
although he was not then weaned (!!). He died 
between four and five. 

*»* More marvellous still, the infant prodigy 
John Philipp Baratier was born at Schwabach 
near Niirnberg the same year {!!), 1721-1740. Of 
this latter prodigy there is no doubt. 

Infante (mas. 3 syl.), Infanta 
(fem,). Titles given in Spain and Por- 
tugal to all the princes and princesses of 
the blood royal, except the heir or heiress 
apparent. 

The heir apparent of Spain is called the Prince 
of Asturias. The heiress presumptive is entitled 
Infanta. In Portugal the heir or heiress apparent 
is called the ' Prince ' or " Princess Royal.' 

Infantry. Foot soldiers. ' Infantry ' 
originally meant a particular army of 
foot soldiers, raised by the Infante or 
heir-apparent of Spain to rescue his 
father from the Moors, and is about equal 
to our phrase 'the Prince of Wales's 
Own.' The infantry was the Infante's 
own. We have applied the particular 
term to foot soldiers generally. Like 
calling all foot soldiers 'the Prince of 
W^ales's Own.' 

Infernal Columns {The), 1793. 
Republican detachments in the Vendean 
war. So called from their diabolical 
barbarity. They murdered all, even 
children at the breasts, and as they 
advanced set the houses and country on 
fire. 

Infernal Machines. 

I. 21 Dec, 1800. A machine planted 
by the Chouans in the Rue St. Nicaise to 
blow up Napoleon Bonaparte on his re- 
turn from Italy. As Bonaparte drew 
near, the barrel hung fire ; but scarcely 
had he passed the spot when it exploded, 
shattered the windows of his carriage, 
and injured several persons in the crowd. 

II. 28 July, 1835. Discharged from a 
window at Louis-Philippe king of the 
French as he was riding on horseback 
with his three sons down the Boulevard 
du Temple (Paris). Marshal Mortier, 
General de Virigny, and twelve others, 
including a child, were killed, but Louis- 
Philippe was uninjured. The assassin 
was Fieschi. a Corsican. formerly a 



U9 



INFEANCESADOS 



INNOCENTS' 



soldier and a police spy. Fieschi, Peppin, 
and Moray were executed ; Boireau was 
sentenced to imprisonment for twenty 
years, but Besclier was acquitted. 

The projectile of Orsini thrown at Napoleon III., 
14 Jan., 1858, was a suecies of bombshell ; that 
which assassinated Czar Alexander II., li! March, 
1881, was a dynamite bomb, thrown at his carriage 
by Nihilists. 

Infrancesa'dos, 1808. Those Spa- 
nish grandees who traitorously favoured 
the French usurpation of the Spanish 
crown and the appointment of Joseph 
Bonaparte as his brother Napoleon's 
viceroy king. Also called ' Josephi'nos ' 
iq.v.). 

Influenza. An epidemic catarrh. 
Ai^peared in Europe in 1510, 1557, 1580. 

Very fatal in London in 1729, and in 
Eussia in 1781, 1782. 

It has appeared in England in 1782, 
1803, 1831, 1833, 1836, 1837, 1889. 

The word means an epidemic due to the in- 
fluence of the planets ; under the notion that it is 
connected with volcanic action. 

Ing'hamites (3 syl.). Christian fol- 
lowers of Mr. Benjamin Ingham, son-in- 
law of the CounteiLS of Huntingdon. 

Injunctions {Royal), 1535. It was 
commanded that no lectures should bo 
given in the Universities on the ' Sen- 
tences ' (q.v.), or on Canon Law; but 
that Greek, Latin, and Divinity should 
be taught in addition to the Trivium 
{q.v.) a.nd Quadrivium {q.v.). 

Injunctions of Edward VI. 

{The), 1547. Commands issued to the 
Commissioners appointed by Cranmer to 
make a visitation of all England. They 
enjoined that all images, shrines, candle- 
sticks, pictures, representations of mira- 
cles, &c., in windows and elsewhere., be 
removed and destroyed ; that all proces- 
sions and pilgrimages be discontinued ; 
that the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the 
Ten Commandments be repeated when 
there is no sermon ; that the Epistle and 
Gospel be read in English; that the 
Litany be said or sung kneeling; that the 
bidding prayer be used as prescribed. 
Undei penalty of excommunication, se- 
questration, or deprivation. 

Injunctions of Elisabeth {The), 
1559. They vv'ere fifty-three in numbei. 
Most v/ere similar to those of Edward VI., 
but some new regulations were added 
respecting the marriage of the clergy ; 
chanting and singing v/ere allowed in 



divine services ; reverence was enjoined 
at the name of Jesus ; all were required 
tc kneel during the Litany and all col- 
lects ; the wafer in the eucharist was to 
be dispensed with ; and the oath of su- 
premacy was to be explained as disavow- 
ing all claim tc any authority in the 
divine service or the sacred functions of 
the church. 

Injunctions of Mary {The), 1551- 
Eestoring to the ecclesiastical courts 
their jurisdictions ; enforcing the celibacy 
of the clergy, and insisting that all mar- 
ried clergymen should put away their 
wives ; abolishing the oath of Eoyal su- 
premacy ; restoring the Latin tongue in 
all church services; forbidding Protes- 
tants to be schoolmasters ; and com- 
manding that a new set of hoiAilies be 
at once prepared to secure uniformity 
of doctrine and practice. 

Injunctions of "William and 

Mary {The), Feb. 1()95. Under the 
advice of Archbishop Tenison, for the 
maintenance of church discipline. They 
were followed by ' Directions ' for unity 
of opinion on the doctrine of the Trinity. 

Innocent Papists. Those Catho- 
lics of Ireland who could prove to the 
satisfaction of the commissioners that 
they had never acted with the confederates, 
never adhered to the pope's nuncio, had 
never been absolved for taking part 
directly or indirectly in the Irish rebel- 
lion {q.v.), that they did not derive their 
title to the estates claimed from persons 
who had been guilty of the offences men- 
tioned above, that they had never held 
any correspondence with any person who 
had concurred in the rebellion, that they 
never had taken any part in their coun- 
cils, never employed any agent directly 
or indirectly to treat with a foreign 
power, never been a Tory, i.e. a marauder, 
&c. It was almost impossible to find 
such a papist in all Ireland. 

Innocents. Those Irish who had 
been transplanted by Cromwell merely 
for their religion, and not for rebellion or 
any political offence. These Irish at the 
Eestoration were by the Act of Settle- 
ment to be restored to their estates, and 
the displaced tenant was to be indemnified 
by some other tenement. 

Innocents' Day, or ' Festum Inno- 
centium.' 28 Dec. To commemorate the 



INNS 



INQUISITOES 



449 



slaughter of the babes of Bethlehem by 
Herod the Great, with the view of killing 
thereby the infant Jesus. 

Inns of Chancery. Ten schools 
between the City of London and West- 
minster, for law students, founded in the 
reign of Edward III. Originally meant 
for preparatory colleges for young stu- 
dents, and each school was attended by 
100 students at least. Now they are for 
the most part occupied by solicitors, &c. 
See ' London University.' 

Inquisitio Eliensis. The dooms- 
day of the lands of the monastery of Ely, 
contained in the counties of Cambridge, 
Herts, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
Huntingdon. Published by Sir Henry 
Ellis (1816) in the second of the two 
supplementary volumes of ' Domesday 
Book.' 

Inquisition (The), or 'The Holy 
Office,' 1232. A tribunal erected by the 
popes for the examination and punish- 
ment of heretics. The chief inquisitors 
were the Dominicans. The Liquisition 
tried the suspects, and when condemned 
handed them over to the civil powers to 
be punished. Introduced into Spain in 
1248; estabhshed in Portugal in 1543. 
Abolished in Portugal by the Cortes 
between 1818 and 1826. Extinguished 
by royal decree in Spain 1835. 

strictly speaking it originated with Innocent 
III., who (in 1203) granted a commission for the 
conversion of the Albigcnses. The jurisdiction of 
the courts of the Inquisition were defined and 
regulated by Gregory IX. in 1232 or 1233. The 
modern Spanish Intiuisition was constituted by 
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1480, and suppressed in 
1820. 

Inquisition of Goa, in the Indies 
(The). A very powerful Iribunal for the 
trial of 'heretics.' Those sentenced to 
die were clad in much the same way as in 
Portugal. See ' Santo Benito.' Such as 
are convicted of magic wear paper sugar- 
loafed caps covered with flames and 
devils. All the ' heretics ' go in proces- 
sion to the church chosen for the cere- 
mony ; they go barefooted, carrying 
lighted tapers in their hands ; the least 
guilty go first, then comes one carrying a 
cross, and then those condemned to die. 
The day after the execution the head of 
each person burnt to death is exhibited 
in a picture rud«ly executed, surrounded 
with flames, and underneath is written 
the name and quality of the person thus 
represented. Abolished. 



Inquisition of Rome (The), or 
' The Congregation of the Holy Office,' 
1543. Founded by the Bull of Paul HI. 
It consisted of twelve cardinals and some 
inferior officers, but the pope himself 
presided. Its standard is of red damask, 
on which is delineated a cross, with an 
olive branch on one side and a sword on 
the other. The motto is ' Exurge, 
Domine, et judica causam meam' (Ps. 
Ixxiii.). 

Inquisition of Venice (The). 
Consisted of the resident nuncio, the 
patriarch of Venice, the father inqui- 
sitor, and two senators. This Inquisition 
was nothing like so severe as the Inqui- 
sitions of Spain and Portugal. It took 
no notice of Greeks and Armenians, and 
tolerated Jews, who wore a scarlet cap as 
a badge. Heretics were allowed to take 
their degrees in law and physic, and were 
not interfered with by this tribunal. 
Abolished by Napoleon in 1808. 

Inquisitor of Atheists (The). 
J. Andre' Naigeon (1738-1810), so called 
from his intolerance. 

Inquisitori del Doge Defunto 

(The). Three magistrates of Venice 
whose duty was to examine into the 
administration of deceased doges, to 
compare their acts with the provisions of 
their oath, to inquire into charges brought 
against them, and if the charges were 
proved, to make their heirs responsible 
for reparations. 

Inquisitors (The State), 16 June, 
1454. Three j)ersons chosen by the 
Council of Ten in Venice, with dicta- 
torial powers; two were of I Neri (the 
Blacks, i.e. The Ten), and one was II 
liosso (the Beds, or the Council of the 
Doge). These inquisitors were invested 
with i^lenary authority over every person 
in tlie republic, noble or citizen, magis- 
trate or ecclesiastic. The penalties tliey 
might inflict were wholly optional, and 
the trials of offenders were jDublic or 
secret. They kept the keys of the 
treasury, and were accountable to no one 
for their expenditures. All commanders, 
ambassadors, and governors addressed 
themselves to the Three. They made 
their own laws and rescinded them as they 
liked; and to prevent the inviolability 
of secrecy, no one who had an ecclesiastic 
directly or indirectly among his connex- 
ions v/as eligible to the oilice of inqui- 
GG 



450 



I. N. R. I. 



INSTRUMENT 



sitor. Tt is needless to add that the 
history of this Inquisition exceeds in 
infamy and cruelty any tribunal the 
world ever established. 

I. N. R. I. Jesus of Nazareth, King 
of the Jews. Inscription over the cruci- 
fix (Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum). 

Insabbata'ti, or 'Insabbates' (4 
syl.), 12th cent. The Waldenses are 
over and over again called ' Inzabatati ' 
in the council held at Tarragon in 1242. 
Probably the word means ' shoeless.' 
They are also called ' Sabbatati ' [q.v.]. 
Eberhard de^ethune is the first authority 
for the word. 

In opposition to the 'shoeless' explanation, 
Father Natalis says, they [the Waldenses] cele- 
brate no sabbath or feast day, and do not abstain 
from work even on days consecrated to the 
Virgin and the blessed saints.— P. Natalis Alex- 
ander, vol. vii. pp. 94, 95. 

Inspection [An). In the Lutheran 
communion means a synod of five con- 
sistorial churches ; called a synod in the 
Calvinist communion. See ' Consis- 
torial.' 

Instance, in French law, means 
sta7'e in judicio, to be under judgment 
(instantia) ; and a process is en instance 
when it is brought before a jurisdiction. 

Ftrst Instance is the jurisdiction ' qui 
doit connaitre en premier ressort de la 
decision d'une affaire ' ; whence the civil 
tribunals before which processes are first 
brought are called ' Courts of First In- 
stance ' [trihunaux de premiere in- 
stance). 

Second Instance means the jurisdic- 
tion of the appeal, or of the second 
degree. 

Beprise d'instatice is resuming a siait 
which has been interrupted by the death 
of one of the parties, the retirement or 
withdrawal of the advocate, or some such 
cause. 

We also find the phrases L'insiance liee conlradic- 
iiyiii'vii-ut (qui a lieu lorsque les dtux parties coni- 
paraissent ensemble); and L'insiance par ih'/ant 
(qui se poursuit lorstiuo le dt'/endcurne so prtisente 
pas sur I'absignation qui lui a ete donnde). 

Institute of France. Constituted 
in 1795 as the * Institut National ' by 
the union of the French Academy, the 
Academy of Inscrijitions, and the 
Academy of Arts and Sciences. The 
constitution was revised in 1803 by 
Napoleon Bonaparte. Louis Philippe in 
1832 added to it a class of moral and 
political sciences. 



Institutes (3 syl.). The elements 
of Roman law, composed by Tribonian, 
Theophilus, and Dorotheus, a.d. 533. 
Divided into four books, each book sub- 
divided into chapters, and each chapter 
into paragraphs. 

Institutes of G-hazan or Kasan 

{The), 1295-1304. The ' commentary ' of 
Ghazan, or Kasan, sultan of Persia, com- 
piled from several sources. These Insti- 
tutes are still held in honour in the 
East. 
Institution, Induction, and 

Collation. Institution is investiture 
of the spiritualities of a benefice. Induc- 
tion is investiture of its temporalities. 
Collation is the union of the two inves- 
titures. Thus a person collated to a 
living is both instituted and inducted. 

Instrument of Government 

(The), 1653. Spoken of generally as 
' The Instrument.' A new English con- 
stitution drawn up by the Council of State 
nominated by the Barebone Parliament 
iq.v.), and acce^jted by the Council of 
Officers. The house was to consist of 
400 members from England, 30 from 
Scotland, and 30 from Ireland. The 
seats hitherto assigned to small and 
rotten boroughs were transferred to larger 
constituencies; all si^ecial rights of voting 
for members were abolished, and the 
franchise was given to holders of pro- 
perty to the value of 200Z. and upwards. 
Catholics and Malignnnts {q.v.) were ex- 
cluded. Cromwell was made Lord Pro- 
tector, but his power was strictly limited. 
The members of the council were all 
named by him, but no member could be 
removed except by the consent of the 
council itself. With the council rested 
the power of peace and war, the choice 
of all oftlcers civil and military, and the 
election of protectors. Parliaments were 
to last three years, and three years only. 
All taxes were to be imposed by parlia- 
ment only. 

*^* The conditions which Cromwell 
swore to observe when appointed the 
Lord Protector were as follows : (1) The 
legislative power to be vested in a lord 
protector and parliament; (2) the exe- 
cutive power to reside in the lord pro- 
tector acting with the advice of his 
council ; (3) no laws to be made or taxes 
to be levied without consent of parlia- 
ment; (4) the civil list to be fixed at 



INSULATED 



INTERDICTION 



451 



200,000Z. a year, and the army to be 
30,000 men, two-thirds of which to be 
infantry ; (5) all religious persuasions to 
'be protected except prelatists and papists ; 
(6) the successor of Cromwell to be se- 
lected by council. 

They proceeded with the revision of 'the In- 
Btriiment ' ; and their labours were embodied in 
a bill, which was read a third time 1(»5. — Dr. 
LiNGAED, History of England, viii. 6. 

Insulated Abbots. Abbots of 
independent or liberated abbeys, who 
acknowledged no lord but the pope. In 
the middle ages these abbots frequently 
enjoyed episcopal titles, but very few had 
dioceses. 

Insurrection Act [The] of 1796. 
Giving the lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
power to proclaim any county or district 
of Ireland, on the requisition of seven 
magistrates ; and to seize, imprison, and 
send on board His Majesty's fleet persons 
found in an unlawful assembly or in any 
way imperilling the public peace. 

Insurrection of June {The), 
23, 2vl, 25 June, 1848. This was a war 
against society, against law, against pro- 
perty ; and was produced by the closing 
of the national workshops of Paris, the 
expense of which cost the government 
40,000Z. a week. Two million and eighty 
thousand pounds annually to maintain 
lazy, worthless operatives, who planned 
rebellion and diffused discontent ! 

Insurrection of La Vendue 

{The), March 1793. The Vendeans, a 
very primitive i^eople, had no sympathy 
witla the French Revolution, so the gentry 
and clergy organised an army to resist 
the dangerous innovations. They de- 
feated every army sent against them for 
a time, but at length were obliged to 
succumb. All who took part in the in- 
surrection were outlawed, and their pro- 
perty confiscated. M. Prudhommc in- 
forms us that 937,000 persons perished 
in this savage butchery. 

Insurrection of Ragots'ki (T/ie), 
1703-1713. He declared himself pro- 
tector of Poland and prince of Transj'l- 
vania ; but in 1713 the Austrians compelled 
him to retire. He died 1735. 

Insurrection of the Duchesse 
de Berry ( The), 1832. The last Chouan 
e)iieute made with a view of placing 
Henri [Giiiq\ on the throne of France. 



The duchess was the widow of the assas- 
sinated Due de Bordeaux and mother 
of Henri V. Her insurrection was very 
romantic, and the duchess, being taken 
prisoner, would have been put to death 
had she not been enceinte. 

Insurrection of the Yellow- 
Caps [The), A.D. 220. Tchang-kio of 
China persuaded the multitude that he 
could cure them of a pestilential disease 
which was then prevalent. He thereby 
soon acquired a large following of some 
500,000 men. These he persuaded to 
adopt as a badge the yellow cap, and 
then he assumed regal power. The 
whole military strength of China was 
sent against the rebels ; and though at 
first the mob gained certain advantages, 
ere long the regular troops prevailed, 
and the insurgents were routed with 
great slaughter. 

Intellectual Artist {The). Nico- 
las Poussin (1594-1665). Famous for 
his classic costumes. 

Intendants Militaires. A corps 
charged with all things which concern 
the administration and ' comptability ' of 
war. They are named by the minister 
of the war department. They were 
established in France in 1817 in substi- 
tution of the inspectors of revenue and 
connnissioners of war. The corps con- 
sists of 28 intendants (who rank next to 
generals) and 140 sub-intendants. 

Pronounce Akn-tuhn-dahn me-le-Utir. 

Intendants of a Province {The). 
Magistrates, administrative, judicial, and 
financial, who exercise their functions in 
each geiitralite {q.v.). The chamber in 
which they meet is called tlie ' Intend- 
ance. ' The first intendants of a province 
were established by Henri II. in 1551. 
They were suppressed in 1790. 

A ' generality ' is the jurisdiction of an intendant- 
general. 

Intercursus Magnus. The treaty 
made by Henry VII. with the Flemings. 
In 1496 Henry made a less liberal treaty, 
which was branded as the Intercursus 
Mains. 

Interdiction of Fire and 
"Water. 'Aquas et ignis interdictio.' 
The form used by the Romans in their 
judicial sentence of banishment froni 
Italy ; the person thus interdicted might 
go anywhere he chose provided he left 
Italy. 

G G 2 



452 



INTERIM 



INVESTITURE 



Interim {The), or ' Formula ad In- 
terim,' 1548. When Charles V. saw that 
the pope removed the Council of Trent 
to Bologna, he believed that he only- 
sought time to stave off a decision on the 
knotty points of the day ; and, in order 
to preserve peace in his kingdom, he 
made a provisionary arrangement with 
the Protestants appointed, which was to 
be in force till the council was actually 
summoned. By this ' Interim ' or provi- 
sionary arrangement, the cup was allowed 
to the laity in the Lord's Supper, and the 
clergy were allowed to marry. This con- 
cession j)leased neither party, and the 
Interim fell through by the ' Treaty of 
Passau,' which secured full and perfect 
liberty to all in matters of religion (1552). 

Passau, pronounce Pas-sow—' ow ' as in ' now.' 

International La^w {Professor- 
ship of), 18G7. Founded by Dr. Whewell, 
master of Trinity College. Salary 500Z. 
See ' Regius Professorship of Civil Law.' 

Whewell, pronounce You'-el. 

Interregnum {The English). From 
23 Dec, 1688 (the abdication) to 13 Feb., 
1689, when jiarliament assented to the 
accession of Will", ini and Mary. 

William III. was son-in-law and Mary was 
daughter of James II. 

Introit, or ' Introltus.' The psalm or 
passage of scripture chanted in the 
Catholic Church while the priest is enter- 
ing the chancel to celebrate mass. Such 
terms as Reminiscere Sunday, Oculi 
Sunday, L(£tdre Sunday, Quasimodo 
Sunday, &c. are so called from the begin- 
ning words of the introitus. 

Intrusionists and !N"on-Intru- 
sionists, 1835. The two Scotch parties 
called into existence by the ' Veto Act,' 
passed by the G eneral Assembly, v/hereby 
the nomina<-iion of a patron to a living 
might be voided by veto. They were also 
called ' Highiiiers,' and ' Moderates.' In- 
trusionists are those who regarded the 
veto as an illegal intrusion or interference 
with the rights of a patron to present to 
a living. See 'Veto Act.' 

Invasion of England {Threat- 
ened). 

1386. Charles VI. of France was per- 
suaded by his uncles to invade England, 
and a formidable army of 40,000 men was 
assembled in Flanders for the purpose. 
Every knight provided himself with a 
pillard, or man to collect pillage for him, 



and an enormous tent called a cite was 
constructed under the direction of Oliver 
de Clisson, the lord high constable. This 
monster tent, which took to pieces, would 
enclose a space of 8,000 sq. ft. and required 
72 vessels to convey it across the Channel. 
When all was ready for sailing the king 
was wasting his time in dissipation. When 
the king arrived he had to wait for his 
uncle the Due de Berry. And when the 
duke arrived the king changed his mind 
and gave up the expedition. The army 
was disbanded, the stores were pillaged, 
and the monster tent, having drifted to 
the Thames, became the prey of English 
mariners. 

1803. Bonaparte, mad with England 
for daring to beard him, and determined 
to make a descent on the island, assem- 
bled a formidable army on the northern 
coast, where he formed his famous 
* Camp de Boulogne,' constructed above 
2,000 gun-boats and flat transports, 
and increased his military stores and 
munitions of war, but ultimately deferred 
his descent till the next spring (1804). 
When next spring arrived Bonajoarte had 
changed his mind, and the invasion of 
England was set aside for his coronation 
as Emperor of the French. 

The Column of Boulogne was erected to per- 
petuate the memory of this grand preparation. 
There is a wonderful resemblance in these two 
threatened invasions, that of Charles VI. in 138(5, 
and that of Bonanarte in 1803. Hee ' Armada.' 

Invention of the Cross {The). 
An annual fete (3 May) held in the 
Catholic Church to celebrate the ' dis- 
covery of the true cross ' in a cave by 
Helena mother of Constantiue. She was 
80 years of age at the time, and was told 
where to find the three crosses by one 
Judas, a monk of Jerusalem. The true 
cross of the three was discovered because 
when a sick woman was touched by the 
other two the contact had no effect on 
her, but immediately the true cross 
touched her she was restored to perfect 
health. This ' Invention ' dates from 
326. 

Investiture, 1052-1122. Kaiser 
Heinrich III. was the first to give a ring 
and crozier to a bishop on his consecra- 
tion, as a symbol of investiture, or grant 
of episcopal temporalities in Ills domin- 
ions. The innovation was lilie a bomb- 
shell, and for seventy years pope and 
king contended about the prerogative. 
No pope can give away lands and build- 



INVESTITURE 



INVISIBLES 



453 



ings in another man's empire, and no king 
can confer office in a ' kingdom not of this 
world.' At last, in 1122, the moot point 
was settled thus : the pope was to conse- 
crate, and then the bishop was to do 
homage to the king for the temjioralities 
of his diocese. The pope invested with 
rmg and crozier, and the king with a 
sceptre. 
Investiture in Carinthia. This 

was a nominal purchase, and evidently 
referred to a time when the land belonged 
to the people. On the day of inauguration 
the peasant appointed for the purpose 
seated himself on a marble block beneath 
a tree, and the new duke, dressed as a 
countrpnan, bipproached on foot, carrying 
a crook, a spade, and a wallet of bread 
and cheese. Two noblemen on foot 
attended as his sponsors. 'Who are 
these ? ' asked the peasant of the crowd. 
' The prince of the country,' was the re- 
ply. ' Is he a good man and true ? ' 
demanded the peasant. ' He is,' was the 
answer. ' Then, by what right will he 
push me from my stool ? ' asked the 
peasant. ' He will buy it of thee,' said 
the crowd. ' For how much ? ' ' For 
sixty ]?ence.' "Whereupon the jieasant rose, 
and the duke took his place, paying sixty 
pence into the hand of the peasant, who 
also received as a perquisite the clothes 
worn by the duke, and was exempt from 
rent and taxes. Soon as the duke was 
seated, his vassals paid him homage, and 
the duke j)romised to deal even justice to 
all. The duke then proceeded to church 
to hear mass, and ended the day with a 
banquet. 

Investiture of Vassals {The). 

The lord having received homage and the 
oath of fealty {q.v.) invested liis ' man ' 
with the fief by delivering to him the old 
banners belonging thereto. There were 
often several of these banners, because 
every large fief contained several smaller 
ones, each of which had its own banner. 
The chief threw the old banners into the 
crowd to be torn to pieces, and then pre- 
sented his dependents with new ones em- 
blazoned with arms of the new fief, by 
accepting which the dependents acknow- 
ledged the suzerainty of their new lord. 

Invincible {The). Cosmo de' Medici 
was called ' the Great and the Invincible ' 
(1389-li04). He was also caUed the 
'father of his country.' 



Invincible {The). The Russian 
general Suwarof or Suworof (1730-1800). 
His full name, &c. was Alexander Vassi- 
livich Suwarof- Rymnikski, count, pi'ince 
Italinski, field-marshal, generalissimo of 
the Russian army. 

Invincible Doctor (T/ie). ' Doctor 
Singularis et Invincibilis,' William of 
Occam, in Surrey (1270-1317), Provincial 
of the English Cordeliers. He was ex- 
communicated by Pope John XXII. for 
writing a book against the secular power 
of the pope, ' Super potestate summi 
pontificis.' See ' Doctors,' &c. 

Peter Tome was also called ' Doctor Invincibilis.' 

Invincibles {The). I. The French 
legion, whose exploits in Italy under 
Bonaparte were so astounding. This 
legion was almost annihilated in Egypt 
by Abercrombie in ISOl. 

II. Irish sicarii. See 'Irish Invinci- 
bles.' 

Invisible Commander {The). 

Lord Raglan commander-in-chief of the 
British army in the Crimean war. The 
sufferings of the soldiers in the winter of 
1854-5 were very great, and the anger of 
the nation was bitter against Lord Raglan, 
but somewhat unjustly so. 

Invisible Prince {The). William 
John Cavendish Scott Bentinck 5th duke 
of Portland (1800-1879), famous for his 
enormous excavations and palatial build- 
ings underground. At one time he 
employed 1,000 artificers on his estate to 
malce himself invisible. A tunnel was 
made across the park for the workmen to 
pass to and fro without intruding on his 
seclusion. He also constructed tunnels 
in the abbey, by which he could pass from 
one building to another without being 
seen, and a tunnel leads to the riding 
school. 

Invisible Three {The), or State 
Inquisitors of Venice. See ' Inquisitors,' 
&c. Called ' invisible ' because no in- 
quisitor was publicly known. All its 
citations and acts were done in the name 
of the Ten. All its judgments were pro- 
nounced by the mouths of the secretaries. 

Invisibles {The). I. The Rosicru- 
cians. So called because they never 
showed themselves in public in open day. 

II. The disciples of Illyricus, Flaccus, 
Osiander, &c., who denied the perpetual 
visibihty of the church. 



454 



IONIAN 



IRELAND 



lo'nian Republic (T7ie). Founded 
1815 ; consisting of the seven islands : 
Cephalonia, Cerigo, Corfu, Paxo, Santa 
Maura, Theaki, and Zantft ; all placed 
under the protection of Great Britain by 
treaty with Russia. Ceded to Greece 
1864. 

Cerigo, pronounce Cherry-go. Corfu, pronounce 
Kor-/oo'. 

lo'nian War (T7ie), B.C. 501-492. Be- 
gan with the revolt of Aristagnras, who 
obtained help from Athens and Eretria 
in 500. Athens and Evetria left the con- 
federacy B.C. 499. Aristagoras was slain 
in Thrace b.c. 497. And in 492 Ionia 
was completely subjugated by Persia. 

lo'nians (The). Had twelve great 
cities on the north coast of the Pelopon- 
nesus and twelve colonies in Asia Minor, 
with several islands. Ephesus, Smyrna, 
Miletus, and Samos belonged to the 
twelve confederated Ionian colonies. 

lon'ic Letters. The four added 
to the Greek alphabet by Simoni- 
des of Cos (f, 0, *?>, x), and the four 
added by Epicharmos the Sicilian (f, 17, 
«^i to). Called Ionic, because the lonians 
were the first to adopt all the 24 letters. 
(N.B. The other 16 are called Cadmean 
letters.) 

Ionic Poets of G-reece {The). 
Those poets who wrote in the Ionic 
dialect or the Greek of Asia Minor. 
Homer wrote Ionic Greek ; but of the 
lyrists the two most eminent are Ana- 
creon (b.c. 563-478) and Simonides (b.c. 
556-467). The elegy of the latter on 
Leonidas and his 300 has no superior in 
the world ; and his ' Lament of Danae ' is 
a model of pathos. As for Anacreon, his 
odes are quite unrivalled. There never 
were odes more inimitable than his 
' Cupid drii)ping wet ' (Ode 3), ' To my 
dove ' (Ode 9), and ' The Rose ' (Ode 53) 
(' Barnes's edition '). 

The following is a literal translation of the 
elegy. ' How glorious their fate who fell at 
Thermopylse ! How beautiful their death ! Their 
tomb an altar ! We give them not our tears, but 
cherish them in immortal memory. The manner 
of their death is their funeral song. Rust nor de- 
stroying time shall efface the memorial of the 
brave. This mound is the archi ve of Grecian glory. 
Leonidas lies here ; Leonidas the king of Sparta ; 
Leonidas who left behind him a monument of 
praise, a trophy of glory which no time shall 
destroy. 

*,* Simonides the lyric poet must not be con- 
founded with Simonides the satirist who wrote in 
Iambic verse, and lived a century earlier. 

Ionic Sect {The) of ancient Greek 
philosophers. Founded by Thales, the 



sage, and father of speculative philoso- 
phy (B.C. 611-547). He taught that all 
bodies are compounded of atoms; that the 
earth is round; that the sun is a sphere 
of fire ; and that the moon is lighted by 
the sun. His most noted disciples were 
Anaximander (b.c 611-547) ; Anax- 
imenes (B.C. 558-460) ; Anaxagoras (b.c. 
500-428); Heraclltos of Ephesus (b.c. 
543-483) ; and Diogenes of Crete (b.c. 
539-465). 

Archelaos of Miletus joined together the two 
systems of Anaximander and Anaxagoras. He 
held with the former that the elements of all 
things are eternal, and admitted with the latter 
the existence of a Supreme intelligence, inde- 
pendent of matter. 

*,* Diogenes of Crete must not be confounded 
with Diogenes of Sinope the cj'nic. 

I'o^wa (U.S. America). So called 
from an Indian tribe, and from a river of 
the same name. The inhabitants are 
nicknamed Haiokeyes. 

Iphicra'tians. The mercenaries 
of Iphicrates the Athenian general (b.c. 
419-348). 

Ills pedestria arma mutavit. Quum ante ilium 
imperatorem maximis clypeis, brevibus hastis, 
minutis gladiis uterentur ; ille, e contrario, peltam 
pro parma fecit, vit ad motus concursusque 
essent leviores. Hastte modum duplicavit, gladioa 
longiores fecit. Idem genus loricarum mutavit, 
et pro ferreis atque aeneis linteas dedit. — NfiPOS, 
Iphicrates. 

Ireland {King of). Edward Bruce, 
brother of Robert Bruce, was crowned 
king of Ireland at Dundalk in 1316, but 
was slain by the English under Sir John 
Bermingham at Faughart, near Dundalk, 
5 Oct., 1318. Henry VIII. was the first 
English sovereign who called himself 
' King of Ireland.' 

Ireland {Samuel William Henry). 
A literary impostor (1777-1835). He 
published in folio, 1795, ' Miscellaneous 
Papers and Instruments under the hand 
and seal of William Shakespeare, includ- 
ing the tragedy of " King Lear," and a 
small fragment of " Hamlet," from the 
original,' price 4Z. 4s. On 2 April, 1796, 
he produced the play of ' Vortigern and 
Rowena ' from the pen of Shakespeare. 
It was actually represented, and drew a 
most crowded house. Dr. Parr, Dr. Valpy, 
James Boswell, Herbert Croft, and Pye 
the poet-laureate, signed a document 
certifying their conviction that Ireland's 
productions were genuine ; but Malone 
exposed the imposition of the tragedy, 
and Ireland publicly confessed that all 
his publications from beginning to end 



IRELAND 



lEISH 



455 



were impositions. See ' Literary For- 
geries,' &c. 

For my own part I cannot imagine how anyone 
could be deceived. 

Ireland of Austria [The). Hun- 
gary, which struggled long for home 
rule, and obtained it in 18(37. In 1868 
the empire of Austria was designated the 
* Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.' 

Irish American Land League 

{The), 1879. Organised by C. S. Parnell 
and affiliated with the Irish National Land 
League [q-v.). See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irish. Array of Liberation 

{The), 1818. The war party of Ireland, 
who had both commissions and uniforms 
to fight against soldiers of Great Britain 
on behalf of the Irish rebels. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Irish Associations. See under 

Agents of Captain Right. 

Aggregate Bodies. 

American Land League. 

Anti-Tory Association. 

Anti-Union Society. 

Attacottic Rebellion. 

Avengers. 

Black Foot. 

Boys(ry/f). 

Brotherhood of St. Pa- 
trick. 

Captain Right. 

Caravats. 

Confederate Catholics. 

Confederation. 

Cork Boys. 

Daisy League. 

Defenders. 

Democratic Labour As- 
sociation. 

Emerald Club. 

Federalists. 

Fenians. 

Green Spectre. 

Hearts of Steel. 

Hillside Men. 

Home Rule League. 

Houghers. 

I. N.B. 

Invincibles. 

I. R. B. 

Irish American Land 
League. 

Irish Army of Libera- 
tion. 

Irish Confederation. 

Irish Invincibles. 

Irish Labour and Indus- 
trial Union. 

Irish Land League. 

Irish Loyal and Patrio- 
tic Union. 

Irish Massacre. 

Irish National Brother- 
hood. 

Irish National Land 
League. 

Irish Republican Bro- 
therliood. 

Irish Revolutionary 
Brotherhood. 

Irish Tenant League. 

Irish Tenants' Defence 
League. 



Society of United Irish- 
men. 

Sons of Freedom. 

Steel Boys. 

Tenants' Defence Asso- 
ciation. 



Kilkenny Convention. 

Lady Clares. 

Ladies' Irish Land 
League. 

Ladies' Land League. 

Ladies' Labour and In- 
dustrial Union. 

Land Grabbers. 

Land Grabbers League. 

Levellers. 

Loyal Irish Brethren. 

Loyal National Repeal 
Association. 

Martyrs' Meeting. 

Massacre of Scullabogue 
Barn. 

Molly Maguires. 

Moonlighters, Captain 
Moonlight. 

M. W. S. 

National Association 
for the Repeal of the 
Union. 

National Association of 
Ireland. 

National Land League. 

National League. 

Nationalists. 

New Fenians. 

Night Boys. 

No. 1. 

Oak Boys. 

Our Boys. 

Orangemen. 

Peep o' Day Boys. 

Phenicians. 

Philadelphia Conven- 
tion. 

Phoenix Park Murder. 

Phcenix Society. 

Redpath Boys. 

Remonstrants. 

Repeal Agitation. 

Repeal Association. 

Repeal of the Union. 

Repeal Year. 

Revolver Boys. 

Ribbon Men. 

Right Boys. 

Rockites and Captain 
Rock. 

Rory of the Hills. 

Separatists. 

Shanavests. 



Tenants' 
League. 
Terryalts. 
Threshers. 



Defence 



Tithe Agitators. 
Tithe War. 
United Brotherhood. 
United Irishmen. 
V. C. 

"Vigilance Society. 
White Boys. 
Young Irelanders. 
Young Ireland 8 Ris- 
ing. 



Irish Church {The). The papal 
authority in Ireland was recognised by the 
Synod of Kells in 1152. 

The Catholic Church was abolished by Henry 
Vlll. in 1539, and the English reformed liturgy 
was introduced in 1550. 

Catholic priests were expelled, under penalty of 
death, by James I. in 1605 ; and the Articles of the 
Church of England were introduced in Hi35. 

Intermarriages between Catholics and Pro- 
testants in Ireland were forbidden by William III. 
in 1697. 

Catholics were declared disqualified to sit on 
the grand jury in 1705. 

The disestablishment and disendowment of the 
Anglican Church in Ireland date from 1871. 

Irish Church Temporalities 
Bill {The). A bill to abolish the col- 
lection of tithes and firstfruits, and to 
substitute a rent-charge, 30 July, 1833. 
Amended in 1834, and again in 1836, A 
Sustentation Fund was originated in 
1870, and its union with the Protestant 
Church of England was dissolved in 1871. 

The Act of IS-Sa abolished the church-cess, 
reduced the four archbishops and eighteen 
bishops to two archbishops and ten bishops, and 
appropriated the revenues thus obtained to 
general church purposes. 

Irish Confederation {The), 1845. 
The Young Ireland party headed by 
William Smith O'Brien, a split from the 
great Repeal party of Daniel O'Connell. 
The Young Irelanders were for enforcing 
their charter at the sword's point, but 
O'Connell was opposed to any such mad 
measure. In 1848 they sent a deputation 
to France craving aid for ' the oppressed 
nationality of Ireland,' and organised an 
insurrection, but just before the time of 
uprising O'Brien was arrested, and, being 
convicted, was exiled to Van Diemen's 
Land for life. In 1856, having obtained 
a free pardon, he returned home, and 
died in 1864. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irish Crisis {The), 1846, 1847. 
Dur.ing the potato famine. 

Potato famines have not been uncommon in 
Ireland : Thus in 18-2-2 Parliament voted 300,000f. for 
relief purposes, and subscriptions to the amount 
of 310,000/. were raised. In 1H31 the crop in the 
West of Ireland failed, and so on. 

Irish Invincibles {The). An or- 
ganisation started in Dublin in Dec. 



456 



IKISH 



IRISH 



1881 (organised fully in the spring of 
1882), the members of which bound 
themselves by oath to ' remove all tyrants 
from the country,' — in other words, to 
' assassinate the executive council of Ire- 
land, the chief secretary, and all govern- 
ment officers.' McCafEerty, with others, 
established the society. It was limited 
to 250 members, and was under the con- 
trol of a committee of five Fenians, viz. 
James Mullett, Edward McCafferty, 
Daniel and James Curley, and James 
Carey, who were paid by the Land 
League. The first person on the list for 
removal was the Right Hon.W. E. Forster, 
chief secretary for Ireland ; the second 
was Earl Cowper, the lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland. These gentlemen resigned and 
left the island. The first officials who 
fell to the assassins were Mr. Thomas 
Burke, perpetual under-secretary, and 
Lord Frederick Cavendish, who suc- 
ceeded Mr. Forster, 6 May, 1882. They 
fell on a Saturday, in full daylight, in 
Phoenix Park. The trial of these ' Invin- 
cibles ' took place in Dublin, 1883. See 
'Irish Republican Brotherhood' and 
* Irish Associations.' 

Irish Land Acts. 

I. An Act was passed in 1858 (21, 22 
Vict. c. 72) to facilitate the sale and trans- 
fer of land in Ireland. 

II. Deasy's Act, 1860, limiting the 
power of a landlord to the terms of his 
contract, but not giving a tenant any 
compensation for improvements on 
eviction. 

III. The Act of 1870 remedied this, and 
provided that a tenant on eviction might 
demand of his landlord just compensation 
for all improvements made by himself 
[the tenant] during his term of tenancy. 

IV. The Act 1881 set up a tribunal to 
fix a ' fair rent ' ; and legalised the tenant's 
interest in his holding, which was sale- 
able in open market, so that virtually 
the Irish tenant by this Act was a co- 
partner in the soil. 

V. The Ashbourne Act, 1885, placed 
five million pounds sterling at the dis- 
posal of Irish tenants who desired to 
purchase the fee simj)le of their holdings, 
the loan to be repaid by instalments in 
forty-nine years. In 1888 another similar 
sum was granted for the same object. 
And in 18i)0 Mr. Balfour introduced a 
bill for a much larger loan on very easy 
terms enough by principal and interest 



to buy up any number of farms which the 
tenants would be likely to desire. 

VI. The Act of 1887, subjecting the 
rents judicially fixed in 1881-85 to 
revision, by which rents were again 
reduced about 10 per cent. ; and to give 
county-court judges the power of stay- 
ing eviction, and of spreading arrears 
over a discretionary number of years. 
These several Acts give to tenants in Ireland- 
CD Compensation for improvements. 

(2) „ disturbance. 

(3) Security of tenure, subject to payment of 
rent. 

(4) A • fair rent ' tribunal. 

(5) The right of selling their interest. 
(G) The revision of judicial rents. 

(7] The right of having eviction stayed on good 
cause shown. 

(8] Facilities for acquiring the fee simple of a 
holding. 

*,* Lower Beltoney, in far-off Gweedore, is now 
(under the Purchase Act) a real garden, while 
Keeldrum. on the other side of the road [under 
the Plan of Campaign, q.v.], is a waste wilderness. 
Again, the barony of Farney in Monaghan, once 
the most blood stained spot in all Ireland, has, 
with the sale of the Marquis of Bath's property, 
become quite a model district (1890). 

Irish Legion {The), 1803. An army 
of Irish refugees in Paris raised by Bona- 
parte, with the intention of invading 
England through Ireland. 

Irish Liberator {The). Daniel 
O'Connell (1775-1817). 

Irish Loan {The), 1885. Five 
millions sterling set apart, to be lent to 
Irish farmers by government at 3i per 
cent., to enable them to buy their farms 
of their landlords. See above, ' Irish 
Land Acts,' No. V. 

Irish Loyal and Patriotic 
Union {The), 1885. To unite the 
loyalist party into one body irrespective 
of class, party, or creed. This union was 
to counteract the ' National League ' 
{q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irish Massacre {The), Oct. and 
Nov., 1611. Not the massacre of Irish- 
men, but the massacre of forty or fifty 
thousand Englishmen by the Irish secret 
society called ' The Confederate Catho- 
lics.' In this massacre husbands were 
cut to ijieces in presence of their wives, 
children's brains were dashed out in the 
face of their parents, women were brutally 
violated, and driven naked into the 
woods to perish. Some were burned to 
death, others were drowned, and many 
were buried alive. Nothing like it has 



IRI3H 



IRISH 



457 



been known except the outrage of 
Cawnpore. 

The instigator of this massacre was Sir Phelim 
O Neil Of Ulster. In July lti48 a Bull was re- 
ceived from the pope granting a jubilee and 
plenary absolution to all those who had taken up 
arms in the cause of the Catholic faith. Horrible 
and incredible as it may seem, Gregory XIII. 
proclaimed the slaughter of St. Bartholomew as 
the ' Year of Jubilee.' and went in full procession 
to celebrate a public thanksgiving service for the 
massacre. 

Irish National Brotherhood 

(The), 1881. 1. I.N.B. This was an offshoot 
of the Clan-na-Gael, or United Brother- 
hood. It began in 1880 under what was 
called the New Departure {q-v.). A union 
of the murderous violence of the Clan- 
na-Gael, the constitutional craft of the 
Land League, and the spohation of the 
No Rent party. 

II. I.N.B., '1886, at Chicago. An off- 
shoot of the U.B. or ' United Brother- 
hood.' See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irish National Land League 

(The), Oct. 1879-1881. The object of this 
conspiracy was to establish the absolute 
independence of Ireland as a separate 
nation. To effect this object, agrarian agi- 
tation against the payment of agricultural 
rents was resorted to, in order to secure 
the co-operation of the tenant farmers of 
Ireland, and to impoverish and ultimately 
drive from the country the Irish land- 
lords, styled by the leaguers ' the English 
garrison.' Suppressed 1881. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

The confederation was called the Land League, 
the Irish National L md League, and the Labour 
and Industrial Union. There were also Ladies' 
Leagues, and affiliated societies in Great Britain 
and America. 

Irish Night (The), 13 Dec, 1688, 
when a cry arose in London that the 
Irish (disbanded on the flight of James 
II.) were up, and were going to cut the 
throats of all Protestants. At one in the 
morning the drums collected the militia 
and the train bands, and 100,000 men 
kept the streets in a state of terror and 
anarchy. It was called the ' Irish Night,' 
though no Irish put in an appearance, 
the panic being created by a false alarm, 
Trenchard was brother-in law to the un- 
principled agitator Hugh Spe'-e, who by his 
trumped-up lies had occasioned the ' Irish Night. 
— HowiTT, Hist, of Enyl. (Will, and Mary, p. G9). 

Irish Parliament {The), or Grat- 
tan's Parliament (1782-1800). Two in- 
dependent parliaments in the same king- 
dom being found pregnant with perpetual 
danger both from within and from with- 
20 



out, the Dublin parliament, by the Act of 
Union, in 1800, was abolished, and a large 
number of Irish representatives, out of 
all proportion to the rest of the kingdom, 
were admitted to the Westminster parlia- 
ment. In England and Wales it is one 
in 6,000. In Ireland one in 5,000. 

To the Irish parliament no Catholic was ad- 
mitted. To the representatives admitted into the 
Westminster house no such restriction exists. 

The proximate cause of the abolition 
of the Irish Parliament was this : In 1789 
the Prince of Wales was made regent. 
The English parliament restricted his 
powers, but the Irish parliament granted 
him the regency of Ireland without re- 
strictions. This was a warning of the 
mischief which might hereafter occur 
from two legislatures, and convinced the 
British cabinet that the Irish parliament, 
like that of Scotland, must be united to 
the one general house of legislature in 
London. The Irish rebellion of 1798, in 
which the French were invited over, 
brought the matter to ahead, and in 1801 
the union was effected. See 'Parlia- 
ments.' 

Grattan stated in 1793 that of the 300 members 
of the Irish house, 200 were nominees of private 
individuals, and 50 were returned by con- 
stituencies of not more than ten electors in each, 
and several boroughs had not more than one 
elector. In 1890 about SO of the Irish deputies in 
the House of Commons were, for the most part, 
the nominees of C. S. Parnell. 

Irish Rebellion. I. In 1565 
occurred the rebellion of Shan O'Neal, 
who applied to France for soldiers. 
O'Neal was assassinated in 1567. 

II. In 1594 occurred the rebellion of 
Hugh O'Ncil, earl of Tyrone, who assumed 
the title of The O'Neil. This ' patriot ' (!) 
offered the crown of Ireland to the king of 
Spain in 1597, and the Spaniards actually 
sent an army into Ireland to obtain the 
promised crown. O'Neil, with his Spanish 
anny, was defeated at Kinsale ; he sur- 
rendered to Mountjoy, was pardoned, and 
went to Rome, where he died in 1616. 

III. In 1608 occurred the rebellion of 
O'Dogherty, in Ulster. James I. then 
parcelled out the north of Ireland to 
Scotch and English settlers. This confis- 
cation is known as the ' Plantation of 
Ulster' iq.v.). 

TV. In 1641, while the English were in 
civil war, the Irish rose in rebellion 
under Roger More and Sir Phelim O'Neil, 
and massacred the Protestants to the 
number of 40,000. 



458 



lEISH 



IKISHMEN 



Y, In 1649 Cromwell, having taken the 
cities of Drogheda, Wexford, and Clon- 
mel, left Ireton to carry on the war. 
Ireton reduced place after place, and 
soon after the death of Ireton the re- 
bellion was quite stamped out (1652). 

VI. In 1789 the Great Rebellion broke 
out. It was caused by the creation of 
numerous Irish societies hostile to 
England, especially that called the 
' United Irishmen ' (q.v.). 

VII. In 1796 the Irish concluded a 
secret treaty with the French Directory, 
but the treasonable plot was utteily 
frustrated by the battles of Bantry Bay 
in 1796, and the battle of Campei;down 
in 1797. 

1 Jan., 1801, the union of Great Britain and 
Ireland was effected, and since then the Irish have 
had no opportunity of offering ' their crown ' 
either to France or Spain. 

VIII. 1848. The nation was more or 
less disturbed from April to the middle 
of Sept. William Smith O'Brien was the 
chief disturber, and his lieutenants were 
Meagher and M'Manus. All three being 
arrested were condemned to death, but 
were transported to Van Diemen's Land. 
Meagher and M'Manus escaped to 
America, and O'Brien, in 1856, having 
obtained a free pardon, returned home 
and died at Bangor in 1864. 

William Smith O'Brien was joint deputy from 
the Irish Confederation to the French republic, 
S April, 1848. 

IX. The Home Rule faction, under the 
leadership of Charles S. Parnell, began 
in 1870, and disorganised Ireland with 
numberless disorderly associations, some 
of an anti-landlord character, others 
more criminal still. Boycotting {q.v.) was 
introduced. Shooting men through the 
legs, pouring hot pitch on the heads of 
women, maiming cattle, and the most 
reckless destruction of property, intimi- 
dated all who resisted the rebels. See 
* Plan of Campaign,' ' Irish Associations,' 
&c. &c. In 1890 the disturbance was not 
wholly stamped out. 

When Ireland had its own rulers the civil and 
moral condition of the country was so bad that 
Pope Adrian IV'. authorised Henry II. to under- 
take the conquest of it, hoping that a strong arm 
might do something to settle the country. 

When Grattan had his parliament he passed 
fifty-four coercion acts, 1782, &c. 

Whatever may be said respecting 'the planta- 
tion of Ireland ' by James I., one thing is certain : 
Ko part of Ireland is so wealthy, and no part of 
Ireland so loyal and industrious, as Ulster. 

Irish. Reproductive Loan 
Fund {The), 1822. Originated in the 



excess of subscription to what was ex- 
pended in the relief of sulierers from 
the famine. The surplus was entrusted 
to a committee in London, and called 
the Irish Reproductive Loan Fund, 
under which small sums are advanced to 
industrious individuals of the working 
classes, to be repaid by instalments, 
with interest at Qd. in the pound, reduced 
afterwards to Ad. 

Irish Republican Brother- 
hood {The), 1869. The Dublin con- 
tingent of the ' Irish Invincibles ' {q.v.). 
It consisted of fifty of the most desperate 
of the gang. They were sworn ' to re- 
move all tyrants from the country.' This 
meant they were to murder or drive out 
of Ireland all the constituted adminis- 
trators and guardians of the law and of 
order, together with all owners of land 
The Phoenix Park murder {q.v.) was their 
first and most notorious achievement. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

Irish Revolut'onary Brother- 
hood {The), or T. R. B. The Irish branch 
of the American V.C. {i.e. United Brocher- 
hood), for the purpose of making Ireland 
an independent republic by force of 
arms. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irish Society {The), 1619. Certain 
London merchants incorporated by 
charter, who contracted for large tracts 
of land in Tyrconnel {q.v.), when James 
I. planted the territory with Scotch and 
English tenants. See ' Plantation of 
Ulster.' 

Irish Tenant League {The), 1850, 
Pledged to oppose all Governments which 
did not recognise the principle of Tenant 
Right {q.v.) for all Ireland. The league 
broke up in 1858, and was replaced by 
Fenians {q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irish Tenants' Defence League 

{The), 1889. To supersede the ' Plan of 
Campaign ' {q.v.), declared to be illegal. 
The object of the ' Defence League ' is 
to supply tenants with money and legal 
advisers to fight their landlords and 
weary them out with the infinite shifts 
of law. During the process an evicted 
tenant is to be furnished by the League 
with a home and needful support. Mr. 
C. S. Parnell was the p7-iniinn mobile of 
the scheme. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Irishmen of Islam. {The). So 
the Moors of Morocco have been called. 



IRMIN-SUL 



IRON 



459 



Irmin-SUl. Herman's Column. 
Erected to commemorate the victory of 
Herman over Varus the Roman. It was 
long considered a palladium of the Saxon 
nation. Charlemagne destroyed the 
temple of Eresburg, and transferred the 
pillar to Corbey. 

Iron Age {The). The era between 
the death of Charlemagne, 814, and the 
accession of Hugues Capet, 987, is so 
called from its constant civil wars. Also 
called the ' leaden age ' from its worth- 
lessness, and the ' dark age ' from its 
barrenness of learned men. 

The present has often been called ' The age of 
Bteel.' Hugues Capet, pronounce U Cap'-pay.^ 

Iron Arm. 

I. Guillaume Bras de fer (*-104G). 
First of the twelve sons of Tancrede de 
Hauteville. 

II. Capt. Fran(;ois de Lanoue, a 
Huguenot, who died at the siege of Lam- 
balle (1531-1591). 

Iron Calvinist of Rosny {The). 
Maximilien de Bethune, due de Sully 
(1560-1641), born at Rosny ; chief min- 
ister of Henri IV., and the greatest of 
all French statesmen. 

Iron Chancellor {The). Prince 
Otto von Bismarck of Prussia (1813), 
Chancellor of the North German Con- 
federation 14 July, 1867. He retired 
from public Hfe in 1890. 

Iron Chest {The). A secret closet 
in the wall of the king's bedchamber in 
the Tuileries. Made by Gamain, a lock- 
smith who had been employed by Louis 
XVI. to construct it. It was behind the 
wainscot, and so well concealed that no 
one could have discovered it without being 
first shown it. Gamain betrayed it to 
the Convention, and amongst other pajiers 
wex'e several from Mirabeau which were 
so damnatory that the Convention or- 
dered his bust to be removed from the 
hall and stamped to powder. 

Iron-clad Oath {The). An act 
passed, in 1867, by the United States of 
North America, excluding from the fran- 
chise all those who had borne arms 
against the United States, and even all 
who had directly or indirectly given aid 
to the Southerners. It was practically 
the temporary disfranchisement of the 
Southern whites. 



Iron Crown. Several examples 
occur of traitors or aspirants to a crown 
being put to death by a mockery red-hot 
iron crown. Take the two following : — 

1. Walter earl of Athol murdered 
James I. of Scotland in Perth, hoping to 
usurp the crown ; but he was crowned 
only with a red-hot iron diadem which 
ate to his brain and killed him (1437). 

2. Doza or Dosa the Hungarian was 
put to death by a similar torture, ioc 
heading the peasant rebellion against 
the nobles (1514). 

Iron Crown of Lombardy (T/«). 

Not an iron crown, but a magn^cent 
gold' diadem, containing a narrow iron 
band about |ths of an inch broad, and 
yVjth of an inch in thickness. This band 
was made out of a nail given to Constan- 
tine by his mother, and said to be one 
of the nails used in the crucifixion. The 
outer circlet of the crown is of beaten 
gold, set with large rubies, emeralds, and 
sapphires, and the iron band is within 
this circlet. The first Lombard king 
crowned with it was Agilulph, at Milan, 
in 591. Charlemagne was crowned 
with it in 774; Friedrich IIL in 1452; 
Karl V. in 1530; and Napoleon I., 23 
May, 1805, crowned himself with it as 
' king of Italy ' in Milan Cathedral. It 
was given up to Victor Emmanuel on 
the conclusion of peace with Austria in 
1866. The motto on the crown is ' God 
has given it me ; beware who touches it.' 
According to a tradition Gregory the Great gave 
this crown to Queen Theodclinda. The first kaiser 
■who -wore it was Henry of Luxemburg in 1311. 

Iron Duke {The). Arthur Wellesley 
duke of Wellington (1769-1852). His 
statue, made of bronze by M. C. Wyatt, 
was mounted on the marble arch opposite 
his house in 1846. This hideous deform- 
ity, i-emoved in 1882, had a share in esta- 
blishing the eponym of the ' Iron ' duke. 

An Achilles in bronze, by AVestmacott, was 
erected in Hyde Park from subscriptions contri- 
buted by the ladles of England in honour of the 
duke. 

Iron Emperor {The). Nicholas of 
Russia (1796,. 1826-1855). 

Iron Hand. Gotz von Berlichingen, 
immortalised by Goethe (16th cent.), is so 
called from his iron hand. The hand 
weighed 3 lbs., and was so constructed 
as to grasp a sword or lance. It was 
invented by a mechanic of Nuremberg, 
and is preserved at Jaxthausen, near 



460 



IRON 



ISAURIAN 



Heilbronn. A duplicate is in the Schloss 
at Erbach, in the Odenwald. Gotz von 
Berlichingen lost his right hand at the 
siege of Landshut. See ' Duke with the 
Silver Hand ' ; ' Golden Hand.' 

The family of Clephane of Carslogle are in pos- 
session of a steel hand conferred by one of the 
kings of Scotland on a laird of Carslogie, who had 
lost his hand in his country's service.— ScOTT, 
Border Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 206. 

Iron Mask {Man in the). A mys- 
terious prisoner in the reign of Louis XIV., 
condemned at all times to wear a black 
velvet mask. He was confined in 1662 
in the chateau of Pignerol ; and died in 
the Bastille in 1703, at the age of 63. 
He went by the name of L'Estang, but 
•who he was nobody knows; and Louis 
XIV., when the captive was dead, com- 
manded that his face should be beaten 
to a pulp and cut to pieces to prevent 
recognition. 

Iron Tooth. ' Dent de Fer.' Fried- 
rich TI. elector of Brandenburg (1657, 
1688-1713). 

Iron Virgin {The). An instrument 
of torture. It was a hollow wooden 
figure representing a woman. The figure 
opened like a cupboard, and the front of 
it was studded with long sharp iron spikes. 
The victim being placed in the figure, 
the front or lid was gradually closed upon 
him, and the spikes were so arranged as 
to pierce the eyes and least vital parts. 
When quite closed the victim was 
crushed, and lingeied in horrible torture 
till actual agony exhausted his vital 
powers. See ' Nabis.' 

Ironside. Edmund II. king of the 
Anglo-Saxons was so called from his iron 
armour (989, 1016-1017). 

Sir Richard Steele signed himself ' Nestor Iron- 
Bide ' in the ' Guardian ' (1G71-1729). 

Ironsides {The). Cromwell's brigade 
was so called for their irresistible ob- 
stinacy in fight. 

Sir Philip Warwick says : ' The regiment of 1,000 
men which Cromwell raised for me Association of 
the Eastern Counties, and which soon became 
hnown as his Imiisiilcs, was formed strictly of reli- 
gious fanatics, for Cromwell told Hampden that 
the one weapon which could meet and turn the 
chivalry of the cavalier was religious enthu- 
siasm.' 

Iroquois. A confederation of five 
American-Indian States, partly in Canada 
and partly in the United States. They 
were the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the 
Ouondagas, the Senecas, and the Cayugas. 



They were proud, brave, hospitable, 
faithful, and melancholic. 

When the Tuscaroras joined them they were in- 
creased to six states. 

Irrefragable Doctor {The). 
' Doctor Irrefragabilis,' Alexander of 
Hales, of the Order of Friars Minor, 
Paris (died 1245). He was an English- 
man, and was called Hales from a monas- 
tery in Gloucestershire where he was 
brought up. He wrote a commentary on 
the famous ' Sentences ' of Pierre Lom- 
bard, and was the master of Duns 
Scotus. See ' Doctors.' 

There was a John Hales who was called ' The 
Ever Memorable,' who was born at Bath (15St- 
liiSG). Professor William Hales, the chronologist, 
is quite another person. He died in 1831. 

Irregulars {The). We have no 
Irregulars in the British army ; but in 
the Indian army we have Irregulars 
among the black troops, such as Hodson's 
Horse, Probyn's Central India Horse, 
&c. 

The Militia, the Yeomanry, and the Volunteers 
are not regulars (q.v.), but yet they are not called 
Irregulars. In France the ' troupes irregulieres' 
are those who do not belong to the line {q.v.). 

Ir'vingites (8 syl.), 1828. Follow- 
ers of Edward Irving, a Scotch minister, 
■whose most striking peculiarity was the 
expectation of the speedy advent of 
Christ and the beginning of the mil- 
lennium. His followers claimed the 
miraculous gifts of tongues, prophecy, 
healing, and raising of the dead, though 
Irving himself never laid claim to such 
powers. He died in 1834. 

They call themselves the ' Apostolic Catholic 
Ciiurch,' and have four ministries; (1) Apostles; 
(•2) Prophets ; (3) Evangelists ; and (4) Pastors or 
Angels. 

Isau'rian War {The), 492-498. 

Tarcalissaeus, or Zeno, invited over a 
formidable band of Isaurians, but his 
successor Anastasius suppressed their 
pensions, banished them from Constanti- 
nople, and prepared war for their exter- 
mination. Some 150,000 barbarians, 
headed by a fighting bishop, flew to 
arms, and a war of six years' duration 
ensued. The Isaurians retired to their 
fastnesses in the mountains, but fort 
after fort fell ; their communication with 
the sea was cut off ; the bravest of their 
leaders died in arms ; those who sur- 
vived were dragged in chains to the 
hippodrome, and those of their young 
men who refused to submit to the 
Romans were banished to Thrace. 



ISIAC 



ISTHMIAN 



ICl 



Is'iac Table {The). A flat rect- 
angular bronze plate, about 4 ft. 8 in. 
long, containing three rows of figures of 
Egyptian emblems and deities. It was 
sold by a soldier to a locksmith, and the 
locksmith sold it to Cardinal Bembo in 
1527. It is now at Turin, but it is a 
general opinion that the table is spu- 
rious. See ' Literary Forgeries. '- 

Isidore of Seville. One of the 
doctors of the church (570-636) : his day 
is 4 April. Author of ' Commentaries on 
the Old and New Testament,' a ' Treatise 
on the Ecclesiastical Writers,' 'A 
Chronicle from Adam to 626,' &c. See 
' Doctors of the Church.' 

Isido'rian Decretals (The), 
820-836, or ' The False Decretals.' Fifty- 
nine decretals palmed off as the work 
of St. Isidore of Seville (570-036). They 
aim at the exaltation of the Roman 
pontiff and the depreciation of the civil 
power, the infallibility of the pope, and 
the justification of certain ' Catholic ' 
practices, such as the rite of chrism, and 
so on. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

The collection consists of three parts : (11 con- 
tains Gl decretal epistles from popes of the first 
three centuries, Clement to Sylvester (91-314) ; 
(2) canons of the councils; (3) decretal epistles 
from Sylvester to Deodatus (314-616). Of these 35 
are certainly spurious, and yet for nearly 1,000 
years they were appealed to by popes and councils 
as authority. In 17^9 Pope Pius VI. admitted them 
to bo iniquitous forgeries. 

*,* Some attribute these decretals to Riculfe 
archbishop of Mentz ; others to Isidore Mercator, 
or ' Peccator,' as some surname him, a Cenobite ; 
others again to Benedict Levita, aGallican monk. 

Islam. The Mohammedan creed ; a 
believer in the creed is a Moslem, Mus- 
sulman, Islamite, or Mohammedan. 

Isle des Chevaux {The). The 
Isle of May, in the throat of the Firth of 
Forth. It is about a mile in length and 
encloses some 70 acres of pasture land 
much prized for grazing horses. 

Pronounce Eel' da' Sha-vo' . 

Isle of Destiny (T7ie). Inisfail. 

Isle of Mist {The). The Isle of 
Skye, its high hills being almost always 
shrouded in mist. 

• Nor sleep thy hand by thy side, Chief of the 
Isle of Mist.'— OSSIAN, Fingal, i. 

Isle of Saints {The). Ireland was 
so called after the conversion of the 
people to Christianity ; before that time 
it was called the Sacred Isle. It was as 
distinguished for being the school of 



Druidism or sun-worship as it was subse- 
quently for being the school of Christian 
scholars. 

Isma'elites (4 syl.), or ' Ismael'ians.' 
Separatists from the Shiites, a Moslem 
sect. The Shiites believe that there 
have been twelve true Imams. The 
Ismaelites believe in only seven : Ali 
(son-in-law of Mohammed) and his six 
regular descendants. The seventh was 
Ismael, who died 730, leaving an infant 
son Mohamm'ed. This infant was set 
aside, and his uncle Mousa was made 
kalif or imam {q.v.). This caused a split 
in the party, and those who followed the 
infant Mohammed called themselves 
Ismaelites. No one knows what became 
of the infant, but the Ismaelites assert 
that he will api^ear in the fulness of 
time, and restore the true faith. These 
Ismaelites were very influential from 730 
to the 12th century, and from them 
sprang the Karmathians who ravaged 
Persia and Syria in the 8th century; 
the Fatimite kalif s who reigned in Egypt 
from 909 to 1174 ; the Assassins {q.v.) 
1090-1258; the Druses, the Nosairis, 
and the Wahabites (3 syl.). 

The Ismaelites were materialists, and sym. 
bolised away all those parts of the Koran opposed 
to their own views. Their missionaries are 
called ' dais,' and a good Ismaelite should pray 
fifty times a day. 

Ismaelites of the East {The). 
The Assassins, an order of the Ismael'- 
ians or Isma'elites {q.v.). Their great 
aim was to stamp out the Sunnites and 
assassinate the Sunnite kalif. 

Isoc'rat^S {The French). Fle'chier 
(1632-1710). A great pulpit orator. Noted 
for his ' Funeral Orations,' especially one 
pronounced over Marshal Turenne. 

Israelites' Clubs. See note after 
* Circumcellians,' p. 175, col. i. 

Isth'mian Games {The). In an- 
cient Greece held in the Isthmus of 
Corinth every alternate spring, the 1st 
and 3rd of each Olympiad. The games 
began at sunrise with the foot-match, 
anci the victor gave his name to the 
Olympiad. Wrestling was the next 
match, then boxing, then leaping, then 
the cliariot race. The only prize was a 
wreath of parsley or green pine-leaves. 

The pancrat'ion was a combination of wrestling 
and boxing. The combatants tried their strenych 
first by squeezing each other's hands. Sostratos 
of Sicyon gained twelve prizes for crushing his 
opponent s hand in the preliminary grip. 



ITALIAN 



ITALIAN 



Italian Architecture. Renais- 
sance, or ' Classical Revival.' It com- 
menced in Italy at the beginning of the 
15th cent., was introduced into France 
about a century later, and into England 
1560-70. 

Italian Confederacy {The), 1526. 

Consisting of the pope, the Italian 
princes and states, and Francois I. of 
France, against Zarl V. The allies en- 
gaged to raise 30,000 foot soldiers, 3,000 
horse, and a sufficient fleet. Henry VIII. 
of England did not join the league, 
but he favoured it, for Wolsey hated 
Karl. 

Italian Confederation or 
League {The). The eight allied na- 
tions in the Social War (b.c. 90-89). 

Italian French School of Paint- 
ing {The). Called the ' Sophocles of Art,' 
because the exponents drew their human 
beings models of perfection. This school 



included Vouet (1582-1649), Mignard 
(1610-1695), Lesueur (1617-1655), Lebrun 
(1619-1690), Jouvenet (1647-1707), 
Rigaud (1659-1743), and Lemoine (1688- 
1737). 

Italian League {The), 1511-1512. 
Set on foot by Pope Julius II. against 
Louis XII. of France. Henry VIII. of 
England and his father-in-law Ferdinand 
V. of Aragon joined the pope. Julius 
laid the kingdom of France under an 
interdict, and convened a general council 
at Rome (the Fifth General Council of 
the Lateran), chiefly for the reproof of 
Louis XII. Pope Julius died in 1513, 
and the league was dissolved. 

Louis XII. and Maximilian had convened the 
Council of Pisa to depose the pope. The real 
cause of contention was this. The Pope, the 
Kaiser of Germany, and the King of Aragon had 
formed a league for seizing Venetia and parcel- 
ling it out between them : but Louis contrived to 
be in the field first, won the battle of Agnadello, 
and Venice fell into his hazids. This was not 
what the pope wanted, so he broke the lea gue 
and formed a new one to drive the French out of 
Italy. 



Italian Painters of Lombardy. 



Called 

Correggio 

Annibale Carraccl 

Michel Angelo da Caravaggio 

Guido 

Albano 

Domenichino 

Lanfranco 

Guercino 



Name 

Antonio Allegri 

Annibale Carracci 
Amcrighi or Meriyhi 

Guido Reni 

Francesco Albani 

Domenico Zampieri 
Giovanni Lavfrnnco 
Giovanni Francesco Barhieri 



Italian Painters, &c. of Borne. 



Called 

Leonardo da Vinci 

II Perugino 

Michel Angelo 

Sanzio Raphael 

Andrea del Sarto 

Francesco Primaticcio 

Giulio Romano 

Polidoro Caldara 

IlParmigiano 

Daniele Ricciarelli 

Cecchino del Salviati 

Berrettini . 

II Lucchesino 

Italian Painters of Venice. 

Called 

Giambelliui 

Giorgione 

Titian 

Jacopo da Ponte 11 Bassano 

II Tintoretto ». .^ «. ... 

Paul Veronese 

II Giovane 

II Vecchio 

Italian Republic {The), 1802. So 
Napoleon called the Cisalpine Republic. 

In 1801 Savoy and Piedmont were united to 
France; Milan taken from Austria formed the 
Cisalpine Republic. 

Italian War {The), 1488-1549. Be- 
gun in the rei^ai of Charles VIII. and 



Name 

Leonardo da Vinci 

Pietro Vanned 

Michelagnolo Btwnarroti 

Raphw'l, ov Raffaelo 

Andrea Vannucchi 

Francesco Primaticcio 

Giulio Pippi .. .. 

Polidoro da Carnraggio 

Girolama Francesco Maria Mazzi 

Daniele da Volterra 

Francesco de' liossi . 

Pietro dn Coriona 

Pietro Testa 



Name. 

Giovanni Bellini , 

Giorgio Barbarelli 

Tiziimo Vecellio 

Jacobo Robusti 

Paolo CagliaH 

Jacobo P'alma (of Venice) 

Jacobo PainM 



(1494-15.34) 
(1560 1G09) 
(1569 1609) 
(1575 1642) 
(1578 1660) 
(1581-1641) 
(1581-16-17) 
(1590 1666) 



(1445 1519) 
(1446-1524) 
(1474 1564) 
(1488 1.520) 
(148S 1530) 
(1490 1570) 
(1492-1546) 
(1495-1543) 
(1504-1540) 
(1509 1566) 
(1510-1563) 
(1596-1669) 
(1611 1648) 



a426-1516) 
(1477 1511, 
(1477 1576) 
(1510 1.592( 
(1512-15 >4) 
(1530-15«) 
(1544-1628) 
(1548-1588) 



ended in the reign of Henri II. It was 
an attempt of France to become master 
of Italy. After sixty-five years of war, 
Henri signed at Cateau Cambresis the 
Paix Malheureuse, by which he renounced 
Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. 
Though the Italian war brought no material 



ITALIAN 



TACOBI 



463 



advantage to Franea, indirectly it was beneficial 
and brou.!?ht about the renaissance, which made 
itself conspicuous in the literature, architecture, 
and taste of the nation. 

' Italian of Asia {The). Persian, 
noted for its harmonious sound, its facility 
of versification, and its adaptation to 
music of the lighter forms. 

Malay is " the Italian of the East ' ; and Telugu 
' the Italian of India.' 

Italic School {The) of Philosophy. 
The Pythagorean school, which arose in 
Italy about 540 B.C. In this school almost 
all things are explained by relative num- 
bers. The chief of the disciples are 
Ocellus, Timasus, Archytas, Alcmseon, 
Philolaos, and, somewhat later, Apollo- 
nius of Tyana. 

Italics. Sloping type. Originally 
called cursiveti, or ' cursive letters,' after- 
wards ' Venetian letters,' because they 
were used by the great Venetian printers, 
Aldo Manuzio (1447-1515), Paolo Manu- 
zio (1512-1574), and Aldo Manuzio the 
younger (1547-1597). The classical 
authors issued by these printers are 
called the ' Aldine editions.' It was silly 
to adopt the French word Italique in- 
stead of Venetian type, but custom has 
established the word too firmly to be 
displaced. See ' Koman Type.' 

Cursive letters are now employed to mark em- 
phatic words or words of a foreign language. 

Iva'rian Dynasty {The). Im- 
properly called ' The Skiol dung Dynasty' 
iq.v.), and sometimes ' The Eace of Lod- 
brok.' The founder was Ivar Vidfadme, 
who is said to have reigned from a.d. 647 
to 735. The Ivarian dynasty gave four- 
teen kings, and lasted from 647 to 1056 ; it 
followed the Ynglings, and was succeeded 
by the race of Stenkil. The Ivarian was 
the second Swedish dynasty, and is some- 
times called the ' Race of Sigurd,' from 
Sigurd-Ring, the 3rd of the line. The 
reason is this: Harald Hilde.and, the 
grandson and successor of Ivar, lived in 
Denmark, and sent his nephew Sigurd- 
Ring to Upsa'la as his viceroy. Sigurd 
rebelled against his uncle, who was slain 
in battle, and succeeded him. Lodbrok 
was the son of Sigurd-Ring. 

JackBoot (^), 1763.. The mocking 
emblem of John . . . Bute, the chief 
minister of George III. A jack-boot was 
carried in jarocession, and burnt in the 
cider riots raised by Sir Francis Dash- 
wood's unpopular tax on cider and perry. 



When No. 45 of 'The North Briton 'was 
condemned to be burnt by the common 
hangman in 1763, the mob rescued the 
paper and burnt a jack-boot instead. 

The scandal was that the Earl of Bute was the 
paramour of the Dowager Princess of Wales, and 
the rioters therefore carried a petticoat on a 
pole as well as a jack-boot, and both were burnt 
together. John Stuart earl of Bute (1713-1792). 

Jack Straw. A priest who, with 
John Ball of Kent, took a leading part in 
V/at the Tyler's rebellion of 1381. He 
was executed the same year. 

Jack the Ripper. An unknown 
person who so called himself, and com- 
mitted a series of murders in the east 
end of London on coimnon prostitutes. 

The first was 2 April, 1888, when he murdered 
and mutilated a woman in a most barbarous 
manner ; the next was 7 Aug. ; the third was 31 
Aug. ; the fourth was 8 Sept. ; the fifth was 30 Sent., 
when two women were murdered, one of whom 
was brutally mutilated; the sixth was 9 Nov. ; the 
seventh was 20 I>ec., in a builder s yard ; the eighth 
was 17 July, 18.S9, at Whitechapel ; the ninth was 
17 Sept., when the mutilated trunk of a woman was 
found in Pinchin Street, Whitechapel. The per- 
petrator of these murders fearlessly announced 
that he was Jack the Ripper, and the series of 
murders created quite a panic in Whitechapel. 
For a parallel case, see ' Monster ' (The). 

Jackmen. Military retainers dressed 
in jacks or doublets quilted with iron. 
These partisans in the middle ages con- 
ducted themselves with great insolence 
towards the industrious part of the com- 
munity, lived by plunder, and were ready, 
at the command of their master, for any 
act of violence. 

It is Christie of the Clinthili. the laird's chief 
jackman ; ye know that little havings [behaviour] 
can be expected from the like o' them. — Sir W. 
Scott, The Monastenj, chap. ix. 

Jacksonian Professor of Natural 
and Experimetital Philosophy, in the 
University of Cambridge. Stipend 500Z. 
a year. Founded by the Rev. Richard 
Jackson, 1783. 

Jacob's Stone. The stone used in 
our coronation service, brought from 
Scotland by Edward I., and transferred 
from Ireland to Scotland by one of the 
Milesian kings. 

The ' stone of destiny ' Is said to have been the 
stone set up by the patriarch Jacob to commemo- 
rate his dream, in which hesaw aladder reaching 
from earth to heaven. The stone is historic, but 
the tradition connecting it with Jacob is mythical. 

Jaco'bi or Jacobe'ans, 1358. 

French rebels under the leadership of 
Guillaume Caillet, surnamed Jacques 
Bonhomme. Their rebellion is known 
in history as ' La Jacquerie ' {(J-v.), 
(' Froissart,' vol.i. chapters 187,188,lb'J.) 



464 



JACOBINS 



JAGO 



Jac'obins, 1207. I. In Church his- 
tory. The Dominicans of Paris were 
popularly so called from St. James's 
Hospital for Strangers assigned to them in 
1207 by Alberic. The street in which 
the hospital stood was in 1219 called the 
Rue St. Jacques. The Dominican convent 
subsequently occupied by the Breton 
Club was not the original hospital re- 
ferred to above, but an affiliated convent 
in the Rue St. Honore. See ' Jacobins, a 
political club.' 

II. A jjolitical club in the first French 
Revolution formed at Versailles in 1789, 
and at first called the Club Breton, be- 
cause it was organised by the deputies of 
Brittany. When the National Assembly 
was moved to Paris the club followed, 
and called itself La Societe des Amis de 
la Constitution ; but the general public 
called it the ' Jacobins' Club,' because it 
held its meetings in the ancient convent 
of the Jacobins in the Rue St. Honore. 
The opinions of this club were very radical 
and Robespierre was its chief leader. On 
the fall of Robespierre the club was dis- 
solved, 11 Nov., 1794. 

The original platform of the Breton Club was to 
dethrone Louis XVI. and place the Duke of Orleans 
on the throne. 

Jac'obites (3 syl.). I. Pilgrims to the 
shrine of St. James of Compostella in 
Spain (ad Jacobum Compostellanum). 

II. In Church history, 541. An 
oriental sect of Monoph'ysites called after 
Jacob Zanzale, surnamed Baradasus {;i.e. 
Al Baradas, the ragged) bishop of Edessa. 
They prevailed especially in Egyjjt, Syria, 
Mesopotamia, and Chaldsea. The chief of 
the sect is called patriarch of Antioch, and 
lives at Diarbekir, and the next in rank 
is the maphrian. They recognise only 
one nature in Jesus Christ, and they used 
to brand their foreheads with a cross. 

III. In British history. The partisans 
of James II. after his abdication in 1688, 
his son James called the Old Pretender, 
and his grandson Charles Edward (the 
Young Pretender). Many believed at 
the time in the divine right of kings, and 
that this right was inalienable. The un- 
popularity of the first two Georges, whose 
love was bound up with Hanover, con- 
tributed to popularise the Jacobite party. 

Jaco'byns. A word applied in news- 
paj^ers to the ultra-radical party, first in 
1889 when Mr. Jac5by was appointed 
their ' whip.' 



This v-ill, of course, have the support of the 
Jacobyns, the Irish, and the poace-at-any-price 
faction of the English radicals.— iVt'icsp«pfirit'ad<'c, 
13 Feb., 1890. 

Jacquerie {La), 1358. A faction of 
the revolted peasants of Picardy, who 
for about six weeks went about in 
monster gangs attacking all the well- 
to-do without distinction of sex. Their 
leader was Guillaume Caillet, the 
' Jack Cade ' of France, and with 20,000 
followers he destroyed thirty castles. 
He led his gang to Meaux [Mo], where 
the Duchess of Orleans with some fifty 
ladies of rank had fled for security. 
The rebels reached the city gates, and 
prepared to break them down, when the 
Cajitcil de Buch, with forty followers, 
sallied out uiJon them. The insurgents 
fled in all directions ; 7,000 of them 
were slain or trampled to death, and 
Caillet, falling into the hands of ChiJs-les 
the Bad, v/as beheaded summarily with 
a sword. 

Wat Tyler's insurrection was in 1381. Jack 
Cade's was 69 years later, in 1450. 
Pronounce Zjah-he-re. Caillet, pronounce Ki-yea. 

Jacques Bonhonime. The name 
assumed by Guillaume Caillet, leader of 
the revolt called after him ' La Jacquerie ' 

(q.v.). 

Pronounce Zjark Bun-num' ; Ghu'yum Ei'yea. 

Jactitation of Marriage. A false 
pretension to marriage. The person v/ho 
utters the pretence is called in law the 
' boaster ' (jactator). This pretence is 
now actionable at law. 

Jaffa Massacre {The), 1799. Bona- 
parte had taken about 2,000 prisoners in 
his Egyptian campaign ; they were a 
mixed body of Egyptians, Turks, and 
others. Tlainking they would encumber 
his army, he marched tliem out to the 
sandhills, south-east of Jaffa (Joppa), had 
them all shot, and piled the dead bodies 
into a pyramid. 

Jagello {Dynasty of the), 1386-1572. 
Succeeded in Poland the House of Anjou. 
Hedviga, the youngest daughter of Louis 
the Great king of Hungary and Poland, 
married Jagello of Lithuania, and thus 
the dynasty was founded. It gave six 
kings. 

Jagello was the'thirteenth son of Gedymin duke 
of Lithuania. 

JagO {Knights of St.). A Spanish 
military order instituted under Alex- 
ander III., the grand-master. 



JAINAS 



JANSENISM 



4G5 



Jain'as, a.d. 500. A very numerous 
heterodox sect of Hindus. So called 
from r/ina (deified saint). Like the Buddh- 
, ists, they deny the divine authority of 
the Veda; but, with the Brahmans, they 
admit the institution of 'caste.' The 
Jainas declined in numbers after 1200. 

Sometimes they are called ' Arhatas.'fromnWia/, 
another word for ' deified saint.' 

Jales. A borough and chateau of 
Languedoc. In Sept. 1790 was formed 
the Camp de Jales, consisting of French 
nobles whose object was to overthrow 
the Constituent Assembly. The chateau 
was burnt to the ground in 1792, and the 
' camp ' was scattered to the winds. 

The camp, which was really2,000 strong, boasted 
of being able to bring 70,000 men into the field 
to put down the revolutionary party.— Caklyle, 
French lie volution, vol. ii. bk. v. 

James I. of Great Britain, first of the 
Stuart dynasty (1566, 1608-1625). 

Father, Henry Stuart lord Darnley. 
Mother, Mary queen of Scots, daughter 
of James V. of Scotland. James I. was 
great-grandson of the Princess Margaret, 
a daughter of Henry VII. Wife, Ann 
daughter of Frederic II. of Denmark. 
Court favourites, Kobert Carr, whom he 
made duke of Somerset, and George Vil- 
liers, whom he created duke of Bucking- 
ham. 

Henry VII. was the father of Henry VIII. and 
Margaret. 

Henry VIII. was the father of his three succes- 
sors, Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (all 
without issue). 

Margaret married James IV. of Scotland — the 
parents of James V. And James V. was the father 
of Mary queen of Scots. 

*,* Charles I. succeeded his father James I. ; 
and Elizabeth daughter of James I., who married 
the Elector Palatine, was called ' queen of Bohe- 
mia.' Their daughter Sophia was the mother of 
George I. 

Stijle and title : ' James D.G. of England. Scotland, 
France, and Ireland king ; Defender of the Faith ; 
and Supreme Head of the Anglican and Hibernian 
Church.' 

James II. (1633, began to reign 
1685, abdicated 1688, died at St. Ger- 
mains 1701). 

Father, Ch^arles I. Mother, Henrietta 
Maria of France. Wives (i.) Anne Hyde, 
who died 1671 ; (ii.) Marie Beatrix d'Este, 
who died 1718. 

By Anne Hyde he had four sons and four 
daughters, six of whom died young and two (viz. 
Mary and Anne) were queens of England. 

The Pretender, James Francis Edward, was the 
only surviving son of the second v ife i Jii'^'!-i7(iG). 

His stale and title was : ' James, D.G. of England, 
Scotland, France, and Ireland king; Defender of 
the Faith,' &c. 

Mani uas born 1G62, married William prince of 
Oranjje 1G77, died 1604. 

A7ine tens born 16G4. married George of Denmark 
l&-.;i. died 1714. 



James III. (of England). So Louis 
XIV. recognised the Old Pretender, 
James son of James II., who had been 
set aside by the nation over whom he 
ruled. Louis XIV. insisted that kings 
reigned 'by divine right,' and, being ap- 
pointed by God, only God could rightfully 
depose them. 

James VIII., 6 Sept., 1714. James 
the Pretender, son of James II. of 
England, was proclaimed at Castleton 
' James VIII. of Scotland ' ; but he was 
never crowned, and the battles of Preston 
and Sheriffmuir in 1715 put an end to 
his hopes of supplanting George I. 

Jamos of the Iron Belt. 
James IV. of Scotland, who fell at Flodden 
Field (1473, 1488-1513). 

James the Conqueror. James I. 
of Aragon (1206, 1213-1276). So called 
from his numerous victories over the 
Moors. 

James the Just. James II. of 
Aragon (1261, 1285-1327). So called from 
his just and strictly legal dealings with 
his subjects. 

James with the Fiery Face. 

James II. of Scotland, son of James I. 
So called from a fiery red stain on his 
face (1430, 1437-1460). 

Jane {Three Heroic Contemporaries 
named), 1342, &c. Jane wife of De Clis- 
son, Jane wife of De Montfort, and Jane 
wife of Charles de Blois. Three of the 
most heroic women that ever lived. All 
antagonistic to the French and allies 
of Edward III. The wife of De Blois 
was called ' Jane the Lame.' 

Jan'izary. A corruption of yengi- 
cheri, new soldiers. Ottoman infantry, 
who, in times of peace, acted as a police 
force, but proved a most unruly lot, their 
whole history abounding with conspira- 
cies and the assassinations of sultans and 
viziers. The force was dissolved in 1826, 
but 15,000 of them were executed and 
20,000 were exiled. 

The new militia was consecrated and named by 
a celebrated dervish, who said : ' Let them bo 
called ijengi-cheri ; may their countenance be 
ever bright; and, wherever they go. may they 
return with white [joyous] faces.— Gibbon, Ixiv. 

Jan'senism, 1640. The tenets of 
Cornelius Jansen bishop of Ypres, op- 
posed to those of the Jesuits. Jansen 
was a disciple of St. Augustine, whose 
religious views were very similar to those 
H Ii 



466 



JANSENISTS 



JANUARY 



of Calvin. He wrote a book called 
'Augustmus,' published in 1640; and 
from this book the following five points 
were deduced : (1) It is not possible to 
keep some of God's commandments ; (2) 
Inward grace is irresistible ; (3) Man has 
liberty free from restraint, but not free 
from predestination, or there could be no 
such things as sin and merit ; (4) The 
Semi-Pelagians were heretical, because 
they asserted the necessity of an inward 
preventive grace ; (5) It is heresy to say 
that Jesus died for all. The book w^s 
very severe against the Jesuits, who 
induced Urban VIII. to condemn it l'o42. 

Jan'senists, 1640. Disciples of 
Cornelius Jansen bishop of Ypres (1585- 
1638). Condemned by Innocent X. in 
1653. Blaise Pascal wrote his famous 
'Lettres Provinciales' in 1656, in their 
defence and against the Jesuits, whom he 
charged with immorality, equivocation, 
mental reservation, and simony. A for- 
mulary was issued by Innocent X. which 
the Jansenists were required to sign. 
This they refused to do. Alexander VII. 
in 1656 issued another bull of condemna- 
tion, and again commanded the Jansen- 
ists to sign the formulary. Still they 
refused, and to prevent a split in the 
church the next jiope compromised the 
matter by withdrawing the formulary. 
This is called ' The Peace of Clement IX.' 
1668. Clement XI. in 1713 issued his bull 
called ' Unigenitus ' in condemnation of 
the JansenistSj who api^ealed to a gene- 
ral council, and were therefore called 
'Appellants.' In 1720 the Jansenists 
were banished from France by the Re- 
gent Orleans. 

The Jansenists were Calvinistic Catholics who 
maintained the doctrines of grace, predestination, 
and non-freedom of the will. 

Janua'rius's Blood {St.). Janu- 
arius bishop of Benevento was beheaded 
in the tenth and last Roman persecution, 
about 303. It is said that a lady of Naples 
caught about an ounce of his blood at 
the moment of decapitation (!), and this 
blood, preserved in a phial, from that 
day to this has lost none of its weight. 
Three times a year this phial in N aples 
is brought near the head of the saint, 
and the blood, which before was con- 
gealed, liquefies. 

It appears to me that catching the blood [in the 
phial] was the greatest miracle. The liquefaction 
ia i. suiall aiiair. A ly chemist could mana.ge Ui^t. 



January 1. Made in England New 
Year's Day in 1751. (24 Geo. II. c. 23.) 

March indubitably is the proper beginning of 
the year. And our calendar still recognises it as 
such in the names of the last four months. 

January {Edict of), 1562. Which 
granted to the Huguenots of France full 
liberty of conscience, provided they held 
their meetings beyond the barriers of 
Paris. See ' Edict of Amboise.' 

The judge pleaded the Edict of January. ' The 
Edict of January!' said Guise, laying his hand 
upon his sword. ' This steel shall speedily cut 
asunder that edict, however tightly bound.' — 
G. DE Felice, History of the Protestants of France, v. 

January 21 (1793). Memorable 
for the decapitation of Louis XVI. The 
place of execution was what is now called 
the ' Place de la Concorde.' It is a fete 
day with Napoleonists. 

He gave a jovial supper to his companions on 
the 21st of January, the anniversary of the execu- 
tion of Louis XVI.— !/'/ie Czar, ch. xxxii. 

Historical Coincidences:— 

1. The number of letters in Charles I. and 
Louis XVI. is in both cases 8. 

2. The sum of the dates 1649 and 1793 is in both 
cases 20. 

3. The sum of the days 30 and 21 is in both 
cases 3. 

4. The month in both cases is January. 

5. Both were Christian kings ; both were tried 
by their subjects; and both were decapitated by 
judicial sentence. 

January 25 {The Manifesto of), 
1655. By Gastaldo, ' conservator-general 
of the holy faith.' ' It is enjoined and 
commanded on all persons of the pre- 
tended reformed religion of every state, 
inhabitants of Lucerna, Lucernetta, San 
Giovanni, La Torre, Bibbiana, Fenile, 
Campiglione, Bricherasco, and San Se- 
condo, to withdraw from the aforesaid 
places within three days. . . . Those who 
disobey this edict will incur the penalty 
of death, and the confiscation of all their 
property not disposed of to Catholics. 

January 30, 1649. Memorable 
for the decapitation of Charles I. at 
Whitehall. See ' January 21 n.' 

January 31 {Edict or Decree of), 
1686. Abolishing the religious services 
of the Vaudois, or any other form of 
religious teacbing except the Roman 
Catholic, under pain of death and confis- 
cation of property. It commanded the 
instant demolition of all houses of wor- 
ship in which ' the reformed religion ' was 
observed, the banishment of all Vaudois 
ministers and schoolmasters, the compul- 
sory baptism of all children by Catholic 



JANUS 



JEANNE 



467 



priests, and their education in the 
Catholic faith. 

Janus. One of the gods of old 
Rome, represented with two faces. 
Numa Pompilius, according to Livy, 
built a gate which was to be closed in 
time of peace. It was closed four times : 
once B.C. 235, in the consulship of Titus 
Manlius ; again B.C. 29, by Augustus 
Csesar ; a third time B.C. 25, also by 
Augustus ; and finally A.D. 71 by Ves- 
pasian. 

St. Augustine says : — 

The gates of Janus were not the gates of a 
temple, but the gates of a passage called Janus, 
■which was used only for military purposes. 
'Shut,' therefore, in peace; open in wa.x.—'l'lie 
City of God, vol. i. p. 98. 

Japan in 1889 received a new con- 
stitution, two chambers being esta- 
blished on the German model, 

Japanese Martyrs, 5 Feb., 1597. 
A number of Franciscan friars crucified 
near Nagasa'ki. They were beatified in 
1627, and canonised by Pius IX. in 1862. 

Japanese Perry of the United 
States, America, whose head is repre- 
sented on the 90-cent stamps, is Com- 
modore Matthew Calbraith Perry (1795- 
1858), who made the treaty for the 
United States with Japan. Both he 
and his father were celebrated naval 
officers. See ' American Postage Stamps.' 
There was another of the name, also an Ameri- 
can naval ofiQcer, viz. Oliver Hazard Perry (1785- 
18-20). 

Ja'redites (3 syl.). The first Ameri- 
can colony, according to the Book of 
Mormon. They were led from the 
Tower of Babel, at the dispersion, by 
Jared. The Jaredites were a wicked and 
bloody people, who utterly extirpated 
themselves by war. In B.C. 600 Nephi 
brought over a new colony from Jerusa- 
lem, and these new settlers were called 
Nephites. 

Jarvey {A). A hackney coachman 
of the olden times. So called from 
Jarvis, one of the fraternity, who was 
hanged (B.\iiLANTiNE). 

Jasher [The Book of). Quoted 
twice in the Old Testament (Jos. x. IB, 
and 2 Sam. i. 18). Nothing more is 
known about it. See ' Literary For- 
geries ' 

In 1751 Jacob Hive published a forged book so 
called, but the forgery was exposed in the 
• I\;o;itlilv P.-vio V- Deo. 1751. It was republished 
by Uoualdsuu in ItiOi. 



Jasper. The first foundation of the 
celestial city, represented the tribe of 
Gad in the pectoral of the high priest, 
and as a zodiacal sign it stands for 
Pisces. Symbolically it means ' lucky,' 
or ' win at last.' 

Jassy {Treat!/ of), 9 Jan., 1792. A 
treaty of peace between Russia and the 
Porte, which fixed the Dniester as the 
boundary between Russia and Turkey. 

Jaunot. The European Chinaman. 
His real name is M. Lemaire. He was 
consul-general of Shanghai, and in 1884 
was appointed minister plenipoten- 
tiary at Hue. Lemaire was nicknamed 
Jaunot at school from his singularly 
yellow complexion. He married a 
Cochin-Chinese lady, and was appointed 
interpreter of the French Consulate, 

Pronounce Zjo7ie-o. 

Jean I. Though enrolled among 
the kings of France, like Napoleon II., is 
a vox et prcBterea nihil. Jean I. was 
the posthumous son of Louis X. by de- 
mentia his wife ; but the child died three 
weeks after its birth. 

Jean le Bon or John the Good. 

Jean ILof France (1319, 1350-1364). He 
was brought captive to England after 
the battle of Poitiers, and remained in 
captivity from 1357 to 1361, when the 
French agreed to pay a million and a 
half sterling for his ransom. Jean re- 
turned to Paris and sent his two sons as 
hostages till the ransom was paid. The 
two princes violated their parole and 
escaped to France ; whereupon Jean 
returned to his captivity, saying, ' Good 
faith must never be violated by a king.' 
It was this which gained for him the 
name of ' Le Bon.' 

Jeanne d'Are. The University of 
Paris condemned her on twelve charges : 

I. Her apparitions, inspired by Belial, Satan, 
and Behemoth. 

II. Her sign to the king, a lie. 

III. The visits of St. Catherine, a rash belief 
injurious to the faith. 

IV. Her predictions, mere superstitious divina- 
tion. 

v. Her wearing male attire by commaitd of God, 
blasphemy. 

VI. The letters writteit to the English to depart 
from France, traitorous, bloodthirsty, and blas- 
phemous. 

VII. Her leaving Chinon, filial impiety. 

VIII. Her attempt to escape from the tower at 
Beaurevoir, cowardice. 

IX. Her confide twe in her saivntinn, -presxim-piiow. 

X. Her asserlinti thai SI. Calhrriiie and SI. M.ir. 
g'in-t do )i(it .s/d'.f/; i:,i ili^h. 1)1 is^jhemy, and viola, 
tion of lo.e to oar nciaUijour. 



468 



JEDBURGH 



JEREMIE'S 



XI. Paying honour to saints, idolatry. 

XII. Reftisal to submit to the Church (i.e. her tri- 
bunal), schism. 

The judgment was reversed in 1246, and the 
former record of the University of Paris torn out 
of the register and destroyed. 

Jedburgh Justice ; also called 
' Jeddart Justice ' and ' Jedwood Jus- 
tice,' Jeddart and Jedwood being local 
variations of Jedburgh, in Roxburghshire, 
Scotland. A summary proceeding against 
mosstroopers, who were punished with- 
out trial if taken flagra?ite delicto. 

Somewhat similar expressions are the follow- 
ing: Cupar Justice. Bradford Law, Jedburgh 
Law, Halifax Law, Abingdon Law (q.v.), Burslem 
Club Law, Mob Law, Lynch Law, &c. 

Jeddart Staff (A). A species of 
battle-axe, especially used in the ancient 
borough of Jeddart. The armorial bear- 
ings of Jeddart are an armed horseman 
brandishing a battle-axe. 

The tongue of a tale-bearer breaketh bones as 
well as a Jeddart staff.— Sir W. ScoTT, The Abbot, 
chap. iv. 

JefFreidos (4 syl.). A mock epic by 
William Davenant, the subject of which 
is the combat of Sir Jeffrey Hudson, the 
dwarf, with a turkey-cock. 

JeJBPreys' Bloodstone. So the 

ring presented in 1684 by Charles II. to 
Chief Justice Jeffreys was popularly 
called, because he received it just after 
the execution of Sir Thomas Armstrong. 

Jeffreys' Campaign, 1685. So 
James II. called the circuit of Judge 
Jeffreys, through Dorchester, Exeter, 
Taunton, and Wells, after Monmouth's 
rebellion. As many as 251 persons were 
condemned to death as partisans of 
Monmouth. 

Jefume, i.e. ' treading on the cruci- 
fix.' The Dutch were allowed to traffic 
in Japan provided they would trample 
on the crucifix to show they were not 
Roman Catholics. From 1586 to 1637 
Spaniards and Portuguese freely traded 
in Japan ; but at the latter date a Dutch- 
man revealed to the Emperor of Japan 
a conspiracy formed by the Spaniards 
and Portuguese to murder him. Both of 
these people were expelled, and no Roman 
Catholic was allowed to trade in the 
country. The Jefume was abolished in 
1854, when the ports were thrown open. 

Jellale'an Era (The), 1074. The 
calendar of the Seleucides, reformed in 
the reign of Malek Shah by an assembly 
of sage astronomers. At this epoch the 



Persian year was nearly 112 days before 
the sun, and to make the Persian calendar 
coincide with the Julian the assembly 
commanded that the vernal equinox 
should always be on the fourteenth day of 
what we call March, and that the inter- 
calary days should be six instead of five 
every fourth year. 

Sir Harris Nicholas calls the word Jelaledin, 
and says he was a sultan. James B. Fraser calls 
the word Jellalean, and says that the calendnr 
was reformed, not by a sultan, but by saga 
astronomers when Malek Shah was sultan. 

Jemmy Twiteher. John earl of 
Sandwich, one of the New Franciscans, 
an obscene and impious club, of which 
Wilkes was also a member. Sandwich 
was especially forward in condeninin;^ 
No. 45 of the ' North Briton,' and in 
denouncing Wilkes the editor. As Sand- 
wich was just as lewd and blasphemous 
as Wilkes, this was like the pot calling 
the kettle ' Black-face.' The ' Beggar's 
Opera ' was running at the time at 
Covent Garden, and when Macheath 
uttered the words, ' That Jemmy Twiteher 
should peach, I own surprises me,' 
all the theaire applied the words to 
Sandwich, amidst most tumultuous ap- 
plause, and ever after the earl went by 
the name of Jemmy Twiteher. 

Jenner'ian Institution {The 
Boyal). Founded in London 1803. In 
1808 it merged in the National Vaccine 
Establishment. 

Dr. Edward Jenner in 1798 published his treatise 
' An Enquiry into the Causes and Effects of the 
Variolse Vaccinfe,' after his first 'experiment of 
vaccination in May 179fi; and in 1802 received a 
grant of 10,000L from parliament. ' 

Jenny Geddes (1 syl.). The name of 
Robert Burns's mare. It was so called 
after Jenny Geddes of Edinburgh, who 
took up her stool to throw at the bishop's 
head when trying in the High Church to 
introduce the Anglican service. 

Jenny mistook the meaning of collect for colic. 
And wlien the bishop from the pulpit implored the 
riotous congregation to hear the collect, she ex- 
claimed, ' Colic, d' you say ? Deil colic the wame 
o' thee ! '—i.e. the devil send the colic into thy 
stomach. 

Je'ofail {Statutes of). Statutes for 
the remedy of slips or accidental errors 
in a law proceeding. ' Jeofail ' is corrupt 
for J'ai failli, 1 have made a mistake (in 
Latin, Lapsus sum). 

Jer'emie's Prizes {Dr.). For pro- 
ficiency in the Septuagint version of 
the Old Testament and other Helleni^jtic 



JEROME 



JESUITS 



4C9 



literature. Two prizes annually in books 
for undergraduates. Founded in the 
University of Cambridge by the Very 
Rev. James Amiraux Jeremie, D.D., 
dean of Lincoln, in 1870. See ' Regius 
Professor of Divinity.' 

Jerome of Prague (1378-1416). 

Jerome (2 syl.) was charged with heresy, 
and, asking what heresj'^, was told that, 
lecturing at Heidelberg, he had likened 
the Holy Trmity to a liquid in three 
states : water, vapour, and ice. ' Away 
with him ! Away with him ! To the 
stake ! To the stake ! ' roared the council 
with one voice, and he was burnt to 
death. See ' Huss.' 

St. Patrick's illustration, a leaf of shamrock, 
was quite as objectionable. Abelard and Jeremy 
Taylor were equally unorthodox in their attempts 
to illustrate the ' Three-in-One.' In all these 
cases the fundamental error is the assumption 
that the three hypostases are three personal ob- 
jects or phenomena, which would necessitate 
their creation. The whole of which supposition 
is bad philosophy and bad theology. 

Jerry-building. Worthless or in- 
secure building; cheap contract work, 
flimsy and showy. So called from the 
firm of Jerry, Brothers, Liverpool, house 
contractors, notorious for their un- 
substantial edifices (19th cent., latter 
half). 

The falling-in of two villas at Chalk Farm, 
while in course of erection, will, I hope, call 
attention to the system of jerry-building so much 
in \ogvie..— Truth, 29 Oct., 1885. 

Jerusalem {The Destruction of). 
This epoch began with the taking of 
Jerusalem by Titus, Sept. a.d. 70. 

Jerusalem Jump {The). A negro 
religious service, or ' awakening.' While 
the negro preacher is still ranting, two 
concentric circles are formed round him. 
The outer circle is of men, and the inner 
one of women, facing the men. Each 
man then takes hold of the opposite 
woman, and the two jump together 
violently, shaking hands and shouting at 
the top of their voices. After about a 
minute the two circles move, one one 
way and one another, so that each brother 
faces a different sister, and again the 
jumping is repeated. See ' Jumpers.' 

This really is not more absurd than the dancing 
of dervishes. 

Jerusalem, of Russia {The). 
Moscow, the 'sacred city.' Close by is 
the ' Mount of Salvation,' where the 
natives, coming in full view of their 
boloved city, kneel and cross themselve.s. 



Jesids {The), or ' Devil Worshippers.' 
I14 Russian and Turkish Armenia, the 
valley of the Tigris, &c. Their holy city 
is Ba-Hasani. It is said their name is 
compounded of Jesu (their founder) and 
Jesid a town. They pray to the rising 
sun, worship Allah, reverence Mahomet, 
and deem Christ a great angel (' the son 
of light '). Their chief concern is to 
conciliate Shaitan, the devil, whose name 
they never utter. Thursday is their 
Sabbath, and they fast forty days in the 
spring of the year. Their children are 
baptized, and their ecclesiastical orders 
consist of sheikhs, fakirs, and djirs 
{elders). They abhor the colour blue, 
show the greatest respect to women, 
widows dress in v/hite, and the dead are 
buried with their faces turned to the 
pole-star. 

Jes'uates (3 syl.), 1355. A religious 
order founded by St. John Colombine, 
and confirmed by Urban V. in 13G7. 
Suppressed in 16G8, when all their pos- 
sessions were given to the Hospitallers 
of Italy. The object of the order was to 
administer to the sick and needy. They 
were suppressed because they were 
manufacturers of strong drinks. They 
had popularly the name of ' Aqua Vitte 
Fathers.' 

Ainsi appele parce que ses fondateurs avaient 
toujours le nom de Jesus a la bouche.— Bouillet. 

Jesuits, founded 1538. A religious 
society founded by Ignatius Loyola, and 
confirmed by Paul III. in 1540. It was 
monarchical in its constitution and secu- 
lar, while all other Catholic societies are 
more or less democratic and regular. 
The head of the society is called the 
General, or ' Praspositus Generalis,' and 
holds his office for life. This General 
has absolute command over the whole 
society, and from his decisions there is 
no appeal. 

The four objects of the society are : 
(1) the education of youth ; (2) the edu- 
cation of others by preaching, &c. ; (3) 
the defence of the Catholic faith against 
all heretics and unbelievers, and (4) the 
propagation of the Catholic faith among 
the heathen. The Jesuits wear no 
monastic garb, but dress like any other of 
the ' secular clergy ' {q.v.), and live in no 
religious house, but in private dwellings. 
Banished from England by 27 Eliz. c. 2 
A.D. 1584, banished from France in 1594, 
expelled from Portugal in 1759, expelled 



470 



JESUITS 



JEWS 



from Spain in 1767, expelled from Naples 
1767, expelled from Parma 1768, ex- 
pelled from Malta 1768, dissolved by- 
Clement XIV. in 1773, expelled from 
Kussia 1820, expelled fi-om Switzerland 
1847, expelled from Genoa 1848, expelled 
from Naples, the Papal States, Austria, 
Sicily, 1848. Still they survive. 

They are accused of being accessories to the 
Gunpowder Plot, the Popish Plot, the Thirty 
Years' War, and almost all the political troubles 
of Europe. 

Jesuits of the Revolution (r//e). 
The Girondins^ are so called by Du- 
niouriez, ' Memoires,' iii. 314. 

Jesuitesses {The), 1534. An order 
of religious women, founded by two Eng- 
lishwomen, Warda and Tuittia, in imita- 
tion of Loyola's foundation. Abolished 
by Urban Vni. in 1631. 

These women were street preachers. Surely 
Warda and Tuittia are not English names, but so 
is the record. 

Jesus College. I. In Cambridge 
University, founded by John Alcock 
bishop of Ely, in 1496. 

II. In Oxford, 1571. Founded by Queen 
Elizabeth. The head-master is called the 
principal. 

Jesus Paper. Paper bearing the 
letters I.H.S. for the water-mark. It is 
of large size. 

Jeu de Paume {Day of the), 
20 June, 1789. When the States-General 
assembled 5 May, 1789, to investigate 
the wrongs of France and adjust the 
finances, the nobles and clergy snubbed 
the Tiers E tat ; whereupon the Tiers Etat 
left the Salle de Menu, retired to the 
tennis covirt, and constituted themselves 
the ' National Assembly,' wholly ignoring 
the nobles and clergy, who refused to join 
them. They then took an oath not to 
eeparate till they had given France a 
constitution. Seven days afterwards the 
Due d'Orleans, with forty-seven of the 
noblesse and a large number of the clergy, 
joined the Tiers Etat in the tennis court, 
and declared themselves the national 
parliament under the name of the ' Con- 
stituent Assembly ' (Assemblee Consti- 
tuante). 

Jeu de Paulme (Jpwd pome), tennis. The Day of 
the Jeu de Paumo (June 20) was the great holiday 
during the Revolution. 

Jeune {Le). Louis VII. was so 
called, not for his youth, but for his 



puerile policy, as Ethelred of England was 
called the ' IJnready,' i.e. the impolitic. 

1. Louis VII. began his reign with quarrelling 
■with his clergy, for which he was excommuni- 
cated. 

2. He interfered with the Count of Vermandois, 
whereby he got into hot water with the Count of 
Champagne, and setting fire to the count s castle 
burnt down the whole town of Vitry. 

3. He left his kingdom to conduct an absurd ex- 
pedition to the Holy Land, which failed through- 
out. 

4. He divorced his wife Eleonore, who married 
Henry II. of England, whereby France lost Poitou 
and Aquitane. 

5. He went to Palestine by land and not by sea, 
contrary to the advice of his best counsellors. 

C. His wars with England were perfidious and 
most shortsighted in policy. 

Though amiable enough, he failed in everything 
from want of worldly wisdom, manly energy, and 
state prudence. 

JeunesseDor^e de Frdron {La), 
1794. Those young men of the Thermi- 
dorian faction who armed themselves 
according to the advice of Fre'ron, given 
in his journal 'L'Orateur du Peuple.' 
These were violent against the Jacobin 
Club, with whom they had frequent 
skirmishes. 

Jew of Tewkesbury {The). This 
was Salomon, a Jew whom Richard earl 
of Gloucester, in 1260, offered to pull out 
of a cesspool into which he had fallen 
one Saturday ; but the Jew refused the 
proffered aid, saying : ' Sabbata nostra 
colo ; de stercore surgere nolo.' Next 
day [Sunday] the earl passed again, and 
the Jew cried to him for help. ' No, 
no, friend ! ' replied the earl, ' Sabbata 
nostra quidem, Salomon, celebrabis ibi- 
dem.' This story occurs twice in the 
' Chron. Monast. de Melsa,' ii. pp. 134, 137. 

Eodem tempore apud Theokesbury, quidam 
JudiBus cecidit in latrinam, sed quia tunc erat 
sabbatum, non permisit se extrahi, nisi sequente 
die Dominica, propter reverentiam sui sabbati, 
quamobrem Judisum contigit mori in fcetore.— 
Rolls Series. 

Jews of Damascus {Persecution 
of the), 1840. A Catholic priest named 
Thomaso of Damascus, having disap- 
peared suddenly in February, a Jew 
barber at whose house he was seen v/as 
examined by torture, when he accused 
seven of the most wealthy Jewish mer- 
chants of being concerned in the murder. 
The seven merchants were apprehended ; 
two died under torture, the other five 
pleaded guilty. A dreadful persecution of 
the Jews followed, and the absurd notion 
was confirmed that human blood was 
necessary for the paschal feast. The 
Euj^ii.ih and French interfered, repro- 



JEWS' 



J. J. 



471 



sen ted to Mehemet Ali the absurdity of 
the notion, and the persecution ceased. 

Jews' Parliament {The), 1243. 
Six of the richest Jews from each large 
town of England, and two from each small 
town, sent by the county sheriffs to meet 
Henry III. at Worcester, on Quinquage- 
sima Sunday 1243, ' to treat with him for 
their mutual benefit.' See ' Parliaments.' 

The king informed his Jewish advisers that they 
must raise without delay 20.000 marks (200,000^. of 
money at its present value), one half to be ready by 
Midsummer day, and the other moiety by Michael- 
mas day. 

Jewel of Europe [The). Sicily. 
According to legend, God plucked a jewel 
from his crown out of which he formed 
Sicily. 

Jewel of Seville {The). The 
Giralda is so called. It is the most beau- 
tiful and largest specimen of Oriental 
architecture of its kind. 

Jewish Disabilities Act {The). 
21, 22 Vict. c. 49, 22 July, 1858. By this 
act the oath administered to members of 
parliament was modified to suit the re- 
ligious faith of Jews. Baron Rothschild 
was member for Hythe, and Alderman 
Salomons for Greenock in 1858. 

Jewish Eraancipation. Jews 
emancipated in the United Kingdom from 
disabilities of holding municipal offices 
and voting as members of parliament. 

1. Naturalised without being required to take 
the sacrament 1753 (iti Geo. I. c. 26). 

2. Admitted to the elective franchise 1832 (2 Will. 
IV. c. 45). 

3. Liberty of religious worship granted as to 
dissenters, 1855(19 Vict. c. 8G). 

4. Made eligible to seats in parliament 1858 (21, 
22 Vict. c. 49). 

5. All disabilities removed, and the oath ' On the 
true faith of a Christian ' omitted 18G0. 

Jewish Mundane Era {The), b.c. 
Commences with the vernal equinox 
3761. See ' Era.' 

Jewish Plato {The). Philo-Judajus 
of Alexandria, who endeavoured to weld 
Platonism and the Mosaic institutions 
together ; B.C. 20, died about a.d. 61. 

Jewish Sects. See each in loco. 



Chasidim 

Beshters 

Essenes (2 syl.) 

Galileans 

Gaulanites (3 syl.), pro- 
bably Rabbinirits of 
extreme views 

Hellenians* 

Hellenists 

Hem'erobap'tists * 
Nothing oc. ond th.? n^mc; 

Boots to which a * is attached. 



Hero'dians 
Karaites * 
Masboth'eans 
Meristes * 
Pharisees 
Sad'ducees 
Shebsen 
Therapeutae 
Zealots or Zelotes 

is known of those 



Jewish Soe'rates (3 syl.). Moses 
Mendelssohn, the modern Jewish philo- 
sopher (1729-1785). So called for his 
' Phsedon,' a dialogue on the immortality 
of the soul in imitation of Plato. 

One would think the better appellative would be 
the ' Jewish Plato.' 

Jewry (Statute of). Forbade usury 
by Jews, and provided that . the Jews 
should live in ' the king's own cities and 
boroughs where the Chest of Chirographs 
of Jewry are wont to be.' They were 
permitted by this statute to buy houses 
and farms, and to hold them for fifteen 
years. 

Jezebel, Aunt of Dido. See 
' Dido.' 

Jezre'elites (4 syl.), 1884, or 'The 
New and Latter House of Israel.' A 
rehgious sect founded by James Jershom 
White, a private of the lOtli regiment, 
who compiled from the works of Joanna 
Southcott and John Wroe a book which 
he called • The Flying Roll.' He called 
himself Jezreel, and gave himself out 
to be the spiritual child of Joanna 
Southcott, the Joshua of Christ, and 
the Immortal Spirit who held the last 
message of God to man. White erected a 
temple 144 feet in length, breadth, and 
height, at Gillingham, near Chatham. 
The great hall would hold 5,000 persons. 
He died 1885, but his wife gave her- 
self out to be Esther the queen, the 
virgin, and mother of Israel, sent to pre- 
pare the people for Christ's second 
advent in 1895. 

Jingoes (2 syl.), 1877. Russo- 
phobists. Those who su})posed that 
Russia would take Constantinople and 
then our Indian empire; but any Bobadil 
or warlike blusterer was afterwards 
called a Jingo. The word was adopted 
from ' M'Dermott's War Song ' — that is, 
the song sung in music halls by M'Der- 
mott and very popular at the time. The 
chorus runs thus : — 

We don't want to fight, but, by Jingo ! if we do, 
We ve got the ships, we've got the men, we've got 
the money too. 

Jin'goism, 1877. Warlike bluster 
and Bobadilism. The French chauvin- 
ism iq.v.) is now used in much the same 
sense. See ' Jingoes.' 

J. J. In Hognrth's ' Gin Lane,' 
written on a gibbet, is Sir J[oseplij 



472 



J. K. L. 



JOHANNISTS 



J[ekyll], obnoxious for his bill to increase 
the duty on gin. 

J. K. L. That is, Dr. Doyle, un- 
questionably the most accomplished 
polemical writer of his time, died 1834. 
The letters stand for James Kildare 
Leighlin — that is, his Christian name 
and his see as Catholic bishop. 

He [Mr. Stanley] made an exception in favour 
of the then [183'2] celebrated J. K. L. He acknow- 
ledged a letter from Dr. Doyle . . . with warm 
expressions of thanks . . . and expressed a wish 
to see him on his arrival in Dublin.— HowiTT, 
History of Em/land (year 1832, p. 216). 

Joan Makepeace, 1328. Joan 
sister of Edward III., who at the age of 
seven was affianced to David son of 
Robert Bruce, aged five. This betrothal 
was brought about by Mortimer (the 
paramour of Isabella the queen doAvager), 
to cement the" peace made between the 
English and Scotch in the year 1328. 

Joan of Are. Called 'La Pucelle,' 
' the Maid of Orleans ' (1412-1431). Her 
sword was the mystic sw nd of St. 
Catherine. 

Joan of Kent. Joan Bocher, an 
Anabaptist who was burnt at Smithfield 
2 May, 1550. Some say she was con- 
victed and sentenced by Archbishop 
Cranmer, and others say when Edward VI. 
was called on to sign the writ of her 
execution his eyes were full of tears. 
Others affirm that the writ was issued 
by the Court of Chancery and that 
Cranmer had no part in the matter. 
' Sir Thomas Browne, who wrote against 
vulgar errors, influenced the jury to give 
their verdict against the woman ' (' Parr's 
Works,' iv. 181). See ' Van Paris.' 

Blunt ('Reformation in England,' p. 260) says 
Bhe was condemned, ' probably under the law 
against Anabaptists, who advocated community 
of goods.' 

Juan the Fair Maid of Kent teas quite another per- 
son. She married Edward the Black Prince, and died 
1885. See ' Pope Joan.' 

Joanna and Isabella, 14G8- 

1479. Names which produced a civil 
war in Castile. The question was, which 
of these two should succeed Enrique on 
the throne. Isabella was his sister (wife 
of Don Ferdinand, who was son of 
Juan II. king of Navarre), Joanna was 
the natural daughter of Enrique. The 
Archbishop of Toledo took the part of 
Isabella, and undertook to detlirone 
Enrique, but war for ten years desolated 
the kingdom. Enrique died, his daugh- 
ter Joanna retired to a convent, and 



Isabella with Ferdinand became sove- 
reigns of Aragon and Sicily, Leon and 
Castile. 

Joanna Southcott (1750-1814). 

The mission of this ' prophetess ' began 
in 1792, when she declared herself to be 
' the woman driven into the wilderness ' 
of Rev. xii. Her prophecies are in prose 
and wretched doggrel, and she gave her 
followers her seals — that is, bits of paper 
sealed to insure them against the wrath 
of God. In 1814 she announced she was 
about to be the mother of Shiloh the 
Prince of Peace, but she died the same 
year of dropsy. 

Joanna Southcott was born in Devonshire of 
humble parents, and was in youth a domestic 
servant. 

Joanna the Mad, Queen of Cas- 
tile (1479, 1504-1555). She married 
Philip archduke of Austria, and was the 
mother of Kaiser Karl V., emperor of 
the Romans, king of Castile, afterwards 
of Spain, &c. 

Joan'nites (3 syl.). The adherents 
of John Chrysostom, who stood firmly on 
his side when Theophilus of Alexandria 
charged him with heresy and misde- 
meanour. See below, ' Johannists.' 

Jockey of TTorfolk. Sir John 
Howard, a firm adherent of Richard III. 
On the night before the battle of Bos- 
worth field he found a warning couplet 
in his tent, running thus : — 

Jocky of Norfolk be not too bold. 
For Dicon, thy master, is bought and sold. 
*«* Dioon or Diclvon of course means Richard III., 
and Jocky or Jacky = Jack, Jock, or John. 

Jockies. Superior sort of vagrants, 
perhaps a relic of the ancient bards or 
minstrels. They were well versed in the 
slogan or gathering-cries of Scotland, 
and being full of observation, and very 
entertaining, were admitted into the 
houses of the well-to-do as guests. The 
race is now extinct. 

The well-remembered beggar was his guest. 

Goldsmith, Deserted Village. 

(Here ' well-remembered ' means having a good 
memory.) 

Johannists. A sect which refused 
to acknowledge the successor of John 
surnamed Chrysostom, who died in 407. 
The Johannists refused to return to the 
general communion till 438, when the 
body of Chrysostom was brought back to 
Constantinople and solemnly interred, 
the emperor himself (Theodosius the 
Younger) taking part in the service. 



JOHN 



JOHN 



473 



John. The hated name of kings in 
England, France, and Scotland. The 
English king John was certa,inly as bad 
a king as ever reigned. In France John I. 
reigned only a few days, and John II., 
having lost the battle of Poitiers, died in 
captivity in London. In Scotland John 
[Baliol] was a mere tool of Edward I. So 
greatly was the name disliked in Scotland 
that John son of Robert II. reigned 
under the designation of Robert III. 

Popes narmd John. There have been twenty- 
three popes of this name. One abdicated (John 
XVIII.) : four were d>-posed (John XII., XIII., 
XIV., XIX.); two were expelled (John XVI., 
XVII.) ; two were charged with heresy (John IV., 
XXII.); four were imprisoned (John I., VIII.. X., 
XI.) ; seven were nonentities (John II., III., V., VI., 
VII., XV., XX.) ; one was killed accidentally (John 
XXI.) ; and one had Sergius III. for a rival pojK 
(John IX.). 

John I. (523-526). Imprisoned at Eavenna by 
Theodoric, and died in prison. 

— II., III. Nonentities. 

— IV. (("40 612). Accused of heresy. 

— v., VI., VII. Nonentities. 

— VIII. (872 882). Imprisoned by Lambert duke 

of Spoleto ; made his escape to France, 
and was poisoned. 

— IX. (898-900). Had Sergius in. for a nval 

pope. 

— X. (914-928). Cast into prison and murdered 

by order of Guido and Marozia. 

— XI. (931-9:^6). Imprisoned with his mother 

by Alberic, and died in the castle of St. 
Angelo. 

— XII. (956-964). A most profligate libertine. 
* Was deposed and died suddenly, pro- 
bably by assassination. 

— Xin. (965-972). Imprisoned by his nobles and 

deposed. 

— XIV. (983-995). Deposed; imprisoned by Boni- 

face VII., an antipope, and died in the 
castle of St. Angelo. 

— XV. A nonentity. 

— XVI. (985-996). Driven from Rome by Crescen- 

tius. 

— XVII. (997-998). Antipope. Expelled by Otto 

III., and barbarously treated by 
Gregory. 

— XVIII. (1003 1009). Abdicated. 

— XIX. (1024-1033). Deposed and expelled by 

Konrad. 

— XX. A nonentity. 

— XXI. (1270 -1277). Crushed to death by the falling 

in of his palace at Viterbo. 

— XXII. (131G-1334). Charged with heresy, and 

recanted. 

— XXIII. (1410-1419). Deposed, and afterwards im- 

prisoned for three years. 
,*,• A very sad list indeed. 

John Amend-all. John Cade, an 
Irishman, who gave himself out to be the 
son of Sir John Mortimer, and heir to the 
English throne. In May 1450 he en- 
camped on Blackheath with 20,000 fol- 
lowers ; but he was captured and killed 
on 1 July the same year. 

John called Robert. John earl 
of Carrick, eldest son of Robert II. of 
Scotland, was crowned 1390 as Robert 
III., because John had proved an ill- 



omened name in England, France, and 
Scotland. 

John Company. The old East 
India Company. Also called 'Mother 
Company.' 

in 1857 the 19th Native Infantry feasted the 11th 
Irregulars, and told them that John Company 
had sent out Lord Canning to convert India 
to Christianity.— HowiTT, Hist, of Kng. (year 1657, 
p. 407). 

John Free-born. John Lilbume 
(1618-1657). So called from his intrepid 
defence, before the tribunal of the Star 
Chamber, of his rights as a free-born 
Englishman. 

John-Jacob Christians. A 

branch of the strict Mennonites, which 
split from the general body in 155-i. So 
called from their founder. See ' Menno- 
nites ' (3 syl.). 

John Knox's Liturgy. The 

Book of Common Prayer used in the 
Presbyterian Church of Scotland. 
Extempore prayer is also used. 

John ' Lackland ' king of England, 
(1166, 1199-1216). FatJwr, Henry II.; 
Mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine ; Wives 
(1) Alice ; (2) Avisa daughter of William 
earl of Gloucester, divorced; (3) Isabella 
daughter of Aymer count of Angouleme, 
by whom he had five children (none by 
the other two) : — 

1. Henry III., his successor. 

2. Kichard earl of Cornwall, chosen King of the 
Rem ins, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 12.>7. 

3. Jane, married Ale.xander II. of Scotland in 
1221. 

4. Eleanor, married first William earl of Pem- 
broke, then Simon de Montfort earl of Leicester, 
by whom she had two sons, who with their mother 
were banished for rebellion. 

5. Isabella, who married Friedrich II. the Kaiser. 
She died 1241. 

His stale and tilU^.— John, D.G. rex Angliae, dominua 
Hibernise [Ibernise or Ybernise], dux Xormannioe. 
They addressed him 'Rex Anglorum.' This was 
the first of our kings called ' Dominus Hibernife,' 
which title continued till Henry VIII. changed 
it into ' King of Ireland.' 

John Lackland alone of all the sons of Henry II. 
had no territory or land left him. Henry, the 
eldest son, was associated with his father "in the 
government, but died before him ; Richard Coeur 
de Lion had Pcitou and Guyenne ; Geoffrey had 
Brittany in right of his wife. 

N.B. The first Henry, 'lord of Ireland,' wa3 
Henry III. son of John, and in Rymer s ' Foedera ' 
Dr. Clarke has erroneously ascribed to Henry II. 
a document belonging to Henry dominus Hybernite. 

John of Gaunt, fourth [not third] 
son of Edward III. Was born at Ghent 
in Flanders, whence he was called John 
of Gaunt (Ghent). His first wife, Blanche, 
was daughter of the Duke of Lancaster. 



474 



JOHN 



JONKOPING 



John of Gaunt received his title of duke 
of Lancaster from his father-in-law. 

Henry VII. claimed his title of the crown 
through John Beaufort, a natural son of John of 
Gaunt. 

John o' G-roat's to Land's End 

{From). Through the entire length of 
the kingdom. John o' Groat's is furthest 
north and Land's End, Cornwall, is 
furthest south of the mainland of Great 
Britain. 

John of Jerusalem {Knights of 
St.), 1120. So called from John i)atriarch 
of Alexandria and the place of their 
abode. The knights subsequently re- 
sided at Rhodes (1310-1520). When 
driven from Rhodes by the Turks they 
made their abode at Malta, and were 
called ' Knights of Malta.' 

John the Furious. A Norwegian 
chieftain who went to Ireland (1170) to 
restore Hascult to his throne of Dublin. 
He was felled to the ground and slain by 
Walter de Riddlesf ord, an Enghsh knight, 
the same year. 

John with the Leaden Sword. 

John duke of Bedford (1421) was so 
called by Archibald Douglas {Tineman). 

John duke of Bedford sent a herald to the 
Scottish chief [in France] to say he was coming to 
drink wine and revel with him. The Earl of 
iJouglas returned answer that the duke would be 
most welcome, and that he had come from Scot- 
land to France on purpose to carouse in his com- 
pany. Under these terms a challenge to combat 
was understood to be given and accepted.— Sir W. 
Scott, History of Scotland, xviii. 

Johnnie Cope's Salve, 1745. So 
the Highlanders called the chocolate 
taken from the tent of Sir John Cope 
after the battle of Prestonpans. 

Some of the luxuries which the Highlanders 
found they did not comprehend the use of, and 
chocolate was soon after cried in the streets of 
Perth as "Johnnie Cope s Salve.'— HowiTT, History 
of England (George II. p. 501). 

John's College {St.). 

I. In Cambridge University. Founded 
by Lady Margaret countess of Richmond 
and Derby, mother of Henry VII., in 
151L 

The founder of Christ's College also. 

IL In Oxford, 1555. Founded by Sir 
Thomas White, a London alderman. 
The head-master is called the presi- 
dent. 

Johns {Sir). The poor clergy were 
so called before the Reformation. ' Bab- 
bling Sir Johns' (Wordsworth, 'Ecclesias- 



tical Biography,' i. 265). 'Blind Sir 
Johns ' (Jewel, Sermon on Haggai i. 2). 
Strype speaks of ' Lack-Latin Sir Johns ' 
(' Annals,' 177), and of ' Mumble-matins 
Sir Johns ' (' Annals,' 181). 

Johnson Scholarship for theo- 
logy. Founded in the University of 
Oxford by John Johnson, D.D., fellow of 
Magdalen College. In 1878 this scholar- 
ship was united to Mrs. Denyer's two 
theological prizes, and formed into two 
scholarships called the ' Denyer and 
Johnson Scholarships ' {q.v.). 

Johnso'nians, as a religious sect, 
are the followers of the Rev. John John- 
son (1662-1725), a nonjuring divine of 
Liverpool, and author of ' The Unbloody 
Sacrifice.' They deny the pre-existence 
of Christ, the three Persons of the god- 
head, original sin, and the natural immor- 
tality of the soul. They baptize by immer- 
sion, and believe in the perseverance of 
the saints. 

J o'h.il-'Willia,ica., or Jean- Guillaume, 
the French Jack Ketch. Jean-Guillamne 
was the executioner of Paris under 
Louis XIIL, and numerous allusions are 
made to him by French authors both in 
prose and verse. 

Et personne de mon royaume 
Ne se fera pas Jean-Guillaume, 
Pour etrangler a. belles mains 
Ce larron des plus inhumains ? 

I'irgile travesti, bk. iv. (Dido speaks). 
*»* The French have the verb Jeanfjuillaume) , 
to John-William [you]. 

Jomsvikin gS {The). In Danish, 
Jornsvikingr. The piratical republic of 
Joms-borg, in the island of Woliin. It 
was a nest of pirates founded by Danish 
sea-rovers in the reign of Harald 
Blaatand (991-1014). This piratical re- 
public continued till the last quarter of 
the 12th cent., when it was put an end 
to by Valdemar I. of Demnark (1182- 
1202). 

Jongleurs. ' Joculatores,' instrumen- 
talists who accompanied the troubadours 
to fairs and gentlemen's houses in the 
middle ages. After the crusade against 
the Albigenses, the troubadours gradually 
disappeared, and the jongleurs joined 
singing to instrumental music, and many 
danced, juggled, and made fun in all sorts 
of ways. 

Jonkoping {Treaty of), 10 Dec, 
1809. A treaty of peace between Sweden 
and Denmark. 



JORDAN 



JOURNEE 



475 



Jordan {Mrs.). The actress to whom 
the Duke of Clarence (William IV.) was 
virtually married ; eight children survived 
the king, four sons called Fitzclarence 
and four daughters. The real name of 
Mrs. Jordan was Dorothy Bland. Her 
connection with William was suddenly 
broken off in 1811 ; she returned to the 
stage, but she subsequently retired to 
France, and died at St. Cloud 3 July, 1816. 
In 1830 William married Adelaide of 
Saxe-Meiningen, but her two children died 
before their father did, so the crown went 
to his niece Victoria, daughter of Edward 
duke of Kent. 

Joseph. I. the Victorious. Son of 
Leopold I. kaiser-king of Germany, of the 
house of Austria (1676, 1705-1711). 

In this reign three great victories were won by 
Marl):oraugh over the French : 1706 the battle of 
Hamillies, in 1708 the battle of Oudenarde, and in 
1709 the battle of Malplaquet. 

Joseph the Unfortunate, kaiser, 
son of Maria Theresa, who always tried 
to do right and was always disappointed 
in all his plans. He wrote, half in jest and 
half in earnest, what he termed his epi- 
taph : ' Here lies Joseph, unfortunate in 
aU his undertakings ' (1741, 1765-1790). 

Josephs of Amida {The). One of 
the three branches of the Nestorians. 
The other two are the ' Elijahs of Mosul ' 
and the ' Simeons of Oi'mia.' The Josephs 
are now reconciled to the Church of 
Rome, and are called ' Chaldean Chris- 
tians.' 

Josephinism. Oppression of the 
Church by the State, so-called from 
Joseph II. of Austria. 

Josephi'nos, 1808. Those Spanish 
grandees who had traitorously sided with 
Napoleon in his scandalous usurpation of 
the Spanish crown. So called because 
they supported Joseph Bonaparte, his 
brother's viceroy-king of Spain, and fled 
with Joseph to Vittoria for safety on the 
first reverse of the French arms, at the 
battle of Baylen, on 16 July. In this 
defeat Castaiios was the Spanish general 
and Dupont the French. 

Jo'sephins, 1885. Followers of Jo- 
seph Chamberlain, an advanced Radical. 

Jos'ephites (3 syl.). The Mormons 
who disallow polygamy. So called from 
Joseph Smith, son of Joseph Smith the 



founder of Mormonism. These are called 
the ' Reorganised Church of Jesus Christ 
of Latter Day Saints.' 

There are now one or two other non-polygamous 
sects. 

Joshua of Scotland {The). Robert 
Bruce king of Scotland (born 1274, king 
130()-1329, died 132'J). 

Josiah of his Country {The), or 
'The Josiah of England.' Edward VI. 
was generally so called in his own day. 

Joule's Equivalent. That if a 
pound of waterfalls to the ground through 
772 feet, and is then suddenly arrested, its 
tempera,ture will be raised one degree ; 
and, conversely, the heat that would raise 
the temperature of a pound of water one 
degree would (if applied to a steam 
engine) raise 772 lbs. one foot high. 

Jour de Rois (I^e). The Epiphany. 
(Twelfth Day), meaning the hypothetical 
' Kings ' of Cologne. Voltaire has a satire 
on the three kings — the Pretender (re- 
jected by England, telling his beads in 
Italy), Stanislaus (ex-king of Poland, 
smoking his pipe in Austrasia), and the 
emperor, or King Charles of Bavaria (liv- 
ing at an inn in Franconia), while Maria 
Theresa is laughing at this Epiphany. 

Journal de Paris (the first French 
daily paper), 1777. 

Journal de Tr^voux {Le). Pub- 
lished by Jesuits in 1701-1701. 

Journal des Revolutions de 
Paris {Le). A vile republican news- 
paper in the French Revolution, con- 
ducted by Prudhomme. If possible it 
was even more inflammatory than the 
' Ami du Peuple ' by Marat. It advo- 
cated the murder of Louis XVI., and 
of all other crowned heads ; and recom- 
mended the organisation of 100 young 
men into a band, sworn to assassinate all 
tyrants, in emulation of Harmodios and 
Aristoglton of Greece, and of Scsevola 
and the Brutuses of Rome. 

Journal des Savants {Le). Com 
menced 5 Jan., 1655. 

Journals. Of the House of Lords 
commenced 1509 ; that of the House of 
Commons in 1547. 

Journ^e des Dupes. See ' Day of 
the Dupes.' 



476 



JOURNEE 



JUDGES 



Journ^e des Eperons, 1302. The 

bloody battle of Courtray, in which the 
French left on the field about 4,000 
knights' spurs. 

Another Journee des Eperons was in 
1513, the battle of Guinegate, in which the 
French used their spurs in flight more 
than their swords in fight. 

Journee des Farines, 3 Jan. 1591. 

When the besiegers attempted to surprise 
St. Denis, occupied by the troops of 
Henri IV. This was two days after the 
Bearnais had attempted to surprise 
Paris. It was called the ' Journee des 
Farines ' because the officers disguised 
themselves as millers leading horses, 
asses, carts, and so on, and demanded en- 
trance into the town. Their design was 
to enter the gates and keep them open 
till the arrival of the troops ; but entrance 
was denied them, and the alarm given. 

Journee des Maubrulds. ' The 

day of the unburned,' 27 April, 15G2. 
Faveau and Mallart, two Protestants of 
Brussels, were condemned to be burnt 
to death. As the executioner was binding 
Simon Faveau to the stake a woman 
threw her shoe into the funeral pile. 
This was a preconcerted signal, and 
immediately the mob rushed forward, 
scattered the faggots in all directions, 
rescued the two victims, and succeeded 
in sending them out of the country. See 
' Rise of the Dutch Republic,' by Motley. 

Journees de Juillet. See ' Days 
of July.' 

Journdes de Septembre {Les), 

2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792. See ' Massacre of 
September.' 

Journees des Barricades. See 

' Barricades.* 

Jovinian, 4th cent. A heresiarch, 
and monk of Milan. He rejected fasts, 
penance, and celibacy, denied the 
virginity of Mary, and entertained other 
' heretical views.' He was condemned 
by the Council of Milan in 390, and 
banished by Theodosius. 

Joyous Entry (TTie), 'La Joy euse 
Entree,' 1430. The charter given by 
Philip the Good to the states of Brabant 
on his entry into Brussels. On this 
charter nearly all their j^rivileges rested. 
In 1789 Kaiser Joseph II. annulled this 
charter, because the States refused to 



grant a subsidy. On 20 Nov. Brabant 
threw off allegiance to Austria, and 
assumed the title of ' The High and 

Mighty States.' 

The emperor [Joseph II.] on 1 Jan., 1787 (?), pub- 
lished several sweeping edicts, annihilating the 
most ancient municipo,! privileges, remodelling 
the courts of justice, and introducing a totally 
new system of judicature, in direct violation of 
the celebrated compact made by Charles V. (■"), 
called ' The Joyous Entry. '—HowiTT, Hist, of Eiig. 
(Geo. III. p. 387). 

Joyous Science [The], or ' The 
Gay Science.' Minstrelsy {Joyeuse 
Science). 

The Joyous Science, as the profession of 
minstrelsy was called, had its various ranks, like 
the degrees in the church and in chivalry.— Sir 
Walter Scott, The Bctwtlied, chap. xix. 

Jubilee {The), 21 June, 1887, when 
the 50th anniversary of Queen Victoria's 
accession to the crown was celebrated in 
the United Kingdom. The colonies and 
India, for convenience sake, celebrated 
the anniversary some weeks before 21 
June. 

There was a Jubilee in the reign of George III., 
25 Oct., 1809. He came to the crown as Oct., ITliO. 
Q aeen Victoria succeeded to the throne 21 June, 
1h37. Hence it will appear that George celebrated 
his jubilee at the commencement, and Victoria 
at the completion of the 50th regnal year. 

*^,* There are scores of Jubilees of divers sorts, 
as the Handel Jubilee, the Shakespeare Jubilee, 
the Jubilee of the Reformation, and the Jubileea 
of the Catholic Church first proclaimed by Boni- 
face VIII. in 1300, &c. 

Judaising Teachers. Compro- 
mising Jews who mingled the observance 
of the law with that of the Gospel. They 
insisted on the rite of circumcision. 
Peter and John were for a time at least 
Judaising teachers. 

Jujlaists. Those Christians who 
insisted on the perpetual obligation of 
the Jewish law. All the apostles who 
were the companions of Jews were 
Judaists. Paul insisted that the Gospel 
was meant for all men, and those who 
thought with him were called Paulinists 
or Universalists. 

Judas {The Irish). Colonel Blood 
(1628-1680). 

Judge- Advocate-General ( The). 
The supreme judge, under the Mutiny 
Act and Articles of War, of the proceed- 
ings of courts-martial. He receives a 
salary of 2,0001. a year, and is a member 
of the ministry. 

Judges. The ancient Carthaginians 
were ruled by a senate of 300, out of 
which thirty were selected for the 



JUDGES 



JULY 



477 



council, and two of the council were 
suffeies or judges. So the Hebrews, 
before the appointment of Saul as king, 
appointed shofetim (judges or bret- 
waldas) in times of trouble, who were 
Bometimes women. The judges or bret- 



waldas were — 




B.C. 


Othniel 


M. 


.. 1554—1514 


Ehud 


... 


.. 1490-1416 


Shnmgar 


m! 


.. 1416-1396 


Deborah (a woman) 


~.' L 1396—1356 


Gideon 




.. 1349—1309 


Abimelech(hisBon) .. 




.. 1309—1306 


Tola 




.. 1306-1283 


Jair 


".■. "... 1283-1261 


Jephthah 




. 1243—1237 


Abesan or Ibzan 




.. 1237—1230 


Ahialon or Elon 


.«. 


.. 1230—1220 


Abdon 


..'. 


.. 1220-1212 


Samson 




.. 1172-1152 


Ell (the high priest) 




.. 1152—1112 


Samuel (priest and prophet) 


.. 1092-1080 



Judges of Assize. In 1284 super- 
seded justices in eyre {q.v.). Judges of 
the superior courts commissioned to hold 
courts or assizes in each county town 
twice a year. 

Judgment and Declaration (A), 

1683. Passed in the Oxford Convocation, 
maintaining the doctrine of non-resist- 
ance, and enjoining: 'All and singular 
the readers, tutors, and catechists, dili- 
gently to instruct and ground their 
scholars in that most necessary doctrine 
... of submitting to every ordinance of 
man for the Lord's sake, teaching that 
this submission and obedience is to be 
clear, absolute, and without exception of 
any state or order of men.' 

Judgment of the Cross (The). 

Introduced during the reign of Charle- 
magne. The plaintiff and defendant of 
a suit were required to cross their arms 
upon their breast, and he who could hold 
out the longest gained the suit. 

AH ordeals and all oaths are appeals to the 
judgment of God. Ordeals have been abolished 
in England ever since 1219, but oaths are still 
administered (1890i. The notion is that God will 
supplement man's ignorance and idleness by a 
miraculous interference on the side of what is 
right. In regard to oaths, as the law stands, to 
violate an oath is perjury, whereas to violate 
one's word is only a lie. 

Judicial Mass, ' Missa Judicii.' 
An ordeal mass, in which a person 
charged with an offence appealed to the 
* Judgment of God ' in proof of his inno- 
cence. See 



Judicious (The). Richard Hooker, 
author of the ' Laws of Ecclesiastical 
Polity' (1554-1600). 



Jugurtha {The Modern). Abd-el- 
Kader, bey of Mascara, afterwards sultan 
(1808-1883). He was no Jugurtha in 
his moral character, although there 
was some resemblance in his chivalry, 
bravery, and misfortunes. Jugurtha, 
taken captive by the Romans, was 
thrown into a dungeon at Rome and 
starved to death ; Abd-el-Kader, taken 
captive by the French, was imprisoned 
first in the castle of Pan, then in the 
castle of Amboise ; but, instead of being 
starved to death, he was released by 
Napoleon III. in 1852, retired to 
Damascus, and died in 1883 at the age 
of 76. 

Jugurthan War {The). War 
between Jugurtha king of Numidia in 
Africa and the Romans (b.c. 111-101). 
Jugurtha, being taken prisoner, was sent 
to Rome and starved to death in the 
Mamertine prison, a horrible under- 
ground dungeon. 

Julian Period {The). Commenced 
1 Jan., 4713 B.C. 

Julian Year {The). Began 1 Jan., 
B.C. 45. 

Julien the Apostate. Simon 
Julien, a French painter, puj^il of Carlo 
Vanloo, at Paris. Called the ' Apostate ' 
because he forsook the French school of 
painting for the Italian. 

The Emperor Julian is called the ' Apostate ' 
because he abandoned Christianity for ' the old 
religion ' (331, 861-303). 

July Cross {The). ' Croix de Juillet,' 
1830. Instituted to decorate those 
Frenchmen who distinguished themselves 
in chasing Charles X. from the throne. 
It is a star of three rays, with the legend 
'27, 28, 29 July, 1830,' and the motto 
' Patrie et Liberie.' The ribbon is blue 
edged witk red. 

July 4 (American history). Declara- 
tion of Independence, 4 July, 1776. A 
national holiday. 

July 14. Called, in French history, 
' the great day,' in commemoration of 14 
July, 1789, the day of the storming of the 
Bastille. This and June 20 {q.v.), the 
two great days of the Revolution, were 
made annual festivals. 

The disturbed state of Paris since that ' great 
day,' the 14th of July, had suspended the activity 
of the National Assembly.— Howitt, History oj 
England (George III., p. 459). 

*,* For 27, 28, 29 July, when Charles X. was 
driven from his throne (1830), see ' Days ox July." 



478 



JUMPERS 



JUNTO 



Jumpers, 1760. Welsh Methodists 
who jump during religious worship. They 
are the followers of Harris, Rowlands, 
Williams, and others. The sermon being 
over, the preacher begins to jump and 
the congregation joins in — sometimes for 
two or three hours. When quite ex- 
hausted, they take hold of hands, kneel 
down, and pray. See ' Jerusalem Jump.' 

David danced before the ark, and the lame man, 
on being cured, leaped and praised God. 

Jump ing-eat School (TAe). Turn- 
coats who run on the winning side. A. B. 
is ' one of the most notorious examples 
of the jumping-cat school . . . and is 
always on the winning side.' (Newspaper 
paragraph, March 1886). 

June 1, 1774. I. In North American 
history, the day on which the Boston 
Port Bill [q.v.) was to take effect. Selected 
by the Virginians, Patrick Henry and 
Thomas Jefferson, as a day of fasting, 
humiliation, and prayer, ' that the evils 
of civil war might be averted, that the 
American colonists might be inspired 
with firmness in support of their rights, 
and that the hearts of the British king 
and parliament might be turned to mode- 
ration and justice.' 

II. ' The Glorious First of June ' is 
1 June, 1794, when Lord Howe gained a 
signal victory over the French off Brest. 

June 3 {Victory of), 1665. A 
great naval victory gained by James 
duke of York over Van Tromp, the Dutch 
admiral, near Lowestoft. The duke 
commanded the red, Prince Rupert 
commanded the white, and the Earl of 
Sandwich the blue. This was the greatest 
naval victory hitherto gained by the 
English. The Dutch lost four admirals, 
7,000 men, and eighteen sail. The 
English only one ship and 60d men killed 
or wounded. 

June 5, 6,A.D. 1832. An e'meute in 
Paris by the republican faction at the 
funeral of General Lamarque, dei)uty of 
the opposition. Barricades were thrown 
up at St. Antoine, St. Martin, St. Denis 
{Sahn-dnee), and other parts of Paris. 
The troops were called out, and the com- 
bat was brought to a close on the 6th, 
after taking the church of St. Merry (or 
Me'deric). 

June 20. The anniversary of the 
foundation of the National Assembly. 



This and the anniversary of 14 July {q.v.) 
were the two great festivals of the French 
Republic. 

June 23, 24, 25, 26, a.d. 1848. A 
bloody insurrection of the French re- 
publican faction called ' Democratique 
et Sociale' against the constitution of 
24 Feb. the same year. It made for 
its pretext the dissolution of the ateliers 
nationaux, and was most rife in the fau- 
bourgs St. Jacques, St. Marceau, and St. 
Antoine. The garde nationale and 
garde Tnobile were employed to sup- 
press the insurrection under General Ca- 
vaignac. Seven generals were slain, two 
representatives, the Archbishop of Paris 
(Mgr. Affre), and an enormous number of 
citizens and soldiers. Those insurgents 
who were taken prisoners were trans- 
ported. 

June 26, and 10 April, 1846. The 
great Chartist festivals. On 10 April the 
monster petition was presented, and on 
26 June the Corn-laws were repealed. 

Junius {Letters of), 1769. A series 
of political letters signed ' Junius,' dis- 
secting the conduct and characters of 
public men — the Duke of Grafton, the 
Duke of Bedford, Lord Mansfield, and 
others, not excepting the King himself. 
These letters caused the utmost con- 
sternation amongst the ministry, and 
were immensely popular for their caustic 
satire, just censure, clear reasoning, their 
great knowledge of the secret govern- 
ment movements, and the brilliancy of 
their style. It is not known who was the 
author of these letters, but perhaps the 
most weighty evidence points to Sir 
Philip Francis. 

The 'North Briton,' under the auspices of 
Wilkes, and the commencement of the American 
War, increased the ferment. The letter. 18 March, 
1769, to the Duke of Grafton on the ' murderers ' 
6t Clarke, and the 14th letter (against Blackstone) 
aremost scathing. 

Junto {The). T. 1694. A Whig minis- 
try in the reign of William III., the 
chief members of which were Admiral 
Russell, the victor of the great battle of 
La Hogue ; Somers, who successfully 
defended the ' Seven Bishops ' ; Lord 
Wharton; and Montague, the great 
financier. This was the first ministry 
ever made of one and the same party 
politics. It was the suggestion of Ro- 
bert earl of Sunderland to William III., 
who shrewdly said, if all the ministers 



JUS 



JUVENAL 



479 



were of one party tliey would pull toge- 
ther, and if that party represented the 
majority they would be able to pass their 
measures. 

II. 1727. A club formed by Benjamin 
Franklin for mutual improvement. 
Morals, polities, and natural philosophy, 
as well as the social well-being of man, 
were the main subjects discussed. It 
continued for about thirty years. 

Jus ^lia'num. The law books of 
Sextus iEIius Catus. These law books 
explained the meaning of the mystic 
ciphers employed by the lawyers to con- 
ceal the laws from the ignoble common 
people. Much the same as medical pre- 
scriptions are still written, sometimes 
by symbols, sometimes by contractions, 
sometimes by a single arbitrary letter, or 
per siglas. iElius wrote them out in full, 
so that all could read them. 

Gibbon, chap, xliv., gives some of these symbols : 
Fire andwater=married life; resignation of keys 
=divorce ; casting a stone=prohibition ; clenched 
fist=a deposit; broken straw=Lroken covenant, 
&c. 

Jus Cyp'rium, 431. That each 
province is autoceplialous and each 
diocese independent, no one except the 
metropolitan having any right to inter- 
fere. Called Jus Cyprium because the 
canon was laid down in the Council of 
Ephesus A.D. 431 in regard to the pro- 
vince of Cyprus, which was declared free 
and independent of the province of An- 
tioch. 

Jus Devolu'tum, 1712. An act 

which provided ' if a patron neglected for 
six months to fill up a vacant charge, the 
presbytery should fill it up ' (Scotland). 

Jus Honora'rium. The edicts of 
the Roman preetors ; written in white 
ink. The imperial rescripts were in 
purple, and the Jus Civile in red ink. 

Jus Itaricum. All Italian land 
was tax free, all provincial land paid 
land-tax. Hence the exemption of land 
from taxation was called ' The Italian 
Eight.' 

Jus La'tii conferred on cities the 
right of electing their own magistrates. 
These magistrates took rank and enjoyed 
privileges next in degree to Roman 
citizens. 

Jus Trium Liibero'rum. Grant- 
ing to those who had three children 



exemption from the trouble of guardian- 
ship, priority in bearing offices, and a 
treble proportion of corn. 

Just {The). Louis XHI. was so 
called, but no one knows why. He was 
a good shot, and a wit said, ' II e'toit 
juste a tirer de I'arquebuse ' (1601, 1610- 
1643). 

Louis XII. was with more reason called 
' Le Juste ' as well as the ' Father of his 
People ' (1462, 1498-1515). 

Justice-airs. In Scotch history, 
were courts of justice held twice a year 
in each county by the Justiciar-general. 

Air is eyre, French for ite.r a journey. Justice- 
airs are JusHciarrs itinerantes, i.e. judges to travel 
from county to county. 

Justices in eyre (air), 1176, i.e. in 
itinere, ' on journey.' Henry II. divided 
England into circuits, and justices went on 
these circuits once in seven years. The 
courts in which they sat were called 
' assizes,' from a law-Latin word assisa a 
session, from the verb assideo to sit down 
(supine assisum). Magna Charta j^ro- 
vided for annual visits (1215). In 1284 
justices in eyre were superseded by 
judges of assize. 

Justin-'an {The English). Ed- 
ward I. (1239, 1272-1307). Sir Edward 
Coke says, ' The statutes, passed in this 
reign were so numerous and so excellent 
that they deserve the name of establish- 
ments, being more durable than any made 
since.' And Sir Matthew Hale says, 
they were so ' excellent as scarcely to 
need revision or addition.' 

Juvenal {The English). I. John 
Oldham (1653-1683). 

II. Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich. 
Pope affirms Hall's ' Satires ' to be ' the 
best poetry and truest satires in the Eng- 
lish language.' 

Juvenal {The Young). Dr. Thomas 
Lodge (1555-1625). So called by Robert 
Green. 

Juvenal des Ursins. A French 
magistrate born at Troyes (1350-1431), 
who enjoyed the confidence of Charles VI., 
and was prevot de marchands of Paris 
in 1388. He opposed the Due de Bourbon ; 
and, having saved the king from falling 
into the hands of the duke, was given 
the Hotel des Ursins in reward of his ser- 



480 



JUVENAL 



KAIOMARIAN 



Juvenal of Painters {The). 
William Hogarth (1697-1794). 

Juzail (Afghanistan). A very long 
rifle; those armed with the juzail are 
Juzailchees. 

Jy-anian Dynasty (TJie). The 
second fabulous dynasty of Persia. Jy 
means pure, holy. The only two names 
known are Jy-Affram and Jy-Abad his 
son, who suddenly disappeared. It fol- 
lowed the Mahabadean, and was suc- 
ceeded by the Kuleev dynasty. 

K. 'The Three bad K's.' TheKarians, 
Kappadokians, and Kilikians ; generally 
spelt Carians, Cappadocians, and Cili- 
cians. 

Kaaba, or ' Caaba.' "Was taken pos- 
session of by Cossai about 455, and was 
restored in 1630 by the sultan Mustapha. 
The word means ' the square house,' and 
it designates a stone building in the great 
mosque at Mecca. Next the silver door 
is the famous Black Stone, ' dropped 
from Paradise.' It was originally quite 
white, but the sin of the world has turned 
it black. In pilgrimages the devotee 
walks round the Kaaba seven times, and 
each time he passes the stone either kisses 
it or lays his hand thereon. 

According to Arabian legend Adam, after his ex- 
pulsion from the garden, worshipped Allah on this 
spot. A tent was then sent down from heaven, but 
Seth substituted a hut for the tent. After the 
flood Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the Kaaba. 

Kabyles (2 syl.). Another name for 
Berbers, a mountain tribe which dwell on 
the Atlas range of Algeria and Morocco. 
They are neither Arabs, Moors, nor Turks. 
They live in villages which they call 
'gourbis,' and several of these villages 
would constitute a kabyle. Their govern- 
ment, like that of Switzerland, is a demo- 
cratic confederation. They are a sober 
people, brave and hospitable, but vindic- 
tive and sux^erstitious. As with the Swiss, 
love of independence is their dominant 
characteristic. 

Kadjahs {Dynasty of the). A 
Turkoman dynasty, which now occupies 
the Persian throne. Founded in 1748 by 
Mohammed Hassan, son of the governor 
of Mazanderan. The word means ' fugi- 
tives ' or ' deserters,' and was applied to 
those deserters of the Ottoman army to 
whom Abbas I. had in the 16th cent, given 
asylum. 

The shahs of this line have been Mohammed 



Hassan, 1748 ; Futeh All Shah (his nephew), 1797; 
Mohammed Shah, 1834 ; Nasser Eddin Shah. 1848 
(who visited London in 187B) and again in Irfs:'. 

The dynasty was interrupted by Kurem Khan 
Zend, the Walik, and restored in 1794. 

Kaianides ( The), or ' Kaianian dy- 
nasty.' The second dynasty of the Per- 
sians, called by the Greeks Achemenides. 
It consisted of Kai-Kaous (Astyages); 
Kai-Kosru (Cyrus), b.c. 536 ; Lohrasp 
(Cambyses, or Ahasuerus of Scripture), 
B.C. 530; Gouchtasp (Darivis), 521 ; Xerxes, 
486 ; Ardechir Diraz Dest, or long-handed 
(Artaxerxes Loiigimamis), b.c. 471 ; 
Xerxes II. Sogdian and Darab (Darius 
Nothos), B.C. 424 ; Artaxerxes Miiemon, 
B.C. 404 ; Artaxerxes Ochos,B.c. 362 ; Arses, 
B.C. 338 ; Darab II. (Darius Codomanus), 
B.C. 336, dethroned by Alexander the 
Great in 331 ; and thus the dynasty ended 
after enduring 206 years. It succeeded 
the Pishdadian dynasty. 

Achsemenes was an ancestor of Cyrus. Zoro- 
aster or Zerdusht, who wrote the Avesta in the 
Zend tongue, lived in the reign of Cyrus (KiJyjof). 
At the death of Alexander there was an interval 
from B.C. 323 to A.D. 226 filled by the Seleucides and 
the Arsacides. (Kaianides, 3 syl.) 

Kaimacan. A deputy or governor 
in the Ottoman empire. There are 
generally two, one residing at Constanti- 
nople, and the other attending the grand 
vizier as his lieutenant. 

Kainardji, or Kutehuk Kai- 
nardji {Treaty of), 21 July, 1774. A 
treaty of peace between Russia and 
Turkey, in which Turkej^ opened to Russia 
the Black Sea, ceded Azof and Tagan- 
rog, and assured the independence of 
the Crimea. In 1784 the sovereignty of 
the Crimea was confirmed to Russia 
(Catherine II). 

The Treaty of Kutehuk Kainardji gave to Bus- 
sia the protectorate of two cliapels in Turkey, one 
in the Russian Legation, and one about to be 
built in Galata. It was on this treaty that, in 
1853, Russia claimed the protectorate of the holy 
places in Turkey, against France, who rested her 
right on a treaty as far back as 1740. This con- 
tention was made the pretext of the Crimean 
War iq.v.). 

Kaioma'rian Dynasty {The). 
Same as ' Pishdadian ' {q.v.). Succeeded 
by the Kaianian dynasty. Kai-Omar was 
the first of the Pishdadides, and the 
Pishdadians were first of the mythic 
period of Persia, placed by some as far 
back as B.C. 2340, and by others as low 
down as B.C. 940. (Pishdadides, 3 syl.) 

Omar was the hypothetical founder of the 
dynasty. Pishdad or Paishdad (just lawgiver) was 
the title given to the third of the line, named 
Huahung or Iran. 



KAFFIRS 



KANT'S 



481 



KafB.rs. So Mussulmans call unbe- 
lievers. 

Kaiser = Caesar. Used as a title. The 
Roman Empire in its decline was divided 
into east and west. The popes of Rome 
ignored the east, and assumed that the 
title of the old Roman emperor belonged 
exclusively to the west. 

Charlemagne restored Leo III. to the 
papal clis jr, and out of gratitude Leo gave 
to Charlemagne the empty title of 
' Carolus Caesar Augustus,' or 'Karl 
Kaiser Augustus of the Romans.' Keyser 
is Low German for Csesar, and the title 
given by Leo becomes in Low German 
' Karl, Keyser "Wehzen desz Reichs.' So 
says Selden, ' Titles of Honour,' chap. v. 
p. 47 (1673). 

This title was continued in the German 
successors of Charlemagne till the death 
of Charles le Gros, when it fell into abey- 
ance for 74 years. 

In 962 Pope John XII. restored the title 
with a slight alteration, and crowned 
OLto I. the Great (king of Germany) 
' Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire ' ; and 
till 1056 his successors went to Rome, after 
their coronation as kings of Germany, to 
receive the additional title of ' kaiser ' [of 
the Holy Roman Empire, or of the West]. 

Heinrich III., just before his death, 
invented a new title, ' King of the Romans,' 
to be borne by the kings elect oi Germany, 
and then the reigning king was kaiser or 
' Emperor of the Romans,' aftd the king 
elect was ' King of the Romans.' 

In 1338 the electors decreed that it 
was not needful for a king of Germany to 
undergo a second coronation at Rome ; 
But inasmuch as from the moment of his 
election he was ' King of the Romans,' he 
became ex officio ' Emperor of the Romans' 
or kaiser the moment he was crowned. 
From that time till 1508 the king regnant 
was ex officio ' Emperor of the Romans,' 
and the crown prince or king elect was 
* King of the Romans.' 

In 1508 Maximilian intended to go to 
Rome to get crowned, but was prevented, 
and he assumed a somewhat new depar- 
ture. Being king, he called himself 
' Emperor-elect of the Romans,' and 
henceforth the crown prince was ' King of 
the Romans,' but after the death of his 
father he became ' Emperor-elect of the 
Romans,' and as soon as he was crowned 
he became King of Germany and Emperor 
of Rome. 
21 



In 1806 Napoleon, having mutilated the 
German empire, Francis II. was obliged 
to abandon the title of ' Emperor of the 
West,' and assumed instead the title of 
' Emperor of Austria and King of Hun- 
gary,' and that dominion is now styled 
' the Austro-Hungarian empire.' 

Kalandos Society (The), 1518. 
An Hungarian league which met on the 
kalends or 1st of every month. The 
object of the league was to depose John 
Szapolyai from the office of treasurer, and 
restore Stephen Verboczy. It succeeded, 
and Szapolyai fled to Transylvania. 

Kalapos King (The), the 'hatted 
king.' Kaiser Joseph II., son of Maria 
Theresa, was so called by the Hungarians 
because he refused to be crowned. 

James V. of Scotland, in his famous gold coin, 
is represented as wearing a bonnet Instead of a 
crown. 

Kali'lah and Dimnah. A Sanscrit 
book of fables, extant in 500. It was 
translated intoPehlevi about 550. A copy 
was discovered in 1870 by Dr. Socin 
in the monastery at Mardin. See ' Aca- 
demy,' 1 Aug., 1871. 

Kali-yuga. The 4th and last of the 
Yugas or ages of Hindu chronology, 
corresponding to the ' Iron Age ' of the 
Greeks and Romans. 

It consists of 432,000 solar-sidereal years, and 
began B.C. iJ102. 

Kalpa. In Hindu chronology means 
a day and nighfof Brahma, equal 4^. bil- 
lions of solar-sidereal years. 

Some geologists seem to think ' the evening and 
the morning' of Genesis i. moan a ' Kalpa.' 

Kant's Four Categories. Im- 

manuel Kant generalises the fundamental 
modes of conception into — 

1. Quantity, including unity, multaity, 
and totality ; 

2. Quality, divided into reality, nega- 
tion, and limitation ; 

3. Relation, that is, substance and 
accident, cause and effect, action and re- 
action ; 

4. Modality, subdivided into possi- 
bility, existence, and necessity. 

Regarding the outside world, he says 
our perception thereof is merely repre- 
sentative ; and it is not i^ossible for man 
to know what any object really is. All 
he can possibly know is what his senses 
represent them to be. 

Of deity, immortality, &c,, he says, 
I I 



482 



KAEAITES 



KAYE 



human reason can decide nothing, be- 
cause these subjects are not cognisable 
by the senses. 

Revelation, or the exercise of man's moral 
nature, can alone cope -with such subjects. 

Ka'raites (3 syl.), a.d. 580. A sect of 
the Jews who rejected the traditions of 
the Tahnud and adhered to the Kara 
(Aramaic word for ' Scripture ')• There 
are many Karaites still in Poland, Crim 
Tartary, Egypt, and Persia. The Jews 
perform their public religious services in 
Hebrew, but the Karaites use the lan- 
guage of the state in which they live. The 
sect was founded by Anan ben David. 

Kardis {Treaty of), 1661. A treaty 
of peace between Sweden and Russia, 
based on the conditions of the treaty of 
Stolbowa. 

Karl III. the Fat of Germany is 
the same as Charles le Gros of France. 
He was the youngest of the sons of 
Ludwig the German ; and as he survived 
his two brothers, he united the three 
kingdoms of Germany, Italy, and France 
in his own person (832, 881-88S). 

Charlemagne was the father of Louis I. le 
Debonnaire. 

Louis le Debonnaire was the father of Lothaire 
(king of Italv), Ludwig (the German), and KARL II. 
(called in French Charles le Chauve). 

Karl II. was the father of Louis II. le Begue ; 
and Ludwig the German was the father of 
Karl III. 

*,* Karl and Ludwig for German kings ; Charles 
and Louis for French kings, 

Contt'inporary with Alfred the Great. 

Karl IV. of Luxemburg. One of the 
promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany. 
Nominated to the throne by Pope 
Clement VI., without consulting the elec- 
tors, and therefore called the ' Pope's 
kaiser ' (1816, 1347-1378). He was son 
of that John of Bohemia who fell at 
Crecy in 1346, and grandson of Kaiser 
Heinrich VII. 

Father, John king of Bohemia. Wives, 
(1) Anne princess palatine and (2) Anne 
Schweidwitz. Contemporary with Ed- 
ward III. 

No reign ever embraced so many interesting 
historical events in the same space of time. 

1.347. Rienzi was tribune of Rome; assassinated 
1354. 

1348. The plague referred to by Boccaccio in his 
•Decameron.' 

1349. Edward III. of England instituted the 
order of the Garter. 

1351. The Great Helvetic Confederation was in- 
stituted. 

1354. Marino Falieri was elected doge of Venice 
at the age of 80. 

ia5C. Karl IV. submitted to the Diet of Nurnberg 
He famous Golden Bull. 

1356. Sept. 19 was fought the battle of Poitiers. 



l."57. David Bruce was set at liberty. 
1363. Timur the Tartar began his wonderful 
career. 
1,871. The Stuart dynasty began in Scotland. 
1374. The poet Petrarch died. 

1376. Edward the Black Prince died. 

1377. Edward III. of England died. 

Karl V. (Charles V.), called by the 
French ' Charles Quint,' son of Philipp 
and grandson of Kaiser Maximilian I, 
the Pennyless. His son Philipp married 
Mary queen of England (born 1500, 
reigned 1519-1556, died 1558). 

Father, Philipp. Mcther, Juana, daughter of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile and Aragon. 
Wife, Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel king of 
Portugal. He died at the convent of St. Juste in 
Spain. Conteviporary with Henry VIII., Edward 
VI., and Mary. 

*,* In this reign the reform under Luther oc- 
curred, and Magellan made the first voyage 
round the world. 

Karl VI., kaiser-king of Germany 
(1683, 1711-1740). He was brother of 
Joseph I. his predecessor, and son of 
Leopold I. of the house of Austria. As 
he had no son he drew up the ' Pragmatic 
Sanction ' in favour of his daughter 
Maria Theresa. The Duke of Bavaria 
objected, but Maria Theresa succeeded 
her father notwithstanding. 

This was the last king of the house of Habsburg. 

Father. Leopold I. Mother, Eleanor Anne. JVife, 
Elizabeth Christina, daughteio f Rudolf of Bruns- 
wick-Wolfenbiittel. Contemporary with George I. 
and George II. 

Karmathians. A Mohammedan 
sect which arose in Irak during the 9th 
cent. It took its name from Karmath, its 
founder, a, poor labourer, who assumed 
the rank of a prophet. The Karmathians, 
who maintained bloody wars with the 
kalifs for nearly a century, advocated 
community of goods and wives, rejected 
all revelation, fasts, prayer, alms, and 
abstinence. Karmath died a.d. 900. The 
sect was stamped out in 982. 

Katerfelto. A celebrated quack, 
and a generic name for a quack. He 
practised on the people of London in 
the influenza of 1782. In 1790 he visited 
Durham, and sent his coach round the 
town with trumpeters. His piece de re- 
sistance was a solar microscope showing 
the animalcules in water, &c. 

Katerfelto with his hair on end 

At his own wonders wondering. 

COWPER, The Task, bk. iv. (Winter Evening.) 

Kaye Pri25e {The). For an essay 
connected with ecclesiastical history, 
biblical criticism, or the canon of scrip- 
ture. Given once in four years to a 
graduate of the University of Cambrid.ra 



KEBLE 



KENSINGTON 



483 



of not more than ten years' standing. 
Value about 50Z. Founded by sub- 
scribers to Bishop Kaye's memorial 1861. 
See ' Regius Professor of Divinity.' 

Keble College, Oxford, 1870. 
Founded by subscription in memory of 
John Keble, professor of poetry in the 
university. The head-master is called 
the warden. There are no fellowships 
(1890). 

Keel-hauling. A punishment prac- 
tised at one time in the Dutch and English 
navies, but now never resorted to. The 
ofiender was let down by ropes on one 
side of the ship, and after being dragged 
under the keel, was hauled up on the 
other side. 

Keening (A). An Irish word for 
that wild song of lamentation poured 
forth over a dead body during the ' wake 
ceremony ' by certain mourners employed 
in Ireland for the purpose. 

Keeper of the Forest {The). 
Chief warden of the forest, who has the 
superintendence over all the other forest 
servants (Manwood, ' Forest Law, part i. 
p. 156). 

Keeper of the Great Seal {TJie). 

A judicial officer, who used to be ap- 
pointed (5 Ehz. c. 18) in lieu of the lord 
chancellor. Abolished. 

Keeper of the King's Consci- 
ence {The). The lord chancellor. The 
early chancellors being ecclesiastics were 
probably the 'father confessors' of the 
sovereign. The lord keeper is now the 
officer who presides in the court of 
chancery. 

Keeper of the Privy Seal. Now 

called ' the Lord Privy Seal,' through 
whose hands all charters, &c., must pass 
before they come to the ' Great Seal.' 

Keeper of the Signet. An officer 
in Scotland, appointed by the crown, who 
appoints one of the Writers of the Signet 
{q.v.), and presides at the meetings of the 
society. 

Keeper of the Touch. The 

Master of the Assay in the Mint. 

Keepers of the Liberties of 
England {The). Custodians of the 
new great seal after the abolition of 
royalty 1648. The first three keepers 
were Whitelock, Keble, and Lisle. 



Kee-tan Dynasty ( The). A Tartar 
dynasty which established a footing in 
the north of China during the 14th im- 
perial dynasty. It gave nine kings and 
lasted 211 years (907-1118). Kao-tsu II. 
purchased peace of this troublesome 
horde by giving to it 16 cities in the pro- 
vince of Pecheli'. 

Also called the Leao dynasty. 

Kellgrenism, 1889. Curing diseases 
by manipulation. So called from J. 
Henrik Kellgren. 

The idea is that disease arises from a surcharge 
of some gaseous matter, which passes into the 
operator, and thus relieves the patient. Some- 
times the operator himself suffers, but for the 
most part the ' broach ' passes through the 
operator, either into the air or into the earth. 
Of course, the cure of diseases by the laying on of 
hands is mentioned in the New Testament, but 
whether this was a ' special gift ' pro tempore is 
beyond the scope of this Dictionary. 

Kempenfelt, 1782. The 'Royal 
George ' was the finest ship in the British 
service, carrying 108 guns, and was the 
flag-ship of Admiral Kempenfelt. It was 
lying off Portsmouth, crowded with its 
own crew and a vast number of visitors, 
before starting for Gibraltar. On 29 Aug. 
the carpenters were busy caulking the 
seams, and the ship was laid somewhat on 
her side. Kempenfelt was writing in his 
cabin, and the bulk of the people were 
between decks. A sudden squall plunged 
the open port-holes under water on the 
lowered side, and the ship went down in 
a minute. The admiral, the officers, and 
all between decks, to the number of 1,000 
persons, perished. Cowper has a jioem 
on the subject. 

Ken'lworth {Dictum of). See 
under ' Dictum.' 

Kennicott Scholarship. Two 

for Hebrew. Value about 60Z., tenable 
for one year. Founded (1831) in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford by Anne Kennicott, 
widow of Dr. Benjamin Kennicott, canon 
of Christ Church. 

Kensington Martyr (T/ie). Caro- 
line, wife of George prince regent. 
She was spoken of by the friends 
of the regent as the ' Dreadful Woman.' 
Married 1795, separated soon after the 
birth of her child in 1796, died 1821. The 
regent and his friends called her the 
' Kensington Megaara.' She resided at 
Kensington, and was certainly persecuted 
to death by her royal husband, but she 
was no ' martyr.' 

Ii2 



4?4 



KENT 



KEYS 



Kent (Boly Maid of\ Sr^'Holv 
Maid/ .<:c, 

Kentish Fire. Veht?mont pro 
tra<-t*»d olicHTinir. So CAlled from tlie 
cheering in Kent in the * Xo jv^ix^rv ' 
meetincrss got un to op^v^se the Catholic 
Emancii^Ation Bill of ISii*. 

Kentish Petition {ThrX 29 April. 
1701. Signed *t Mj»idstone and pre- 
sented to the Ho\i^ of Commons S May. 
It prayed that the hoxise would not wast-e 
their time in y^arty quarrel*, but att*->nd 
to the public business. It vrss; signed by 
grand j urors. mag-isiratos, and freeholders. 
Thos^ who present-ed it were sent to the 
G«t-e House, under the j^leA th^t the 
petition w** ' scandalous, insolent, and 
seditions.' Wlien ^v^irliament was pro- 
rogued they were lilv?rat-ed. 

The Tories . . . accossed Thoinas Bliss smd 
Thorns* CiilpeppeT. two of the gemleiiifn ror.- 
©cmed in ihe Kentish petition, of having heon 
gnilty of corra-pt M>d sc^ndaloos pra-otices in & 
coiit*st<>d election at Majdstoa©.— HowiTI, Hv-i. 
of Enff. iWilliam 111. p. 166». 

Kepler's Laws. 

1. The pl.<inet^ revolve about the sun in 




-Aui „\ 



ellipses, having the sun in one of the 
foci. 

2. If a line is drawn from the centre of 
the sun to any planet, this line (a« it is 
carried forward by the planet "i will sweep 
over equal areAS in equal portions of 
time. 

S. The square of the periodic times of 
the plaiiets are as the cubes of their mean 
distances from the sun. 

Tho second la-«r is ' the radios rector s-wecpsover 
equal areas in equal times,' 

Keri-Chetib [Keri what is read, 

Chetih what is written]. Theie are some 
1,000 psssftges in the Hebrew Bible 
where the ' Keri ' differs from the ' Chetib.' 
Kennicott tolls us in all these instAnoes 
the false rendering is the one inserted 
in tlie text^ or Arritten [chetib], and the 
tru-e one is that given in the margin. It 
is thought that Ezra made the marginal 
readings. ' Dissertatio G-eneralis.' 

Kesteven. The south-west part of 
Lincolnshire. The north-east part is 



called Ijindsey, .<»nd the south-eia«t l^aTt 
is CAlled Holland. 

Kett [B-ohrrt^. A tanner of "VTymond- 
ham, noAT Norwich, and a man of sulv 
stance, heade<l a rebellion in July 154i>. 
His forces were di^^x^rsed by the Earl of 
Warwick, and Kott was hanjro*! in Nov. 
the same year [154i>j. See * Keionnation 
Tree*.' 

Wj-mondhara. proaonnc* Win'-d»m^ 

Kett's Rebellion, 15*0, Tlie sup- 
pression of monasteries had CAXised a 
grcAt dcAl of temporary distress, and 
given birth to many insurrections, by far 
the most im]v>rt*^nt of which was that of 
Xorwich. he^detiby RoWrt Kett., a tanner, 
in the summer of 1549. who encAnn->ed on 
Moxisehold He^th near tlie city. A 
petition of grievances was first sent to 
the king, praying that the bt^udmen 
might be set free, that the rabbits might 
be redijced in niiml>eT. aaid that auniforn\ 
bushel mcA^iire might be established In- 
law. Kett held his court under the * Oak 
j of Reformation,' and here a chaplain duly 
I reAd the liturgy. The king promised to 
\ submit the -j^etition to jvirliament in 
Octolx-'T. but the herald ordered Kett to 
be arrested. This was the sigiial for war, 
and Kett made himself master of Xorw-ich, 
where he won several victories over the 
king's tTiv^ps : but at length tlw Earl of 
"VTarwick defeated the insurgents at Dits- 
sinstlale. and Kett was hanged in chains 
on Norwich Castle, 



Sorwic.h, pi 
porridge. Mo 



rononno* Xr>rriA{>f^ to rhj-me -with 
basehold. pronotiiice ArKssJ^-. 



Key of Russia [Thc^. Smolensko, 
Taken by Svatoshvs in 12o-2 ; t^kon by 
the Lithuanitins in 141S ; taken by Vassili 
in 1514 ; taken by the Poles in Kill ; 
taken by the Russians in 1654 ; burnt by 
Napoleon in his Moscow expedition in 
1812. 

Key of Spain ir;?A Ciudad R.xi- 
ri'sro. taken bv LordWellington (the Duke 
of Wellington^ 19 Jan.. isi2. 

Key of the Mediterranean 

{Th-e\ The fortress of Gibraltar, which 
commands the entrance and exit of that 
sea^ See ' Grates.' 

Keys [The Ho74fe of). In the Isle of 
Mijn. It consistsof twenty-fonrpersonsto 
whom all doubtful and important matters 
of law are referred. They are chosen 
from the chief landed proprietors of the 



KEYS 



KILEH-SHERGAT 



485 



iftland. If a vacancy occtirs two names 
are went to the governor, who nominatefj 
one of them. All freeholders, men and 
women, elect. 

Keys {The Tower of the), 'VoicHiM 
Clavium WMatt. xvi. 19j. Tlie Knprerne 
ix>wer of chnreh government ve»t*;d in 
the pope of Rome as the profensed suc- 
cessor of St. Peter. 

Keystone State fTfe*). Pennsyl- 
vania, one of the original thirteen states 
of North America. Calle^l the Keystone 
State from its position and importance. 

Ehan. A noble, a gentleman ; abotit 
eqnal to the Egyptian effendi and 
English esquire (Afghanistan;. 

Khariz'mians (The), 1215-1223. A 
people of Wentem Tnrkestan, which from 
994 U) 12.^1 formed an indej>endent prin- 
cipality. In 119.^ they invaded Persia, 
but their power was overthrown by 
Ghengis Khan in 122.'>. 

A branch of the Kharizmlans reigned ftt Delhi, 
Hlndnstfin, from 121/5, after having chasKid out 
the Ghcriana ; but In 1308 they were aoper3e<led by 
the Patans. 

KhattaTDians (The). One of the 
numerons Shiite sects, disciples gf Abdfil 
Khattib. They maintain that the prophet 
meant by paradise ' the go^xl things of 
this world.' So they indulge in wine, 
music, and other things forbidden by 
the imaums. They may be called the 
Ej)icurean Moslems. See ' Imanmians,' 
' Zeyds.' 

Khilji (The House of). The s^.cond 
Gaurian dynasty of Delhi, founded by 
Jelal-u-din in 1288. It continued to reign 
till 1821, when it was overthrown by 
T^glak. 

Khyber Pass (The), 1842. Has ob- 
tained great notoriety because a British 
army of !(),()()() men was here annihilated 
in the month of January, during the re- 
treat from Kaubul. The only persons 
who escaped were Dr. Brj'don (a regi- 
mental surgeon) arid a private solrlier. 
In 1838 Lord Auckland, governor- 
general of India, declared war against 
the Afghan istans because their ruler, 
Dost Mohamrned, had unlawfully at- 
tacked a British ally, and because Dost 
Mohammed Lad usurj>ed the throne of 
Shah Sujah, who was under British pro- 
tection. On 21 July Shah Sujah was re- 



stored to the throne of Kaubul, and t}»e 
British thought the m&tUiT was ended. 
This was a grand mistake, for at the k>e- 
ginning of winter Akbah Khan, the iv>n 
of Dost Mohamme<^l, attacked the British 
army in Kaubul, and slew several of the 
officers. A capitulation was made, and 
when the British army were in the 
Khyber Pass on their way home they 
were cut to pieces. (With women, chil- 
dren, and camp followers 20,000 were 
slain in the Pass.; 

Ki in Chinese history. There were 
ten of these ra^;es [Ki] before even the 
semi-historical period which began with 
Hia, B.C. 2205. The first Ki or fal>ulou3 
age embraces a period of 300,000 years. 
The mythic f^enVxl is the tenth Ki ; the 
three emperors were Fo-hi, Chin-nong, 
and Hoangti. These were followed by 
five kings. 

The first Ki conainted of 1) Pnon-kn (hi^hurt **fr- 
nity) ; 12) TiSnhoknn (emp^rcn- of h^yie^n) ; (X) Ti- 
hoang (emperor of ^nrth.) ; and (i) Gine-ho4ng (frm^ 
perw of nu^). Evidently ?i.\\k^(jr\cat.\. The hfetori- 
cal period begtos B.C. 236 with the dynaaty ol 
Tsin. 

Kidnapping. Entrapping children, 
either for reward or to serve some object 
of the kidnapper. Also entrapping slaves 
or men to serve aboard ship. It is now 
a felonious act (24, 2.5 Vict. c. lOOj. 

Kiel, in Holstein (Treaty of)^ 
14 Jan., 1814, between Great Britain, 
Sweden, and Denmark, for the transfer 
of Norway from Denmark to Sweden. 
The ' War of Liberation ' in Germany 
ends with this treaty. 

Kildare Insurrection (The\, 23 
May, 1798. The commencement of the 
great reV>ellion, not finally quelled till 
the following year. 

On 23 May Lieutenant GiiTord of I>abliii and a 
nninber of other gentlemen were aaaaaalnated by 

the inaurgenta. 

Kildare Place Society ^rA«), 1833. 
See ' SfXiiety for Promoting the Education 
of the Poor.' In 1830 government with- 
drew its grant to tin's society, and the 
schools gradually decline^l. 

Kileh-Shergat Cylinder (The). 
The earliest historical document pertain- 
ing to Assyria yet discovered in Meso- 
potamia. The characters are cuneiform, 
and the fifth king inscribed on the cylinder 
Ls the well-known name of Tiglath-pileser 
[Takulti-pal-zira], ' son of Asshur-rish-ili, 
who reduced the Magian world, grandson 



48fi 



KILHAMITES 



KILMAINHAM 



of Mutaggil-nebu, offspring of Asshur- 
dapal-il, who held the sceptre of Bel.' 

Kileh-Shergat is the modern name of Asshur. 

Kirhamites (3 syl.), or 'New Con- 
nection Methodists,' 1797. Seceders f rom 
the Methodists, led by Alexander Kilham. 
Their doctrinal views are those of "Wesley, 
but their polity is Presbyterian. The 
people choose their own officers, and send 
representatives to all the synodical meet- 
ings of the denomination. 

K.ilk.e-niiy{TheCatholicConfederacy 
of), 1641. Never to lay down their arms 
till they had obtained an acknowledg- 
ment of the independence of the Irish ; 
the repeal of all degrading disqualifica- 
tions on the ground of religion ; the 
free exercise of the Catholic worship; 
and the exclusion of all but natives from 
civil and military offices within the king- 
dom. See ' Irish Associations.' 

If ' Home Eule ' is effected, what would the Irish 
say if no office of Great Britain could be held by 
an Irishman ? 

Kilkenny {The Constitutions of). 
Certain privileges granted by Edward III. 
to the Irish in a parliament held at Kil- 
kenny. 

Kilkenny was the seat of several Irish parlia- 
ments. 

Kilkenny [Convention of), 1342. A 
parliament held at Kilkenny to remon- 
strate with Edward III. against his threat 
of excluding in future from all share in 
the government of Ireland those who 
held estates in Ireland or had marrit d 
Irish wives. It was thought that the 
allegiance of such persons would be 
weakened by their private interest in 
Ireland. See ' Irish Associations.' 

'Kilkenny {Statute of ), 40 Edw. III. 
1366. For the abolition of the Brehon or 
common law of Ireland. Lionel the 
second son of Edward III., who married 
the heiress of the Earl of Ulster, and 
thus became entitled to the lordships of 
Ulster and Connaught, was made by his 
father lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In 
1366 he summoned a parliament at Kil- 
kenny, in which this statute was passed. 

The object of this statute, passed by Edward III., 
•was to prevent the amalgamation of the English 
and Irish chiefs, which would render them too for- 
midable to be controlled. It forbade any English- 
man, on pain of imiDrisonment and forfeiture of 
his estates, to use an Irish name, to speak the 
Irish language, to adopt the Irish dress, or to per- 
mit the cattle of an Irishman to graze on his 
lands ; and made it high treason to marry a native. 
Brehon is the Irish for a judge. 



Killala {Battle of), 23 Sept., 1798. 
The French, being invited over by the 
Irish insurgents, landed under General 
Humbert (22 Aug., 1798) from three 
frigates. Several battles were fought, as 
those of Castlebar, Colooney, and Balli- 
namuck, but at Killala the insurgents 
were defeated with great slaughter. 

General Humbert surrendered to General Lake 
after the battle of Ballinamuck, 8 Sept. Some 
French frigates on their way to aid the Irish v, ere 
captured, 12 Oct., by Sir J. B. Warren, and Wolfe 
Tone was among the prisoners. 

* Killing no Murder,' 1657. A 
pamphlet printed in Holland, which 
caused an immense sensation at the 
time. After an address to Cromwell and 
another to the army, it divides itself 
into three parts: (1) Is the lord pro- 
tector a tyrant? (Yes, because he has 
arrogated to himself regal power and 
state.) (2) Is it lawful to kill a tyrant ? 
(Yes. Examjile : Brutus killed Ctesar 
and was deemed a patriot.) (3) Will the 
removal of Cromwell be for the well- 
being of the three nations ? (Yes. For 
his misrule is full of mischief.) It then 
concludes by warning Cromwell that his 
life is not worth an hour's purchase. 
This book created quite a furore, and 
was distributed by thousands. Sexby 
avouched that he was the author o'f it, 
but Clarendon tells us that Sexby was an 
illiterate man. Evelyn and others think 
the author was Captain Titus, who re- 
sided in Holland at the time (' Diary,' ii. 
210). Some ascribe it to Willan, and 
others to Allan. 

There was a similar pamphlet pub- 
lished in France in 1658 entitled ' Tuer 
un tyran n'est pas un crime.' It was 
issued by Carpentier de Marigny, the 
avowed enemy of Mazarin. 

Kilmainham Treaty {The), 1882. 
A supposed compact made by Mr. Glad- 
stone, the prime minister, with Dillon, 
Parnell, and O'Kelly, when in April they 
were unexpectedly released from Kil- 
mainham jail, where they had been con- 
fined for exciting the Irish to resist the 
payment of rent, and to prevent new 
tenants from taking the farms from 
which persons had been evicted. The 
tale is that the three gentlemen pro- 
mised to exert themselves to pacify 
Ireland if they were set free, and so they 
were released; but most certainly they 
have done nothing since to pacify Ire- 
land, but quite the contrary (1890). 



KIN 



KING-MAKER 



487 



Kin {The), or the Golden Race. So 
the Niu-tchin Tartars of China called 
themselves (1188-1235), 

Kinconghish. A statute in Ire- 
land which provides that every head of a 
sept is to be charged with any treason, 
felony, or heinous crime committed by 
any one of the sept. 

King [The Black). Heinrich III. of 
Germany (1017, 1046-1056). 

King {The Bed). I. The king of 
Persia was so called from his red turban. 

Credo ut Persam nunc propter rubea tegumenta 
capitis R'ibeum Caput vccant, ita reges Moscoviae 
propter alba tegumenta Albos lieges appellari.— 

SIGISMUND. 

II. William II. was called Bufus, or 
the Red King, from the colour of his hair 
(1057, 1087-ilOO). 

III. Otto II. kaiser of Germany was 
called the Red King for a similar reason 
(955, 973-983). 

IV. Amadeus VII. count of Savoy was 
called ' The Red ' also (1360, 1383-1391). 

Kaiser Friedrich I. was called 'Barbarossa' 
from his red beard. 

King {The Summer). Amadeus of 
Spain. 

King {The White). The king of 
Muscovy was so called from his ' alba 
tegumenta.' See ' King {The Bed)'. 

Muscovy was called White liii.fsia, and probably 
this was the reason v/hy the Muscovite king was 
called the White king, or king of White Kussia. 
Poland was Black Russia. See ' Russia.' 

King {The Winter). Friedrich V., 
the rival of Ferdinand II. of Germany, 
He married Elizabeth daughter of James 
I. of England, and was king of Bohemia 
one winter, 1619-20. His wife was called 
the ' Winter Queen.' 

King Becold. John of Leyden 
the tailor, who headed the Anabaptists 
of. Germany, and arrogated to himself 
the name and title of ' King John of 
Leyden.' His name was John Becold 
(1510-1536). 

His name is sometimes written Boccold and 
Bockholdt. 

King Bomba. Nickname of Ferdi- 
nand II. of Naples, who bombarded 
Messina in 18-18. 

' Bomba ' is the noise made when the cheeks are 
blown out and compresspd by the fingers 'and 
thumb. Ferdinand II. of Naples was a great Pox 
et p7(eterea fiihil, and his son Francis II. was only 
a ' Bombalino,' or I'ocitula et nnctcrea nihil. 



King Edward's Law. The laws 
enforced by Edward the Confessor, and 
the mode of government which then 
prevailed. 

When the people clamoured for King Edward's 
laws, they meant that they wished to be governed 
In the same manner as Edward the Confessor 
governed the nation (1041-1065). 

King Henri's King. Chicot the 
jester (1553-1591), who ruled Henri III. ; 
but, to his honour be it spoken, he loved 
him and served him faithfully. It would 
be well if some wise ones took counsel 
from the ' fool.' 

King Hob. Robert Bruce was so 
called by Edward I., meaning 'king 
churl.' Hob was a common name for a 
villager or half-serf, as Hodge still is for 
a farm-labourer. Du Cange (art. ' Huba ') 
says Hovia means a village, German hof, 
and the following from 'Chron. Mortis S. 
Agnetis,' chap. xxvi. : — ' Damnum mag- 
num habuimus in hovia nostra ex 
inundatione aquarum.' 

Perhaps 'Hob' is a mere variant of 'Rob,' or 

'Bob,' i.e. Robert. 

King Hulan. King Alfonso XII. 
of Spain was called ' Roi Hulan ' in 
1883, because he had recently accepted 
a colonelcy of a Uhlan regiment in 
Prussia. 

King James's Bible. See ' King's 
Bible ' and ' Bible.' 

* King Jesus.' William Hacket, in 
the early part of Elizabeth's reign, gave 
himself out to be King Jesus. His two 
' prophets ' were Arthington and Cop- 
pinger. Hacket was executed in 1592, 
Coppinger starved himself to death in 
prison, and Arthington was subsequently 
pardoned. 

King-Maker {The). Richard Ne- 
ville earl of Warwick (1428-1471). 
When Henry VI. was king he defeated 
the Lancastrians, captured the king at 
Northampton (10 July, 1460), and pro- 
claimed Edward IV. king (4 March, 1461). 

Subsequently he quarrelled with Ed- 
ward, made a compact with Margaret 
(wife of Henry VI.), married his daughter 
Anne to Prince Edward (son of Henry 
VI. and Margaret), landed at Dover (13 
Sept., 1470), drove Edward IV. from the 
throne, and restored Henry VI. See 
next article. 

Richard Neville was slain by Edward IV. at the 
battle of Barnet 11 April, 1471, when Edward be 
came king again. 



KING-MAKER 



KING 



King-Maker {The Boman). Rici- 
mer (* — a.d. 472), In 456 he deposed 
the Emperor Avitus, and made Majorian 
emperor. As Majorian proved too inde- 
pendent and virtuous for Ricimer's liking, 
the Suevian put him to death (a.d. 461), 
and raised Libius Severus to the purple. 
On the death of Libius Severus in 465 
Ricimer kept the government for sixteen 
months in his own hands, but in 467 the 
emperor of the east appointed the western 
emperor, and Ricimer acquiesced in the 
appointment. In 472 the new emperor 
was slain in battle, and Ricimer appointed 
Olybrius emperor. This was the third 
emperor which the barbarian made. 

King Matthias is dead. This 
Hungarian proverb is the greatest com- 
pliment ever paid to a crowned head. 
It means ' justice no longer holds the 
balance,' as it did when Matthias was king. 
It appears that Matthias son of Hunyadi 
was indeed a model king, who never had 
his equal on any throne (1443, 1458-1490). 

King Robert's Bo"wrl. Said to be 
the bowl which the wife of Mark Sprotte 
setbefore King Robert. It is still preserved 
in the family of the Sprottes of Urr. One 
day King Robert was attacked by a 
Southron on the banks of the Urr, near 
the cottage of Mark Sprotte a shepherd ; 
the wife of the shepherd caught hold of 
the Southron, pulled him to the ground, 
and he was obliged to yield. She then 
set before the king a bowl of porridge. 
Bruce said he would give her for reward 
all the land she could run round while lie 
ate it, and she ran round Sheeling Hill. 
The land was given her, she was called 
the heroic dame of Galloway, the hill was 
called the King's Mount, and the family 
has been called the Sprottes of Urr for 
about 500 years. 

King Smith. Louis Philippe of 
France, who escaped from France in 1848 
lender the assumed name of Mr. Smith, 

' Mr. Smith ! ' exclaimed tho king, " that is 
curious indeed ; and it is very remarkable that the 
first to welcome me should be a Mr. Smith, since 
the assumed name by which I escaped from 
France was Sviith. Look, this is my passport, 
made out in the name of Smith.'— T/te Tivws, 
6 March, 1848. 

King Tom. Sir Thomas Maitland, 
the first Lord High Commissioner of the 
United States of the Ionian Islands, so 
called from his arbitrary manners. He 
was an excellent governor, but ruled the 



islands as an autocrat, and left a full 
exchequer at his death. 

King of Arms. The title dates 
from the reign of Henry IV., but Henry 
V. created the Garter King in 1417, and 
George IV. the Bath King in 1725. The 
Garter King of Arms now serves the 
Order of the Garter, and the Bath King 
of Arms the Order of the Bath. The 
two provincial kings for England are 
Clarenceux (named after Thomas duke 
of Clarence, brother of Henry V.), with 
jurisdiction over all parts of England 
south of the Trent ; and Norroy [North 
roy], with jurisdiction over all parts 
north of the Trent. 

The King of Arms for Scotland is 
called Lyon, and for Ireland Ulster. 

King of Bath (The). King Richard 
[of Bath], Beau Nash, master of the cere- 
monies, or Social Premier of Bath (1674- 
1701). 

King of Bourges. Charles VII. 
of France was so called by the English 
in France because he returned to Bourges 
when he fled from Paris. 

On the death of Charles VI. the kingdom of 
France descended to Henry V, of England. 
Charles VII. refused to allow the claim, and for a 
time took refuge in Bourges. Jeanne d Arc turned 
the scale, and the King of Bourges became Charles 
le Victorieux. 

King of England. A title first 
assumed by Richard I. See ' King of 
the English.' 

King of Fire {The),ov SultanKebir. 
Napoleon was so called by the Orientals 
(170'), 1804-1814, 1821). 

King of France {The). So the 
monarchs of France were called till Oct, 
1789, when the National Assembly or- 
dained that Louis XVI, should not be 
styled ' King of France,' but ' King of the 
French.' The royal title was abolished 
in France in 1792, but was restored in 
1814. When Louis Philippe was invited 
in 1830 to take on himself the government 
he was styled ' King of the French.' 

King of Ireland, -1541. A title 
assumed by Henry VIII. to combat a 
notion that the regal dominion of Ireland 
was vested ex officio in the pope, and that 
the king of England hold from the pope 
his lordship of Ireland. In the reign of 
Mary and Philip, Paul IV, formally 



Kixa 



KING 



489 



raised the lordship of Ireland into a 
kingdom, 1557. 

John was ' dominus Hibernife,' and from John to 
15U the kings^of England were styled " lords of 
Ireland.' The Irish Ard-n:iks v.ere undoubtedly 
kings; and Henry VIII. had no effective sway 
bejond the English pale. James I. of England 
■was in reality the first king of all Ireland, when 
in KVjS Hugh O Neill submitted to Mountjoy. 

King of Kent. Hengist, first of the 
kings of the Heptarchy, was king of Kent, 
A.D. 455. His dominion comprehended 
Kent, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, 
&c. In 526 the foundation of the king- 
dom of Essex diminished that of Kent. 

King of Paris {The), 1588. So 
Henri due de Guise was called by Henri 
III. after the day of the barricades I the 
12th May), when the king fled disguised 
as a rustic to Chartres. 

After the murder of Balafre Henri III. left the 
.room and visited his mother, who was ill in bed. 
' The King of Paris lives no longer, madam,' said 
he ; ' henceforth I shall reign alone. I have now 
no rival.' ' It is a clean cut my son,' replied Cithe- 
rine, ' but it must be sewn up again.'— F£UCE, 
Hist, of the Prot^-stanis of Fiance, xvii. 

King of Prussia [The First). 
FiUEDRicH I. son of the Great Elector 
(1057, 1701-1713). See ' Prussia,' &c. 

King of Rome, 1811. A title given 
by Napoleon I. to his infant son at birth, 
when ' he associated the child in his em- 
pii'e.' Probably he meant to revive the 
title invented by Kaiser Heinrich III. ; if 
so the title was a blunder ; but if he 
only meant to imitate the kaiser, he was 
quite at liberty to adopt any title not 
ahcady appropriated. 

King of Sion (T/ie). John Becold, 
Boccold, or Bockholdt, tailor, the Ana- 
baptist (1510, 1531-1536). Better known 
as John of Leyden, the name he took 
after his ' coronation.' He •was sensual, 
vain, and bloodthirsty, fond of regal 
pomp, and introduced polygamy. John 
■was executed by lingering tortures in 
1536, at the age of 26. 

King ot Slops. Louis XVIII. of 
France (1755, 1814-1824). 

King of Suffolk. See ' Kings of 
Norfolk and Suffolk.' 

King of Terror (T/ie). Robespierre 
was the ' King of Terror,' and the Com- 
mittee of Public Safety his executive for 
420 days, from 31 May, 1793, to 27 July, 
1794. 

Death is poetically so called. 



Kir«g of the Barricades (8 syl.). 
Louis Philippe of France (1773, reigned 
1830-18-18. died 1850;, so called because 
he assisted in the revolution of 1830 to 
barricade Paris and resist the royal troops. 

Kmg of the Baso'cians (The). 

President of the clerks of the Basoche or 
Basilica of Paris — i.e. the judges, the 
ban-isters, the proctors, and other officials 
of the Palais de Justice. He had his 
court, his great officers, his coin, and his 
armorial bearings. Henri III. suppressed 
the title, and transferred to the chancel- 
lor all the rights and privileges of this 
' king of the lawyers.' 

King of the Butchers (The). 
The lad who at one time rode on the 
Boeuf Gras through the streets of Paris 
on Shrove Tuesday. He was a son of 
one of the three great butcher families 
(Gois, St. Yon, or Caboche), was dressed 
as an eastern monarch, carried a naked 
sword in one hand and a sceptre in the 
other, and rode on the back of the prize ox. 
He also enjoyed certain j)rivileges in his 
year of office. The procession of Boeuf 
Gras had no king in my time — i.e. the 
middle of the 19th cent. 

In New Orleans Hex is still (1890) the central 
figure of the Mardi Gras festivities. 

Boeuf gras, pronounce Uuhgrah'. 

King of the English. A title 
assumed in 828 by Egbert. 

Every king from William to Henry II. called 
himself 'king of the English' (n-x Anqhirum). 
Richard I. was the first to call himself ' king of 
Entiland ' (rex Angli'x). 

King of the French. So Louis- 
Philippe entitled himself in 1830. Simi- 
larly, the two Najjoleons called them- 
selves ' emperors of the French,' and not 
' emperors of France.' 

Of course, the notion was that the latid called 
France belonged to the people, and that the king 
or emperor disavowed all right to it. There seems 
now il8;i0) a radical notion that all the land of 
the nation should be vested in the sovereign and 
not be held by private landlords Strange hovr 
radicals should wish to roll back the tide of his- 
tory to the time of the Conquest ! Fvmny ad- 
vancement this ! 

King of the Hills. Vincent the 
Chartist, 1839. The hill district of 
Wales is about five miles from Newport, 
and abounds in coal and iron. 

King of the Markets {The), or 
' Le Roi des Halles.' Francois de Ven- 
dOme due de Beaufort (1616-1669), 
natural son of Henri IV. and Gabrielle 
d'Estre'es. So called because he was 
very popular with the French proletariat. 



490 



KING 



KING'S 



Lagrange-Chancel asserted, in the ' Annee 
Litteraire,' 1759, that the due was the 
' Iron Mask,' but this has been fully dis- 
proved. He was slain in a sortie at the 
siege of Candia. 

King of the Peak {The), 1515. 
Sir George Vernon of Haddon Hall was 
twice cited to appear in London for the 
murder of a pedlar hanged by his order on 
a tree. When in the court he was sum- 
moned as ' King of the Peak ' he vouch- 
safed no reply, but on the third summons 
as ' Sir George Vernon ' he instantly 
presented himself. The pedlar had com- 
mitted murder and Sir George ' lynched ' 
him. The case was dismissed. 

King of tlie Poor. William 
Fitz-Osbert, called ' Longbeard,' from 
the length of his beard. Executed with 
great barbarity in 1199. 

King of the Ribalds {The). 
'Le Roi des Ribauds ' \Be-lo]. The 
captain of the militia created by 
Philippe II. Auguste' of France in 1189. 
Charles V. united the captaincy of the 
Ribalds to the ' provost of the hotel.' 

King of the Romans, 1056. 

Heinrich III. the Black King of Ger- 
many invented this title for the heir-elect 
of Germany, and the title was continued 
till he was crowned. Till 1339 the king 
of Germany went to Rome +o receive 
from the pope the title of ' kal'^^er of the 
Holy Roman Empire,' but after that date 
the king at his coronation in Germany 
assumed the title ex-officio. 

It a father made his son joint-king, the father 
V^as kaiser and the son King of the Rovians. The 
successor of a kaiser was only ' King of the 
Pvomans' till he -was actually crowned. In 1.308 
Maximilian, who failed to get himself crowned 
kaiser, called himself ' Emperor-elect of the 
Bomans.' 

King of the Sea. Edward III. 
A title given him in 1353. 

He won the great naval battle of Sluys (2 syl.) 
over the French in 1340, and beat the Spanish 
Bquadron off Winchelsea in 1350. 

King's and Queen's Counties 

(Ireland). The territory belonging to the 
septs of Leix and Offaly, who resisted the 
forfeiture of their lands and took up arms ; 
but the septs were exterminated, and their 
territory formed into two counties named 
King's and Queen's, in honour of Philip 
and Mary, and the assize towns of the 
counties were called Philipstown and 
Maryborough after the names of the king 
and queen. 



King's and Queen's Men, 1571. 

The factions of James VI. of Scotland 
and his mother Mary queen of Scots, a 
prisoner at the time in England. In 1573 
the queen's faction was stamped out and 
the reign of Mary was virtually at an end. 

King's [or Queen's] Bench. An 
English law court where the sovereign is 
supposed to occupy the lit de justice. It 
was originally the Aula Regia which fol- 
lowed the king in all his travels. By 
1 Will. IV. c. 70 the number of judges 
was raised from four to five, viz. the chief 
justice andfour puisne or 3'^ounger judges. 
This court has control over all other law 
courts by a process technically called 
certiorari, by virtue of which x^roceedings 
may be removed to it from inferior courts. 
It can also prohibit other courts from 
proceeding when it is thought that they 
are exceeding their jurisdiction. It has' 
jurisdiction over every species of criminal 
offence committed in Middlesex. 

King's (or) Queen's Plates. Purses 
of money for races, not all the gifts of the 
reigning sovereign. In the reign of Queen 
Anne a gentleman left 1300 guineas for 13 
plates or purses to be run for at such 
places as the crown should appoint ; the 
condition being that each horse shall 
carry 12 stone weight the best of three 
heats over a four-mile course. 

King's Bible {The), 1611. The 
' Authorised Version ' is so called because 
it was undertaken by the command of 
James I., to whom also it was dedicated. 
King James disliked the ' Great Bible ' 
{q^.v.) because of its annotations. He also 
extremely disapproved of the Geneva 
Bible {q.v.). See ' Bibles.' 

King's Bishop {The), 1317. Wil- 
liam Sinclair bishop of Dunkeld. Ed- 
ward II. sent a fleet to the Frith of Forth ; 
and the sheriff, with 500 Scottish horse, 
seeing the fleet, retreated precipitately. 
On their road the bishop met them, and 
cried, ' Out on you for false knights, whose 
spurs should be knocked from your heels ! 
Who loves Scotland follow me ! ' The 
bishop made a desperate charge against 
the English, who were driven to their 
ships with loss. When Bruce heard 
thereof, he said Sinclair should be his 
bishop, and the Bishop of Dunkeld was 
called ' The king's bishop ' for many 
years. 



KING'S 



KING'S 



491 



King's Book (T^ie). I. 'LiberKegis,' 
A.D. 1584. A schedule of the valuation 
of all church property in England made 
after the separation of the English Church 
from the Church of Rome. 

II. 1543. ' Necessary Doctrine and 
Erudition for any Christian man,' a book 
published by Henry VIII. as a substitute 
for the Bible, which he forbade the general 
public to read. Teachers of religion, 
nobles, and those of gentle birth might 
read it, but if any artificer, apprentice, 
journeyman, labourer, or servant read it, 
the punishment was a month's imprison- 
ment. The ' King's Book ' was far more 
Catholic than Protestant. Indeed Henry 
was a Catholic in all things except his own 
supremacy. See ' Bishops' Book.' 

The 'Kings Book' is quoted in brief as the 
'Erudition.' It is in great measure copied from the 
'Bishops' Book 0].v.), but leans more to Roman- 
ism. It explains the Creed, the Seven Sacraments 
the Ten Commandments, the Lord s Prayer, tlie 
Ave Maria, and finishes with an exposition of Free- 
will, Justification Good W'orks, and Prayers for 
the Dead. It accepts the Apocrypha, and the first 
four ecumenical Councils. See p. 277. 

King's Collection {The), 1823. 
The Royal Library of George III. given 
to the nation by George IV., and added to 
the library of the British Museum. The 
Royal Library consists of the library of 
Mr. Joseph Smith, British consul at 
Venice, bought by the king in 1762 for 
10,000/. ; a collection of books bought up 
when the order of Jesuits was suppressed ; 
and the library of Charles II. The number 
of volumes added to the library by this 
royal gift is somewhat more than 50,000. 

King's College. I. Aberdeen, 1491. 
Founded by King James IV. 

II. Cambridge, 1441. Founded by King 
Henry VI. The chapel was finished in 
1530. The head of the college is called 
the provost. 

III. London. Incorporated 1828. 

King's Confession [The). The 
Scotch Covenant of 1580. So called be- 
cause signed by King James VI. (after- 
■wards James I. of England). It abjured 
the tenets of the Church of Rome ; bound 
the subscribers to defend the tenets of the 
Reformed Church of Scotland, and to 
guard with goods and lives the person and 
authority of the king. 

King's Evil {The). Scrofula, so 
called because it was supposed to be cured 
l)y the king's touch. Touching for scrofula 
was practised by Edward the Confessor 



(1043-1066) ; by Louis IX. of France in 
1480 ; by the kaiser-king Karl VIII. at 
Rome and Naples in 1495 ; by Francois I. 
in 1527 ; by Charles II., and Queen Anne. 
It was attempted by Prince Charles Edward the 
Pretender, at Holyrood, in 174G; by Louis XVI. at 
Reims in 1775. 

King's Hall, Cambridge, 1337. 
Founded by King Edward III. In 1546 
this college was, with other foundations, 
consolidated into Trinity College. 

King's Lieutenants (TA.e). Noble- 
men commissioned by the three Lancas- 
trian kings to put into military order their 
respective counties, and levy fines on 
those incapable of bearing arms. These 
gentlemen are now called 'Lords Lieu- 
tenants of Counties.' 

King's Wominees {The). Thirty- 
six Irish noblemen and gentlemen, whose 
estates had been confiscated by Cromwell, 
named in the Declaration of Indulgence 
(1602) to be restored to their estates with- 
out further proof, by the special favour of 
the king [Charles II.] 

King's Pamphlets {The). 30,000 
tracts and pamphlets relative to the history 
of England during the civil wars, bound 
in 2,000 volumes, of which 100 were printed 
(but never published). The pamphlets 
were commenced for the use of Charles I. 
by a clergyman named Thomason, kept in 
the collect'^ .'s warehouses, and at length 
lodged at 'Oxford under the care of Dr. 
Barlow. They were bought for Charles 

II. by Samuel Mearke, stationer, but Mrs. 
Mearke, the widow, tried to dispose of 
them by the desire of Charles II. George 

III. bought them, and in 1763 presented 
the whole to the British Museum. 

King's Preachers. Six able di- 
vines appointed by Edward VI., four of 
whom were itinerant, publicly to main- 
tain the doctrines of the Reformation. 

King's Primer {The), 1546. Pub- 
lished by command of Henry VIII. It 
contained the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, 
the Ten Commandments, the Litany, the 
' Venlte,' and the ' Te Deura,' w^ith some 
few collects. It was twice revised in the 
reign of Edward VI., and again in the 
reigns of Elizabeth and James L, being 
ultimately made into our present ' Book 
of Common Prayer.' 

King's Quair, i.e. King's Book. A 
poom in six cantos (197 stanzas of seven 



492 



KING'S 



KINGS 



lines eacli) by James I. of Scotland. It 
is the story of his courtship of Jane 
Beaufort, who became his wife. 

King's Stone {The), 1513. An un- 
hewn column erected on Flodden Field 
to mark the spot where King James IV. 
fell. 

Kings. A Chinese word equivalent 
to books, but emphatically applied to five, 
as our word Bible (a book) is applied to 
our Sacred Scriptures. The five sacred 
books of the Chinese are : 1. Y-Kvng 
(cosmogony) ; 2. Chi-Kinz (hymns) ; 3. 
Chou-Eing (annals) ; 4. Li-Ki (religious 
rites and ceremonies) ; and 5. Tchun- 
Tsieou (chronology of the kingdoin of 
Lou, the country of Confucius). To these 
is sometimes added the Tao-te-Ktng. 

Kings. The average length of the 
reigns in the three countries of England, 
France, and Germany. 

England from the accession of the 
Conquest 23/; years. 

France from the accession of Hugues 
Capet 20 years. 

Germany from the accession of Charle- 
magne 18 years. 

The long reign of Qtieen Victoria will consider- 
ably raise the average of the sovereigns of Eng- 
land. 

The average length in Scotland from Malcolm I. 
to James VI. was 21 years. 

Kings and Popes. The era of im- 
pious kings and impious popes. See 
' Popes and Kings.' 

Kings and Queens of Eng- 
land. 

Victoria, who was the niece of Wil- 
liam IV., who was the brother^ of 
George IV., who was the son of 
George III., who was the grandson of 
George II., who was the son of 
George I., who was the cousin of Anne, 
who was the sister-in-law of William 
III., who was the son-in-law of James II., 
who was the brother of Ch.o'vLes II., 
who was the son of Charles I., who 
was the so7i of James I., who was the 
cousin of Elizabeth, who was the half- 
sister of Mary, who was the half-sister 
of Edward VI., who was the son of 
Henry VIII., who was the son of 
Henry VII., who was the cousin of 
EiCHARD III., who was the tmcle of 
Edward V., who was the son of Edward 
IV., who was the cousin of Henry VI., 
who was the son of Henrt V., who was 



the son of Henry IV., who was the 
cousin of Richard II., who was the 
grandson of Edward III., who was the 
S071 of Edward II., who was the son of 
Edward I., who was the son of Henry 
III., who v/as the son of John, who was 
the brother of Richard I., who was the 
son of Henry II., who was the cousin of 
Stephen, who was the cousin of Henry I., 
who was the brother of William Rufus, 
who was the son of William the Con- 
queror, who was the son of his mother. 

Kings Combatant (The). The 
kings of the Tsheu or Chou dynasty of 
China. The third Imperial dynasty, and 
the last of the semi-historic period. The 
' fighting kings ' were the feudatories who 
ruled over petty neighbouring states, and 
were continually at war with each other. 

The most powerful of the kings combatant were 
the founders of the following states : Yen, Gey, 
Tchao, Han, Tsee, and Tsin. 

Kings of Arms, 1483. There are 
four in England : Clarenceux (who has 
power over all parts of England south of 
the Trent) ; Norroy, i.e. North-roy (who 
has power over all parts north of the 
Trent), and two other kings, called Garter 
King of Arms and Bath King of Arms. 
See ' Heralds.' 

Garter is the principal King of Arms, higher in 
rank than the others. He serves the Order of the 
Garter. Bath King of Arms serves the Order of 
the Bath. 

Kings of France. Theirresidences. 

Clovis resided in what is now called the Palais 
de .Justice, which he built in the lie du Paris, in 
the Seine. 

Philippe II., Auguste, removed to the old 
Louvre. 

Louis IX. resided in the Bastille. 

Philippe VI. de Valois lived at Vincennes. 

Charles V. le Sage lived in the Hulel de St. 
Paul. 

Charles VI. le Bien Aime lived in the Palais des 
Tournelles. 

Charles IX. lived in the Tuileries. 

Louis XIII. le Juste lived in the Palais de Luxem- 
bourg. 

Louis XIV. le Grand Monarque lived at Ver- 
sailles. 

Louis XVI. le Martyr lived at the Palais Royal. 

Napoleon I. and III. lived in the Tuileries. 

The Presidents of the Republic have lived in the 
Palais de 1 Elysee. 

Kings of Leire. So the old 
Danish rulers were styled, because they 
resided at Leire, in Seeland. 

Kings of Norfolk and Suffolk, 

1381. So Lester and Westbroom styled 
themselves in the rebellion of Wat the 
Tyler and Jack Straw. They were both 
executed in June the same year. 



KINGDOM 



KISLAR 



493 



Kingdom of Al Garb, or Algarve. 
Founded by Shahpoor about 1008 ; set 
aside in 1031 by the dynasty of the Af tas- 
ides (3 syL), so called from Al Aftas. 

Kingdom of Italy (T/ie). I. Lom- 
bardy was so called in the I'eign of 
Charlemagne, and when Charleinagne 
and his successors are called ' kings of 
Italy,' the meaning is Lombardy. 

II, 1806 ; the union by Napoleon 
Bonaparte of Lombardy and the Venetian 
territories. Though the title was so pre- 
tentious, the new state did not comprise 
above a third of the peninsula. After 
the battle of Waterloo (1815) this geo- 
graphical arrangement was set aside. 

The present kingdom of Italy was created in 
1861, but Kome was not added till 1870. 

Kingdom of Scone {The). Scot- 
land was so called so long as the ' Liii 
Fail ' iq.v.) remained in that city, and 
Scone was the Sedes Principalis of 
North Britain. 

Kingdom of Sion (The), in Mun- 
ster, set up by John of Leyden, and 
meant to be a theocracy. John appointed 
twelve judges over the ' tribes,' and 
Matthiesen the baker had before him 
sent out ' apostles ' to preach the Ana- 
baptist doctrines (1534-1536). 

Kingdom of 'Westphalia (The), 
1807. Carved by Napoleon out of Hesse 
Cassel and part of Hanover, and given 
to Jerome Bona.parte, his youngest 
brother. Abolished after the battle of 
Waterloo in 1815. 

Kingston, in Surrey. So called 
because, in 901, Edward the Elder was 
crowned there. 

Kingstown (Ireland). So named 
in honour of the visit made by George 
IV. to Ireland soon after his coronation 
in 18*21. The town had been pi-eviously 
called Dunleary, then a mere fishing 
village on the coast of Dublin Bay, about 
seven miles from the city. Kingstown 
is now a large and beautiful town, with 
commodious quays, magnificent piers, 
railway to Dublin, mail boats, &c., and 
handsome villas all about the neighbour- 
hood. 

Kirillit'za. The Russian alphabet 
is so called because it was arranged by 
Bishop Cyril. 

[The Bible] will soon be turned into Russ and put 
into a printed book which any poor man will 
be able to read if only he knows his kiiillitza. 
2 he dar, chap. xL 



Kirk ( The). The Presbyterian Church 
of Scotland (1689). 

Kirk of F'eld [The Tragedy of the). 
The murder of Henry Darnley, husband 
of Mary queen of Scots, who was blown 
up with gunpowder in a mansion called 
Kirk of Field, belonging to James Ken 
nedy archbishop of St. Andrews. 

On the Monday before his [Darnleys] murder 
the queen passed the evening with him till it was 
time to attend a masque which was to be given 
in the palace. . . . About two in the morning of 
Tuesday Both well, with a selected party of despe- 
rate men, opened the under apartments of the 
Kirk of Field by means of false keys, and laid a 
lighted match to a quantity of gunpowder which 
had been previously placed beneath the kings 
apartment.— Sir W. Scott, ZJist. of Scotland, xxviii. 

Kirk Session (T/te), 1689. The low- 
est judicatory in the Presbyterian Church 
of Scotland. It is composed of the 
parish minister and ruling elders, to 
assist in superintending the social, moral, 
and religious condition of the parish, 
judge of the fitness of those who wish to 
become members of the church, to exer- 
cise discipline on those guilty of scan- 
dalous offences, and to grant certificates 
to worthy members who remove to 
another parish. The other three courts 
are the Presbytery, the Synod, and the 
General Assembly. See ' Presbytery.' 

Kirkland's Plot [Moses), 1776. 
Kirkland, a native of South Carolina, 
was employed by Stuart and other 
Royalists to concert measures with 
General Gage for a joint attack, by sea 
and land, on the southern states of N. 
America, while the savages fell on their 
rear. The plot was discovered, and the 
Americans endeavoured to win over the 
savages, but without success ; so the 
Americans entered their country, laid 
waste the cornfields, and ahno^t extir- 
pated the Cherokees. 

Kirkpatrick Crest and Motto. 
A bloody hand holding a dagger, and 
the motto ' I make sicker.' When Robert 
Bruce had stabbed Com^Ti in the 
cloisters of the Minorites, Dumfries 
(1305), Sir Roger Kirkpatrick asked if he 
was sure the traitor was slain. ' I doubt 
so,' replied Bruce. ' Aye ? do you 
doubt ? ' exclaimed Kirkpatrick, ' then 
I'll make sicker.' So saying he thrust 
his dagger into Com^m's heart. 

Kislar Aga. Chief of the black 
eunuchs. About equal in patronage to 
our lord chancellor. The revenues, &c. 



idi 



KISSING 



KNIGHT 



of all religious foundations are at the 
disposal of the Kislar Aga. 

Kissing the Pope's Foot. Kiss- 
ing the foot of a Roman eniperor was a 
method of adoration paid to him as a 
god, and" Diocletian (28i-305) had his 
shoes studded with gems to render the 
ceremony less obnoxious. 

When popes assumed regal powers 
they adopted the same custom, and some 
had crucifixes wrought in their shoes as 
a salve to tender consciences. It is not 
possible to state with certainty when the 
custom began, but in the ritual ascribed 
to Pope Gelasius (492-496) mention is 
made of deacons ' kissing the pope's feet 
before they began reading the Gospel.' 

Not only were the feet of the pope 
kissed, but so were the feet of the mule 
or ass on which he happened to be 
riding. 

The Romans certainly kissed the feet 
of their idols, and thought it derogatory 
to touch their mouths. The Persian 
method of adoration, introduced by Cy- 
rus, was falling on the face at a prince's 
feet and kissing the ground on which 
he stood. Conon refused to perform 
this ceremony to Artaxerxes, and Callis- 
thenes refused to prostrate himself be- 
fore Alexander the Great. 

Kissing the cheek was a Jewish, Greek, 
and Roman custom of salutation, still 
continued in France and some other 
modern nations of Europe. Kissing the 
hand of a liege lord was a ceremony of 
homage, and subsequently was adopted 
by sovereigns as a part of court etiquette. 

' Kissing hands ' or to ' Kiss-hands ' is a synonym 
of being introduced to court in England, Spain, 
llussia, and Turkey. In Catholic cathedrals and 
other important churches on Holy Thursday the 
officiant who celebrates the mass washes and 
kisses the feet of thirteen old or thirteen young 
persons, in commemoration of the act of Christ 
mentioned in the Fourth Gospel. 

Kitchen Cabinet ( The). The pri- 
vate advisers of President Jackson, who 
used to summon Francis P. Blair and 
Amos Kendal (editor of the ' Globe ') and 
others, to consultation by a back door, 
or the kitchen door, to avoid observation. 

The members of Jackson's Cabinet were not 
high-caste statesmen, but they were too high- 
caste to be congenial counsellors of Jackson. 
Behind them he kept a 'Kitchen Cabinet,' of 
creatures selected for their servile devotion to 
his person, including a representative of the 
domesticated press. — The Xitu'teenth Ceniiirj, 
Aug. 1888 p. 272. 

Kit-Kat Club {The), or ' Kit-cat 
Club,' 1688-1720. Composed at first of 



thirty members, originated chiefly by 
Dr. Garth the poet, author of ' The 
Dispensary,' in imitation of Boileau's 
'Lutrin,' to ridicule the apothecaries, 
who were at war with the physicians 
about the establishment of dispensaries. 
The apothecaries strenuously opposed 
the design. Garth was a Whig and 
Hanoverian, and the club, which was 
held in King Street, Westminster, was 
supplied with pastry by Christopher 
Kat, a pastrycook near by. Its toasts 
were engraved on the drinking- glasses, 
that no Jacobite sentiment might be 
insinuated. Dissolved in 1720. 
Addison and Steele were members of the club. 

Kit-Kat, or 'Kit-cat,' Pictures. 
Oil paintings of the members of the Kit- 
Kat Club, by Godfrey Kneller. They 
were the natural size, but only down to 
the knees. These and all similar ' three- 
quarter likenesses ' are called Kit-Kat 
pictures. 

Klephtes (1 syl.). Brigands of 
Thessaly, for a long time opposed to the 
Armatoles (3 syl.), but in the insur- 
rection of 1821 they united against the 
Turks for the independence of Greece. 

Knaerod {Treaty of). A treaty of 
peace, after the war of Calmar, signed in 
1613 at Knterod by Christian IV. king of 
Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus king of 
Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus consented 
to ransom the provinces which the Danes 
had taken, and to abandon his claim to 
the island of Oesel, and to the coasts of 
the Arctic Ocean as far as the Bay of 
Waranger. 

Knife for the Academic Knots 

{The). Chrysippos the Stoic (b.c. 280- 
297). He was the keenest disputant of 
his age. It was said of him, ' If the gods 
make use of dialectics, it must be the 
logic of Chrysippos.' 

Knight Bachelor {A). The lowest 
grade of knighthood ; conferred on civilians 
as well as on military and naval officers. 
The recipient kneels before the sove- 
reign, who says to him ' Sois chevalier 
au nom de dieu,^ and then adds, ' Rise, 
Sir ' (naming the Christian name). 

Knight Baronet. An English 
order instituted 22 May, 1611, by James 
I. Instituted in Ireland 30 Sept., 1619; 
and in Scotland by Charles I. in 1625. 



KNIGHT-EEKANTRY 



KNIGHTS 



495 



Knight-errantry. The practice 
of knights wandering from place to i:>lace 
to redress wrongs, and especially to re- 
lease young women taken captive by the 
unruly barons of England, Spain, France, 
and Germany. 

They engaged themselves to redress those 
\\Tongs which laws were too feeble to remedy, 
and for redressing which honour, plunder, or rich 
donations became usually their compensation. — 
TUENEK, History of Eiujland during the Muiille Afjes, 
chap. xiii. 

Probably there is a basis of truth in this state- 
ment ; but, without doubt, the rules of knight 
errantry are gross exaggerations. 

Knight Service, or ' Knights' Ser- 
vice.' Serving the king on horseback in 
his military expeditions. This service 
was paid in consideration of lands held 
under the crown, and was at one time 
considered the most honourable of all 
tenures. 

Knight of Liddesdale {The 
famous). William Douglas {* — 1353). 

Knights. Anglo-Saxon oiiht, a 
military attendant who paid service to 
some chieftain as a rent for land. Called 
in French ChevaHers, and in Gei'man 
Bitters, because they served on horse- 
back. It was common to create knights 
before and after a battle. Thus 500 
French knights were created befoi-e the 
battle of Agincourt ; similar honours were 
conferred on great festivals, such as a coro- 
nation or royal marriage. The appi'entice 
of a knight was called a squire, which 
means a shield-bearer (French ecuyer). 
Not onlj^ kings could create knights, but 
knights themselves could dub others. 
The chief ceremony was for the knight 
to touch with his sword the neck of the 
person as he knelt before him, saying 
these words : ' Arise, Sir Knight.' 

Alfred gave Athelstan a belt and robe, and 
girded him with a sword, A.D. 900. 

The women who distinguished themselves by 
preserving Tortosa from the Moors in 1149 were 
knigiited. 

Knights Baronets of J^^'ova 
Scotia, 1621. A title conferred by 
James I. on a number of Scotch ad- 
venturers whose object was to colonise 
North America. 

Knight's Fee, or 'Feodum Mili- 
tare.' A portion of land held by a 
knight for military service. William the 
Conqueror had an army of 60,000 knights 
in virtue of such fees. 

Knights Hospitallers. 'Knights 
of St. John of Jerusalem,' or ' Knights of 



Malta,' 1048. Organised to guard and 
entertain pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre 
at Jerusalem, and hence called hospital- 
lers. Their monastery at Jerusalem was 
dedicated to St. John the Baptist, hence 
their second name. When expelled from 
Judaea they were allowed by Karl V. (1530) 
to settle in Malta, and hence their third 
title. Suppressed in England 1510, in 
France 1792, and dispersed by Napoleon 
in 1798. 

Knights Sword - bearers. 

Founded in 1201 by the bishop of 
Livonia for the defence of that see. 
They were originally called ' Knights 
of Livonia,' but received the name 
of sword-bearers from two cross-swords 
embroidered in red on the breast of 
their white mantles. These knights 
were masters of Livonia and Esthonia. 
Gothard Kettler, the 50th grand master, 
became a Lutheran, and in 1561 the 
sovereignty of the Knights Sword-bearers 
was split up into five parts : (1) One part 
went to Ivan Vassilievitch czar of 
Eussia; (2) Esthonia and Kevel swore 
fidelity to Eric XIV. king of Sweden ; 

(3) Livonia was attached to Sigismund 
II., called Sigismund Augustus of Poland ; 

(4) Arensberg and the isle of Oesel went 
to Magnus duke of Holstein ; and (5) 
Gothard Kettler kept for himself the 
provinces of Courland and Semigaglia 
[Se)nigalia], of which he was created duke 
by the king of Poland. 

Knights Templars (The), ills. 
A military order of monks organised to 
protect pilgrims on their road to the 
Holy Land. Subsequently their chief 
office was to protect the Holy Sej)ulchre 
at Jerusalem against the Saracens. They 
followed the Benedictine rule and took 
the vows of poverty, chastity, and obe- 
dience ; but they became immensely 
rich, worldly, and tyrannical. The order 
was suppressed in 1311-1314, and in 
England in 1322. 

Called Knights Templars or Knights of the 
Temple because Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem 
gave them a house built on the site of Solomon s 
Temple. Their costume was a long white robe 
decorated with a red cross. 

Knights of Grlyn and Kerry 

(Ireland). The heads of two ancient 
families named Fitzgerald. The titles 
still continue. 

Knights of Labour (The), 1834. 
United States. The trades, union 



496 



KNIGHTS 



KNOT 



committee which regulates the amount 
of wages to be demanded by workmen, 
the degree of skill to be exacted froni 
them, and the length of time they shall 
work for a master. It enjoins when a 
strike shall be made and when workmen 
of the union may resume labour. 

The Knights of Labour. — Philadelphia, 17 
Jan.— The 'Philadelphia Press' states that a 
gigantic scheme of general reorganisation, by 
which all coal miners and mine labourers in the 
United States will be placed under one banner, is 
being accomplished by the Knights of Labour, in 
order to secure concerted action in their intereste. 
— Renter, 

Knights of our Lady of Mount 
Sion [The). Aiiproved 1191 by Kaiser 
Heinrich VI. and Pope Celestine III. All 
of noble birth, bound to celibacy and to 
the defence of the Chvistian church. 
Their dress was a white mantle and 
black cross ; their rule that of St. Au- 
gustine. Their original number was 
24 lay members and 7 priests ; subse- 
quently increased to 40. Conrad regent 
of Poland gave them the territory of 
Culm and all the country between the 
Vistula and the Druentsa. 

Knights of Rhodes [The), 1314. 
Villaret, grand-master of the Knights 
Hospitallers, removed from Jerusalem to 
Rhodes. Andronlcus urged the Saracens 
to drive him out of the island, but Vil- 
laret, by a succession of conquests, made 
himself master of it, and then changed 
the name of his order into that of the 
' Knights of Rhodes,' a title which was 
retained till 1580. The order was called 
that of 

Knights Hospitallers 1048-1120. 

Knights of St. John of Jerusalem 
1120-1134 (driven, out). 

Knights of Rhodes 1814-1530 (driven 
out). 

Knights of Malta 1530-1798. The order 
still exists, and its flag still flies on some 
Mediterranean vessels (1890). 

Knights of St. George in Ire- 
land (1472-1494), or 'Brotherhood of 
St. George.' Thirteen gentlemen chosen 
from the four counties of the Pale (Kil- 
dare, Dublin, Meath, and Louth). They 
met annually to choose a captain, and 
maintained 120 mounted archers, 40 
horsemen, and 40 j)ages for the protec- 
tion of the English border (Walpole, 
'Kingdom of Irela-nd,' 1882). 

Knights of St. Margaret, 1786. 
The mayors knighted for congratulating 



George III. on his escape from assassina- 
tion when Margaret Nicholson, a mad 
woman, attacked him as he descended 
from his carriage in St. James's Park. 

Knights of the Dagger. See 

' Chevaliers du Poignard.' 

Knights of the Garter, 1346. 
An English military order founded by 
Edward III. It is under the patron 
saint of England, ' St. George,' an image 
of whoan is attached to a blue ribbon, 
and the ribbon is passed over the left 
shoulder. Round the left leg is a blue 
garter containing the motto ' Honi soit 
qui mal y j^ense.' See ' Blue Thonge.' 

Edward III. only ' perfyted substanegally what 
kynge Pacharde had bcgunnc at the sage of tha 
cyte of Acres, wher, in his great necessyte, there 
were but 26 knyghtes that firmly and surely 
abode with the king; when hs caused all them to 
wear thonges of blew leyther about the legges; 
and afterwarde they were called the knyghtes of 
the blew-thonge. — llASTEL, Chronicle. 

Knights of the Round Table. 

Asser in his ' Life of Alfred ' says these 
knights were created by Arthur a.d. 528. 
The order was revived in 1344 by Exiward 
III. at Windsor, on New Year's Day. 

Knights of the Shire were gentle- 
men chosen by the freeholders of each 
county to represent them in parliament, 
now called county members. They were 
paid according to the Act 12 Rich. II. c. 
12 (1888) ; but the payment of members 
has long been discontinued. By Act 9 
Anne c. 5 (1710) no member whose income 
was under 600Z. a year was eligible for 
election. This restriction was abolished 
in 1858 (21, 22 Vict. c. 26). 

Knights of the Virgin Mary 

{The), 1190. The original name of the 
' Teutonic Knights ' [q.v.). 

Knighten-gild {The). The chief 
of the London gilds, dating back to the 
reign of King Edgar. It stood at the 
head of all the gilds, and its alderman or 
master was the grand-master of all other 
gilds. It consisted of 19 knights, to whom 
the king gave a portion of void ground 
lying within the walls of the city, after- 
wards called Portsoken ward. 

A soke is a lordship enfranchised by the king, 
with liberty of holding a covert of the lord's soc- 
men or socagers (i.e. tenints). ' Knightengiid ' 
also written ' Cnihtena-gild.' 

Knot {The Cromwell), 1659. This 
term was given by the exiled Charles 
Stuart to a secret council of RoyalisLa 
who were working in his cause in Eng- 



KNOW-NOTHINGS 



KONEAD 



497 



land against the government of Crom- 
well. The head of the Knot was Sir 
Eichard Wallis, who was proved to be a 
traitor to both Charles and Cromwell. 

Kno-W-nothingS {The), or 'Na- 
tives,' 1853. A political society in the 
United States of America who declared 
that the right of citizenship should be 
restricted to 'natives,' or those born 
of American parents in America. They 
were opposed to Catholicism, as incon- 
sistent with the spirit of republicanism. 
When asked any question respecting 
their society, their only reply was ' I 
know nothing.' They split on the slave 
question and died out. 

Knox's Blast. 'The First Blast 
of the Trumpet against the monstrous 
Eegiment of Women ' is the title of a 
tract published by John Knox in 1558 
against Mary queen of England and 
Mary queen of Scots. The object was 
' against the political government of 
women.' 

The words ' Eegiment of Women ' we should 
now call the ' Kegimen or Rule of Women.' 

Knox's Liturgy, or ' The Book of 
Common Order,' 1562. In 1564 its use 
was enjoined on the Scotch Kirk by the 
General Assembly. It was based on the 
Genevan Formula {q.v.), but soon went 
out of use when the living influence of 
Knox declined. 

Knoxians and Coxians {The), 
1556. The followers of John Knox and 
Dr. Coxe dean of Christ Church, Oxford, 
who left England during the reign of 
Mary and retired to the Continent. 
Knox, backed by Calvin, objected to the 
English Liturgy, and insisted on the use 
of the Genevan service ; but Dr. Coxe 
insisted on the English Liturgy, and 
made a point of repeating the responses 
aloud. The altercation became so noisy 
that the magistrates had to interfere. 
Knox retired to Geneva, and Coxe settled 
in Strasburg. 

Kockbunds {The). The Thugs of 
Hyderabad. Also called 'Phanseegurs.' 

Koh-i-noor {The), i.e. ' Mountain 
of Light,' one of the largest diamonds in 
the world. Came into the possession of 
Ala-u-din soon after 1300. It fell to 
Baber in 1526, and subsequently to 
Mahommed Shah, great - grandson of 
Aurengzebe, who kept it hidden in his 



turban ; but when Nadir Shah took pos- 
session of Delhi, Mahommed had to give 
the diamond to the conqueror. It passed 
in succession to Shah Shuja, and when 
driven from Cabul he carried it to La- 
hore, when Eunjeet Sing got possession 
of it and had it set in a bracelet, 1813. 
After the annexation of the Punjaub by 
the English the crown jewels of Lahore 
were confiscated, and the Koh-i-noor was 
presented to Queen Victoria by the East 
India Company and delivered into her 
hands 3 June, 1850. In 1889, in a most 
insolent letter, Eunjeet Sing demanded 
its restitution. Its weight was 186^ 
carats. It was exhibited in the Great 
Exhibition of 1851, and valued at 140,000Z. 
By order of the Queen it was cut into a 
brilliant by Herr Voorsanger, whereby 
the weight was reduced to lOOy'^ carats. 
If this diamond is the ' Great Mogul ' its 
previous history will be found under that 
name. See ' Diamonds.' 

Konrad I. First king of Germany 
after the Karlovingian race. He was 
previously count of Franconia (911-918). 
Contemporary with our Edward the 
Elder. 

Konrad II., founder of the second 
line of kings in Germany, was duke of 
Franconia. Heinrich III., IV., V. fol- 
lowed in regular descent. Konrad II. 
was crowned king of Germany 1024, and 
kaiser of the Holy Eoman Emuii-e 1027 ; 
he died 1039, at the age of 53. He was 
a descendant of Konrad the Wise, son-in- 
law of Otto I. the Great. However, the 
kings of Germany were elected or chosen, 
originally by the great nobles, and subse- 
quently by a board called the ' Electors,' 
and were not kings by hereditary descent. 
Father, Heinrich duke of Franconia. Wife. 
Gisela. a widow. Contemporary with Canute and 
Harold Harefoot. 

Konrad III., founder of the House 
of Hohenstauflen, was grandson of Hein- 
rich IV. (of the previous dynasty called 
the ' house of Franconia'). He was king 
of Germany from 1138 to 1152, but never 
kaiser or emperor of the Holy Eoman 
Empire (1093, 1138-1152). 

Konrad in. was the first of the kings of Ger- 
many who was elected by seven princes. In 1350 
Karl IV. made seven the legal number of electors 
by what is called the 'Golden EuU.' In 1048 the 
number of electors was raised to eight ; in 1592 it 
WMs nine ; but in 1777 the number was again re- 
duced to eight. In 180G Napoleon swept away the 
whole system and introduced the law of inherit- 
ance. 

Father, Friedrich Hohenstauften nepliew o* 

K K 



498 



KONRAD 



KURUCZ-LABANCZ 



Kaiser Heinrich V. Mother, Agnes daughter 
of Kaiser Heinrich IV. Contemporary with 
Henry I. and Stephen. 

Konrad IV. Son of Friedrich II. 
and great-grandson of Barbarossa. He 
was king of Germany between 1250 and 
1254, but never kaiser. Konrad IV. was 
a roi faineant, and in him expired the 
royal house of Hohenstauffen. 

The next dynasty was the house of Giielf or 
D'Este, which gives only one king, Otto IV., who 
abdicated. 

Ko'raicllites (3 syl.). An Arabian 
tribe and the j)rincipal one of Mecca uj) 
to the time of Mohammed. This tribe 
in A.D. 460 acquired the custody of the 
Kaaba, or Temple at Mecca, and, of 
course, most violently opposed the pre- 
tensions of Mohammed (613-G22). In 
623 they were defeated by him at Bf dr 
and Ohud, and again in the ' Expedition 
of the Nations ' in 625. They then con- 
cluded a truce, and in 629 surrendered to 
him the holy city of Mecca. The Ko- 
raichites professed to be the issue of 
Ishmael. Mohammed and his first wife 
(Kadi jail) were Koraichites. 

Koran' (Al). The Mohammedan 
Scriptures. The scattered leaves of it 
were collected into a volume a.d. 634 by 
Abubekr ; it was revised and sanctioned 
by the calif Omar in 652; was first 
printed at Rome in 1530 ; and was burnt 
by order of Pope Clement VII. Sale's 
English translation with numerous notes 
was printed in 1734, and a French trans- 
lation was made in 1783 by Savary. 

The Koran is divided into 114 sections, and con- 
tains 3,000 paragraphs or verses. 

Koreish {The Tribe of). See 'Ko- 
raichites.' 

Korner of Italy (T7ie)— that is, 
the Tyrtseus or war-poet, Godfredo 
Mameli. His great song was composed 
in 1848, the refrain of which is — 

Together we stand, or together we fall ; 
We are ready for either at Italy's call ! 
The great war-song of Korner is ' The Sword 
Song ' (1791-1813J. 

Koscius'ko {Insurrection of), 1794. 
He was leader of the Poles in revolt 
against Russia, and won the battle of 
Wraclawlce, near Cracovia ; but (2 Oct.) 
four months later he was attacked at 
Maciejowice (about 50 miles from "War- 
saw) and Was taken prisoner, exclaiming, 
' Finis Poloniae.' He remained prisoner 
at St. Petersburg for two years, when he 



was liberated by the czar Paul I. and 
died in Switzerland in 1817. 

Kosciusko indignantly denied ever uttering the 
words popularly ascribed to him. 

Kremlin, i.e. citadel. The palace 
and citadel of Moscow, at one time the 
residence of the czars. It was originally 
constructed of wood, but was rebuilt of 
stone by Dmitri Donskoi'. In 1487 Pietro 
Antonio, an Italian, built the towers 
which flanked the enceinte. It was not 
set on fire by Rostopchin in 1812, and 
was occupied by the French. The Krem- 
lin also contains the palace of the arch- 
bishop, the Cathedral of the Assumption 
where the czars were crowned, the belfry 
of Ivan Veliki with 32 bells, one of which 
is the biggest in Europe. 

Kufic Coins. The earliest Moham- 
medan coins inscribed with Kufic (or 
ancient Arabic) characters. The first 
was struck a.d. 638 under Calif Omar. 

Kufa, in the pashalic of Bagdad, contained 
the most expert writers of the Koran', and hence 
the term ' Kufic writing,' to express ' old Arabic' 

Ku-Klux Klan {The), 1868-1871. 
A secret society of ex-Confederate sol- 
diers in North America. ' Ku-Klux ' is 
meant to represent the click in cocking 
a rifle. The ' Klan ' was an offset of the 
' Loyal League,' and its ostensible object 
was to ' repress crime and preserve law 
in the disturbed Southern States.' In 
1871 Congress, resolved to put down the 
association, suspended the Habeas 
Corpus Act (under what is generally 
called ' The Ku-Klux Law ') in nine 
counties of South Carolina. This law 
and the employment of the military 
brought the ' Klan ' to an end. 

Kuleev Dynasty {The). The 
third fabulous dynasty of Persia, the 
second being the Jy-anian and the fourth 
the Yassanian dynasty. The only three 
names of the third dynasty known are 
Shah Kuleev the founder, with Shah 
Aboul and Shah Mah-aboul, the last two 
of the line. 

Ku'risers. Irish refugees formed 
into two regiments, in the pay of the 
Duke of Savoy, to put down the Vaudois 
in Piedmont. The word is a corruption 
of cuirassiers (1655). 

Kuruez-Tjabancz Era {The), 
1672-1C81. The period in Hungarian 
history of the contest between the 
Kuruczes {i.e. the insurgents) and the 
Labanczes or Austrians. This was in a 



KUTHANS 



LADDEE 



499 



measure a * religious war,' the insurgents 
being the Protestant party and the Aus- 
trians the CathoHc faction. 

To cut tobacco on the bare back of the opposite 
faction, or to cut strips from his quivering skin, 
to drive iron spikes under the finger nails, and to 
bury an adversary in the ground up to the head 
and then fire at him, were everyday courtesies 
exchanged between these two belligerents. — 
VAMBfiRY, Hungary, ch. xiii. 

Kuthans, or * Kuthe'ans.' The 
Samaritans were so called by the Jews 
because they were carried captive by 
Salmanazar to Kutha, a town of Susiana, 
not far from Babylon. It is said that 
the inhabitants of Kutha went to Pales- 
tine and colonised Samaria. 

L. The three L's, Lords, Levites, 
Lawyers. Hugh Peters said, It will never 
be well with England till the three fifties 
are abolished. L — 50. 

Labourers {The Statute of). I. 
In feudal times forbade a husbandman, 
whose land had been bought by another, 
leaving the estate. He was obliged to 
remain with his family as a villein 
regardant {q.v.) to cultivate the land. 

II. 23 Edw. III. c. 1, A.D. 1319, for the 
regulation of wages, consequent upon the 
strife between labour and caijital which 
resulted from the Black Death {q.v.). 
The act ordained that the wages of 
labourers shall be the same as they were 
' two years before the plague began ' ; 
but, as the price of food had risen enor- 
mously, this law was a gross injustice, 
and led naturally to the ' Peasant Revolt ' 
(q.v.). Repealed 1826. 

III. Numerous acts of parliament 
from the reign of Edward IV. have been 
made to comjjel persons having no visible 
means of livelihood to go out to service 
either in husbandry or trade to gain an 
honest living. 

Labyrinth of Egypt(T7ie). This 
most magnificent edifice liad 3,000 cham- 
bers ; and the gallery containing the 
statues of the gods was entered by a 
flight of ninety marble steps. The porch 
was of Parian marble. It was destroyed 
by the people of Heracleopolis, who wor- 
shipped the ichneumon or water-rat, the 
natural enemy of the crocodile, the great 
god of the Labyrinth. It was a theolo- 
gical war — the god water-rat against the 
god crocodile. The former prevailed, 
and the beautiful Labyrinth was levelled 
to the ground. It seems like a satire on 
other religious wars. 



The Cretan and Samian labyrinths are also 
celebrated. 

Laced Shoe (T/ie), 1502. In German 
'Bundschuh,' the peasants' rebellion in 
the Rhine countries. So called from its 
cognizance. 

Lacedasmonian League (T/ze), 

B.C. 431. The Lacedaemonian league, at 
the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, 
comprised all the states of the peninsula 
except Argos and Achaia (which were 
neutral), and all northern Greece except 
Thessaly and Acarnania (which sided 
with Athens). See 'Athenian Confede- 
racy.' 

Lack-learning Parliament 

{The), 1-404, from which all lawyers were 
excluded. See ' Parliament.' 

The Unready Parliament would be a better 
phrase ; that is', the parliament lacking counsel or 
advice (A.-S. ricd, counsel, advice, as in ' Etheh-ed 
the Unready'). 

Laco'nia, the country of the Lace- 
dasmonians. The ancient inhabitants 
were the Cynurians and Seleges, who 
were expelled by the Achceaus. The 
Dorians subsequently invaded Pelopon- 
nesos, and became the ruling race. 

Laeonisers, b.c. 458, &c. Those 
Athenians who supported the power of 
Sparta, after Athens by the confederacy 
of Delos was declared the head of Greece. 

Laconisms. When Philip of Mace- 
don wrote to the Spartan magistrates, 
' If I enter Laco'nia I will level Lacedse- 
mon to the ground,' the ephors wrote 
back the single word ' If.' 

In 1490 O'Neill wrote to O'Donnel, 
' Send me the tribute, or else — ; ' to 
which O'Donnel returned answer, ' I owe 
none, and if — .' 

Lacustrian Period {The). An 
extremely remote period when human 
habitations, for the sake of security, were 
built in the midst of lakes. Remains of 
such habitations exist in certain lakes of 
Switzerland, Scotland, Ireland, &c. 

Ladan-Thora and Ladan Bareseid. 
The two readers of the Pentateuch on 
the eighth and last day of the Feast of 
Tabernacles. One reads the first half 
and the other the latter half. 

Ladder of Acesius {The). Sec- 
tarian exclusiveness. Acesius was bishop 
of Constantinople and a Novatian. Con- 
stantine the Great excepted him from the 
UK 'A 



500 



LADDER 



LADT 



tribe of 'heretics,' and invited him to 
attend the Council of Nice. Novatian 
taught that the lapsed {i.e. those who 
denied the faith through fear of persecu- 
tion) can never be received again into the 
communion of the faithful. This exclu- 
sion he afterwards extended to all guilty 
of ' mortal sins.' Constantine said jo- 
cosely to Acesius, ' Take a ladder, Acesius, 
and climb to heaven by yourself.' 

Ladder of St. John. Surnamed 
Cllmacus, or rather Kllmakos, 526. 



H 



Paradise. 

Faith, Hope, Charity. 

Peace of God. 

Prayer without ceasing. 

Solitude. 

Inner Light. 

Death of the Natural Man. 
f Single-mindedness, or only one 
1 alfection, and that for God. 
(■Abandonment of false humility 
( and doubt. 

Pride utterly crushed out. 

Self-glorification cast out. 
Conquest of fear. 

/Watchfulness; the lamp al- 
\ ways burning. 

Psalmody. 

Death of the Carnal Mind. 
/Poverty, or loss of the love of 
\ accumulating. 

Chastity. 

Temperance. 

(Conquest of indolence of mind 
\ and body. 

fEestraint of exaggeration and 
\ false representation. 
Silence. 

Shunning slander and idle talk. 

Forgiveness of injuries. 

Equanimity. 

Sorrow the seed of joy. 

Constant thought of death. 

Penitence. 

Obedience. 

Giving up father and mother. 

(Giving up all earthly goods 
I and hopes. 

Renouncement of th vvotl 



The World. 



Ladislaus' Wagon {St). A two- 
wheeled cart drawn by men. In the reign 
of Ladislaus IV. of Hungary (1272-1290) 
the country was so impoverished by do- 
mestic wars 'that the two- wheeled cart 
got the name of St. Ladislaus' wagon; 
for, owing to the universal plundering of 
draught-cattle, the people themselves 
were compelled to draw the carts.' — 
Vambeky, ' Hungary,' chap. vii. 

Lady {The). Castlemaine nee Barbara 
Villiers, wife of Mr. Pahner, and mistress 
of Charles II., who created her duchess 
of Cleveland. 

The Duke of Buckingham had a quarrel with 
'the Lady,' and the Lady prejudiced the king 
against him ; and the duke was determined to have 
his revenge by exposing 'the Lady.' — Howitt, iii«<. 
of Engl., Charles XL, ch. xi. p. 442. 

Lady Bountiful. So Joanna 
Baillie the poetess was called (1702- 
1851). 

Lady Clares {The). An Irish asso- 
ciation so called from the county of 
Clare, the nucleus being formed of 
Claresmen. They rose about the same 
time as the Terryalts {q.v.), and were 
especially conspicuous in the sanguinary 
tithe war (1830-1832). See ' Irish Asso- 
ciations.' 

Lady Day. 25 March, the day of 
the Amiunciation. 

Lady Huntingdon's Con- 
nexion, 1770. A split from the Cal- 
vinistic Methodists, after the death of 
George Whitefield. It preserved sub- 
stantially the liturgy of the Church of 
England. Half Presbyterian and half 
Independent. 
Lady Selina countess of Huntingdon (1707-1791). 

Lady Jane Grey. Grand-daughter 
of Mary youngest daughter of Henry VII. 
The Princess Mary and the Princess 
Elizabeth (though both illegitunated by 
their father Henry VIII.) were by his last 
will acknowledged, and would naturally 
succeed in turn their brother Edward 
VI., provided there was no issue to pre- 
vent it. 

Henry VII.— His son Henry VIII. succeeded 
him. The youngest daughter was Mary. 

Henry VIII.— Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- 
beth (all children of Henry VIII.). 

Mary, daughter of Henry VII.) had a daughter 
named Frances, who married Henry Grey 
marquis of Dorset and duke of Suffolk. 

Lady Jane Grey was the daughter of Francos 
and her husband Henry Grey. 



LADY 



LAHORE 



501 



T?ie pedigree runs thus ;— 
Henry VII. 
I 
Mary 

Frances, -wife of Henry Grey 

Lady Jane Grey 

Lady Margaret Preacher {The) 
in the University of Cambridge, 1504. 
Founded by Lady Margaret, mother of 
Henry VII., with a stipend of 8l. He 
has to preach one sermon on the first 
Sunday in Nov. in Great St. Mary's 
Church. 

Lady Margaret Professorship 
of Divinity (The) in the University of 
Cambridge, 1502. Founded by Lady 
Margaret mother of Henry VII.. Original 
stipend 20 marks a year. See ' Regius 
Professorsliip of Divinity.' 

Lady of Christ College (The). 

John Milton, so called because he was 
fair and his features effeminate ; his hair 
was fine, light browai, and flowing, his 
constitution delicate, and his health any- 
thing but robust. (1608-1674.) 

Lady of England. Matilda or 
Maud, daughter of Henry I. cf England. 
She married the kaiser-king Heinrich V. 
of Germany in 1114, but was left a widow 
1125 (aged 2o). She then married 
Geoffrey of Anjou in 1127, but was 
driven from Anjou by her husband in 
1129. Her son Henry [II. of England] 
was born in 1133. After the death of 
her father, Matilda made war on Stephen 
the usurper, and having obtained some 
advantages was recognised as ' Lady of 
England ' in 1141 ; but her imperious 
arrogance so disgusted the English that 
they drove her from London in five 
months, and her adherents were ex- 
communicated. She died at Rouen in 
1165, aged 63. 

Lady of Mercia [The). Ethel- 
flaeda daughter of King Alfred. She 
married Ethelred, and after his death 
continued to reign (913-918). She con- 
quered the ' Five Boroughs ' (q-v.). 

Ladies' Irish Land League, 

Ladies' Labour and Industrial Union (be- 
tween 1879 and 1888), formed in affiliation 
with the Irish Land League, the Land 
League, and the Labour and Industrial 
Union (q.v.). Its nominal object was ' the 
relief and sustentation of Land League 
prisoners.' See ' Irish Associations.' 



Ladies of the Queen's House- 
hold {The). They consist of the 
Mistress of the Robes, the Ladies of the 
Bedchamber, the Bedchamber Women, 
and the Maids of Honour. The Mistress 
of the Robes has the superintendence of 
the personal attendants on the queen. 

Lady's G-OWn [Scotland]. A present 
made by the purchaser to the wife of 
the man who has sold to him his estate. 

L^tare Sunday. The fourth Sun- 
day in Lent. So called from the first 
\yord of the introi't of the Mass (Isa. Ixvi. 
10), ' Rejoice ye with Jerusalem, and be 
glad with her, all ye that love her ' 
[Laetare Hierusalem . . .]. As on this 
day the Pope blesses the golden rose, it 
is also called ' Dominica de Rosa.' It is 
a day of rejoicing in the middle of 
mournful Lent. See ' Sundays.' 

The intrnit [introitus] is the passage of Scripture 
chanted while the priest is entering the chancel 
to celebrate mass. 

Lagenians. The people of Leinster 
in Ireland. 

Lagides (3 syl.). The Ptolemys of 
Egypt. See ' Lagos.' 

Lagoon {The), Venice, or rather the 
marsh round the city. Strictly speaking, 
the Gulf between the Piave and the 
Adige. The lagunas are the canals, too 
deep for cavalry and too shallow for 
vessels. 

In no place did the Inquisition obtain so little 
footing as in the Lagune. 

The Lagune, which cannot justly be considered 
either sea or land, is navigable only by ssiifs 
drawing a few inches of water. 

The llialto is the very centre of the Lagune. 

After the capture of 100 ships he returned to the 
Lagune with his booty. 

Petrarch had occasionally visited the Lagune, 
and was profoundly impressed with the singu- 
larity and beauty of Venice.— i/istori/ of Venice 
(Murray, 1831). 

Lagos. Ptolemy I. king of Egypt, 
the adopted son of Lagos the Mace- 
donian. All his descendants on the 
Egyptian throne were called Lagides. 

La Hire, i.e. the growler. So 
Etienne Vignoles [Vin-yole] was called 
on account of his deej) baying \oice 
[1387-1442]. One of the knaves on a 
pack of French cards is meant for La 
Hire [Here]. 

Lahore {Treaty of). (1) 26 June, 1838, 
between Great Britain, Runjeet Singh, 
and Shah Shuja. 



302 



LAIRD 



LAMMAS-DAY 



(2) March 8, 1846, between Great 
Britain and Dhuleep Singh. 

Laird of Cockpen {The). The 
Duke of Buccleuch. 

Laish. While Othniel was judge (b.c. 
1394-1354) the tribe of Dan, finding 
their mountain territory too small, made 
an incursion into the ijlain beyond Mount 
Ephraim, and seized the city of Laish. 
Here they established a priesthood of 
their own, because Shiloh was so far 
distant. This worship continued for 
nearly 300 years, i.e. till the capture of 
the ark by the Philistines in Samuel's 
time. 

Lake Dwellings. Human habita- 
tions in the midst of lakes. Those in 
Switzerland were discovered in 1854. See 
' Lacustrian Period.' 

Lake Poets [The). Wordsworth, 
Coleridge, and Southey, who resided in 
the lake district of Cumberland and 
Westmoreland. They were so named by 
the ' Edinburgh Review.' 

Lali'ta Vistara. One of the nine 
chief works of the Buddhists. It contains 
the life and doctrines of Sakyamuni {i.e. 
St. Sak'ya). 

Lamaism. Buddhism corrupted by 
Sivanism {q.v.) or Shamaism or spirit 
worship. It prevails in Thibet and 
Mongolia. The essence of it is contained 
in three jewels, called ' the Buddha 
jewel,' 'the Doctrine jewel,' and the 
' Priesthood jewel.' The first person of 
the triad is Buddha, the second is the 
incarnation of Buddha, and the third is 
the church. 

Lambeth {Treaty of), 1217. By 
which Louis the dauphin consented to 
withdraw from England on payment of 
a sum of money which he claimed for ex- 
penses. He had been invited over by the 
English barons to assist them in resisting 
John ; but as John was just dead, the 
services of Louis were no longer needed, 
and the barons had no intention of 
placing a Frenchman on the throne. 

Lambeth Articles {The), 1594. 
Proposed by Archbishop Whitgift ; sup- 
pressed by Queen Elizabeth in 1595 ; 
rejected in 1604 at the Hampton Court 
Conferences; adopted by the Irish 
Church in 1615. These articles were 



nine in number, and were designed to be 
added to the 39 Articles. 

1. God hath from all eternity pre- 
destined some to life and reprobated 
others to damnation. 

2. This election does not proceed from 
God's foreknowledge of the faith and 
good works of his elect, but solely from 
his own good will. 

3. The number of the elect is fixed, 
and can be neither increased nor dimi- 
nished. 

4. Those notpredestined to everlasting 
life will of necessity be damned. 

5. True faith and holiness in the elect 
will never fail. 

6. Justifying faith is certain of remis- 
sion of sms and eternal salvation through 
Christ. 

7. Saving grace is not conferred on all. 

8. No man can come unto Christ ex- 
cept God the Father draws him. 

9. It is not in the will or power of every 
man to be saved. See ' Nine Articles.' 

Lambmas Brother and Sister 
{A). A lad and his lass at St. Olla's Fair 
at Kirkwall, associated together as long 
as the fair lasted. 

Ye gallaiity Lambmas lads appear, 
And bring your Lambmas sisters here. 
Sir Walter Scott, The Pirate, ch. xxxii. 

Lame Peace {The), 20 March, 15G8. 
The peace of Longjumeau between the 
Huguenots and French Catholics. It 
was called ' the lame and badly- seated 
peace,' because one of the queen's nego- 
tiators was lame, and the other was the 
lord of Malassise. But it was otherwise 
lame and badly seated, inasmuch as it 
left the Huguenots at the mercy of their 
enemies, with no surety except the word 
of an unprincipled Italian woman. It 
lasted only six months, and never existed 
except on paper. See ' Paix Boiteux.' 

Lamian ^War {The), b.c. 323-322. 
The war between Antipater and the 
allied Greeks after the death of Alex- 
ander the Grea;t. So called because 
Antipater threw himself into Lamia, a 
strong fortress on the Malian Gulf, which 
was besieged by the allies. Antipater 
succeeded in breaking up the alliance, and 
Athens was left completely at his mercy. 

Lammas-day, 1. Aug. The feast 
of St. Peter ad Vincula. The word is a 
corruption of loaf-mass, referring to the 
firstfruits of harvest offered on that day. 
(Ang.-Sax. hlafmcesse). 



LAMOURETTE'S 



LAND 



503 



Lamourette's Kiss, 1792. A mo- 
mentary reconcilement followed by- 
greater hostility than ever, in the French 
revolution. When the Prussian army was 
on the move towards Paris Condorcet 
proposed to the Assembly a reconcilement 
of the Jacobins and Girondists. Laniou- 
rette (bishop of Lyons) seized on the idea 
and exclaimed : ' He who succeeds in 
reconciling you will be the real con- 
queror of Austria and Coblentz ! ' His 
words had a magic effect; the most 
hostile members threw themselves into 
each other's ai'ms and kissed each other 
frantically ; but ere sunset the emotion 
had effervesced, and Jacobins and Gi- 
rondists were more bitter than ever 
against each other. 

This is sometimes called the Judas Kiss, but 
most improperly so, as no betrayal was e»en 
dreamt of by the excitable Frenchmen. 

Lamp of Lothian {The). The 
abbey church of Haddington was so 
called from the extreme beauty of its 
architectui^e. It was burnt down in 1356 
on 'Burnt Candlemas' (q.v.). 

Lamp of Wisdom (The). Aben 
Ezra, called by the Jews ' Hechachan.' 
They used to say, if knowledge had put 
out her candle it might be lighted again 
at the brain of Aben Ezra. 

Lampeter {College of), 1S22. 
Founded by Thomas Burgess bishop of 
St. Dcivid's, for the better and inexpensive 
education of Welsh candidates for ordi- 
nation. 

Lampeter Brethren {The), 1832. 
A society of young men, members of St. 
David's College, Lampeter, who met 
together as a praying and revival order. 
Henry James Prince was the most promi- 
nent of them, and he afterwards founded 
the Abode of Love, called Agapemone 
{q.v.). 

Lancaster {The Line of). Part of 
the Plantagenet dynasty of England, con- 
sisting of Henry fV., V., and VI. Henry 
IV. dethroned Richard II., but was a 
usurper, for (on the deposition of Richard) 
the rightful heir was Edmund Mortimer. 
See ' York.' 

Edward III. His sons were (1) Edward the 
Black Prince, (2) William, (.S) Lionel, (4) John ol 
Gaunt. (5) Edmund Langley duke of York. 

Son of Edward the Black Prince was Richard 
II. (no issue, and deposed). 

Next comes Lionel (the third son), whose 
daughter Philippa married Edward Mortimer. 
Their son was Roger Mortimer, and the children 
of Roger were Edmund and Ann. Edmund was 
heir on the death of Richard U. 



From Ann Mortimer proceeds the House of York. 
Her son Richard duke of York was the White Rose. 
He had two sons, both of whom reigned, viz. 
Edward IV. and Richard III. 

The fourth son of EDWARD III. was John of 
Gaunt duke of Lancaster, whose son was HENRY 
IV., grandson Henry V., and great-grandson 
Henry VI., the Red Rose. 

Lancaster Gun The). A species of 
rifled cannon invented by Mr. Lancaster, 
who dispensed with grooves, and instead 
of a strictly circular bore adopted an 
elliptical one. 

Lancaster Herald {The). One of 
the six heralds of England, and the second 
in point of seniority. See ' Heralds,' &c. 

Lancasterian Schools, 1798. So 

called from Joseph Lancaster. Not much 
known in our islands till 1808, but in 1818 
they became very numerous. The idea 
was to save expense by means of mutual 
instruction. Joseph Lancaster was in- 
debted to Dr. Bell of Madras for the idea, 
and for a time Bell and Lancaster were 
rivals, the former being supported by 
churchmen and the latter by dissenters. 
Dr. Bell called his system ' Mutual In- 
struction,' Lancaster called his the 
' Monitorial System.' See ' Mutual In- 
struction.' 

Lancasterism, 1844. Destroying 
wheat-stacks in order to raise the price of 
wages. So called from Joseph Lancaster, 
who was arrested for firing corn-stacks, 
and pleaded in excuse that his object was 
to improve the rate of wages. 

Land. 

William the Conqueror nationalised 
the land, himself being the sole owner. 



TENANTS IN CHIEF; (oF THE CROWN) 

i I i 1 

MESNE TENAMTS 



m 



COM- 'jANOR] 
MON (T?^1 
AND [mouse I 
WASTE LAND 



MANOR AND 
SUBTENANTS 



He let it out to king's or chief tenants, 
on certain conditions, and looked to these 
tenants only for the fulfilment thereof. 



504 



LAND 



LANDWEHR 



The cliief tenants subdivided their 
holdings among mesne tenants on simi- 
lar conditions. 

The mesne tenants subdivided their 
holdings into manors, and the manors 
were parcelled into farms, with a certain 
portion called common. 

Land Bank {The), 27 April, 1696. A 
bank of England chartered by Wil- 
liam III. for the benefit of the landed 
gentry, according to a scheme projected 
by Hugh Chamberlayne. The Tonnage 
Bank {q.v.) lent William only a million, 
and that at 8 per cent. This new bank 
lent him double the sum at 7 per cent., 
but it proved to be a mere bubble. 

Land -Grabber (A), between 1879 
and 1890. In Irish history it means one 
who takes a plot of land from which a 
tenant has been evicted. See. ' Irish As- 
sociations.' 

Prior to the establishment of the Land League, 
' land-grabbing ' in Ireland was called ' Salntough ' 
(covetousness). ' one of the seven deadly sins. — 
Parnell Covimission (Father Hewson, 27 June, 1«89). 

Land League {The), 1879-1881, Ire- 
land. Michael Davitt's development of 
Mr. Butt's Home Rule policy, after the 
death of Mr. Butt, in May 1879. Osten- 
sibly it aimed at 'the abolition of the 
monopoly of land,' by giving to tenants as 
a free gift part of the land belonging to 
the Irish landlords. It tried to carry out 
its object by defiance of the law and re- 
sistance to its execution. Suppressed in 
1881, when the National League was 
established in its place. 

The North American Land League 
(Ireland) was organised 11 March, 1880. 
The first meeting of the League was held 
in Philadelphia 25 April, 1883. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

In August 1879 Michael Da vitt negotiated a small 
loan from the Fenian war-chest to start the con- 
stitutional movement. Patrick Ford was ' the 
honest broker ' bet ween the Fenian trustee and the 
Land League financier. That body held its first 
meeting 31 Oct., 1879, and Mr. Parnell was ap- 
pointed president. — Cashman's Life, pp. 218, 219 ; 
ParnMismavd Crime, p. 8. 

' The objects of the Land League were to bring 
about a reduction of rack-rents ; and to facilitate 
the ownership of the soil by the occupiers of the 
soil. — Alfred Henry Ruegg, counsel for O Don- 
nell, in the ' Parnellism and Crime ' libel case, 2 
July, 1888. 

Land Purchase Bill {The), 1890. 
A bill projected by Mr. Balfour, chief 
secretary for Ireland, to enable Irish 
tenants to purchase their farms at the 
value of twenty years' rent, if they chose 
so to do. To enable them to make the 



purchase, thirty millions sterling was 
lent by Government at 2h per cent, plus 
a fiftieth part of the principle, so that the 
purchase money and interest would all be 
paid off in fifty years. As ten millions 
had been hitherto advanced for the same 
purpose, the whole loan amounted to forty 
millions ; and, as the money paid by 
tenants to the New Land Department was 
made eligible for the same purpose, the 
loan was virtually an 'endless band' 
available till every farmer in all Ireland 
had become his own landlord. 

Land of Ireland {The). From 
1280, for several centuries after, the dis- 
trict occupied by the English, and known 
at a later period as the Pale. 

Edward I. in 1280 called upon the lords spiritual 
and temporal ... in the ' Land of Ireland ' to 
assemble and deliberate upon the prayer of the 
natives praying to be admitted to the privileges of 
English law.— Moore, Hist, of Ireland, chap. xxxv. 

Land of Storms {The). Tierra del 
Fuego, an island-group at the southern 
point of South America. It is separated 
by the Straits of Magellan. Few ships 
have ever passed it without observing the 
forked lightning playing on its cliffs, and 
hearing the most terrific thunders roll. 

Land o' the G-reen. Ireland, also 
called the Emerald Isle, from the exqui- 
site green colour of its meadows, &c. 

Lands of the Sacred Cro^wn 

{The). Hungary. Each of its nobles was 
' Membrum Sacrse Coronas.' The sacred 
crown was the crown given by the Pope 
to St. Stephen king of Hungary (979, 
997-1038). 

Landlord's Hypothec {The). In 
Scotch law. A lien on the tenant's goods 
as a security for his rent. 

Landscape Gardening {Father 
of). Lenotre (1613-1700). He laid out 
the gardens of Versailles, the Tuileries, 
St. Cloud, St. Germain, Fontainebleau, 
Clagny, Chantilly, Meudon, and Sceaux. 

Landseer {The Liverpool). William 
Huggins, animal painter (1821-1844). 

Landseer of Sculpture {The). 
Alfred Gatley (1816-1863). 

Landwehr and Landsturm, 
1805. Land defence and land assault 
levies. German militia, called into ser- 
vice in times of war. The most com- 
plete organisation was that of Prussia in 



LANE 



LARS 



605 



1813. The landwehr consists of men 
from 26 to 40 ; the landsturm of men from 
40 to 60. The former is part of the regular 
army, the latter is enrolled for home work. 

Napoleon restricted the Prussian army to 42,000 
men ; so as soon as 42,000 men were well disciplined 
a new batch was brought to drill, and in this way 
all the people were trained for war, and the re- 
etriction was evaded. 

Xiane {The). Drury Lane Theatre. 

Whenever the Lane tried Shakespeare, 
I was one of the leading men. 
Sims, Ballads oJ Babylon (' Forgotten ' &o.). 

L'ang, or Le-ang' Dynasty 

{The). The tenth Imperial dynasty of 
China. Like the eighth, ninth, and 
eleventh dynasties, it had dominion only 
over the south of China, the court being 
at Nanking. It gave four kings, and lasted 
65 years (502-557). 

Language of Canaan {The). 
Bible phrases learnt by rote by the gay 
ladies in the suite of Catharine de 
Medicis, to be used in talking with con- 
sistorials, or Catholic malcontents who 
had joined the Huguenots. See ' Consis- 
torial Phrases.' 

Languages, a.d. 1890. It is esti- 
mated that there are 3,064 languages in 
the world ; and above 1,000 different re- 
ligions, including what are called ' sects.' 
English is spoken by above 130 millions 
of the human race ; German by 100 mil- 
lions ; Russian by 70 millions ; French 
by 45 millions ; Spanish by 40 millions ; 
Italian by 30 miUions ; and Portuguese 
by 13 millions. 

Etiijlish is spoken by 4 million Canadians ; 3,700,000 
West Indians; 3 million Australians; 1 million 
East Indians ; £S millions in the Eritish Isles, and 
67 millions in America : besides Africa, Jamaica, 
&c. 

German is spoken by 2 millions in the United 
States and Canada ; 2 millions in Switzerland ; 
40,000 Belgians ; 46 millions in the German empire, 
and 10 millions in the Austro-Hungarian empire. 

French is spoken by 2i million Belgians; 1 mil- 
lion in the United States and Canada ; 1 ■. million 
In Algiers, India, and Africa; 600,000 Swiss ; 600,000 
in Hayti ; 200,000 in Alsace-Lorraine ; and 38 mil- 
lions in France. 

Langue d'oc and Langue d'oil. 
When the Romans reduced Gaul to a pro- 
vince, the native language became imbued 
with Latin, and this mixed language was 
called ' Romance.' When the Franks and 
Germans poured into Gaul they also 
corrupted the language, and this mixed 
language was called ' Germanised Ro- 
mance ' or ' Walloon.' As far the larger 
number of Franks and other Germans 
settled north of the Loire, Walloon pre- 
22 



vailed in the north, and was hardly known 
in the south of France, where Romance 
continued to prevail. Now the Romance 
or southern word for yes is ' oc,' but the 
Walloon or northern word was ' oil '-^ 
{i.e. ' o-e ' now oui (pronounce we) ; 
hence the Langue d'oc means that south 
of the Loire, and the Langue d'oil that 
used the the river. The Troubadours 
north of Langue d'oc, and the Trouveres 
the Langue d'oil. 

Lansdowne Collection of 
MSS. {The), 1807. Purchased by govern- 
ment, and added to the library of the 
British Museum. It is divided into two 
parts : {a) 121 volumes of state papers 
and correspondence of William lord 
Burghley, during the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth ; {b) 50 volumes of the papers 
and letters of Sir Julius Ceesar, judge of 
the admiralty and master of the rolls ; 
the correspondence of Henry Cromwell, as 
chief governor of Ireland ; and numerous 
other historical, genealogical, and topo- 
graphical MSS. of great importance. 
Collected by the first marquis of Lans- 
downe. 

Lantern of Demosthenes (4 

syl.). A shrine built by Lysicrates, the 
chorilgos, over the tripod which he re- 
ceived as a musical prize. It stood in 
the ' Street of Tripods ' {q.v,), in Athens. 

Laodiceans {The). Those of no 
party ; ' neither hot nor cold ' in religious 
matters; the laisser-aller or indifferent 
(Rev. iii. 16). 

The rest were housed by Mr. Nesbitt and the 
local Laodiceans.— E. LYNN Linton, Under Which 
Lord, ch. xxi. 

Lapsed {The). Those Chi-istians 
who, to avoid persecution, made a com- 
proneise with the heathen governors. 
They are divided into 3 classes : (1) The 
Sacrlficati, who sacrificed at heathen 
altars; (2) the Thurificati, who burnt 
incense to heathen gods ; and (3) the 
LiBELLATici, who produced a libellus or 
certificate from a heathen magistrate of 
having abjured the Christian faith. 

The number of the lapsed was immense, especi- 
ally in Alexandria. 

Larder Silver. A payment of 
money in lieu of provisions by the tenant 
farmer (14th cent.). 

Lars. The leader or over-king of 
the 12 confederate Etrurian states. The 



506 



LASCARS 



LATIN 



under-king was called liiciimo. Thus 
the sultan would be a Jars and the khe- 
dive a lucumo. Similarly, the German 
emperor is lars and the king of Bavaria 
a lucumo (q.v.). 

Lascars. Native East Indian and 
Chinese sailors employed in European 
ships. Also camp-followers. There are 
pun-lascars in the British service at 
Hong-Kong. 

Lass of Richmond Hill (The). 
Miss Jansen. The song is by Leonard 

M'Nally. 

Last of the Barons (The). Richard 
Neville earl of Warwick, called ' the 
kingmaker ' (1428-1471). 

Last of the Fathers (The). St. 
Bernard of Clairvaux in Champagne 
(1091-1153). He was the great promoter 
of the second crusade, as Peter the 
Hermit was of the first. 

Last of the Greeks (The). 
Philopoemen, so called by Plutarch (b.c. 
252-183). 

Last of the Romans (The). 
Caius Cassius. At the battle of Philippi, 
B.C. 42, Cassius was defeated by Antony, 
and was killed by his freedman Pindarus. 
When Brutus was told of the death of 
his friend, he exclaimed, ' There lies the 
last of the Romans.' 

This was preposterous praise. If Cassius was a 
type of the Roman character, then may we say 
with the Druid, in Cowper's ' Boadicea,' 

Rome shall perihh, write that wora 
In the blood that she hath spilt ; 
Perish, hateful, and abhorred, 
Deep in ruin as in guilt. 

Last of the Romans (The). 

Boethius (470-524). 

Gibbon (ch. xxxix.) says, 'Boethius was the last 
of the Romans whom Cicero would have acknow- 
ledged as his countryman.' 

Last of the Tribunes (The). 

Cola di Rienzi (1313-1354). 
Lord Lytton wrote a novel, in 1835, so entitled. 

Last of the Troubadours (The). 

Jacques Jasmin of Gascony (1798-18G4). 

Last Poet of Rome (The). 

Juvenal, the satirist, died a.d. 128, aged 
80. 

His Tenth Satire Bishop Burnet calls ' a store- 
house of moral virtues.' 

Later Fathers {The Fifteen), 4th 
cent. See ' Greek Fathers,' and ' Latin 
Fathers.' 



Lateran {The). The palace of Plau- 
tius Lateranus confiscated by the Em- 
peror Constantine, and assigned for 
Christian uses. The church of St. John 
(Lateran) is styled ' the Mother and Head 
of all the churches in the city and the 
world ' ; and the first act of a new pope 
is to take possession thereof. From the 
portico, on certain days, the pope blesses 
the entire world. The Church has been 
the site of five general councils {see 
below), and till the popes returned from 
Avignon they resided m the Lateran 
palace ; but in 1378 the Vatican was made 
the pope's residence. In the piazza of 
St. John Lateran stands the Scala Santa, 
or staircase up which it is said that 
Jesus passed to Pilate's judgment hall. 

Lateran Councils {The). Five 
general councils have been held at the 
Lateran in Rome. 

I. In 1123. This was the first general 
council of the Western Church. Under 
Calixtus 11. 

II. In 1139. To restore the union of 
the Eastern and Western Churches. 
Under Innocent II. 

III. In 1179. To vest the election of 
popes in the cardinals. War against the 
Albigenses authorised. Under Nicholas 
III. 

IV. In 1215. To sanction confession. 
The Albigenses condemned. Under In- 
nocent III. 

V. In 1511-1517, convoked by Julius 
ll., and continued by Leo X. Acts of 
the Council of Pisa declared void. The 
concordat with France confirmed. Dan- 
gerous books forbidden. 

Lathy'ros. Ptolemy VIII. king of 
Egypt was so called from a wen on his 
nose (B.C. 80-36). 

It is said that the name of ' Cicero ' was given 
to an ancestor of the great orator for the same 
reason. 

Latielavian. A Roman senator, 
so called from the broad purple stripe 
{clavus latus) which every senator was 
permitted to wear on his toga. Eques- 
trian knights wore a band of two narrow 
stripes called clavus angitstus. 

TjSitiil {The Pronunciation of). See 
' Ramists.' 

Latin {Professorship of). In the 
University of Cambridge, 1809, founded 
by the pupils of Dr. Kennedy. It was 
intended to call it the Kennedy Profes- 



LATIN 



LAUGHING 



507 



sorship, but the doctor gave 500?. towards 
the fund, on the condition that his name 
was not attached to the foundation. 
Salary 300Z. a year. 

Latin Church (The). The 'West- 
ern Church,' after its separation fioni 
the Greek Church. 

Latin Cross [The). 'Crux immissa.' 
A cross with the lower limb considerably 
longer than the other three. See ' Cross.' 

Latin Empire {The). The name 
given to that portion of the Byzantine 
empire which, in 1204, was seized by the 
crusaders, who made Constantinople 
their capital. It was overthrown by the 
Greeks in 12G1. 

Latin Fathers {The Five). These 
with the ten ' Greek Fathers ' {q.v.) con- 
stitute the fifteen ' Later Fathers ' : viz. 
Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, 
and Augustine (ith. cent.). 

Latin Ulysses {The). Bohemond 
prince of Antioch, the crusader (died 
1111). 

The Latin Ulysses, the artful and ambitious 
Bohemond, employed the arms of cunning and 
deceit.— Gibbon, 58. 

Latin Union {The), 1873, consist- 
ing of France, Switzerland, Italy, Bel- 
gium, and Greece, compelled by law to 
coin, at a fixed legal weight and fineness, 
all gold and silver brought to them. 

Latin "War {The). The peasants' 
rebellion in Salzburg, in 1523 ; it was 
aimed against a very unpopular arch- 
bishop. 

Latin 'War {The Great), b.c. 340- 
338, betv/een the Romans and Latins. 
By this war all Latium was joined to 
Roman territory. 

Latitudinarians, lGGO-1670. Fol- 
lowers of Jeremy Taylor, who insisted 
that a good life was better than an ortho- 
dox faith, and that a broad-hearted tole- 
ration was the most likely means of pro- 
ducing Christian unity. Far from be- 
lieving that salvation was limited to the 
Church of England, they inclined to 
admit the equality of all professing Chris- 
tians, and that even the heathen might 
be saved. Hales, Chillingworth, Which- 
cote, Tillotson, and Burnet were Latitu- 
dinarians; so was Hoadly bishop of 
Bangor. 



Latrocinium. So the fourth coun- 
cil of Ephesus held a.d. 449 was called. 
It was packed by Eu'tyches the heresi- 
arcli, and condemned Theodoret, one of 
the Christian fathers, while it declared 
in favour of Eutyches, who maintained 
that the human nature of Christ was 
absorbed in his divine nature. 

Spelman calls the charta of Henry I. of England 
' Latrocinium ' U'l^'llndii). St. Dionysius calls the 
charter of Louis VII., in 1144, ' Latronis Redditio.' 

Latter-day Saints (T/^e), or ' Mor- 
mons.' They have apostles, prophets, 
pastors, teachers, and evangelists ; they 
believe in the gilt of tongues, prophecy, 
revelation, and visions, in healing and in 
the interpretation of tongues. They be- 
lieve the Bible to be the Word of God so 
far as it is correctly rendered ; they also 
believe the Book of Mormon to be the 
Word of God. They believe in the literal 
gathermg-in of Israel and restoration of 
the ten tribes ; that Zion will be built on 
the American continent ; that Christ will 
reign personally upon the earth ; and that 
the earth will be renewed and receive 
paradisaic glory. 

Lauder {William). A literary im- 
postor, who published, in 1751, false 
quotations from Masenius, a Jesuit of 
Cologne, Tanbmann a German, Staphor- 
stius a learned Dutchman, and others, to 
' prove Milton a gross plagiarist.' Dr. 
Douglas demonstrated that the citations 
were incorrect, and that often several 
lines had been foisted in to make good 
the parallelisms. Lauder confessed the 
fact afterwards, ia 1754. See ' Literary 
Forgeries.' 

Laudian Professorship of 
Arabic, in Oxford University. Stipend 
300/. a year. Founded by William Laud 
archbislaop of Canterbury in 1G36. 

Lauds. One of the eight daily ser- 
vices of the Catholic Church, and first 
of the four lesser ones. At dawn. See 
'Canonical Hours.' 

Laughing Philosopher {The). 
Democritos (4G9-3G1) of MilGtus. He 
laughed at the follies of man, whereby 
they were for ever involving themselves 
in difficulties. He was the originator of 
the atomic theory, taught the theory of 
gravitation, and that the milky way is a 
cluster of stars. 



508 



LAUEENTIAN 



LAW 



Laurentian System {The). A 

series of highly metamorphosed rocks 
(older than the Cambrian) covering the 
whole country north of the St. Lawrence. 

Law of Admonition {The), 1323, 
in Florence, by means of which the 
Ghibellines were excluded from the 
government. 

Law of G-erminal {The). 18 Ger- 
minal Year X (7 April, 1802). The first 
consul (in order to secure authority over 
Protestants) suggested that Protestant 
pastors should be salaried like the 
Catholic clergy. This was made law, 
and is known by the name of the Law of 
Germinal. See ' Decree of 8 Ventose.' 

Law of 22nd Prairial {The), 10 
June, 1794. Couthon, the second day 
after the Feast of the Supreme Being, 
proposed that the Law of the Suspects 
should be extended, and that there should 
be four revolutionary tribunals instead 
of one. Whereupon Robespierre with 
autocratic authority declared ' The Law 
of Prairial is law ' ; and 17 June a batch 
of 54 at once were sentenced to death. 
The guillotine was then shifted from the 
Place de la Revolution to the south-east. 

The Feast of the Supreme Being was 8 June, 1794 ; 
t\e Law of Prairial was passed 10 June ; and Ko- 
bespierre was guillotined 28 July (9 Thermidor, 
An. II.). 

Law of the Clan Macduff {The). 

Immunity for homicide aiiciently enjoyed 
by those who could claim kindred with 
Macduff earl of Fife within the ninth 
degree. Macduff's cross stood on the 
boundary between Fife and Strathearn, 
above Newburgh, and any homicide of 
the clan who could reach this cross was 
safe. He had, however, to give as a 
deodand nine cows and a young cow-calf 
to the lord of the clan. 

Law of tlie Eric {The), in Ireland, 
A.D. 164. Compounding for murder by a 
money fine. Spenser gives this example : 
Suppose a man commits murder and is 
prosecuted ; the murderer shall pay a fine 
to the friends of the murdered person, 
and this recompense is called an ' Eriach ' 
(' Views of the State of Ireland '). 

Laws of the XII. Tables {The), 
B.C. 451. A famous body of laws drawn 
up by twelve Roman patricians at the 
instigation of Terentius Harsa the tri- 
bune. The commissioners were called 
the ' Decemviri,' appointed for one year, 



and during that year all other magis- 
trates were suspended. The two consuls 
(Appius Claudius and Titus Geniicius) 
were at the head of the commission. The 
original number of tables was only ten, 
but two new tables (respecting marriage 
and religious rites) were added by the 
second Decemvirafce, and the whole, 
being engraved on tables of brass, was 
hung up in the Comitium or upper part 
of the Forum. 

Table I., lawsuits; II., theft; III., loans; IV., 
rights of the paterfamilias ; V. , rights of guardians ; 
VI., about property ; VII., trespasses and damages; 
VIII., laws regarding estates; IX., the people's 
rights; X., funeral rites. The two new laws were : 
XI., religious duties ; and XII., marriages. Each 
1m,w was most briefly expresP3d : as, A debtor shall 
be dissected by his creditors ; No one shall be 
interred or cremated within the city walls ; and 
so on. 

Law of the 40 Sous {The), 

Aug. 1793. Danton induced the com- 
mittee called the Salut Public to decree 
that there should be held in Paris two 
meetings of sections every week, and 
that the poorer citizens should be paid 
40 sous each day for attending them. 
This was a great spur to sansculottism 
and the extravagance of the Red Repub- 
lican party. 

Law of the Suspect {The), Aug. 

1793. Introduced by Merlin of Douai, 
subsequently called Merlin Suspect. 
' All are suspect (he says) who by their 
actions, words, or writings, have become 
so.' Chaumette, in his ' Municipal 
Placards and Proclamations,' says a 
' Suspect ' may be recognised in the streets 
and should be at once apprehended. 

Law of the "White "Water- 
lotus {The). A brotherhood in China, 
associated at the close of the IBfch cent, 
against the emperor Kea-King. It lasted 
eight years, and spread disaffection in 
Shan-tung and three adjoining provinces. 
Kea-king reigned 1796-1820. 

Law Terms {The). All the year 
except term-time is called ' vacation.' By 
canon law certain seasons are set apart 
as holy — viz. Advent, Lent, Pentecost, 
and Harvest — and these seasons were to 
be kept free from forensic litigations. 
The original term-times were : (1) Hilary, 
from 23 Jan. to 12 Feb.; (2) Easter, 
from Wednesday after Easter Day to 
Monday three weeks afterwards; (3) 
Trinity, beginning the Friday after 
Trinity Sunday and ending Wednesday 
fortnight; and (4) Michaelmas, which 



LAWS 



LAZZAEONI 



609 



began 6 Nov. and ended the 58th of the 
same month. Since 1873 the law ses- 
sions have been : — 

a. Hilary, beginning llJan. and end- 
ing the Wednesday before Easter. 

h. Easter, beginning the Tuesday 
after Easter Week and ending the Friday 
before Whitsunday. 

c. Trinity, beginning the Tuesday 
after Wliitsun Week and ending 8 Aug. 

d. Michaelmas, beginning 2 Nov. and 
ending 21 Dec. 

Tjaws {Manx) up to 1417 were called 
'breast laws,' because the Druids objected 
to have their laws, customs, and tradi- 
tions reduced to writing. 

Something of this still exists in Freemasonry. 

Laws of Blood, b.c. 618. So the 
laws of Draco the Athenian legislator 
were denominated, because the same 
penalty — that of death — was awarded to 
every offence. This is quite in accord- 
ance with the Jewish axiom, ' AVliosoever 
shall keep the whole law, and yet offend 
in one point, he is guilty of all ' (James 
ii. 10). 

Laws of 1790-1791 {The), in 
Hungarian history, mean those laws 
which confirmed the independence of 
Hungary and recognised it as a state. 
They declared Hungary to be subject to 
no other country, to possess her own 
constitution, and secured the liberty of 
the Greek and Protestant Churches. 

Lawless Court {The). An ancient 
court at Raley or Raleigh, in the parish 
of Rochford, Ljld on the Wednesday 
next after Michaelmas Day. It is ' law- 
less ' because held at an unlawful hour 
at the ' King's Head.' The court was 
held at night and without any artificial 
light. The records were kept with coal 
and not in ink. Everything was carried 
on in the feeblest possible whispers. 
Philemon Holland states that the court 
owes its customs to a conspiracy held at 
the ' King's Head,' in the dark, and of 
course with bated breath. (Camden ; 
and Dodsworth MSS., Bodleian Library). 

Lay Impropriators (of tithes) 
date from the dissolution of monasteries 
in the reign of Henry VIII., when church 
property was given to laymen. The lay- 
men retained the tithes and glebe land 
m their own possession, and appointed a 
clergyman to do the clerical duties at a 



small stipend. The person who presents 
is termed the patron, and the clergyman 
who represents him is called a ' vicar ' 
{vicarius). 

Lay Titulars. Lay impropriators. 

(Scotch history.) 

Laybach, in Austria {Congress of), 
from 17 Dec. 1820 to 6 May, 1821, of the 
crowned heads of Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, for stamping out the revolu- 
tionary movements. 

Lazaretto {A). A hospital for 
quarantine or for infectious diseases. 
This word is not derived from Lazarus 
the Bible beggar, but from the isle of St. 
Lazarus in Venice, where such an hospi- 
tal was first built in 1484. 

La25arists, or ' Fathers of St. Laza- 
rus,' 1624. Instituted by De Gondi; 
placed under the direction of Vincent de 
Paul in 1625, and confirmed by Urban 
VIII. in 1631. They were called Lazar- 
ists because their chief abode was the 
priory of St. Lazarus in Paris, given to 
Vincent de Paul by the canons regular of 
St. Victor. Also called ' Priests of the 
Mission.' 

Lazarus {Knights of St.), 12th cent. 
A religious and military order of Knights 
Hospitallers. Confirmed by Pope Alex- 
ander IV. in 1255. United with the 
order of St. John in 1490. Their special 
office was the defence of lej)ers, and their 
title was derived from Lazarus the beggar. 
Abolished in France in the first revolu- 
tion. 

In Italy It was united to the order of St. Blaurice 
by Gregory XII. in 1572; and in France it was 
united with the order of Our Lady of Mount Car- 
mel in 1608. 

Lazic War {The), 549-556. A con- 
test of Rome and Persia on the Phasis. 
It was a profitless war, but Colchis and 
its dependencies were added to Justin- 
ian's empire, while Rome agreed to pay 
to Persia a small annual tribute. (Pro- 
copius, 'Persic' ii. 15-30, and ' Gothic' iv. 
7-16.) This war is also called the ' Col- 
chian War.' 

Called Lazic from the Lazi, a tribe which still 
subsists. 

Lazzaroni {pi. of Lazzarone). The 
mob of Naples, like the Sansculottes of 
Paris. They were proverbial for laziness, 
poverty, and indifference ; very few had 
a home ; they lounged on benches about 
the streets all day, and slept on them at 



510 



LAZZI 



LEAGUE 



night. Those who did not live by begging 
were messengers, fishers, street-vendors 
of melons and pumpkins ; they held horses, 
carried burdens, and so on. Every year 
one was chosen as their chief, called 
Capo Lazzaro. Masaniello was Capo in 
1647. In 1798, stimulated by Cardinal 
Ruffo, and headed by Michele Sforza,they 
long resisted the French General Cham- 
pionnet. The race is now well-nigh ex- 
tinct, but at the beginning of the 19th 
cent, they numbered at least 60,000. 

So called either from the beggar Lazarus, or be- 
cause they dressed like the inmates of the hospice 
of St. Lazare. 

Liazzi. Those born to labour, those 
of a servile condition who could not de- 
part from their service without their 
lord's leave. An old Saxon term. 

The nobility were Edhilings ; the middle class 
Frilings or free-born men. 

Leaden Age (The), 814-987. Be- 
tween the death of Charlemagne and the 
accession of Hugues Capet [pron. You 
Cap'-pay^ ; is so called from its worthless- 
ness. Also called the ' Iron Age ' from 
its incessant civil wars ; and the ' Dark 
Age ' from its barrenness of learned men. 

Leads ofVenice {The). A prison 
under the leaden roof of the ducal palace 
of St. Mark for political prisoners. Their 
suiierings from the heat were excruci- 
ating. 

Leagh. Moglia, or Mogha's share. 
In the reigii of Conn Keadcahagh [i.e. 
Conn of the hundred fights) Ireland 
was divided into two parts by a rampart 
and fosse from Dublin to Galway. The 
southern part was allotted to Mogha 
Nuod king of Munster, and the northern 
part, called Leagh Cuin or Conn, was 
ruled over by Conn of the hundred fights. 

League [The), and 'Leaguers,' i.e. 
the Anti-Corn Law League and its advo- 
cates (1838-1846). 

League {The), or 'Sainte Union,' 
1576. A union of the high Catholic 
party in defence of the ' Holy Catholic 
Church' against the encroachments of 
the reformers. It proposed to itself three 
objects : to exterminate the Calvinists ; 
to shut up Henri III. in a monastery ; and 
to crown the Due de Guise king of France. 
It was projected by the Cardinal de Lor- 
raine, and was sanctioned fully by the 
pope and Philip II. of Spain. 
They proposed first to exterminate the Hugue- 



nots, then the Protestants of Holland, then to 
invade England, then to overrun Germany. 

League against Charles VIII., 

31 March, 1495. Between the pope, the 
kaiser, Venice, the duke of Milan, and 
the king of Castile. This powerful com- 
bination, which sent into the field 40,000 
men, was dashed to pieces by Charles 
VIII, in the battle of Fornovo. The 
allies lost 15,000 men ; the French, by 
their own account, not above 200. 

League of Argos {The), b.c. 421. 
Formed between Argos, Corinth, Elea, 
P/Eantinea, and Chalcidice, immediately 
after the peace of Niccas. This league 
was meant to be a combination of Greek 
states against Athens and Sparta. Athens 
joined the league in 420. 

League of Augsburg {The), 1637. 
A confederation of Holland, Germany, 
Spain, Sweden, and Savoy against France, 
to compel Louis XIV. to abide by the 
terms of the treaties of Westphalia and 
Nimeguen. By the former the balance 
of power in Europe was established, and 
Protestants were placed on the same 
platform as Catholics. By the latter 
the boundaries of France were settled, 
and the integrity of Holland assured. 
England joined the league in 1688. 

Nimeguen, pronounce Neem-yen, with g hard. 

League of Cambray ( The), 10 Dec, 
1508. Between the pope (Julius II.), the 
kaiser Maximilian I., Louis XII., and 
Ferdinand the Catholic (king of Aragon) 
against the republic of Venice. The idea 
was to parcel out the republic amongst 
the allies; but when Louis won the 
battle of Agnadello, and Venice fell into 
his hands, the pope, seeing that he had 
made a false move, broke from the league, 
and formed the Holy Alliance, the object 
of which was to dispossess Louis of every 
inch of land in the peninsula of Italy, 

League of G-od's House {The), 
1401. First of the three leagues of the 
canton of the Grisons to resist domestic 
tyranny. 

The other two were the Grisons League, or 
Ligue Grise, formed in 1424 ; and the League of the 
Ten Jurisdictions, formed in 1430. All three were 
admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798. 

League of Malines {The), 1513. 
Between Leo X., England, Germany, 
and Spain against Louis XII. of France. 
After the ' Battle of the Spurs ' {q.v.) 
Louis made a treaty of peace. 



LEAGUE 



LEAGUE 



511 



League of Marbach [The), 1376. 

Formed between Wiirtemberg, Baden, 
and seventeen towns. It was a dead set 
against the Suabian league [q.v.]. In 
1404 the league was joined by France 
and Poland, but in 1499 Wiirtemberg 
joined the Suabian league. 

League of Poor Conrad {The). 
A peasants' rebellion in Wiirtemberg in 
1514. 

League of Ratisbon {The), 1524. 
By the Catholic Powers of Germany to 
oppose the progress of the Reformation. 

League of Smalkald {The), or 
' The Smalkaldic League,' 1530. An 
alliance of all the Protestants of Ger- 
many after the imperial decree at the 
Diet of Augsburg. By this league the 
Protestants bound themselves not to 
help the kaiser against the Turks, who 
threatened invasion unless he revoked 
the Augsburg decree. Charles V. had 
gone back to Spain, and appointed his 
bi'other Ferdinand regent of Germany. 
There was no escape, so the decree was 
withdrawn, and the Protestants were 
allowed full liberty of worship till the 
next imperial diet. This is called ' The 
Peace of Niirnberg.' The League was 
dissolved in 1547 by the victory of the 
imperial army at Miihlberg. 

League of Virtue {The), called 
in German ' Der Tugend-Bund,' was 
organised by German students in 1813, 
and had for its object the total expulsion 
of the French from German soil. It 
was joined by students and professors, 
patriots and fanatics, and embodied the 
seething hatred of Germany for France. 

League of the Armed IsTeu- 

trality (r/ie). Between Russia, Den- 
mark, and Sweden, ratified 16 Dec, 1800. 

The first convention for this league was held 
9 July, 1780; the next was held 1 Aug., 17H0. The 
StiitesGeneral joined the LeMgue 24 Dec, 1780; 
the king of Prussia, 8 May, 17H1 ; and the kaiser 
9 Oct., 1781. 

League of the Lombard Cities 
{The), or 'Ligue Lombarde,' 1167, 
formed to resist the German emperors. , 
The league was successful against 
Frederick Barbarossa (1175-1183), and 
against Frederick II. in 1225 ; but in 
the 14th cent, most of the cities sub- 
mitted either to the dukes of Milan or to 
Venice. 



League of the Public Evil 

{The), or ' Ligue du Mai Pubhc,' 1465. 
Applied to the ' League of the Public 
Good,' because the people for whose 
benefit that league was ostensibly formed 
were entirely ignored in the treaty. 

League of the Public Good 

{The), 'Ligue du Bien Public,' 1465. A 
league of the high feudatories of France 
against Louis XL In this league were 
the dukes of Brittany, Burgundy, AlenQon, 
and Nemours, St. Pol, Armagnac ; and at 
the head was Charles duke of Berry, the 
king's brother. A battle was fought at 
Montlhery, and though the victory was 
indecisive, it was sufficient to bring about 
the treaty of Conflans (1465). In this 
treaty Ponthieu was given as a bribe to 
the Duke of Burgundy, of which he was 
deprived by the States-General ; Alen^on 
was confirmed in his duchy, but it was 
confiscated from him by the States- 
General ; St. Pol was made Constable of 
France, but deposed by the same states, 
and suffered death on the scaffold ; 
Charles was made duke of Normandy, 
but was obliged to flee, and died, it is 
said of poison, at Guienne. 

League of the Rhine {The), or 
'Rhinbund,' 15 Aug., 1658. Between 
France, the electors of Mentz, Treves, 
and Cologne, the king of Sweden, &c., 
for the maintenance of the peace of 
Westphalia. 

League of the 3 Cantons 

{The), 14th cent. The Swiss cantons of 
Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden. After 
the battle of Morgarten in 1315 the 
league Avas joined by Lucerne, Berne, and 
other Helvetic cantons. 

League of the 7 Catholic Can- 
tons of Switzerland {The), called 
the Sonderbund. Formed 1846, to resist 
the federal diet, which had determined 
on the expulsion of the Jesuits, the 
Liguorians, and other religious congre- 
gations. Dissolved in Nov. 1847. 

League of the 10 Jurisdic- 
tions {The), 1436. The third league of 
the Grisons to secure independence. 

The first league was the Cadean, 1401, and the 
second was the Grisons League, 1424. All three 
were admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 
1798. 

League of the 16 {The), or ' Conseil 
des Seize.' A Protestant league formed 



512 



LEAGUES 



LEFT-HANDED 



by Henri de Bourbon [Henri IV.] against 
the Catholic League or ' Holy Union ' of 
the Guise party. Henri III., who hated 
the Guises, joined the League of the 
Sixteen. Ultimately Henri de Bourbon 
prevailed and the Due de Mayenne con- 
cluded peace with him in January 159C. 

Leagues. See also— 

Achaean league. I Etolian league. 

Cadean „ ( Hanseatic „ 

Holy (Louis XII.) league. 

Smalkaldic league. See 'League of 
Smalkald.' 

Sonderbund {The). 

Leagues of the Grisons {The), 
or ' Ligues Grises.' They were three in 
number, viz. The Cadean League, formed 
in 1401 ; the Grisons League (Ligue 
Grise), formed in 1424 ; and the League 
of the Ten Jurisdictions, formed in 14o6. 
All three were admitted into the Helvetic 
Confederation in 1798. 

Leaguers {The). Adherents and par- 
tisans of the Anti-Corn-law league {q.v.). 

Learned Painter {The). Charles 
Lebrun of Paris (1619-1090), noted for 
the great accuracy of his costumes. His 
masterpieces are the ' Five Battles of 
Alexander.' 

Learning, says Giordano Bruno : — 

First it stood in Egypt ; then, under Zoroaster, 
in Persia; then among tlie Gymnosophists of 
India ; then under Urpheus, among the Thra- 
kians : fifthly, among the Greeks at the time of 
their Sages; then, under Archytas, Empedocles, 
and Lucretius, in Italy ; and seventhly, in Ger- 
many. . . . Who is comparable to Albertus Mag- 
nus? Who can be likened to Nicolaus theCusan— 
had not the priestly cowl hidden and hemmed his 
[Cusan's] genius, I would acknowledge his having 
been not similar to, but greater than, Pythagoras. 

Learning {Father of English). So 
Burke called the Venerable Bede (672- 
735). He was the founder of mediaeval 
history, and the first English historian. 

Leather Apron {The). The tradi- 
tion is that Kavah, an intrepid patriot, 
headed a rebellion against Zohak, a cruel 
and impious tyrant ; and that he displayed 
his leather apron as a banner. The apron 
set with jewels was adopted as the 
national banner of Persia from that day, 
till it fell into the hands of Kudsiah. 
Historically the tale is of no more value 
than an incident from Homer's epics. It 
is recorded in the historic romance (' Shah 
Nameh') of Abul Casim Firdusi (950- 
1039). See ' Homer of Khorasan.' 



Le Bas Prize {The). For an essay 
on English literature. For graduates of 
the University of Cambridge, of not more 
than three years' standing. Value annu- 
ally about 60Z. Founded by subscribers 
to the memorial of the Rev. Charles Webb 
Le Bas of Trinity College in 1848. 

Leetisternium. A religious cere- 
mony observed by the ancient Romans. 
It consisted of a sumptuous banquet 
offered to certain gods, in which the 
images or statues of the said gods were 
placed on tricliniary couches {lecti), and 
were bidden to ' eat, drink, and be merry.' 
Livy speaks of these feasts, xxii. 10, v. 3. 

In the terrible plague at Rome A.D. 3?0-333, the 
gods were bribed by such a feast to abate the pest. 

Leda Bible {The). The folio Bi- 
shops' Bible of 1572 and 1685. See ' Bible.' 

Lee {General Charles), 1731-1782. 
Second in command under Washington. 
He lived and died in all the honours of 
patriotism ; but in 1860 came to light his 
papers detailing his plan for betraying the 
American army to General Howe. Tliese 
historic papers were kept jjercZw for eighty 
years among those of the secretary of Lord 
Clive, who took an important part in the 
negotiations which ended with the inde- 
pendence of the United States of America. 

Lee-Penny {The). A talisman, 
still in possession of the Laird of Lee. 
Sir Simon Lockhart of Lee brought it 
to this country from the East, and 
left it to his heirs. It is said to cure 
murrain and hydropliobia. It is a 
stone of a dark colour and triangular 
shape, about ^ an inch each side, set in 
silver like a coin of Edward I. This coin 
is to be dipped in water, and the water 
given to the diseased cattle or persons to 
drink. The water is still ai^plied for. See 
' The Talisman,' by Sir W. Scott (Intro- 
duction). 

Left {Over the). In some parts of 
Germany a person when he takes an oath 
which he does not intend to keep puts his 
left hand on his chest or side, and this is 
supposed to neutralise the assertion made 
by ijutting the rigid hand on his heart. 
Similarly a left-handed marriage is a 
base injustice to the woman so dis- 
honoured. 

Left-handed Marriage. See 

' Morcranatic Marriapre.' 



LEG 



LEINSTER 



513 



Leg of Mutton Maniacs. The 

founders of ' Punch,' the periodical, who 
held their meetings at the ' Crown ' tavern. 
So called from the frequency of a leg of 
mutton being served for their repast. 

The ' maniacs ' were Henry Mayhew, Horace 
Mayhew, Gilbert A Beckett Albert Smith, John 
Leech, Kenny Meadows, Ebenezer Landells, 
George Smith, Frederick Tomlins. Charles Tom- 
kyns, and Joseph Allan. See ' Notes and Queries,' 
25 May, 1888, p. 401. 

Legal Tender Act {The), United 
States, 18G2, making Treasury notes a 
legal tender. Proposed by Thaddeus 
Stevens. 

Legantine Constitutions {The). 

In English history, 1237, 1268. Ecclesias- 
tical laws enacted by the Council of 
London, held under Cardinal Otho, legate 
of Gregory IX. ; and Cardinal Othobon, 
legate of Clement IV. in the reign of 
Henry III. 

Legem Pone, ready money. The 
portion of Psalm cxix. for 25 March is 
entitled ' Legem Pone ' (v. 33), and as 
Lady Day is the great pay-day, the words 
got applied to payment or ready cash, 
pone lay down, legem the legal due. It 
is, no doubt, a very free translation, but 
we have several similar perversions or 
adaptations. For example, 'Stir-up Sun- 
day ' (the first two words of the collect 
appointed for 25th Trinity) and applied 
by schoolboys to the rapidly approaching 
Christmas holidays. 

In this there is nothing to be abated. All their 
Bpeeeh is Ir^ifin pone (ready money, cash down). — 
MiNSHULL, .Essat/e* inPri.toii, p. 26. 

Legion, or ' The Legion Memorial,' 
May 1701. A memorial signed Legion, 
' for we are many,' delivered by a poor 
woman to Harley, speaker of the Com- 
mons, to read to the House, and profess- 
ing to be from 200,000 Englishmen, 
demanding justice and complaining of 
the Partition of Spain {q.v.), the ill-treat- 
ment of the king (William III.) and the 
Dutch by the House of Commons, and 
threatening vengeance unless the Com- 
mons behaved better. Of course the 
memorial was voted scandalous and 
seditious. 

The memorial excited at first a panic in the 
House, but when Legion did not appear . . . the 
House began to recover its senses, and it began to 
dawn upon them that they had been hoaxed by 
some clever wag. This wag was universally be- 
lieved to be Daniel Defoe . . . author of ' liobinson 
Crusoe,' and oneof theshrev.dest political writers 
of the time ... he must have luxuriated in the 
terror into which he had thrown the Commons.— 
HOAVITT, Hist, of Eng. (William III., p. 155). 



Legion of Honour {The), 19 May, 

1802. An order of merit, whether military, 
literary, commercial, scientific, or bene- 
volent, instituted by Bonaparte when 
first consul. It contained 15 cohorts, 
each of which had 7 grand officers, 20 
commandants, 30 ordinary officers, and 
850 legionaries (total 6512 members). The 
decoration was a star of 5 rays, white 
enamel, surrounded with oak and laurel 
branches. In the centre of the star was 
the figure of Napoleon Bonaparte. On 
one side svas the legend Honneur et Patrie 
and the device was an eagle holding 
thundr-rbolts. It was suspended to a 
red-v/atered ribbon. Remodelled by 
Napoleon III. (22 Jan., 1853). 

Badge for a Chevalier, a bow of red 
ribbon in the buttonhole of the coat, with 
medal attached. 

Badge for an Officer, a rosette of red 
ribbon in the buttonhole of the coat, with 
medal attached. 

Badge for a Comrnander, a collar- 
ribbon. 

Badge for a Grand Officer, a broad 
ribbon under the waistcoat. 

Badge for a Grand Cross, a broad 
ribbon with a star on the breast, and jewel 
cross pendant. 

In the reign of Louis XVIII. the figure of Napo- 
leon was changed for that of Henri IV., and tho 
eagle for 3 fleurs delis. In ls:W the 3 fleursde-lis 
were changed for 2 tricolour flags. In 184W the 
original device was restored. 

Napoleon III. instituted a lower order than 
a c^ievalier, called a Medaille Militaire, distin 
guished by a yellow ribbon. 

Legislative Assembly {The), 
1 Oct., 1791. ' L'Assemble'e Le'gislative.' 
This assembly, consisting of 745 mem- 
bers, followed the Constituent Assembly. 
It sat till 21 Sept., 1792. It was specially 
appointed to alter the laws of France 
in conformity with the new constitution. 
No member of the Constituent Assembly 
was allowed to be appointed a member of 
the Legislative Assembly. The Legisla- 
tive Assembly was elected by the people. 

The right was occupied by the monarchy men 
chiefly Fi'uillaiit.t (i].v.). officers of the army, and 
some National Guardsmen. The /('/( by Girondists 
and Jacobins. The centre by middle men. 

Leicester's Parliament, June 
1265. When the Commons were first 
summoned by him to parliament. This 
was in the reign of Henry III. Edward I. 
restored the practice. See ' Parliament.' 

Leinster Declaration {The), 1828, 
So called from the Duke of Leinster, at 
LL 



514 



LEINSTEB 



L'i^TAT 



that time the only duke of Ireland. It 
was the declaration of a medium party 
between the Catholic Association and the 
Brunswick clubs {q.v.). The declaration 
set forth that the ' disqualifying laws ' 
were productive of endless mischief, and 
were ruining Ireland ; and it prayed the 
government without further delay to adopt 
such measures as would restore peace, 
and unite the strength of the British 
Empire. 

Leinster Tribute. See ' Borome.' 

Leipzig Conference (The), 1519. 
Between Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt. 
This famous conference tended greatly 
to the promotion of the Eeformation. 

Leipzig Interim {The). A pro- 
visionary arrangement made at Leipzig, 
by order of Charles V., 22 Dec, 1548, 
between the Lutherans and the Pvoman 
Catholics, till the questions could be 
definitely settled by a general council. 
The ad interim compromise agreed to 
in this diet caused a split in the Pro- 
testant party. 

Leix, Ireland, now called Queen's 
County, and its chief town Maryborough, 
in honour of Queen Mary. At the same 
time Offaley was called King's County, 
and its chief town Philipstown, in 
honour of her husband Philip of Spain. 

Leman's Act, 18G7. After the 
great panic of 1866, to prevent gambling 
in bank shares. Before this act bank 
shares were mere names of speculative 
stock, existing or non-existing, and 

* bears ' by depressing the stock endan- 
gered the credit of the bank. 

Lenmria. The suppose'd submerged 
equatorial continent which once covered 
the Indian Ocean. 

Lent. The 1st Friday is dedicated 
to the spear and nails. 

The 2nd to the holy winding-sheet. 
The 3rd to the five wounds. 
The 4th to the precious blood. 
The 5th to the seven dolours. 
The 6th is Good Friday. 

' The cro-WTi of thorns ' is the Friday after Quin- 
quagesima. 

Leonard's College (St.). See 

* Andrews ( University of St.).' 

Leonilas of Hungary {The). 
Nicholas count Zriny. When Solyman 
the Magnificent laid siege to Szigeth, 
and had taken the outer circle., Zriny, 



with 600 men, retired to the inner circle. 
A mine was sprung and opened a gap 
in this rampart. Zriny and his 600 stood 
in the breach, and only two survived. 

Leonine City {The). Leopolis in 
Rome (on the right bank of the Tiber), 
built by Leo IV. and named after him 
A.D. 852. 

It is after this pope that Pope Joan is placed. 

Leonine Verses, hexameter and 
pentameter. Verses which rhyme at 
the middle and end ; invented by Leonine 
or Leon, a canon of the church of St. 
Victor, Paris, in middle of 12th cent. 
His replicans eJare tres causas explico, quare 
More Leonino dicere metra sino. 
Let me explain to yoa, therefore, that there are 

three reasons tcJuvi.' ore 
Verses constructed like mine are to be called 

Leonine. 

Leonists. A branch of the Wal- 
denses in Leon. See ' Waldenses.' 

Leopold I. Son of the kaiser-king 
Ferdinand III. of the house of Austria 
(1640, 1658-1705); generally called 'the 
Little Man in Red Stockings.' He also 
wore a red feather. 

Leper Kings of England. 

Henry III and Henry IV. Leprosy wa3 
in the Angevin family. Queen Marguerite 
of Anjou died of the disease. 

Eobert Bruce of Scotland was also a leper. 

Lesbian or JEolian Poets {The). 
Terx^ander, a native of Lesbos (b.c. 700- 
650) ; only a few fragments now remain 
of this poet. Alcseos of Lesbos (b.c. 624- 
570) ; only a few fragments of his odes re- 
main, but Horace has rendered several of 
them into Latin verse. Arlon of Lesbos 
(b.c. 640-600) ; no specimen of this poet 
is extant. Sappho of Lesbos (b.c. 620- 
570) ; a few fragments of her poetry re- 
main. 

Horace, Book 1. Ode ix., 'Videsut alta,' is a 
translation of an ode by AIcseos ; so is Book i. 
Ode xiv., ' O navis.'— Book i. Ode xxvii., 'Natis in 
usum,' and Book i. Ode xxxvii., ' Nunc est biben- 
dum,' are either translations or imitations, &c. 

Called ^2olian poets because they wrote in the 
^olic dialect. The other Greek dialects were 
Doric, Ionic, and Attic. Homer is in the Ionic 
dialect, and the best tragedies are in Attic Greek. 

* L'jiltat c'est moi.' So said Louis 
XIV. when requested to convene the 
States-General. This is the rule of an 
autocrat, but the constitution of France 
acknowledged at least three estates up 
to 1789. 

L'Etat de la Justice, 1558. A 
fourth estate introduced in the States- 



LETTER 



LETTERS 



51f 



General by Henri II. It consisted of the 
chief magistracy of the country. 

Letter of Attorney (A), or 
' Power of Attorney.' A deed authorising 
the person named to act in your stead. 
Whatever is done by your legal substi- 
tute on your behalf has the same autho- 
rity as if done by yourself personally. 
Qui facit per alium facit per se. 

Letter of Credit {A). An autho- 
rity from one bank to another to credit 
the person named to a stated amount. 
In this case the person who gives the 
letter is responsible up to the amount 
stated in the letter. 

Letter of Licence. An instru- 
ment executed by creditors whereby one 
who cannot pay his debts is permitted to 
carry on his business under surveillance, 
in the hope of obtaining thus a better 
dividend. 

Letters {Father of). I. * Pere des 
Lettres,' Francois I. of France (1494, 
1515-1547). 

II. Lorenzo de' Medici the Magnifi- 
cent (1448-1492). 

Letters Conform. In Scotch law. 
A writ issued by the supreme court en- 
forcing the judgment of an inferior one. 

Letters Missive. An order from 
the lord chancellor to a peer to put in an 
aiipearance to a bill filed in chancery. 

Letters Patent. A writing under 
the Great Seal, authorising the party 
named to do some act or enjoy some 
privilege, or create some office mentioned 
in the letter. Inventors by letters patent 
have a monopoly in their invention for a 
stated term of years. 

Letters of Administration. 

The legal instrument granted by the 
Probate Court to a person appointed 
administrator to one who has died intes- 
tate. 

Letters of Exculpation. In 

Scotch law. A warrant obtained by a 
prisoner to subpoena witnesses in his 
defence. 

Letters of Ganganelli (Clement 
XIV.). Though spurious, these letters are 
certainly very interesting. They are said 
to have been the productions of Caraccioli ; 
but Caraccioli died protesting to the last 
that he was only the translator of them. 



(Ganganelli was barn 1705, became pope 
in 17(J9, and died 1774.) See ' Literary 
Forgeries,' &c. 

Letters of Horning. Warrants 
for charging a person in Scotland to pay or 
perform certain debts and duties. Whar- 
ton says they were so called because 
these warrants were originally proclaimed 
by sound of horn. 

Letters of Intercommuning. 

By an old law in England a man accused 
of any crime, who did not appear to take 
his trial, might be interconununed or 
outlawed. 

These letters ran thus: 'We command and 
charge all our lieges and subjects that none pre- 
sume to reset, supply, or intercommune with any 
of the aforesaid, our rebels, nor furnish them with 
meat, drink, house, harbour, or victuals, nor any 
other thing useful or comfortable to them ; nor 
have any intelligence with them by word, writing, 
message, or otherwise, under pain of being repute 
and esteemed art and part with them in the crime 
foresaid.'— Laing, iv. 77. 

This was like the old Roman .igwts et Ignis Inter- 
dictio. 

Letters of Junius (The). Author 

unknown. In 1763 appeared No. 45 of 
the ' North Briton,' conducted by Wilkes, 
member for Aylesbury. In this number 
the king (George III.) was charged with 
uttering a deliberate lie in hffe speech 
from the throne, and a ' general warrant ' 
was issued by the home secretary for the 
seizure of the author, printers, and pub- 
lishers. Junius su]3ported Wilkes, and 
maintained that general warrants — that 
is, warrants in which no narnes are speci- 
fied — are illegal ; and generally pleading 
' the people's cause ' against royal prero- 
gatives and autocracy. 

The letters bega n to appear in the ' Public Adver- ' 
tiser,' 21 Jan., 1709, and continued to 21 Jan., 1772. 
John Taylor ascribed the authorship to Sir Philip 
Francis in iHlo, and in 1871 the handwriting was 
investigated by Cabot, who confirmed the sugges- 
tion. 

Letters of Mark and Reprisal. 

Commissions granted to individuals to fit 
out privateers in time of war, and to seize 
the bodies anl goods of antagonists. 
Abandoned by the great powers at the 
Congress of 1 ans in 1856. 

* Letters of Percy Bysshe 
Shelley' {The). Published m 1852. 
These forgeries were exposed in the 
' Athenaeum ' in the months of February, 
March, and April, 1852. See * Literary 
Forgeries,' &c. 

* Letters of Phal'aris {The),' 1718. 
Published at Oxford. BenUey proved the 

L L 2 



616 



LETTERS 



LEVIATHAN 



letters to be forgeries. Plialaris was 
tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily. Over- 
thrown by Telemachus B.C. 550, and died 
B.C. 549. He is well known by the story 
of the brazen bull. It is said that 
Perillos showed the tyrant a brazen bull 
meant for the torture of criminals. It 
was an oven in which victims might be 
roasted alive, and tubes were so con- 
structed as to render bellowing noises 
to drown the shrieks of those enclosed. 
Phalaris ordered the inventor to be en- 
closed to test the truth of what he said. 
See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Letters of Request. A writ which 
commences a suit in the Court of Arches 
against a clergjanan, instead of proceed- 
ing, in the first instance, in the Consis- 
tory Court. 

Letters of Safe Conduct. A writ 

under the Great Seal guaranteeing safety 
to and fro to the person named in the 
letter. In war, an enemy can travel to 
and fro without fear of molestation under 
such defence ; and persons charged with 
crimes cannot legally be detained so long 
as they act under such authority. 

Letters of Uriah. Similar to the 
classic ' Letters of Belleroi)hon ' — that is, 
a treacherous letter of friendship, but in 
reality a death-warrant. 

* And it came to pass in the morning 
that David wrote a letter to Joab, and 
sent it by the hand of Uriah. And he 
wrote in the letter, saying : Set ye Uriah 
in the forefront of the hottest battle, 
and retire ye from him, that he may be 
smitten and die.' — 2 Sam. xi. 14, 15. 

However, sir, here is a guarantee ; look at its 
contents: I do not again carry the letters of 
Uriah.— Sir W. ScoTT, Rcdijauntlet, ch. xvi. 

Letters of the Sepulchre. Two 

codes made by Godfrey and the patri- 
archs of the court of Jerusalem : one re- 
specting the rights and duties of burghers, 
and the other respecting the privileges of 
the nobles. These two codes were laid 
up in a coffer with the treasures of the 
church of the Holy Sepulclire. 

Lettre de Cachet (Un). A sealed 
letter, in virtue of which the obnoxious 
person named therein might be arrested 
and sent either to prison or into exile, 
without trial, or even being infoi-med of 
the nature of his offence. This infamous 
tyranny was abolished by the revolution. 
St. Florentin, a governor of the Bastille, used to 



boast that he had received 50,000 lettres de cachet. 
As the fortress would not hold above 70 or 80 at a 
time, and few were ever released, the deeds of 
death must have been pretty quick and numerous 
within those walls. 

Lettres Provinciales (Les), 1656 

-1657. The famous letters of Blaise 
Pascal against the Jesuits and in defence 
of the Jansenists, written under the 
assumed name of ' Louis de Montalte.' 
The whole title is ' Lettres de Louis de 
Montalte a un provincial de ses amis, et 
aux RR. PP. Jesuites.' In these letters 
Pascal lashes the loose morals of the 
Jesuits v/ith wonderful humour, vigour, 
and enthusiasm. Though condemned at 
Rome, they are models of their kind. 

There are eighteen complete letters ; the nine- 
teenth is a fragment, and the twentieth is by 
Lemaistre. The first three are in defence of 
Arnauld, who had attacked the Jesuits in a work 
entitled ' Moral Theology of the Jesuits ' ; but it is 
on the subsequent fifteen letters that the fame of 
Pascal rests. He charges the Jesuits with loose 
morals, mental reservation, simony, equivocation, 
and want of holiness. 

Levellers. I. April 1649. A body of 
men that first appeared in Surrey, and 
went about pulling down park palings and 
levelling hedges, especially those on crown 
property. They gave out that ever since 
William the Conqueror landed the native 
English have been oppressed. Colonel 
Lilburne was lodged in prison for favour- 
ing the Levellers. 

II. 1647. A political party which made 
terms with Cromwell in November, and 
demanded the king's death in the No- 
vember following (1648). Their platform 
was the perfect equality of man and the 
abolition of all ranks and degrees. 
Tlie French Quixotic conceit of 'liberty, 
equality, and fraternity' well expresses 
the levellers' charter. Levellers were 
first called Rationalists. 

III. In Irish history, 1760, Levellers 
were agrarian rebels, afterwards called 
"Whiteboys. They were called Levellers 
from their levelling the hedges of enclosed 
commons, and began their work in Tip- 
perary. Subsequently they enlarged their 
programme, and set up for the general 
redress of agrarian grievances connected 
with the letting, buying, and selling of 
land, hiring and eviction, tithes and 
rates. See ' Irish Associations.' 

'Leviathan.' Hobbes's great work 
is an ideal Commonwealth, called by 
him ' the Matter, Form, and Power of a 
Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil.' 
It fearlessly attacks early scripture au- 



LEX 



LIA 



517 



tliorities, and has always been one of 
the strongholds of sceptics. Hobbes 
considered the philosopher Locke a sup- 
porter of his principles. 

Lex Emilia Sumptuaria. A 

law by Marcus ^milius Lepidus, consul 
B.C. 78, limiting both the quantity and 
kind of foods to be used at banquets and 
other entertainments. See ' Lex Licinia.' 

Lex Carolina, 1532. A law of 
the German Empiie j)assed in the reign 
of Charles V., whence the name. It 
regulated the criminal procedure, and 
put an end to the arbitrary processes 
which had hitherto prevailed. It fur- 
thermore enjoined the publicity of 
debates and the publication of all judi- 
cial sentences. 

Lex Fabia de Plagiariis. A 

law against literary ' thieves ' or plagia- 
rists. The punishment was either a fine 
or being sent to the mines. 

Lex Hortensia ordained that mar- 
ket days {nundincE) should in future be 
fasti or court days, that country people 
might get their lawsuits determined when 
they came to town for market. 

Non-court days were called by the old Komans 
nefasti ; i.e. not fasti or court days. 

Lex Licinia Sumptuaria, B.C. 55. 

A sumptuary law forbidding more than 
3 lbs. of fresh meat and 1 lb. of salt meat 
to be served up at table on any one day. 
The Fannian law, B.C. IGS, forbade that more 
than one fowl should be served at any one table, 
and that not a fattened one, quic non altilis esset. — 
Gel. ii. 24. See ' Lex yEmilia,' &c. 

Lex non Seripta. Common law 
in contradistinction to statute law. It 
may be written or printed, but does not 
derive its authority thus. The written 
document is a mere description or 
memorial of the customs which have 
prevailed. 

Lex Oppia, b.c. 213. That no 
woman should wear more than half an 
ounce of gold, nor wear a dress of two 
colours, nor ride in a carriage within half 
a mile of any city or town. 

Lex Papia Poppaea, a.d. 9. To 
promote population. It gave rewards to 
marriage and imposed penalties on celi- 
bacy. Those who had three children 
had several privileges. See ' Jus Trium,' 
&c. Those who were bachelors could 
not succeed to any inheritance except of 



their nearest relations, and even then a 
part was forfeit to the state. 

Lex Poreia prohibited the scourg- 
ing of a Roman citizen. Paul refers to 
this prohibition, Acts xxii. 25. 

Lex Regia of Denmark, 1665. A 
law to fix the order of succession in the 
royal house. 

Lex Talionis. The law of retalia- 
tion, as an eye for an eye, and a tooth for 
a tooth. See ' Vendetta,' ' Rimbecco.' 

Lexington {The glorious Victory 
in the Battle of), 19 April, 1775. This 
was no battle, but a mere skirmish, in 
which the Americans had the advantage. 
Its sole importance is that it was the 
first fight between the colonists and the 
British soldiers. Governor Gage had 
sent a detachment of 800 men to destroy 
a depot of stores and arms at Concord, 
about twenty miles from Boston in Mas- 
sachusetts. The British reached Lex- 
ington at five in the morning, but were 
resisted there, and at one of the bridges 
near Concord by the American minute- 
men iq.v.). Some 20,000 Americans came 
rushing to resist, and the Bi'itish had to 
retire with the loss of 60 killed and 136 
wounded. The Americans had 80 killed 
and about as many more wounded. 

Lia Fail (The) of Ireland. The 
* Fatale Manner ' or ' Stone of Destiny.' 
So called from the tradition that wher- 
ever tliis stone was the jjeople would be 
the dominant power. Hence the Latin 
distich : 

Ni fallat fatum, Scoti, quocunque locatum 
Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem. 

It was brought to Ireland by the Tuatha 
na Danaan {q.v.) and set up in Tara, 
the capital of Bregia. Upon this stone 
the ancient Irish kings were installed. 
Fergus, the leader of the Dalraidic 
colony {q.v.) in Argyllshire, brought it 
over with him to Albany (West Scot- 
land), but Kenneth II., the conqueror 
of the Picts, removed it from Argyll to 
Scone in 8i0, and Scotland was then 
called ' the Kingdom of Scone.' In 1296 
Edward I. carried it to London, where 
ever since it has been in Westminster 
Abbey. Over it is a rude chair on which 
our monarchs sit to be crowned. 

According to Keating (' History of Ire- 
land '), ' Lia ' means a stone, and ' Fail' 
is for Falias, the city whence the stone 



518 



LIBELLATICI 



LIBEET^S 



was removed to Tara in Ireland. The 
tradition is that this stone is the very- 
one that Jacob used for his j)illow when 
he had the vision about the ladder. 

The Fatale Marmor does not seem to be the 
same stone as the Lia Fail. The Lia Fail we are 
told was a pillar nine feet high ; but the Fatale 
Marmor was a syenite (like Pompey's pillar at 
Alexandria), 20 inches long, 10 inches thick, and 
about 17 broad. 

Libellatici. Those Christians who 
had a libellus or certificate from a hea- 
then magistrate to show that they had 
complied with the emperor's order in 
sacrificing or offerirrg incense to idols* 

Libellus Pacis, 3rd cent. A cer- 
tificate of peace given by some con- 
fessor to a lapsed Cliristian procuring 
readmission into Christian communion. 
The form was as follows . * Let * * be 
received into church communion, with 
all those who belong to him.' 

Liber Albus, 1419. The White 
Book of the city of London compiled by 
John Carpenter, town clerk of the city 
of London, and one of the four executors 
of the famous * Dick Whittington.' It 
contains the various ordinances regulat- 
ing the internal trade of the city, its laws 
and customs. The book was edited by 
H. T. Kiley, and printed in 1859 (' Monu- 
menta Gildhallse Loudoniensis '). 

Liber Censualis AngliaB. The 

' Rate-book of England.' So Doomsday 
Book [q.v.) was sometimes called. 

Liber de "Wintonia. The Book 
of Winchester. Doomsday Book was so 
called because it was anciently pre- 
served under three locks and keys in the 
royal treasury of that city. 

Liber Niger Seaccarii {The). 

A roll of military tenants made in the 
reign of Henry II. of England. The 
tenants enrolled in this book held single 
knight's fees of the crown. See p. 95. 

Books of magic and necromancy were called 
'Libri Nigri,' ' Libri sacra nigredine colorati ' ; or 
rather, Books of the Black Art. 

Liber Reg's. So Doomsday Book 
{q.v.) was called. See ' King's Book.' 

Liber Vitas, of the Middle Ages, 
was the Martyrology. 

Liber Viventium, of the Middle 
Ages, was the book in which the allow- 
ances or ' commons ' of the monks were 
registered. 



Liberal Union {The), 1887. An 
association of Unionists of all shades of 
' Liberal opinion ' for the dissemination 
of Unionist principles, i.e. against the 
separation of Ireland from England by 
giving to Ireland ' Home Eule.' From 
1886 they acted with Lord Salisbury's 
Conservative government and broke away 
from Mr. Gladstone's party, which ad- 
vocated ' Home Rule ' {q.v.). 

Liberator {The). I. Daniel O'Con- 
nell, also called ' The Agitator ' (1775- 
1847). He began to take a leading part 
in promoting the claims of Roman Ca- 
tholics in 1803. Daniel O'Connell with 
Sheil founded the New Catholic Asso- 
ciation in 1823 ; set up the Repeal Asso- 
ciation in 1840 ; and held monster meet- 
ings in 1843. 

IL Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). 
The finest character for manly independ- 
ence, self-renunciation, military re- 
sources, and civil administration com- 
bined that ever existed. He liberated 
Sicily and Naples; and did much to 
unify the thirteen Italian states under 
the one sway of Victor Emmanuel. 

Liberator Clubs, 1828. Clubs 

established by Daniel O'Connell in every 
part of Ireland, in connection with the 
Catholic Association {q.v.). Each branch 
had its own organisation and internal 
managem^ent ; and all the clubs were so 
knit together as to insure at any time a 
simultaneous movement. 

Liberators, 1828. A faction esta- 
blished in Ireland by Daniel O'Connell 
to prevent the formation of secret 
societies, and to conciliate all Ireland in 
one brotherhood, having in view the two 
great objects, Catholic Emancipation and 
equal civil rights for all. The Liberators 
were bound to prevent riots and faction 
fights, to protect voters from the ven- 
geance of their landlords, to promote ex- 
clusive dealings with ' friends of religious 
and civil liberty,' and to use every effort 
to promote in Ireland the exclusive use 
of Irish growth, 'breeding, and manufac- 
ture. The force of O'Connell was moral 
force only. 

Libert^s G-allieanes. The Gallic 
Church insists that there are two distinct 
powers, one spiintual and the other tem- 
poral; that infallibility does not reside 
in the pope but in the church or whole 



LIBERTINES 



LICINIAN 



B19 



body episcopal ; and that the judgments 
of general councils are authoritative. In 
1682 Bossuet reduced the Liberies Gal- 
licanes into the following items : (1) The 
church must be ruled by the canons ; (2) 
the power of St. Peter and his successors 
is only spiritual ; (3) the laws and con- 
stitution of the kingdom are independent 
of the church ; (4) the decrees and judg- 
ments of the pope may be reformed. 
Hincmar, Gerson, Bossuet, the Abbe 
Fleury, Cardinal La Luzerne, Bausset, 
Frayssinous, Guillon, Boyer, Affre, and 
others were great sticklers for this liberty 
of the Gallic Church. 

Libertines. I. Acts vi. 9. Jews 
manumitted by the Romans, to whom 
probably were added those, like Paul,who 
were admitted to the Roman franchise. 
These Jews and proselytes had a syna- 
gogue of their own. 

II. 1525. A religious sect in the re- 
formed church founded by Quintin, a 
tailor of Picardy, and a man named Copin. 
Their disciples were at liberty to be either 
Calvinists or Lutherans. Their chief 
tenets were (a) that whatever is done, 
God is the doer of it ; and (b) that nothing 
is sinful but what you think to be so. 

III. Of J^/ore^ce were those who cared 
neither for a republican form of govern- 
ment, such as Savonarola wanted to esta- 
blish ; nor yet an oligarchy ; nor yet for 
a tyranny in the hands of one of the 
Medici; but only for a laissez-aller go- 
vernment where every one might do as 
he liked. 

These political quidnuncs had evidently gra- 
duated in the Abbey of Theltme, over the door 
of which institution was inscribed ' FAIS CE QUE 

VOULDEAS.' 

Liberty {The Feast of), b.c. 479. 
An annual festival held on the site of the 
battle of Platea, to commemorate the 
victory won over the Persians in that 
famous battle. 

Liberty of December (T/ie). The 

Feast of Fools, 28 Dec, in honour of the 
slaughtered Innocents of Bethlehem. 
Monks joined in the suj)reme foolery of 
this festival (Du Tilliot, ' Me'moires pour 
servir a I'histoire de la Fete des Fous). 

Liberty Tree (The), 1765. A tree 
in Boston, Massachusetts, on which the 
Boston insurgents hung the effigy of Mr. 
Oliver, the newly-appointed stamp-dis- 
tributor of the British government. The 
sffigy was subsequently burnt in a bonfire. 



This was the commencement of the 
American revolt for independence. 

'Trees of Liberty" (q.v.) -were quite different 
affairs. 

Libiti'na. The Roman goddess in 
whose temple was kept all the parapher- 
nalia required for funerals ; whence the 
word was used for funeral apparatus 
generally, and Hhitinarius in Latin 
means an undertaker. 

Libitinse Ratio. The register of 
deaths. The name of every one who died 
was recorded by the Romans in a register 
so called. See above. 

Librarian of the Republic of 

Letters. John Albert Fabricius of 
Leipsic, who died 1736, aged 68. So called 
from his intimate acquaintance with 
books. 

'Libri Symbolici Ecclesi89 

Evangelicae.' Books of faith and 
discipline were so called by the Lutherans. 
Tliey consisted of the three Catholic 
creeds (viz. the Apostles', the Nicene, and 
the Athanasian), the Augsburg Confession, 
the Aiiology for that confession by Me- 
lanchthon, theArticles of Smalkald drawn 
up by Luther, Luther's Catechisms, and 
the Formula of Concord, called the Book 
of Torgau. See each of these in loco. 

Lichfield House Compact ( The), 

1834. A caucus opposed to the govern- 
ment of Sir Robert Peel and the toi'ies 
generally. Lord John Russell met his 
chief supporters at Lichfield House to 
initiate them into his Reform measures ; 
and, after the fall of the Whig ministry 
on the resignation of Lord Grey, it is 
there that he laid down the tactics which 
the Whigs should adopt. 

Lichtmesse, or ' Festum Candelae,' 
The festival of a founder. 

LicinianRogations (TMjB.c. 376. 

Three bills brought in by Licinius the tri- 
bune of the plebs, (1) authorising that tlie 
interest paid on loans should be deducted 
from the principal ; (2) limiting the 
amount of public land held by any indi- 
vidual to 500 jugera (320 acres) ; and (3) 
ordaining that one of the two consuls 
should be a plebeian. 

By public lands was meant the lands of con- 
quered people taken possession of by the con- 
querors. Thus William the Conqueror parcelled 
the land of England into fiefs among his barons. 



B20 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL 



LIMERICK 



Lieutenant-Genera,! of France. 

A temporary dignity conferred on the Due 
de Guise in 1558 and 1500 ; on Prince de 
Conde in 1563 ; on the Due d'Anjou in 
15G7 ; on the Due de Mayenne in 1589 ; on 
the Due d'Orle'ans in 1643; on Comte 
d'Artois in April 1814 ; and on Louis 
Phihppe in July 1830. 

L^* ght of Greece {The). Corinth is 
called by Cicero ' lumen totius Greeiae,' 
yet it is somewhat remarkable that 
Corinth has not produced one single 
author whose name has come down to our 
knowledge. Boeotia, proverbially dull and 
stupid, was the birthplace of Pindar. 

Light of the World {The). Sieg- 
mund {q.v.), or Sigismund, kaiser-king of 
Germany (1368, 1410-1437), master of six 
languages. 

Jocosely called Supra Grammnticam, because on 
one occasion -when he had blundered in his Latin 
he replied, ' Ego sum Imperator Eomanorum, et 
BUpra grammaticam.' 

Light-armed Troops. The Bri- 
tish cavalry is subdivided into light, 
heavy, and mediuna. The Ught-arined 
are the Hussars; the heavy-&vm.ed are 
the 4th and 5th Dragoon Guards, and the 
1st and 2nd Dragoons ; the medhtm in- 
clude the Lancers, and the rest of the 
Dragoon Guards and Dragoons. 

Lightfoot Scholarship. For 

history. One every year for undergraduates 
of the University of Cambridge. Value 
Ahl. a year, tenable for 3 years. Founded 
by the Rev. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, D.D., 
Hulsean Professor of Divinity 1870. 

Lightning or Thunderbolt ( The). 

I. Stephen II. of Hungary (1100, 1114- 
1131). So called from his impetuosity. 

II. Bajazet I. sultan of the Turks was 
surnamed ' Ilderim ' (the Lightning) for 
his fiery impetuosity (1347, 1389-1403). 

Light-shot. A kind of Church 
rate. 

When the Danes were overthrown at Ethandune 
Alfred allowed them to settle in a part of England 
assigned to them, on condition of their paying 
tithes, Rome-shot (Peter's pence), Light-shot, and 
plough-alms (rent-charge). 

Liguorists {The), or 'Liguorians, 
1732. Disciples of Alphonso Maria de 
Liguori of Naples. His followers are 
called ' Redemptorists,' and his Institute 
is the 'Very Holy Redeemer.' The object 
of this foundation is to supply preachers 
and teachers in rural districts. 

St. Alphonso Maria Liguori (169G-1787). His In- 



stitution received the sanction of Benedict XIV. 
and Clement XII. 

Ligurian Republic {The), 1797. 

Established by Napoleon Bonaparte. 
Genoa was the principal territory of that 
part of Italy called by the Romans 
' Liguria.' 

Ligyan, i.e. ' Ligurian.' 

Lilacs and the Blues {The). Two 
rival x^arties in the court of Francois I. 
The lilacs were the partisans of Madame 
d'Etampes ; the blues were the partisans 
of Diane de Poitiers. Madame d'Etampes 
was the mistress of the king ; Diane de 
Poitiers was the mistress of the dauphin, 
Henri II. Madame d'Etampes, to throw 
a flimsy veil over her amours, was * mar- 
ried ' to Jean de Brosse ; and Diane de 
Poitiers was the young widow of Louis 
de Breze. Both king and dauphin had 
a wife living at the time. Madame 
d'Etampes was 9 years the younger. She 
died at the age of 67 ; her rival died at the 
age of 68. 

Lilburne Agreement {The), 
1 May, 1049. Lilburne's reformed pro- 
gramme of 'The Agreement of the 
People ' {q.v.). (1) It protested against 
the convocation of parliaments only for 
six months every two years, the council 
ruling without restraint the other eigh- 
teen months ; (2) it insisted on an annual 
parliament, with a committee during the 
recess ; (3) no member to be eligible for 
re-election ; (4) no officer to be eligible, 
the term of every officer's commission in 
the army to be limited ; (5) the high court 
of justice and council of state to be 
abolished ; (6) all proceedings in the law- 
courts to be in English only ; (7) the fees 
of lawyers to be reduced ; (8) excise and 
customs to be abolished ; (9) the religion 
to be reformed ; (10) tithes to be abolished, 
and (11) the stipend of every minister 
to be fixed at 150Z. a year, to be raised by 
the parish rates. 

What would Dissenters say now to No. 11 ? 

Lily {Knights of the), 1048. A mili- 
tary order of Navarre, founded by Garcia. 

Limerick {Treaty of), 3 Oct., 1691. 
Concluded with the Irish by General 
Ginkell, in the reign of William III. By 
this treaty the Catholics of Ireland were 
granted freedom of worship; allowed 
the use of arms ; the possession of their 
estates ; the right to sit in parliament, to 



LIMITATION 



LINGERER 



521 



vote at elections, to practise law and 
medicine, and to engage in trade and com- 
merce. Those of the Irish soldiery who 
preferred it were allowed to accept service 
under some friendly foreign power. 

The alleged violation of the treaty by the go- 
vernment has been the subject of frequent and 
acrimonious controversy by Irish demagogues. 

TiiinitSitioTi {The Statute of ). Came 
into operation 1 Jan., 1879. By this act 
twelve years' possession is a bar to any 
action for the recovery of real estate, un- 
less the i^laintiff during those years was 
an infant, in which case eighteen years 
is a bar. 

For all ordinary debts the limitation is six years. 
After which time they are ' statute run." 

Limited Liabilities. In 1862 was 
passed the ' Joint Stock Limited Com- 
panies Act,' which authorised any seven 
persons or more to incorporate themselves 
with a stated nominal capital to carry on 
their concern ; but limited the liability of 
a shareholder to the nominal value of 
the number of shares held by him. 

Limited Liability. 18, 19 Vict. 
c. 133 (1855). An Act of Parliament 
limiting the liability of subscribers to a 
joint-stock company to the number of 
shares awarded to them by the dii'ectors 
of the company. Before the passing of 
this act each shareholder was liable to 
an unlimited extent for all the debts of 
the company, whether they held few or 
many shares. 

Lincoln. Impeachment of Dr. King 
bishop of Lincoln, for ' ritualistic prac- 
tices,' by the Church Evangelical Society 
in 1889. The case was tried before the 
Archbishop of Canterburj'', assisted bj^ 
the Bishops of London, Oxford, Here- 
ford, and Salisbury. The verdict was 
not given in Aug. 1890, when this article 
was passing through the press. 

Lincoln College, Oxford, 1427. 
Founded by Richard Fleming, bishop of 
Lincoln. The head-master is called the 
rector. 

Lincoln Green. Lincoln at one 
time dyed the best green in all England, 
Coventry the best blue, and Yorkshire 
the best greys. Kendal was also noted 
for its green. 

Lindsey. The north-east part of 
Lincolnshire, forming an insular district, 



and including the wolds or chalk hills. 
The other two parts are called Holland 
and Kesteven {q.v.). 

Lindisfarne MS. {The). Other- 
wise known as the Durham Book, now in 
the Cottonian collection in the British 
Museum. It contains the four Gospels, in 
Latin, with various prefatory matter by 
St. Jerome, and was written about the 
year 700 A.D., in the island of Lindis- 
farne, by Eadfrith, who was bishop from 
A.D. 698 to 721. It is remarkable foi the 
beauty of the characters in v/hich it is 
written, the unusual stoutness of the 
parchment, and for the coloured geo- 
metrical patterns which adorn four of its 
pages. Besides this it contains a gloss 
in the old Northumbrian dialect, written 
by a priest named Aldred, after a.d. 950. 
The Lindisfarne MS. has been printed 
(inaccurately) for the Surtees Society, also 
(partially) by Bouterwek, and (fully) by 
Professor Skeat for the Pitt Press. 

Supplied by Professor Skeat. 

Lines of Boiilair {The), 1854, in 
Gallipoli. Entrenchments tlirown up by 
the united French and English army, 
extending from the Gulf of Saros to the 
Sea of Marmora. 

Lines of Torres Vedras, in 

Portugal, 1809-1810. Lines of defence 
within which Wellington took refuge in 
1810, when he found it impossible to 
defend the frontier of Portugal against 
the French armies. From these lines he 
issued in 1811, and drove the French out 
of the peninsula. The first line ex- 
tended from Alhandra to the mouth of 
the Sizandro, and was twenty-nine miles 
long. The second stretched from Quin- 
tella to the mouth of the St. Lorenza, 
and was twenty-four miles long. The 
third line, at the mouth of the Tagus, 
was very short, but the entire ground 
thus fortified was 500 square miles. 

Lingerer {The). Quintus Fabius 
Maximus, who was sent against Hanni- 
bal, refused battle, and harassed the 
invader by cutting off his supplies, inter- 
cepting his communications, falling on 
foraging parties, and watching oppor- 
tunities of minor attacks. Ennius snys 
' Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit 
rem,' and the well-known English equiva- 
lent is, ' Win, like Fabius, by delay.' 



B22 



LINGUA 



LION'S 



Lingua Franca. A medley of 

Italian, French, and Teutonic. 

Lion (The). 1. Heinrich duke of 
Bavaria and Saxony, son of Heinricli tlie 
Proud (1129-1195). 

II. Louis VIII. of France, who was 
bom under the sign Leo (1187, 1223- 
1226). 

III. William of Scotland, who chose 
a red lion rampant for his cognizance 
(*, 1165-1214). 

A] J Arslan, son of Togrul Bey, the Perso- 
Turkish monarch, was called 'I'he Valiant Lion 
(*, 1063-1072). 

Arioch al J sscr was the ' Lion king of Assyria' 
(B.C. 1927-1897). 

Lion-liearted [The). Cceur-de-lion. 
Richard I. of England was so called 
(1157, 1189-1199). 

It is said that a lyon was put to kynge Richarde, 
beying in prison ... to devour him, and when 
tlae lyon was gapynge he put his arme in his 
mouth, and pulled the lyon by the harte so hard 
that he slewe the lyon ; and therefore ... ho is 
called Hicharde Cure de ii/o/i.— Rastall, Chronicle 
(loo2). 

Lion Rouge [Le). Marshal Ney, 
famous for his large crop of red hair and 
red whiskers (1769-1815). 

Lion Sermon [The). Preached in 
October at St. Katlierine Cree, London, 
in memory of Sir John Gayor's deliver- 
ance from a lion 'in the deserts of 
Araby,' during the reign of James I. or 
Charles I. 

This was above 250 years ago. At present there 
are no lions in Arabia. Sir John Gayor was a 
London merchant, travelling about Asia, &c. He 
bequeathed 200/. for the relief of the poor on 
condition that a commemorative sermon on his 
escape was preached at the time appointed. We 
are told that Sir John was on his knees in prayer 
when the lion came up, smelt about him, 
prowled round and round him, and then ran oil. 

Lion of Bohemia {The). A lion 
with two tails. 

Lion of England {The). Napo- 
leon said, ' Let us chase these leopards 
into the sea,' and Bertrand du Guesclin 
said that men ' devoyent bien honorer la 
noble Fleur-de-lis, plus qu'ils ne faisaient 
le felon leoj)ard,' The English lion is 
what is called a lion leoparde. The 
leopard was the crest of the dukes of 
Normandy — as Honore Caille du Fourni 
(or Fourny) says, ' le leopard ayant ete 
pris par ces princes et seigneurs normands 
qui ctaient souvent sortis hors mariage 
. . . pour repre'senter leur naissance par 
le le'oiaard, bitard du lion '; and, continues 
the great antiquary, both displayed alike 



'Icur naturelle generosite, dont I'un et 
I'autre de ces animaux est le symbole.' 

Lion of God {The). I. Ah, the 
cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed 
' the prophet ' (born 602, kalif 656-660). 
He married Fatima, the prophet's daugh- 
ter, and left two sons, Hassan and Hosein 
i or Hussein. 

II. Hamza. Gabriel told Mohammed 
that his uncle Hamza was registered in 
heaven as The Lion of God and his 
prophet. 

Lion of Janina {The). All Pasha, 
overthrown by Ibrahim Pasha (1741, 

1788-1822). 

Lion of Justice {The). Henry I. 
(Beauclerc), 1068, 1100-1135. So called 
from his efforts to abolish rapine, and to 
subject all to the government of law. 

Afuer two dragons, the Lion of Justice shall 
come, at whose roaring the Gallic towers and 
island serpents shall tremble. — Merlin 's Prupliecics. 

Lion of Lucerne {The). Hewn out 
of the living sandstone rock ; is 28 feet 
long and 18 high. It was designed by 
Thorwaldsen, and stands outside the city 
walls. This gigantic lion is in commemo- 
ration of the Swiss guards who fell at 
Paris in 1792, while defending the Tui- 
leries. 

Lion of St. Mark {The). A winged 
lion over the entrance to the Arsenal of 
Venice. Between its fore-paws is a book, 
with the words Pax tibi Marce Evange- 
lista mens. When Napoleon Bonaparte 
took possession of Venice in 1797 he 
changed the inscription over the arsenal 
to these words : ' The Rights of Man and 
of Citizenship.' 

In 1797, when Venice fell to the French, Bona- 
parte removed this lion to Paris. It was restored 
in 1815, but was injured in the tranbit. It has 
been carefully repaired. 

Lion of Sweden (T^e). John von 
Banier (Bannier, or Baner), a Swedish 
general who distinguished himself in the 
Thirty Years' War (1595-1641). 

Lion of the Horth {The). Gus- 
tavus Adolphus king of Sweden (1594, 
1611-1632). 

Lion's Den {The). The castle of 
Dalkeith, about six miles from Edinburgh, 
where Morton resided when deprived of 
the regency. Morton was the old lion 
much dreaded by the people of Scotland, 
and though retired into private life, 
everyone thought he was merely lurking 



LIONS' 



LITANY 



523 



in his d-en, waiting for a favourable oppor- 
tunity. 

Sir Walter Scott says of Morton, 'his ambition 
could hardly be gratified with power, nor his 
avarice with money ; and he united a degree of sel- 
fish profligacy with great pretensions of religion.' 

Lions' Mouths {The), Venice. 
Under the arcade at the top of the 
Giant's Stairs {q.v.) are pillar boxes 
formed like gaping lions, into the mouths 
of which it was customary to deposit 
anonymous charges. 

Lions in Europe. Shakespeare 
has been blamed for introducing a lion 
into Greece in his ' Midsummer Night's 
Dream,' but Buffon says there were lions 
in Tlu-ace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, even 
in the days of Aristotle. Herodotus says, 
when Xerxes led his army through Peeonia 
lions came and devoured his camels. 

Lions of Venice (The), 1G84. The 
two marble lions which sentinel the gates 
of the Arsenal at Venice were trophies 
found in the Piraeus when Athens was 
bombarded by Francesco Moroceno, the 
doge, surnamed ' Peloponnesiacus.' 

The inscription runs thus : Franciscus Mauro- 
cenus Peloponnesiacus expugnatis Athenis, mar- 
morea leonum simulacra triumphal! manu e Pir ebo 
direpta in patriam transtulit, futura Veneti 
Leonis quae fuerant Minervae Atticje ornamenta.' 

*,* In St. Mark's Square are two pillars of 
oriental granite, one surmounted with a statue of 
St. Theodore, and the other with the brazen lion 
of St. Mark. The brazen lion must not be con- 
founded with the two marble lions before the 
arsenal. 

Lions of the Punjab (TJie). The 
Sikhs or Singhs {i.e. lions) ; unrivalled in 
India for comeliness, courage, and the 
powers of endurance. 

Lionne {La). Mdlle. Paulet, the 
lady whom Henri IV. (after he had called 
on Sully) was going to visit. It was in 
this visit that he was assassinated by 
Kavaillac. 

Liquidated Damage. A certain 
fixed and ascertained sum, in contradis- 
tinction to a penalty which is both un- 
certain, dubious, and unascertained. 

Lis {St.), or ' Liz,' is Simon Senlis, 
son of Landry de Senlis lord of Chantilly 
and Ermenonville. He v/as rewarded by 
the Conqueror with the earldom of North- 
ampton, and the hand of Maud daughter 
of Judith and Waltheof. 

Listerise. A verb derived from the 
name of Sir Joseph Lister of Edinburgh, 
and meaning ' to sterilise by antiseptics.' 



All instruments used in any surgical 
operation are bathed in a carbolised bath, 
and so are the fingers of the operator, in 
order to sterilise them — that is, to sterilise 
any germs of disease which may happen 
to be on them. This is done to prevent 
pyaemia or blood-poisoning. See 'Pas- 
teurise.' 

Somewhere between 1880 and 1886. 
Lit de Justice iLe). On de'signait 
ainsi les seances solennelles du roi (of 
France) au parlement. It originally 
meant the throne on which the king sat 
in these sessions. The first lit de justice 
was held in 1318 under Philippe le Long, 
and the last was held at Marseilles by 
Louis XVI. in 1788. In a lit de justice 
the king's word was enough to constitute 
a law, and insist on its being registered 
by the Paris parlement. 

Any 'solemn seance' over which the king of 
France presided was loosely called a lit dejusUce. 

Litany. A prayer of supplication, 
each petition of which is announced by 
the officiating priest and then taken up 
by the congregation. A ' liturgy ' is a 
Common Prayer-book containing the 
Litany and many other prayers. The 
Litany of the Anglican Church is very 
similar to that of the Catholic ritual, 
omitting all invocations to saints and the 
Virgin Mary. 

The first litany is ascribed to St. Mamert bishop 
of Vienne, 4fi9. 

Litany {The Greater), ' Litania 
Major,' was instituted in 590 by Gregory 
the Great. Also called ' Litania Septi- 
formis.' 

Litany (T/i.e Minor), 'Litania Minor.' 
The Gallic Litany is so called. 

That part of the Anglican Litany which follows 
' O Christ, hear us ' is called the Lesser Litany. 

Litany of the Blessed Virgin 
{The), or the Litany of Our Lady of 
Loretto. The prayers are, for the most 
part, addressed to the Virgin Mary. The 
Litany of Aquileia was sung at St. Mark's, 
' in officio hebdomadge ma j oris basilicas 
S. Marci.' Both were specially sung on 
Saturdays, Saturday being peculiarly 
sacred to the Virgin Mary. Tliis litany 
forms no part of the ordinary ritual of 
the Church. 

Every Dominican friar was ordered to say daily 
after matins seven psalrns and litanies of the 
Virgin.— Lea, History u/ the Inquisition, vol.i. p. 288 

Litany of the Wame of Jesus 

{The). One of the three litanies of the 
Catholic Church. It consists of prayers 



524 



LITANY 



LITTLE 



and Pvddresses to Jesus under his several 
relations to men, with references to his 
suiTerings. Date supposed to be the 15th 
cent. 

The litany forms no part of the ordinary ritual 
of the Catholic Church. 

Litany of the Saints {The). The 
most ancient of the three Catholic litanies, 
and the only one contained in the common 
service books of the church. It is used 
on Eogation days, in the ordination ser- 
vice, the consecration services, and so on. 

The other two were ' The Litany of the name ol 
Jesus ' and the 'Litany of Our Lady of Loretto.' 

Literary Club (T/ie). From 1764 
a certain number of literary friends used 
to meet together pretty constantly at the 
Turk's Head, Garrick being one of the 
party. On the death of Garrick in 1779, 
nine of the party formed tliemselves into 
a Literary Club. Dr. Johnson, Dr. 
Oliver Goldsmith, Dr. Kobert Nugent, 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, Sir John Hawkins, 
Edmund Burke, Anthony Chamier, M.P., 
Topham Beauclerk, and Mr. Langton. In 
1791 the number of members was in- 
creased to thirty-nine, and the club was 
transferred to the Thatched House, St. 
James's Street, and in 1845 it had 
amongst its members the Earl of Aber- 
deen, Lord Brougham, Bishop Copleston, 
Bishop Blomfield, Dr. Burney, &c. 

Boswell and Gibbon belonged to the club, but 
•were not of the original nme. 

Literary Forgeries and Impos- 
tors. 

Acts of Pilate {Acta Filati). 1. The 
account said to have been written by 
Pilate to the Emperor Tiberius about 
the character and miracles of Jesus. 2. 
An account full of slanders against Jesus, 
accusing Him of ' blasi)hemy.' Mentioned 
by ' Eusebius,' book ix. 5. 

Neither of these acts can be depended on. 
Origen tells us there were numberless other acts 
'fabricated by Cliristiaus.' — Agdinst Celsus. 



See under 

Acta Pilati. 
Amber Witch. 
Annals of Tacitus. 
Annius of Viterbo, 'An- 

tiquitates Varisae.' 
Apocryphal Scriptures. 
Apostolic Constitutions. 
Apostolical Canons. 
Barnabas {Gospel of). 
Bertram, ' De Situ Bri- 

tannine.' 
BoECE (Scotch Kings). 
Book of Mormon. 
Bracciolini. 

Cagliostroof Literature. 
Chasles Forgeries. 



Chatterton, ' Rowley's 

Poems.' 
Christian Forgeries. 
Chronicle of Richard of 

Cirencester [.S't'c ' Monk 

of Westminster]. 
Church Forgeries. 
Clementina. 
Clementines. 
Codex Diplomaticus. 
Decretals. 
Dionysius the Areopa- 

gite. 
Donation of Constan- 

tine. 
Eikon Basilike. 



English Mercurie (a 
newspaper). 

False Decretals. 

Gospels. 

Hecataeus. 

History of Formosa. 

History of the Jews. 

Ignatian Controversy. 

Ireland (plays of Shake- 
speare). 

Isiac Table. 

Isidorian Decretals. 

Jasher (Book of). 

Lauder (Plagiarisms of 
Milton). 

Letter of St. Peter to 



Phoenecian Stone. 

Pilati {Acta). 

Porphyry, 'Oracles of 
Philosophy.' 

Protevangelium. 

PSALMANAZAR, 'History 
of Formosa.' 

Riculfe archbishop of 
Mayence. 

Sanchoniatho and Sibyl- 
line Prophecies. 

Scriptures iSpurioiis). 

Shapira MSS. 

Sibylline Verses. 

Simonides (Constavtine), 

Siiuire Letters. 



Pepin. Si'fi ' Peter,' &c. SCRTEES (Ballad). 



Letters of Ganganelli 
„ Percy Bysshe 

SheUey. 
,, Phalaris. 
Monk of Westminster, 
same as Richard of 
Cirencester (g.f .). 
Orphica. 



Theodosian Code (one cf 
the edicts). 

Travels of C. F. Damber- 
ger [See Dambergcr in 
Allibone's ' Diet. ]. 

Vella, ' Codex Diplo- 
maticus Sicilioe.' 

Vrain Lucas Letters. 



*,* Jean Hardouin, a French Jesuit (1506—1729), 
says that not only all the writings of the Christian 
Fathers, but nearly all the Greek and Latin 
classics, are monkish forgeries. Adcensuram Scrip- 
toriim veterum Prolegomena. This probably is a 
gross exaggeration, but no doubt the text was 
often interpolated in order to give colour to some 
religious dogma or tradition. 

The ' Squire Letters ' deceived Thomas Carlyle. 
The ' Shapira MSS.' deceived several very clever 
Egyptologists and other antiquaries. The ' Vrain 
Lucas Letters ' deceived M. Michel Chasles, the 
eminent French matheinaatician. The ' Shelley 
Forgeries ' deceived Robert Browning. The stupid 
' Shakespearian Forgeries ' of Henry Ireland de- 
ceived Dr. Parr the great scholar, Pye the Poet 
Laureate, and a host of others. The ' Surtees 
Ballad ' deceived Sir Walter Scott. The ' Amber 
Witch ' deceived the ripest scholars of Germany. 
The ' Inscription of the Phoenician Stone ' deceived 
the learned Raoul Rochette, professor of archae- 
ology, Paris. The ' Christian Forgeries of Brah- 
manic Writings ' imposed on Voltaire, &c. So 
that the verdict even of great scholars can in no 
wise be depended on. 

However, some nuthentic writings have been 
pronounced spurious by scholars. Thus Henry 
Hallam, when he reviewed Payne Knight's book 
('An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of 
Taste') in the 'Edinburgh Review,' lashed most 
unmercifullj' some Greek verses inserted therein. 
But, alas for the critic, the verses were Pindar's ! 
and the discovery was made too late to prevent 
the publication of the learned criticism. 

Literature {Father of Modern 
French). Seyssel (14,50-1520), author of 
' The Singular History of Louis XII.' and 
' The Great Monarchy of France.' 

Lithography {Inventor of). Sene- 
felder (1771-1832). 

Lithuania. Unclassical Latin for 
a dependency of Poland, divided into 
Wilna and eight other palatinates. 

Litteree Humaniores. A phrase 
introduced in the renaissance period to 
signify the literature which mainly hu- 
manises the world, or, as Ovid says, 
' Emollit mores nee sinit esse feros.' 

Little Battle of Chalons {The), 
May 1274. On the return of Edward I. 



LITTLE 



LITTLE 



525 



from the Crusade the Count of Chalons 
requested the honour of breaking a lance 
with the crusader. Edward accepted the 
challenge ; but, fearing treachery, he 
took with him 1,000 men. The count 
entered, accompanied with 2,000 men, 
and Edward saw at once he was in a 
trap. A furious fight ensued, in which 
the count's party was put to flight, and 
a large number of his men were left 
dead. 

Little Captain {The). George II. 
He was at the battles of Oudenarde and 
Dettingen, and when he came to the 
throne delighted in a sort of military 
precision. He was also very fond of 
soldiers. It was the Jacobites who nick- 
named him ' The Little Captain.' 

Little Corporal {The). Napoleon 
Bonaparte (1769, emp. 1804-1814, died 
1821). 

Little Daughter of St. Mark 

[The). Brescia, which was the Vene- 
tians' stronghold in Lombardy, ' His- 
toire du Ch. Bayard,' xhdii. 

Little Doomsday Book {The). 
See the lesser of the two volumes. It 
consists of 450 double pages of vellum, in 
single column, and contains the counties 
of Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of Rut- 
land, part of Lancashire, York, and 
Chester. It seems to be a transcript of 
the original rolls; and sets forth the 
number of horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and 
pigs in each manor, which details are 
left out in the great volume. 

Little Douglas. Cousin of George 
Douglas, a lad of sixteen years of age, 
who (2 May, 1568), while the family were 
at supper, stole the keys of the castle 
where Queen Mary of Scotland was con- 
fined under the charge of Sir William 
Douglas. The lad let Mary and her 
attendant out of the tower when all the 
household had gone to bed, locked the 
gates to prevent pursuit, placed the 
queen and her waiting-woman in a skiff, 
and rowed them with muffled oars to the 
opposite shore, throwing the keys into 
the castle lake. Here Lord Seaton and 
a party of the Hamiltons were in waiting, 
who placed the queen on a swift horse, 
hurried off to Niddry in West Lothian, 
and next day to Hamilton. 



Little Ease. I. A ceU in Newgate 
into which prisoners were thrust who 
either could not or would not pay extra 
* garnish,' i.e. entrance money. 

There is the Little Ease, for common fees of the 
crown, rather dark, and the common sewer runs 
below it. Some gentlemen object to the company, 
chiefly padders [footpads] and michcrs [skulkers, 
sneaks].— Sir W. SCOTT, I'cveiil of the Peak, chap, 
xxxiii. 

11. A kind of cage, too small for the 
person confined therein to sit, stand, or 
lie in. It is in the Tower of London. I 
have seen a similar one in the Castle of 
Loches, in which Cardinal Balue Was 
confined for ten years by Louis XL 

Little England beyond "Wales. 

South Pembrokeshire, colonised by Fle- 
mings in the reign of Henry I. Welsh 
is not spoken in this district. 

Little Gentleman in Black 
Velvet {The). The mole which threw 
up the hillock against which Sorrel, the 
horse of William III., stumbled, an acci- 
dent which ultimately caused the king's 
death. This was a Jacobite toast in the 
reign of Queen Anne. 

Little John. John Nailor was so 
called by antiphrasis, because he was 
above seven feet high. He was the chief 
of Eobin Hood's band, and is said to 
have hved between IIGO and 1220. 

Little Man in Red Stockings 

{The). Leopold I. kaiser-king of Ger- 
many, of the house of Austria, son of 
Ferdinand III. (1640, 1058-1705). 

Little Parliament {The). From 
14 July to 12 Dec, 1653, the same as the 
Barebone Parliament {q.v.). It consisted 
of 140 or (as some say) of 156 members, 
six being for Wales, six for Ireland, and 
five for Scotland, all selected by Crom- 
well's privy council. Thi-ee months be- 
fore its expiry, which was fixed for 3 
Sept., 1654, they were to nominate their 
successors ; but the house was dissolved 
because its reforms were too rapid and 
radical even for Cromwell and his friends. 
See ' Parliament.' 

Cromwell said : ' The Long Parliament broughfc 
their dissolution upon themselves by despotism • 
the Little Parliament by imbecility.'— LlNGAliD, 
History of England, viii. 6. 

Little Rome. Montague House, 
Southwark. The cloisters of St. Mary 
Overy fell to the llontagues at the Dis- 
solution, and took the name of ' Monta- 
I gue Close.' Their house became the 



526 



LITUEGI 



LITURGY 



lefuge of persecuted Catholics, and 
gained hence the name of Little Rome. 

Liturgi, XetTovpyoi. According to Pa- 
pias, Christian ministers -were so called. 
St. Basil says they were the deacons, 
but that priests and bishops were called 
AeiTOvp-yot rov ©eoO. 

Liturgies, Xetrovpylat. The duties 
of the liturgi of Athens. These liturgi, 
AeiTovpyoi, were public officers selected 
from the most opulent citizens, who had 
to bear, at their own cost, the chief 
charges of public festivals, shows, and 
banquets. Every state elected 120. The 
expenses, B.C. 271, were transferred to 
the state. 

Liturgies {The Six Oriental). All 
in the Syriac tongue. 

1. The Liturgy of Jerusalem (q.v.). 

2. „ of Antioch (q.v.). 

S. „ of Alexandria (q.v.). 

4. ,, of Constantinople (^.t>.). 

5. The Armenian Liturgj' ((;.i;.). 

6. The Nestorian Liturgy (q.v.). 

Liturgies {Western). 

I. Of the Catholic Church. 

1. The Roman, traditionally attributed to St. 
Peter. It received its final form from Gregory 
the Great. 

2. The Milanese or Ambrosian, attributed to St. 
Ambrose. 

3. The Galilean, supposed to have been derived 
from the Oriental Church. 

4. The Spanish or Mozarabic. derived from the 
Greek liturgy by Isidore of Seville. 

II. Of the English Protestant Church, 
the ' Book of Common Prayer.' 

Liturgies of the Greek Church 

{The). The two chief are the liturgy of 
St. Chrysostom, said to be apostolic ; 
and the liturgy of St. Basil, used on 
saints' days, Christmas Day, Epiphany, 
the four Sundays of Lent, and Good 
Friday. 

Liturgy and 'Book of Common 
Prayer.' 

The first compilation of a liturgy was 
by St. Basil in the 4th cent. 

For many centuries each bishop had 
the right of arranging a liturgy for his 
own diocese. 

The first liturgy of the Reformed 
Anglican Church was entitled ' The 
Godly and Pious Institution of a Chris- 
tian Man.' It contained the Lord's 
Prayer, the Ten Commandments, several 
* Godly Lessons,' and Prayers for the 
Dead. 

1645. Appeared 'The King's Primer," containing 
the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, the 
Creed, the Ten Commandments, Graces, 
Matins, Seven Psalms, Collects, &c. 



1648. The second year of Edward VI. was intro- 
duced ' The Order of Common Prayer,' 
drawn up by Cranmer archbishop of Can- 
terbury, Goodrich bishop of Ely, Holbech 
bishop of Lincoln, Day bishop of Chiches- 
ter, Skyp bishop of Hereford, Thirlby 
bishop of \\'estminster, llidley then bishop 
of Kochester, May dean of St. Paul s, Tay- 
lor (afterwards bishop of Lincoln), Haynes 
master of Queens' (Cambridge), Redman 
master of Trinity (Cambridge), Cox dean of 
Christ Church, and llobinson archdeacon 
of Leicester (thirteen altogether). This 
Prayer Book was based on the books 
called the Use of Sannn, the Use of Here- 
ford, the Use of Bangor, the Use of York, 
and the ITse of Lincoln, and is known as 
the First Book of Edward VI. 

1549. All Antiphonals, Missals, Grails, Proces- 
sionals, Manuals, Primers, Cowchers, .Jour- 
nals or Diurnals, and Ordinals hitherto 
in use were abolished. 

1552. The SECOND Book of Edward VI. was in- 
troduced, and ordered to be read in all 
churches of the kingdom. It contained 
the following additions : — The Exhorta- 
tion, the Confession and Absolution, the 
Morning and Evening Services, the Com- 
munion Service, &c., and left out ' the 
Mixing of Water ■with the Wine and the 
Prayer of Oblation.' 
The same year was published the Forty-two 
Articles (reduced in the reign of Elizabeth 
to thirtv-nine). 

1559. (1 Eliz.). The Second Book of Edward VI. 
(revised) was restored. The rubric against 
the real presence was omitted, prayers 
for the Queen and clergy were added, and 
the vestments forbidden in 1652 were re- 
stored (! !). 

1604. (1 James I.). Some few alterations were in- 
troduced, such as the Collects for Morning 
and Evening, and intercession for the 
Royal Family in the Litany. 

1662. After the Restoration were added the Prayer 
for all Sorts and Conditions of Blen, the 
General Thanksgiving, the Prayers for 
Ember Weeks, for Burial Service, the 
Office of Baptism of those of Riper Years, 
and the last translation of the Bible was 
adopted in the Gospels and Epistles (the 
old version of the Psalms, however, was 
retained). The Collects for Easter Eve, 
the Sixth Sunday after Epiphany, and the 
Third Sunday in Advent were also in- 
serted. 

1887. Was introduced a Form of Prayer to be used 
June 20, the day of Queen Victoria's ac- 
cession to the crown. 

1859. The services for 5 Nov. [Gunpowder Plot], 
30 Jan. [the execution of Charles I.], and 
29 May [the restoration of Charles II.J were 
abolished. 

Liturgy {The Ambrosian). A 
Catholic missal, popularly ascribed to 
St. Ambrose, and used in the diocese 
of Milan. It is much like the Roman 
liturgy {q-v.), but is especially interesting 
for its allusions to ancient Christian 
church customs. 

Liturgy {The Armenian). Dates 
from the introduction of Christianity into 
Armenia under Gregory the Illuminator. 
It is derived, for the most ptirt, from the 
Liturgy of St. Chrysostom {q.v.). 

Liturgy {The Gallic). Of Oriental 
origin, probably introduced by the Greek 
colony which settled in Marseilles, &c. 



LITURGY 



LITURGY 



527 



It is not the missal now used in the 
French dioceses, which is the Roman 
missal, varied only in slight details. 

Liturgy {The Gothic, or Mozarahic), 
Used in the chapel of Toledo, founded 
by Cardinal Ximenes. It is the old 
liturgy of the Gothic church of Spain, 
and is of Oriental origin. 

Liturgy [The Nestorian). The 
Nestorians have three liturgies: (1) the 
Liturgy of the Apostles ; (2) the Liturgy 
of Theodore of Mopsuestia ; and (3) the 
Liturgy of Nestorius. The language of 
all is Syriac, and the three are merely 
parts of one liturgy used and adapted to 
different occasions. 

Liturgy [The Boman). The oldest 
forms of this liturgy are to be found in 
the three sacramentaries of Leo, Gela- 
sius, and Gregory the Great. The last 
of these is most conspicuous in the 
modern missal shaped by the Council of 
Trent (15th cent.). Revised under Pius 
v., again under Urban VIIL, and a 
third time under Clement VIIL 

Liturgy of Alexandria {The). 
Ascribed to St. Mark ; but the existing 
htui'gy has received numberless addi- 
tions and alterations, and has been 
modified by both the great sects of the 
Alexandrine patriarchate. 

Liturgy of Antioch {The). Exists 
in Syriac, but it is evidently a free 
translation of the ' Liturgy of Jerusalem ' 
[q.v.). 

Liturgy of Constantinople 

{The). On some occasions the Liturgy 
of St. Basil is used in the Church of 
Constantinople, and on other occasions 
the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom ; but what 
is called the ' Liturgy of Constantinople ' 
is the Slavonic Liturgy used in the Rus- 
sian and Russo- Greek Church. 

Liturgy of Ireland {The). As- 
similated to the Catholic liturgy of 
England by the Council of Cashel in 
1172. The reformed liturgy was intro- 
duced on Easter Day 1550. 

Liturgy of Jerusalem {The), 
ascribed to St. James, is of uncertain 
origin, and it is not known whether it 
first appeared in the Syriac or Greek 
language. It is now known only in the 
Greek, and it closely resembles the text 



of St. Cyril of Jerusalem in his ' Mysta- 
gogical Lectures.' 

Liturgy of Jesus Christ {The). 
One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient 
Coptic Christians, but not countenanced 
by the patriarchs. 

Liturgy of Osmund {The). The 
Sarum Missal compiled by Osmund 
bishop of Salisbury, and adopted generalFy 
tln'oughout England. It is in Latin, and 
our Book of Common Prayer is almost 
a translation of it. 

Liturgy of St. Bas'l {The), i.e. 
Basil of Caesarea. One of the liturgies 
of the Greek Church. It is the longest 
and holds pre-eminence in solemnity 
and antiquity. The Litvirgy of St. 
•Basil is used on the gi-eat festivals, such 
as Christmas Day, Epiphany, Lent, and 
Good Friday. 

The other chief liturgy of the Greek Church is 
that of St. Clirysostom.' The ' Liturgy of St. Basil ' 
is also one of the twelve used by the ancient 
Coptic Christians. 

Liturgy of St. Chrysostom 

{The). One of the three liturgies of the 
Greek Church. It bears the name of St. 
Chrysostom, but is of much later date. It 
is used on all days of the year except 
Christmas Day, Epiphany, Lent, and 
Good Friday, when St. Basil's Liturgy is 
used. See note above. 

Liturgy of St. Cyriac {The). 
One of tlie twelve liturgies of the ancient 
Cojitic Christians, but not countenanced 
by the patriarchs. 

Liturgy of St. Cyril {The). One 
of the twelve liturgies used by the 
ancient Coptic Christians ; but the only 
three sanctioned by the patriarchs are 
those of Basil, Cyril, and Gregory. 

Liturgy of St. Epiphanius 

{The). One of the twelve liturgies of the 
ancient Coptic Christians, but not now 
countenanced by the patriarch. 

Liturgy of St. Gregory {The). 
One of the three liturgies of the Coptic 
Christians countenanced by the patri- 
archs. The other two are the ' Liturgy 
of St. Basil ' and the ' Liturgy of St. 
Cyril.' 

Liturgy of St. James {The). 
One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient 
Coptic Christians. 



528 



LITUKGY 



LLOYD'S 



Liturgy of St. John the Evan- 
gelist {The). One of the twelve litur- 
gies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but 
not sanctioned by the patriarchs. 

Liturgy of Theodore of Mop- 

suestia {The). One of the three Nes- 
torian liturgies {gi-v.). 

Liturgy of the Anglican 

Church {The), 1548, in the reign of 
Edward VI. The Common Prayer Book, 
revised edition 1551. The introduction 
of it into Scotland caused a riot in Edin- 
burgh 23 July, 1637 ; withdrawn 9 Sept., 
1638. See ' Liturgy.' 

Liturgy of the Apostles {The). 
One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient 
Coptic Christians, but not countenanced 
by the patriarchs. It is also one of the 
three Nestorian liturgies {q.v.). 

Liturgy of the Fathers of the 
Council of ]^Tice {The). One of the 
twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic 
Christians, but not countenanced by the 
patriarchs. 

Liturgy of the K'estorians 

{The). The Nestorians have three litur- 
gies, viz. that of the Apostles, that of 
Theodore of Mopsuestia, and that of 
Nestorius. These, however, are com- 
bined into the Liturgy of the Nestorians 
and used on different occasions. They 
are all in Syriac. 

Liturgy of the Patriarch 
Dioscorus {The). One of the twelve 
liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, 
but discountenanced by the patriarchs. 

Liturgy of the Praesanctified. 

{The), 7th or 8th cent. One of the three 
liturgies of the Greek Church. It is 
used on certain days in Lent. See ' Missa 
Prassanctificatorum.' 

The other two liturgies are the ' Liturgy of St. 
Basil ' and the ' Liturgy of St. Chrysostoru.' 

Livery {The Statute of). A statute 
to regulate and restrict the wearing of 
livery or the badge of the lord. In tlie 
15th cent, these liveries became political 
badges — different factions being known 
by their livery. In 1377 the Commons 
petitioned against ' the giving of hats by 
way of livery for maintenance,' and it 
was forbidden by 1 Rich. II. In 1389 a 
royal ordinance forbade any servant to 
wear the lord's badge. In 1 Hen. IV. c. 7, 
A.D. 1399, it was enacted that only the 



king should give either sign or livery to 
a company. In 1401, 1406, 1411 con- 
cessions were made to the Prince of 
Wales, guilds, and fraternities. By 8 
Hen. VI. c. 4, a.d. 1429, allowances were 
accorded to the lord mayors and sheriffs 
of London, the serjeant-at-law, and the 
two Universities. In 1408 the giving of 
liveries involved a penalty of 5Z. a month ; 
but 3 Car. I. c. 4 repealed all the Statutes 
of Livery. 

Livy {The Greek). Flavius Josephus 
the historian (37-95) is so called by St. 
Jerome. 

Livy {The Protestant). John Sleidan 
of Cologne, who wrote a history of the 
Reformation in Germany (1506-1556), 

Livy {The Bussian). Nicholas 
Michaelovitch Karamzin (1765-1826). 

Livy of Portugal {The). Joao 
de Barros (1496-1570j, author of 'Asia 
Portugueza.' 

Livy of Spain {The). 

I. Juan Mariana, a Jesuit, bom at 
Talavera (1537-1624). He wrote a ' His- 
tory of Spain' in Latin, and a treatise 
entitled ' I)e Rege et Regis Institutione,' 

IL J, Ginez de Sepulveda (1490-1572), 
who wrote the ' History of Charles Quint,* 
the ' History of Felipe II.,' the ' History 
of the War in India,' &c. 

- Lloyd's, 1772. A set of rooms on 
the first floor of the Royal Exchange, 
London, frequented by merchants, ship- 
owners, underwriters, &c., for the purpose 
of obtaining shipping intelligence and 
transacting marine insurances. Two 
enormous ledgers lie constantly open, one 
containing a list of vessels arrived, and 
the other a record of disasters at sea. 

Lloyd's {Austrian), 1833, Founded 
in Trieste by Baron Bruck, to supply the 
want felt by maritime insurance com- 
panies of that port of a central admini- 
stration to attend to their common in- 
terests. Their ' list ' is called the 
' Giornale del Lloyd Austriaco.' 

Lloyd's List. Shipping intelligence 
published every afternoon at Lloyd's in 
the Royal Excha,nge, London. First 
published in 1716, and daily since 1800, 

Lloyd's Register of British and 
Foreign Shipping. A volume published 
annually, and containing information re- 
specting vessels — their age, their mate- 



LOCAL 



LOI 



529 



rials, their repairs, their owners, captains, 
and so on. This information is supphed 
by salaried agents at the different ports. 
The office of the ' Register ' is quite dis- 
tinct from Lloyd's rooms in the Royal 
Exchange. 

Local Government Act {The), 
1888. Prepared by Charles Thomson 
Ritchie, president of the Local Govern- 
ment Board, whereby London was con- 
stituted a separate county. The council 
hold office for three years, but the alder- 
men for six years (half to retire every 
third year). The County Council controls 
the borrowing of money, pays the county 
treasurer, and all the expenses of judges' 
lodging, assize courts, and county halls ; 
licenses music and dancing halls, race- 
courses, lunatic asylums, reformatories, 
and industrial schools ; has supreme power 
over bridges and roads, the appointment 
of coroners, &c. &c. 

Local Taxation Bill, 1890. For 
increasing the duties on beer and spirits. 

Loehlans, or Lochlanders (lake- 
dwellers). So the Irish called the Danes 
■who in 787 first invaded the island. 

Locke Kind's Bill, 1859. See 

'Qualification (Property).' 

Loco-focos. Ultra-radicals in the 
United States of America. So called 
because in a grand meeting in Tammany 
Hall, NcAv York, in 1834, the chairman 
left his seat, and the lights were put out 
under the hope of dispersing the dis- 
orderly assembly. But no: some of 
the radicals, expecting this movement, 
drew candles from their pockets, and 
lighted them by loco-focos [i.e. lucifer 
matches), and the hall being relighted, 
the business of the meeting went on. 

' Loco foco ' is said to be from the Latin loco-foci. 
In lieu of fire. 

Locus Poenitentise. The time 
allowed in Scotch law for withdrawing 
from a bargain. Till the conti'act is 
finally settled either party may retract. 

Lodbrog, i.e. ' Shaggy Breeches.' 
So Regner of Denmark was called, * be- 
cause, when he went foith to conquer an 
enormous serpent, he arrayed himself in 
lodbrogs.' 

Spite of the terrors of a groaning world at the 
Bonnd of 'Shaggy Breeches ' name, his kingdom 
could hardly be called other than the harbouring- 

23 



place of freebooters and pirates.— Prince, Puralle 
History, vol. i. p. 403. 

Lodging-money. An allowance, 
in the British army, granted to officers 
and others for whom suitable quarters 
cannot be provided in the barracks. It 
is about 8s. a week. 

Lodi {The House of). Founded in 
Delhi by Behlol Lodi in 1450. Ala-eddyn, 
last king of the 'government of the 
Seiads,' abdicated in favour of Lodi. 

Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan 
(1479-1500), called ' II Moro ' because hp 
adopted the mulberry tree for his device. 
He prided himself on his prudence ; and 
Pliny calls the mulberry the most prudent 
of all trees, because it waits till winter is 
well over before it puts forth its leaves. 

Logos {The). According to the school 
of Alexandria the Logos was a being be- 
gotten by God, and intermediate between 
Deity and man. This primary Logos 
was the first-born (o Trp-Tcr/Surepo? vi6?) of 
Deity, and from this first-born proceeded 
a second Logos (Aoyos -rrpoiPopiKo^) which 
acted at the creation of the w^orld. 

Of course the Logos of the Fourth Gospel is not 
suited to this dictionary. 

Logothete {A). Akeeper of accounts 
in the Eastern empire. He put in order 
the despatches of the emperor, and was 
keeper of the seals. There was an eccle- 
siastical Logothete also, keeper of the 
seals of the patriarch. Even to the pre- 
sent day such an officer exists in the Greek 
Church. Nicephorus I. emperor of the 
East was ' Logotheta,' when he assumed 
the purple in 802. 

Loi Gombette {La), 502. The Bur- 
gundian Code, published at Lyons by 
Gundibald or Gombaud, the third king of 
Burgundy. It was based on the Theo- 
dosian Code {q.v.). In 519 a second part 
was published by Sigismund, son and 
successor of Gombaud. By this code one- 
third of the conquered land was left to 
the conquered people, and it accorded to 
the Romans the saine rights as to the con- 
quering people. 

Loi Salique {La), 1340. The exclu- 
sion of women from the throne because 
they are unable to be the leaders of 
armies in battle. 

Edward III. by a pun called the ' gabelle ' or tax 
on salt, the Salic law of France. 

MM 



530 



LOI 



LONDON 



Iioi des Suspects (La), 17 Sept., 

1793. A law made by the Convention of 
France enabling the committees to seize 
and condemn anyone they suspected of 
being averse to the republican constitu- 
tion, or whose death would be beneficial 
thereto. 

liOi du Sacrilege, 20 April, 1825. 
Public profanation of the consecrated ele- 
ments, which was made a capital offence. 

Lola Monte S (2 syl.). An Irish girl, 
native of Wexford, brought home from 
school to marry an old man whom she 
detested. She mentioned the circum- 
stances to Captain James, who ran away 
with her and married her in India ; but 
one morning Captain James eloped with 
the young wife of an old gentleman in 
whose house he and Mrs. James resided. 
Mrs. James returned to Europe, changed 
her name to Lola Montes, and went on 
the stage. Here Charles Louis king of 
Bavaria, an old man in his dotage, became 
captivated with her, took her for his 
mistress, and made her a countess of 
Lansfeldt in 1848. He abdicated the 
same year. Lola Montes went to the 
United States in 1859, and died in New 
York 17 Jan., 1861. 

Lollard (Walter). Burnt to death 
at Cologne 1322. He was born in Eng- 
land, and was called the Morning Star of 
the Refox'mation in Germany. Lollard 
declaimed against the intercession of 
saints, the seven sacraments, the church 
ceremonies, and the evil lives of the 
clergy. 

Wyclif lived 1324 1384 ; and John Huss 1376-1415. 

Lollards. Religious reformers. The 
society was formed at Antwerp for minis- 
tering to the sick, in 1300. The name was 
probably taken from Walter Lollard the 
reformer, who was burnt at Cologne in 
1322. In England the preachers were 
arrested by 5 Eieh. II. c. 5 (1381), and the 
burning of them was enjoined by 
2 Hen. IV. c. 15 (De hmretico combu- 
rendo). A party of them were executed 
by order of Henry V. in Jan. 1414. The 
statutes against Lollardism were repealed 
by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1547). Wyclif was 
head of the Lollards in England (1324- 
1384) and was protected and supported by 
John of Gaunt. 

Some derive the word from the Low German 
loUcn, to sing slowly. Blunt, in his 'Reformation,' 
p. 81, derives it from lolium, a tare, and reminds ua 



that Eusebius calls heretics tares. — Ecc. Hist. iv. 
c. 24, p. 137. 

Lombard League (The). I. 1175- 
1183. A league formed by several of the 
petty republics of Lombardy, such as 
Milan, Pavia, Cremona, and so on, under 
the sanction of Pope Alexander III.), 
against Frederick Barbarossa. The league 
succeeded in driving Barbarossa out of 
Italy, and making him recognise the in- 
dependence of the cities of Lombardy. 

II. A second league was formed in 
1225 against Kaiser Friedrich 11. This 
league also was supported by the popes 
of the time being, and after many victories 
and defeats was at length successful in 
1249. Milan was the chief power and 
strength in both these leagues. 

The league defeated Barbarossa at Lcgnano in 
1167. Friedrich II. defeated the league at Corte- 
nuova in 1237. 

London has several sobriquets, as 
'The Little Village' (a lucus a non 
lucendo) ; ' the Modern Babylon ' ; * the 
City of Masts.' 

Aberdeen is the Granitf. City ; Bath, the Queen of 
the West ; Birmingham, the Midland Capital ; Brad- 
ford is Woistedopdiis ; Brighton, the Quren of Water- 
ing Plaees, ot LoT)don-super-Mer[msire]; Edinburgh, 
the Modern Athens; Liverpool, the Modern Ti/rc; 
Manchester, Cottonopolis; Worcester, the Faithful 
City. 

London {Treaties of). 1. 29 Oct., 
1516. Between the kaiser elect and the 
kings of England and Spain. 

II. 6 July, 1829. Between England, 
France, and Russia, regulating the govern- 
ment of the kingdom of Greece. This 
treaty really created the modern kingdom 
of Greece. 

III. 22 April, 1834. Between England , 
France, Spain, and Portugal, for the 
pacification of the peninsula, expulsion of 
Don Carlos and Dom Miguel, &c. 

rV. 15 July, 1840. Between England, 
France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
Turkey, for the settlement of the dispute 
between the sultan and Mehemet Ali. 

V. 8 May, 1852. Between Denmark 
and the five Great Powers, respecting the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. 

VI. 13 March, 1871. Between the five 
Great Powers, for the deneutralisation of 
the Black Sea. 

London Adventurers, or ' South 
Virginia Company.' By the charter of 
James I. the London Adventurers were 
empowered to plant the east from the 34th 
to the 41st deg. This includes what we 



LONDON 



LOOKING-GLASS 



501 



now call Maryland, Virginia, and the two 
Caiolinas. 

London Conference. 

1st in 1826 ttc.for the regulation of the 
affairs of Greece. 

2nd in 1830 to arrange for the separa- 
tion of Belgium and Holland. To this 
the Dutch withheld their assent till 
21 May, 1833. 

3rd in 1840 on the Turko-Egyptian 
question. France refused to join. 

London County Council {The), 
1889. London, having been erected into 
a separate county, has its County Council, 
which takes on itself the powers of the old 
Board of Works, and certain magisterial 
duties. To the County Council are con- 
signed all questions relating to metro- 
politan improvements, the price to be 
paid for property bought or sold in the 
metropolis, and compensation to be given 
for injury during disturbances. Its magis- 
terial work includes the three lunatic 
asylums ; the Industrial School at 
Feltham ; licences granted to music and 
dancing halls ; appointment of coroners, 
public analysts, inspectors of weights and 
measures, &c., with all such miscellaneous 
work as relates to the Sessions House at 
Clerkenwell, the Guildhall at Westmin- 
ster, the militia barracks at Dalston and 
Bethnal Green, three county bridges, and 
petty sessional courts. See ' Metropolitan 
Board of Works.' 

London University. In the reign 
of Edward III., between the City and 
Westminster, and called the ' Third Uni- 
versity.' Edward III. built and founded 
St. Stephen at Westminster for a divinity 
college ; it was dissolved by Henry VIII. 
Archbishop Bradwardine founded a theo- 
logical lecture in St. Paul's Church. 
John of Gaunt founded a divinity college 
in St. Paul's Churchyard. Sir John For- 
tescue tells us the Ihns of Court were law 
colleges ; and that there were ten Ccxlled 
at the time inns of chancery, in each of 
which there were at least 100 students. 

The present London University was incorpo- 
rated by royal charter in ls.%. and the building was 
openedin 1870 by Queen Victoria. 

Long Brothers [The], i.e. 'tall,' viz. 
Dioscorus, Ammonius, Eusebius, and 
Euthymius (5th cent.). They were monks 
supposed to be tainted with Origenism 
(Robertson, ' Hist, of the Christian 
Church,' vol. ii. p. 106). 



Long Knives {The Plot or 
Treachery of the). This was a treache- 
rous conference to which Geoffrey of 
Monmouth tells us the chief Britons were 
invited by Hengist at Ambresbury ; others 
say by Vortigern. Beside each Briton a 
Saxon was seated, armed with a long 
knife ; and, at a given signal, each Saxon 
slew the Briton seated by his side. 
Geoffrey tells us the signal was the utter- 
ance of these words : Nemet oure Saxas, 
and that the number massacred was 460 
(book vi. 15). 

Of course Geoffrey's Chronicle is only Geoffrey's 
Chronicle. 

Long Parliament {The). Met 
3 Nov., 1640, and was dissolved by Crom- 
well, 20 April, 1653, but it was not legally 
dissolved till the Restoration in 1660. 
This parliament, therefore, existed all 
through the civil war, and all through the 
protectorate ; but in 1659 only a fag end 
remained, which was called ' the Rump.' 
The Long Parliament voted the House of 
Lords to be useless, and passed a bill that 
even the king should be unable to dissolve 
or prorogue a parliament without the 
parliament's consent. ^See 'Parliaments.' 

Long Parliament of France. 

The Permanent Committee, 1789. 

Longbeard. William Fitz-Osbert, 
who assumed to be a Saxon, and was 
popularly called ' The Saviour of the 
People ' and ' King of the Poor.' He was 
executed with great cruelty in 1196. 

Long-haired Kings {The). The 
successors of Clodion are called in French 
history ' Les rois chevelures.' Clodion in- 
troduced this fashion into Gaul from 
Germany. See ' Hair.' 

It will be remembered that Homer calls the 
magnates of the confederate Greek army 'the 
longhaired Greeks.' 

Longiman'us. So Artaxerxes was 
called, because his right arm was longer 
than his left. His proper name was 
Bahaman ; his regal name in Persia was 
Kai-Ardeshir. 

Kai means miqhty, ' Ard ' flour, and ' Shir ' mil'!;. 
Bahaman was so CMlled from an oifering of flo'ir 
and milk made to him in his cradle. Artaxerxes 
is ' Arta-Ksathra,' honoured king. 

Lonsdale's Ninepins {Lord)- 
The nine members sent to parliament to 
represent nine pocket boroughs in the ex- 
tensive estates of Lord Lonsdale. 

Looking-glass Drops {The). A 
celebrated poison found hidden on remov- 
M M 2 



532 



LOOSE-GIRT 



LORD 



iiig the wooden lining of a looking-glass 
which belonged to Lucrezia Borgia. 

Loose-girt Boy {The). Julius 
Caesar. {Supplied by A. Oldham.) 

Lord Almoner's Professorship 

of Arabic. Founded 1724, in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, by the lord al- 
moner. Original stipend 50/. a year paid 
out of the Almonry bounty. The professor 
must give at least one lecture a year on 
Arabic history or literature. 

Lord Chamberlain {The). The 
officer who has the management of the 
chambers; the sixth high officer of the 
crown. He has the government of the 
palace at Westminster; disposes of the 
sword of state in royal jirocessions, and 
on such occasions sits on the sovereign's 
right hand. The black rod and yeoman 
usher are under him. 

The Lord Chamberlain of the Housdwld is quite 
another person. This cJticer has the direction of 
all matters pertaining to the chambers of the 
sovereign (except the queen's bed-chamber). 

Lord Chancellor {The). The 
highest temporal lord, but his office is 
bound up with the ministry of the time 
being. He reads theroj^al speech for the 
prorogation of parliament and opening of 
parliament when the sovereign is not pre- 
sent, and stands on the right-hand side 
of the throne. He appoints all justices 
of the peace ; is patron of all crown liv- 
ings ; is guardian of infants, idiot -, and 
lunatics; and has a retiring pension of 
5,OaO/. a year. 

Lord G-awkey . Richard Grenville 
lord Temple (1711-1779). 

Lord High Admiral (r/te). First 
appointed 1-105. 

Lord-Lieutenants of Counties, 

1545. The first permanent lord-lieu- 
tenants were the Duke of Norfolk, for 
arming the counties of Essex, &c. ; the 
Duke of Suffolk, for arming Surrey, 
Sussex, &c. ; and Lord Russell, for arming 
Dorset, Szc. The commissions sent to 
these nobles were to be acted upon, not 
pro re nata, but perpetually for keeping 
a due supply of militia in the several dis- 
tricts named in the commission. The 
main duty of lord-lieutenants is raising 
and organising the militia. 

Prior to 1545 the three Lancastrian kings sent 
commissions occasionally to experienced nobles 
to nut into military order their respective coun- 
ties, and these noblemen were called ' The King's 
Lieutenants.' 



Lord-Lyon {The). Lyon king-of- 
anns, Scotland, head of Lyon Court, the 
Scotch office of arms. His appointment is 
for life. The office of Lyon runs back into 
very remote times, but the officer was not 
called lord-lyon till 1663. One of his pur- 
suivants is called Unicorn. 

The lord-lion who brought her [the queen- 
regent s] m.essage was requested to wait for an 
answer.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. vol. ii. p. 407. 

*,* As this was in 1559, it is an anachronism to 
called him lord-lion Qord-lyon]. 

Lord Mahon's Act, 1842 (5, 6 Vict. 
c. 45). Gives to an author and his assigns 
the copji-ight of his books during life and 
for seven years afterwards. Whether 
alive or dead, the author or his assigns 
has a right for forty- two years from the 
time of publication. If the author lives 
for forty-two years after publication, then 
his right continues during his life and 
seven years after his death. If he dies 
before the expiration of forty-two years, 
his assigns may claim a right for the re- 
sidue of forty- two years or for seven years, 
whichever is the longer period. 

A copy of the book must be sent gratuitously to 
five libraries : viz. that of the British Museum, 
the Public Library at Cambridge, the Bodleian 
Lil-rary at O.xford, the Library of the Faculty of 
Advocates at Edinburgh, and the Library of Tri- 
nity College, Dublin. 

Lord Mayors. There are three 
lord mayors in the Bi'itish Isles, viz. the 
mayors of London, York, and Dublin. 

I. London. At the time of the Con- 
quest the chief magistrate of London 
was called port-reeve {i.e. governor of 
the harbour). He is called Geoffrey, 
port-reeve, in the charter granted by 
William to the city. 

In Stephens reign Gilbert Becket, father of the 
archbishop, was port-reeve of London. 

Li the reign of Henry II. the Norman 
term maire was introduced. Anglicised 
into mayor. The first mayor of London 
was Henry Fitz-Ailwin [son of ^thel- 
wine]. He was a descendant of ^thel- 
wine, cousin of King Edgar, and one of 
the hereditary aldermen. 

Richard I. granted the citizens the 
right of electing their own mayor, 1189. 

John granted them the right of electing 
a mayor annually. 

Henry III. permitted the corporation 
to use a common seal. 

In the reign of Richard II. the mayor 
of London took the raixk of an earl. 

The prefix of ' lord,' and the style of 



LORD 



LORDS 



588 



'right honourable,* was granted by 
Edward III. in 1354. 

Sir William Walworth (in the reign of Richard 
II.) was the first mayor who had an official seal 
(1*1). 

Sir John Norman (1458) was the first lord mayor 
who went in procession by water to be sworn in 
at Westminster, and then began the Lord Mayor s 
Show. 

The original seal of the corporation had Thomas 
Becket on the reverse, and St. Paul on the ob- 
verse ; but at the Reformation (15iii>) the reverse 
of the seal was changed for the present device, 
the obverse remaining as before. 

II. Yomc. York received its charter 
from Richard 11., and the mayor was 
made a ' lord ' in 13y9. The ex officio 
title is ' the right honourable.' 

III. Dublin. The mayor of Dublin 
first appointed 1409. Styled 'lord 
mayor' in 1665 by Charles II. 

Lord Shaftesbury. Anthony Ash- 
ley Cooper, 1st earl Shaftesbury, Lord 
Chancellor of England (lG21-l(iS8j. He 
began hfe an aristocrat; 1644 he went 
over to the parliamentary side, was com- 
mander-in-chief of their forces, and sat 
in the Barebone parliament ; in 1054 he 
severed himself from Cromwell's party, 
joined the Remonstrants, and was ar- 
rested as a royalist, but acquitted ; in 
16G0 he was one of the commissioners 
who sat on the trial of the regicides ; in 
1670 he was a member of the Cabal ; in 
16«0 he presented the Duke of York as a 
popish recusant in the court of King's 
Bench, was imprisoned for treason in 
1082, and died at Amsterdam in 1083. 
In friendship false, implacable in hate. 
Resolved to ruin or to rale the state, 
To compass this the triple bond he broke. 

Dryden, Absalom and Acktiupfiel. 

Lord of all under Heaven [The). 
The Emperor of China. 

One and all come to pay their respects and offer 
their tribute to the ' Lord of all under Heaven.' — 
J. N. Jordan, Modern China (' Nineteenth Century," 
July 1686, p. 49). 

Lord of Ireland, 1177. John, son 
of Henry II. of England. On the death 
of Strongbow the government of Ireland 
was committed to William Fitz-Adelm, 
alhed by blood to the king ; but his ad- 
ministration was so bad that he was re- 
called, and Henry made his yomigest 
and favourite son John ' lord of Ireland,' 
though only twelve years old at the tune. 
The boy-governor was so insolent that he 
was recalled, and the government en- 
trusted to De Lacy ; but John retained 
the title of lord of Ireland to his death. 
Iloiiry VIII., in 1541, raised Ireland from 



a lordship to a kingdom, styling himself 
' King of England, France, and Ireland, 
Defender of the Faith.' The same style 
was adopted by his son Edward VI. 

Lord of Misrule {The). CaUed by 
the Scotch ' The Master of Unreason,' 
and by the French ' L'abbe de Liesse.' 
A jierson elected to superintend the diver- 
sions of Christmas. Discontinued since 
1641. 

In the feast of Christmas there was in the king s 
house, wheresoever he lodged, a ' Lord of Misrule,' 
or ' Master of Merry Disports ; and the like had 
ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or 
good worship, were he spiritual or temporal. The 
Mayor of London and either of the sheriffs had 
their several Lords of Misrule, ever contending, 
without quarrel or offence, who should make the 
rarest pastime to delight the beholders. These 
lords, beginning the rule at Allhallows Eve, con- 
tinued the same till the morrow after the Feast of 
Puribcation, commonly called Candlemas Bay. — 
Stow. 

Lord of Regality {A). A noble- 
man in Scotland who held a regality, or 
sort of palatinate, where he exercised all 
the rights of a sovereign. Abolished by 
20 Geo. n. 0. 50. 

Lord of his Age {The), or Sahibi 
Kiran, Solyman I. the Magnificenii, 
Ottoman sultan (1493, 1520-1500). 

Lord of the Golden Foot. The 

boa or king of Burmah. 

In 1826 the state carriage of the boa, which fell 
into the hands of the English, was valued at 12,500i. 

Lord of the Manor {The). The 
owner of a manor havmg copyhold 
tenants. 

Lord of the Taps. An officer at 

Stourbridge fair appointed to taste the 
ale in the booths. This officer was 
characteristically dressed in a crimson 
coat decorated with taps, and provided 
at the time for the occasion. 

Lords Appellants {The), 1386. 
Partisans of the Duke of Gloucester, 
whose object was to dethrone Richard 
II. They a^jpealed of high treason a large 
number of magnates who opposed their 
autliority, and constituted themselves 
into a permanent council to set in order 
•the kingdom and the royal household. 
In 1389 the king, who was twenty-two 
yeais of age, took on his own shoulders 
the government, and all the lords ap- 
pellants, except Norfolk and Hereford, 
either died or were cut off. Norfolk and 
Hereford were banished in 1397. 



531 



LORDS 



LOST 



Lords Justices of the Court of 
Appeal in Chancery (The). Ap- 
pointed by Act 14, 15 Vict. c. 83 (1871). 

Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. 

The first, appointed in 1361, was Lionel 
earl of Ulster. The second was Edmund 
earl of March, 1379. Richard II. was 
lord lieutenant in 1394, and again in 
1399 ; Henry [VIII.], when duke of York, 
1501 ; and OHver Cromwell in 1640. 

Lords Marchers (The). The 
knights and barons of the 140 lordships 
of Wales ; the rest of Wales was subject 
to the English crown. These lordships 
were detached parcels which had been 
conquered by certain knights and barons, 
who ruled somewhat like county pala- 
tines, each having his own laws, his own 
courts, and his own judges. Henry VIII., 
in 1536, abolished this separate juris- 
diction, and placed all Wales under the 
English crown. 

Lords Ordainers, 1310, 1311. A 

standing committee of 7 bishops, 8 earls, 
and 13 barons (28 altogether), appointed 
in full parliament in the reign of Edward 
II. to reform the government and king's 
household. They presented to the king 
a list of what they called the ' Articles of 
Reform,' amongst which were these : 
Parliaments shall be held at least once a 
year ; no war shall be declared without 
the consent of the Lords Ordainers ; the 
king shall never leave the realm without 
the lords' consent ; the choice of all the 
great officers of the crown and wardens 
of the castles shall be made by the Lords 
Ordainers ; the selection of sheriffs shall 
be left to the Continual Council. The 
Earl of Lancaster (a grandson of Henry 
III.) and the Earls of Lincoln, Leicester, 
Salisbury, and Derby were on the com- 
mittee. The king's infatuation for Piers 
Gaveston was the rock of offence. 

Lords of Erection. Laymen of 
Scotland, to whom the church lands 
claimed at the Reformation by the crown 
VI eve given. 

These lords, who received a third part 
of the benefices, were nominally charged' 
with the support of the poor, and were 
bound to provide competent stipends for 
the reformed clergy. When James VI. 
came to his majority the duties of these 
lords were abolished, and the lands were 
annexed to the crown. The Lords of 



Erection were also called 'Titulars of 

Tithes.' 

As a Tulchan bishop was one who received only 
a part of his revenue, the rest going to the person 
who presented him, so tliese Scotch titulars were 
only Tulchan lords, sharing their lands with the 
crown. 

Lords of the Articles {The). A 
kind of caucus begun in Scotland in the 
parliaments of 1368 and 1369. They were 
a kind of parliamentary grand jury who 
prepared and arranged in seci-et meetings 
what measures should be submitted to 
parliament and what should be abandoned. 
Suppressed in 1690. 

In Scotland there was only one house for the 
three estates. 

Lords of the Congregation 

(The), Dec. 1557. The leading Protestants 
of Scotland who pledged themselves to 
carry out the ' Solemn League and 
Covenant ' (q.v.) even to the knife. The 
chief were the Earls of Glencairn, Argyll, 
and Morton, Lord Lorn, and Erskine of 
Dun. The reforn«ers were called the 
* Congregation.' 

They agreed that all matters In debate between 
the government and Lords of the Congregation 
should be left to the consideration of the parlia- 
ment [of Scotland].— Sir W. Scott, History of Scot- 
land, xxiv. 

Lords of the Justiciary. The 

judges of the court of justiciary, or 
criminal court of Scotland. 

Lords of the Masso'rah (The). 
Learned Jews who decided what parts of 
the vast pile of annotations called the 
Massorah {q.v.) should be accepted. They 
fixed by canon the verses, words, letters, 
and vowel-points of the Jewish scriptures. 
The scholia approved of by these rabbis 
were printed (along with the Hebrew text) 
in the year a.d. 1526. 

There were two schools of Massoretic Lords from 
the 11th cent. ; that of Tiberias and that of Baby- 
lon. The principal of the former was Aaron ben 
Asher and of the latter Jacob ben Naphthali. 

*,* There were originally no vowels in Hebrew 
writings. As the Massorites introduced vowel- 
points, Hebrew vowels are called ' Massoretic 
points.' 

Lost Tribes (The). The ten tribes 
which formed the kingdom of Israel. 

The Rev. Dr. Joseph Wolff (1831) says 
they are in China. 

The Rev. J. Samuels says they are in 
the regions of the Caspian Sea. 

Dr. Grant says the Nestorians are the 
lost tribes. 

Sir William Jones says they are the 
Afghans. 



LOSTIC 



LOUIS 



535 



Mrs. Dixon thinks they are the Mexi- 
cans and Peruvians. 

Dr. Claudius Buchanan thinks they 
are still where they were taken captive, 
i.e. in 'Halak, Habo, Hara, and Gozan, 
cities of the Medes.' 

W. H. Poole, D.D., maintains that we 
of Great Britain and Ireland are the lost 
tribes. 

And some think the North American 
Indians, and others that the Gipsies, are 
the lost tribes. 

Lostic, or * Loktek ' (a cubit). So 
Vladiskius III. of Poland was called on 
account of his small stature (12G0, 1290- 
1333). 

Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was the 
country over which Lothaire reigned. It 
included the south of Holland, all Bel- 
gium, and the north-east corner of France 
up to the river Mouse. In 1044 this vast 
province was divided into Lower and 
Upper Lorraine, the former containing 
half Belgium, and the provinces of Bra- 
bant and Gelderland (in Holland) ; the 
rest forming Upper Lorraine. 

Louis {Knights of St.), 1693. A 
French military order instituted by Louis 
XIV. 

Louis I. le Dehonnaire, emperor of 
the West and king of France (778, 814- 
840). 

Father, Charlemagne ; Mother, Hilde- 
garde ; Wives (1), Hermengarda, by 
whom he had three sons — Lothaire, Pepin, 
and Louis, to whom he gave parts of his 
empire ; (2) Judith of Bavaria, the mother 
of Charles le Chauve. Contemporary 
with Egbert. 

Louis I. was called le Piettx as well as le Debon- 
mtiie. He was the last surviving son of Charle- 
magne. 

Louis II. le Begiie, king of France 
(840, 877-879) ; he was son of Charles II. 
le Chauve, grandson of Louis I. le De- 
bonnaire, and great-gi-andson of Charle- 
magne. His sister Judith was the second 
wife of Ethelwulf, Anglo-Saxon king of 
England. Louis le Begue had three sons, 
all of whom reigned, viz. Louis III., 
Carloman, and Ch.vrles III. le Simple. 
Conteviporary with Alfred the Great. 

Louis III. (879-882). Son of Louis 
II. le Begue [q.v.) ; his brother was joint 
king with him, and died 884. He was 
succeeded by Charles II. le Gros, who 



acted as regent during the minority of 
Charles III. le Simple, posthumous son 
of Louis II. le Begue. Contemporary 
with Alfred the Great. 

Louis IV. (d'Outremer) of France 
(921, 936-954). Son of Charles IIL le 
Simple, who married a sister of Athel- 
stan. On the dethronement of her 
husband, in 922, she fled to England 
with her infant son, and remained there 
fourteen years. 

He was the fifth remove from Charlemagne. 

(1) Louis I. le Di'bonnaire, son of Charlemagne ; 

(2) Charles II. le Chauve, son of Louis I. ; (3i Louis 
II. le Begue, son of Charles II. ; (4i two brothers, 
Louis III. and Charles III. le Simple, sous of 
Louis II. ; (5) Louis IV., son of Charles III. 

Louis V. le Faineant. Son of 
Lothaire, and grandson of Louis IV. 
d'Outremer (978, 986-987). The last of 
the Carlovingiaii kings. 

Lothaire, son of Louis IV. d'Outremer, died 986, 
a little before his father. 

Louis VI. le Gros, king of France 
(1078, 1108-1137). 

Father, Philippe I. I'Amoureux ; Mo- 
ther, Bertha; Wives, (1) a sister of 
Hugues de Cre^y, divorced ; (2) Adelaide 
daughter of Hubert count of Savoy. Con- 
temporary with Henry I. and Stephen. 

His eldest son Philippe died before his father, 
leaving his succession to Louis VII. his brother. 

This was from the stem of HUGUES Capet, who 
was succeeded regularly by (1) Robert, (2) Henri 
I., (S) Philippe I., (4) Louis VI., (5), Louis VII., tO) 
Pliilippe II. Auguste, (7) Louis VIII. All sons of 
the respective preceding king. 

Louis VII. le Jeune (1137-1180). 
Not the young, but the impolitic or un- 
ready (i.e. unwise) son of Louis VI. (1) 
His leaving his kingdom to conduct an 
expedition to the Holy Land was puerile ; 
(2) his divorcing Eleonore and giving up 
the two provinces of Poitou and Aqui- 
taine was most impolitic ; (3) his going 
to Palestine by land rather than by sea, 
contrary to the advice of his best coun- 
sellors, was most imprudent; (4) his 
wars with Henry II. of England were 
short-sighted, and he failed in every in- 
stance. Louis VII. was amiable enough, 
but ' what is mere good-nature but a 
fool ' ? 

Father, Louis VI. le Gros ; Mother, 
Adelaide of Savoy ; Wives, (1) Eleonore 
of Aquitaine, (2) Constance of Castile, (3) 
Alice, daughter of Thibaud comte de 
Champagne, another of his successor. 
Contemporary with Stephen and Henry 



«M 



LOUl$ 



LOUIS 



ItOUis VT' 






I^ 









Itouis X. ' -^ '- 



IiOUis XII. V T^w *^w FV^na^v. 












Ix- 



x; 



,^ c^f 



in»««ml> 3f3krvrs>oi ?,Av.^-..Wr 

Is <^l $<««4*«KV i«t>Mt«<(k 

WBrsr ^^ EiJ^iwgpi IV. 



3%Mfe <ik« T«M««at«. *ii»i ^»» IjMixt«w 






V^»l«fe kMUII^ 






'i^ »» Skit fii« 

Im«» Miti tmut. «»4l ir«e*t«^«A tiNwi 

Mm In Sv« «mwOk $<«» ^«ws ^-MiliKX TW I 

$««« »«j^d«<^^ l><M»> tikis WMWMHtl ijwfts >«nit»clt«>i 



Juj^ * it wv«iVl W ^li^ouil ' v» 

^xv ntx All s1n>w oI iv^y^hx-^ *«d i>»urixl 

till «fli«t 1m iMid Won >»AJT*?n\ txnMtty- 
ttuKK j««r& CSi»«;?=«wrv>rwr:* with Jsuwt^s 
I. jktHi ClkMlte I. S^ ' H<Miict IV/ f<« 

Ills«*Mlwmtse»3lS<^ )«^^e$^ V»<««s» Im ^itks 



.sxqnet 






LOUIS 



UjCIH 



0Z1 



i)trfAi yttturn }>*^tir(i \titr iirnt chiW wft« 
horti ; Wlv';>i, (I) MarJa^J/rii^a-7Vr<^<;t of 
Ats-Xrin., infanta of Hj/siin, and (^2; h1<itni;. 
lU: JAiKiitU-.udii ' Fratn/finf. 'J'A»jbij^n<-, mitr- 
qijiwj 'l<j yiAiuUitioti \, wiiU/w (ft Hf-Mrron 
Un', jMM'.t an'J cri//p)';; Mifiirf:«f,eg (1), 
M'J))<;, *J/; la Va)Ji<rr«s [IjHUiMt-VrMn/nyAi 
(U: Ja iisitufHi ]h Blanc '1^? Ja VaJ)i'<'r<;j, 
H'Ai-JWl, (2) M'lm*!, ']<; yfonW-irtin 
fAUi'-naJH iiiiiLri\tit>A', t\t; Mo/jUicj/an, 
i\it.w/hU:r of Oaf/ri';) 'J<; Jv'/<;h'j';}<o>jart, 
d u/; d«; M on t^^nart j, ] Cf^H- J «87. Hh/; hiaJ 
H*',v4!rn.\ f.hiUirtut, an th<; J>>ti/; d<; Main*;, 
th<; (U)UiU: »]<; 'V'liiU/iiat;, <kc. ('iird*'/rn^ 
'litfrurif wit}) ('Aiitrlf..'. J., <'>o/nv/«;JI, 
CJ.ar)«;i« Jl., Janiijii J I., WiJliarn J 11., and 
Ann's. 

IIU wjf*. M«irlA.LrjlM«. WHM ytnW tAiOi Srn^fA^U:, 
>/ut wan trift iiiiMu'.T of /x/'/;--. './/' ;/;:.vr,r,./, y,>io 



dU^ >^f//r«-. fii» 


f;U.h..r,|.-.^; 


■ •' 'i» 


(Axxkt: ijf i'.ttrU.ii 


nOy/, ifi/-. ! 




lAt VnIJi* f«-. / 


i-tirtJt U, : 


..-,'1 


<Jl/;/i Jn IVl'i 


,. ,., . ,. 


...... ...... .....iA 


•H'^riir />/.;, 






•,' />/'il^. 




(irifAt ' on turn- 


cI»j/l)/)« Ui' . 




■ASi/j,fA ijy Hoi 


l*i/i/l )0 Auj/ - 


,-. :,, ■.■,1.1 


. ., '-.j/l., Vn-^. '<n/i \iy 


Oi.r«,.-iny .',*-<•,. 




% ',r<;»l/ f<'jt an t:/»/J to 



Ih'. K'j/-'>p<;afj war ikif^inul Vrti.uij'. f;y thix lf«:^ty 
yriiif.iit; <A/i!iW-, txmi -A ir-xrX ot KJa./i/J<;r», wiut 
H/iiUA Ut yr-Aui-A:. 'nil* i*;i* this ■■>.yj%''jK of th« 
tortun'-.H o1 t)«: ijrii.iul rn/fii/i.riiiu\ 

'J7i', j/rJn';'T»» ifxinl) lut Ut in;r ' O )rr'i%\/onAnTU-y*i ' 
iMiy*: 'i ><av<- '.f >,<■,„ »..,/:„ ..>,<. ^..•;^ I/, jiv. v/v 

KOHf/K. * V 

j/)a.U: of >i^ . 

rc/^At ari'J : , .' , , , . 

fruit a/i'i hii/'J f/'>,i<.'J !;i;^. 

LiOUiB XV. U; Bien Aim<?, the fourth 
of th<; Fr':fi(:\t liouibon dynanty, gr';at 
fs/iiiuli^m of LouiH XIV. HTIO, )71;>-1774;. 
/low kijfrh a H/;nxtjal, h<;artl<;»H volup 
tuary, who \x)H,f,\A-A that tlic ' craxy old 
rruu;hin<; would laHt out hi» time, and lie 
car*;d not what \nniiiuui of it txiUirwArila,' 
wjnid bo well-beUjved, in i^f»t under- 
Btandinj^. 

Father, Louia the little dauj^hin, Hon 
of ly^uiH ti;o jTreat'lauphrn, and grandwjn 
of LouiH XIV.'; Mother, Ad<.-la7do ; Pf i/;.?*, 
(Ij th<; Infanta of Sj/ain, arrang<^l Imt 
broken off, ^^j ,Maria-Charlott<; f>jczJrj>4ka; 
MiHlreHHeH, H) Mdrno. de Mailly, (2j the 
ConxiUiWii de Vintinjille her sJHter, (3j the 
DuchohH of h-Aura'/ixh, another Ki»ter, (4) 
Mdnio. do la Tourncllo duchoHW; de 
('hat<;auroax, anot)»or WihUrr, I'j) Mdrne, 
de J'ompa'lour, and /fij Mdrne Dubarry. 
lieyent, P)iilip[^ duo d'Orloann, C'oti- 
tem/joranj with G<--^jrge I., II., Ill, ; 
DauyhterH, he nicknamed hiii three 
daugliU.-rH lyjiiue, Cliifle, and Graillc. 

LcrainXIV died 171A; his son Loala. the igreat 
duufjJiin. dU^ hbtort lii» tilher, 1711 : and tbe koo 



zv; , ;yy(.i» xviii,, a.A»4 c«4»;/,fc» X. ;*¥«'yiu*i 

'i>/r**-, 
/y/.^># XVJ/, *ort «yf /x/»jJ« XVI, '/utlir«4 fate 

U, h« wsi# *//« «-< irK^:UrfH ui^M in kUi-^hiu- 

IjOU'ih XVI. waii vu'i\hA\utix\ 21 Jan., 
17^;;}, <'Atii.rU'.>, I. ■/.■■>.>. t'.x '.-J mU A ?Ai Jan., 
lOiy, It ii* >!//n)ewhat v-tra/ij.'e — 

1. lliat ly/MJH XVI. and Charl/^ L 
l>^>th f/fuiixht iu'/\ii UiiU'^rn. 

2, That tlie >-.fjm '// 21 + 17J« « tlie 
>surn» '/f 5J(> f 1049 May r>£ tlie ifujnih 
and fatal ytiSxr). 

V,. That tlie nuftith in each ca)»e wa,* 
January. 

Faihtfr, \/iu'\% the 'laaphin, and s^rand- 
H'/n of Umi/, X V, ; Mother, ,Mari<^Jo'/>;j>he 
of Hazony ; VKi//?, Marie - An t/>i ;< c-t >j 
archduch/^*('-4 '^ Austria, jfnill//tiried 171^3. 
(yt/rUenrpt^rorif with '>e'/riife Iff. 

HJ* ^-. • • 

»/rf/t>)' • 

'' -'.'Itttili Ol t t i)>l3i^*i , f/ui t/<«/ *fc/<5 /*0 



Cha.rrj>/«;r of • 

I fcjiKoif.i-yJ tt 



.j-^uUrA him a 



:utl/-.m. 



IiOUiB XVII., K/^m of I»uiH XVL 
and Mane-AriV>inetU;. According to a 
irnAiivm, tlie irnucti was reh'ruerl by tlie 
Cluivalier de I'f J-Iillet, and a ItaM-vfituA lad 
(lx>th deaf and dumb, a relative of Mdrne. 
Richard the gaoler'n v. ife^ wan hnlyrXituUA 
in hih ]AiU:^. The, lad was of a fej;/,.;.ir 
a^e and stature to tli'* dauphin, ar 
ficiently like hirn n/>t to excite fcu . 
Tliebril^eforthJh »ub»titntion wa>» ..m.-, y, 
IrtLUCH (\%iHH)L.). It i» iiaid tliat tlie young 



533 



LOUIS 



LOUVESTEIN 



prince made his escape in an English 
cutter, and married Ida Caraccioh. 

William Titt did not think the tradition of the 
' Lost Prince ' a mere romance ; and the Allied 
Powers, when framing the Treaty of 1814, allowed 
for the possibility of the prince s appearance. 
Charette, Pichegru (2 syl.), and George Cadoudal 
all firmly asserted that he escaped from the 
Temple, and numerous proclamations refer to it. 
In 1H12 a document was signed in which Louis 
XVIII. calls himself regent, not king of France. 
Certainly the document signed Drs. Pelletan, 
iJumangin, and Lassas is most unsatisfactory. 
It runs thus: 'We proceeded to examine the 
corpse of a youth shown to us by the Commission, 
and stated by them to be the son of Louis Capet.' 
This document is preserved in the Imperial 
Library of Paris. , ^^ . 

*,* The general tale is much more sad. It is 
this : The young prince, only eight, years old, was 
sent by the Convention to be brought up by a 
vulgar brute named Simon, a cobbler, whc stripped 
him of his suit of mourning, and dressed him like 
a pauper in coarse jacket and red cap, forced him 
to drink intoxicating liquors, and repeat revolu- 
tionary ballads. In a few months the delicate 
boy became half -consumptive and half idiot. 
January, 1794, the wretch locked him in an upper 
room, and here, without fire, without candle, and 
well-nigh without food, he lingered till June, 1795, 
when he died. 

Louis XVIII. le De'sire, sixth of 
the French Bourbon kings, brother of 
Louis XVI. and of Charles X. It is 
absurd to call him Le Desire, seeing he 
was thrust on the nation by the allies, 
and was never ' the desired ' of the people 
(1755, 1814-182-1). 

Father, Louis the Dauphin, and grand- 
son of Louis XV. ; Mother, Marie Josephe 
of Saxony; Wife, Marie- Josephine of 
Savoy ; no issue. Called Monsieur and 
the Comte de Provence till 1795 ; in exile 
he went as le Comte Delille. In England 
he lived at Hartwell, a seat of the Duke 
of Buckingham, where his wife died. 
Contemporary with George III., IV. 

The Bourbons : (1) Henri IV. ; (2) Louis XIII. ; 
(3) Louis XIV. ; (4) Louis XV., great-grandson of 
Louis XIV. ; (5) Louis XVI., grandson of Louis XV. ; 
Louis XVIII. brother of Louis XVI. 

*,* Louis XVII. and Napoleon II. were regal fic- 
tions, so called simply because they outlived their 
respective fathers. Similarly the date of the reign 
of Charles II. is absurdly thrown back to the 
death of Charles I., ignoring the Cromwellian 
interim, and implying a legal right of succession ; 
but in England the succession has been most 
irregular, and depends on the parliament. Thus 
William I., William II., Henry I., Stephen, Henry 
IV. V. VI., Richard UL, Henry VII., William III., 
&c., had not the slightest legal right to the throne 
of England, and their invalidity invalidates the 
entire succession. The whole right is sufferance 
or parliamentary sanction. 

IiOUis-Ph.ilippe. Citizen-king of 
the French (born 1773, reigned 1830-1848, 
died 1850). 

Father, Louis-Philippe, Mons. Egalite 
[Due d'Orleans]; Mother, Adelaide de 
Bourbon- Pen thievre; Wife, Marie- 
Amelie, niece of Marie- Antoinette. As- 



sumed names : 1793, M. Chabaud Latour, 
under which name he was a teacher in 
M. Jost's school in Switzerland ; in 1794 
M. Corby; in 1795 Herr Miiller, under 
which name he travelled in the north of 
Europe ; 1848 Mr. William Smith, under 
which name his passport to England was 
made out at Honfleur ; but he and his 
wife fled from Paris under the name of 
M. and Mdme. Lebrun. 

Louis XIII. had for sons Louis XIV. and Philippe 
de France due d'Orleans. Philippe s son was Phi- 
lippe the Regent, the Regent's son was Louis, 
whose son was Louis-Philippe. Louis-I^hilippe s 
son was Philippe Egalite, and Egalite s son was 
King Louis-Philippe. 

Louis de Male, Louis II. of Flan- 
ders. So called from Male, Marie, or 
Malain, in France, where he delighted to 
dwell. He succeeded his father in 1846, 
and died 1384. 

Louis the German. See Ludwig, 

&c. 

Louisiana (U.S.America). So called 
by M. de la Sale in 1G82, in honour of 
Louis XIV. In the minority of Louis 
XV. it was given to the Compagnie du 
Mississijypi. The inhabitants are nick- 
named Creoles. 

Louisville, a city of Kentucky, in 
the United States of North America, on 
the Falls of Ohio. It was named, in 
1780, in honour of Louis XVI. of France, 
whose troops were at the time assisting 
the Americans in the War of Indepen- 
dence. 

Loup-GarOU, a lyc'anthrope. A 
sort of liypochondriac who fancies himself 
to be a wolf, and under this impression 
goes about howling and attacking cliildren. 
This mania occurred in Germany in the 
early part of the 17th cent. 

The celebrated Nicolle tells us of a convent where 
all the nuns fancied they were cats, and at a 
certain hour every day ran about mewing and 
caterwauling. It was cured by threatening to 
quarter a regiment of soldiers in the nunnery. 
Nebuchadnezzar's madness, in which he fancied 
himself to be an ox, is supposed to have been a 
I species of lycanthropy. 

Louvestein {Dutch, Loevestein ; 
pronounce ' Loovestine,' 3 syl.). A poli- 
tical or state prison during the time of the 
Dutch Republic. It is a castle at the con- 
fluence of the Meuse (Du tch, Maas) and the 
Waal (Rhine), and is opposite the town of • 
Gorkura (Gorichem), about ten miles above 
Dort [Dutch, Dortrecht). Here Grotius 



LOUVESTEIN 



LUCANIAN 



539 



was kept ; he made his escape in a box 
which had been employed to bring him 
books. Here, too, De Witt and some other 
repubHcan leaders had been imprisoned, 



and hence the republican party was called 
the ' Louvestein.' They wex-e discharged 
from the castle at the death of William II. 
the stadtholder. 




Louvestein Faction {The). The 
republican party of Holland, led by Jan 
and Cornelius de Witt, in opposition to 
the Orange policy, which was to uphold 
the office of stadtholder. The Louvestein 
faction succeeded for several years in ex- 
cluding the house of Orange from the 
stadtholdership in the person of William 
III. (afterwards king of England), but in 
1672 both the brothers De Witt were 
murdered by an infuriated crowd. 

Louis [XIV.] sent Caillieres to Holland to tamper 
•with the Louvestein faction, which had always 
been hostile to William [III. of Holland and of 
England].— HowiTT, HUt. of Eng. (William and 
Mary, 105). 

Love-feasts, or Agapse. Held in 
the early ages of Christianity after re- 
ceiving the eucharist. The rich brought 
provisions, but the poor were not exj)ected 
to contribute. They continued to be held 
for three centuries, and were ultimately 
forbidden by the Council of Carthage, 
A.D. 397. 

The 'kiss of peace' was changed for a sym- 
bolical ceremony. An ivory tablet was first kissed 
by the minister and then circulated through the 
congregation for each one to kiss. 

Low Mass, ' Missa bassa.' A mass 
without singing, ' quae submissa voce cele- 
bratur.' See ' Mass.' 

Low St. James. 'From low St. 
James's up to high St. Paul's ' (Pope, 
* Satires '). The allusion is to the Bangor- 
ian controversy {q.v.). Bishop Hoadly, 
the favourite of Queen Anne, was the 
exponent of the low church party at St. 
James, but his opponent, Dr. Francis 
Hare, dean of St. Paul's, was the leader 
of the high church party. We should 
now say ' from Charles Simeon to Dr. 
Pusey,' or (1890) from 'John Charles Ryle 
of Liverpool to Edward King of Lincoln.' 



Lowndean Professor of Astro- 
nomy and Geometry. Value 450Z. a year. 
Founded in the University of Cambridge 
by Thomas Lowndes, 1749. 

If the professor superintends the observatory he 
recei%-es an extra '250J. a year. 

Loyal Association {The), 1792. 
Formed in London by John Reeves, 
favouring the British constitution, in 
opposition to the favourers of the French 
revolutionary spirit. 

Loyal Irish Brotherhood {The), 
1880. A group of the Land League or- 
ganisation. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Loyal N'ational Repeal Asso- 
ciation {The), 18S9. Organised by 
Daniel O'Connell to procure for Ireland 
' pei'fect equality with England,' and bring 
about the repeal of the union. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Loyalty Loan {The), 1796. Sub- 
scribed in December to prepare against 
the threatened invasion of the French. 

Lubbock's Day (iS^.). The August 
Bank-holiday. So called from Sir Jolin 
Lubbock, who brought it about. 

A Bank holiday is called 'A feast of St. Lub- 
bock.' 

Ltibeck {Peace of). May 22, 1629. 
Between Kaiser Ferdinand II. and Chris- 
tian IV. of Denmark. This treaty brought 
to a close the first part of the Thirty 
Years' War. 

Lucanian Oxen. Elephants. The 
Romans had never seen elephants till 
Pyrrhus invaded Rome. In their ignor- 
ance they called them ' Lucanian oxen,' 
supposing them to be herds from the 
fertile meadows of Lucania. The swine 
of Lucania were also famous, and the 



540 



LUCASIAN 



LUDWIG 



Romans delighted in the sausages, which 
they called Lucanica. 

Lucasian Professor of mathe- 
matics. Stipend 850Z. Founded in the 
University of Cambridge by Henry 
Lucas, M.P. fcfr the university, 1G63. 
See ' Mathematics,' &c. 

Luciferians, 4th cent. An 'here- 
tical ' religious sect founded by Lucifer 
bishop of Cagliari. They taught that the 
soul is transmitted to the children from 
their parents. 

Lucilius {The French). Beranger 
the poet. Lucilius was either the first or 
one of the first Roman satirists, followed 
by Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. Be'- 
ranger is the French Horace rather than 
the French Lucilius. 

Lu'cumo and Lars. A Lucumo 

was an independent king of any one of 
the twelve confederate states of ancient 
Etruria. His kingdom was called a 
' Lucumy.' In time of war one of these 
Lucumos was appointed leader, and was 
called Lars (generally the over-king), as 
Lars Porsena. Similarly, the leader of 
the Gauls was called Brenn [Latin 
Brennus], and the leader of the Britons 
was called Dragon, or Pendragon. 

And plainly and more plainly 
Now might the burghers know, 

By port and vest, by horse and crest. 
Each warlike Lucumo. 

Lars Pors6na of Clusium 
Sat in his ivory car. 
MACAULAY, Lays of Ancient Rome (Horatius). 

Luddites, 1811-1813, and again 1816. 
Rioters, so named from their leader, who 
called himself * General Lud.' The great 
year of riots was 1812-1813. There had 
been recently introduced machines for 
finishing woollen goods, formerly done 
by men called ' Croppers.' By these 
machines the croppers were thrown out 
of work, and formed themselves into 
rioters, who went about Derbyshire, Lan- 
cashire, Cheshire, Nottinghamshire, and 
the south-western districts of Yorkshire, 
breaking the machines, and threatening 
the owners of them. Sixty-four of the 
rioters were executed in 1812, and nine 
in the following January. 

Miss Martineau says the Luddites were so called 
from Edward or Ned Lud of Leicestershire, who, 
being chased by some boys, took refuge in a fac- 
tory, where he broke two stocking-frames. The 
ciiiof of the Luddites was a man named Mellor. 



Ludgate. Ludgate was originally 
built in 121.5 by the barons, who entered 
London, destroyed the houses of the 
Jews, and erected this gate with the 
ruins thereof. It was first used as a 
prison in 1373, being then a free prison, 
but it soon lost that privilege. Sir 
Stephen Forster, who was lord mayor iii 
1454, had been a prisoner at Ludgate, 
and begged at the grate, where he was 
seen by a rich widow, who bought h s 
liberty, took him into her service, and 
ultimately married him. To commemo- 
rate this eventful incident, Sir Stephen 
enlarged the accommo(^.ation for the 
prisoners, and added a chapel. The old 
gate was taken down and rebuilt in loSH. 
This new gate was destroyed in the Great 
Fire. Another gate was subsequently 
built and also used as a prison for debtors, 
but was pulled down in 1760, and the 
prisoners removed, first to the workhouse, 
and afterwards to the Giltspur Street 
Compter (Professor Morley, note to No. 
82 of the ' Spectator ' ). 

Ludi-magister. A schoolmaster. 
Ludus means a school as well as a game 
of sports. Hence,' ducere filium in ludum,' 
to take one's son to school. ' Noluit in 
. . . ludum me mittere ' (Horace, " Sat." 
I. vi. 72). 

Sir Walter Scott makes Erasmus 
Holiday say, ' He was inclined to think 
he bore the name of Holiday. . . because 
be gave such a few holidays to his school. 
Hence, the schoolmaster is termed clas- 
sically ludi-viagister, because he deprives 
boys of their play ' (' Kenilworth,' chap. ix.). 

Ludovico Sforza, the More, 

duke of Milan (died 1510). Ludovico 
adopted as his bearing a white mulberry 
tree {moro), the ' wisest of all plants,' in 
that it buds late, and does not flower till 
all hazard from winter frosts and winds 
has passed away. He was not named 
the Moor as most people write the name. 
(Paulus Jovius, * Vitee lUustrorum 
Virorum,' iv.). 

Ludwig I. The same as Louis le 
De'bonnaire (778, 814-840). He was son 
of Charlemagne, and king both of France 
and Germany. 

Ludwig, Clovis, and Louis are mere varieties of 
the same name. Clovis='lovis=louis; and Lud- 
wig— Luwig=Louis. 

Ludwig II. the Young, i.e. the 
Greenhorn (822, 855-874), son of Lothaire. 



LUDWia 



LUTATIUS 



541 



He was 33 when he succeeded his father, 
and 54 when he died, so he was not called 
the young on account of youthful age ; but 
like Louis le Jeune of France (1120-1180), 
he was ' gi'een ' as a politician. Ludwig 
II. ceded part of his dominion to his 
brother Karl, and at the death of Kail, 
in 8G3, gave up part of Provence to his 
brother Lothaire. 

So Louis VII. le Jeune by repudiating his wife 
Elt'onore lost several provinces of France, which 
fell into the hands of Henry II. of England, who 
married her. 

Ludwig III. the Blind (880, 890-903, 
died 923). He was grandson of Ludwig 
II., and had his eyes put out by Berenger, 
on whom he made war unsuccessfully, 
and by whom he was deposed in 903. 

Ludwig IV. the Infant (893, 899- 
911). Not recognised by some. Last of the 
Karlovingian race in Germany. He was 
son of Arnulf of Cariiithia. Too feeble 
to resist the Huns and oppose Otto (duke 
of Saxony), he fled to Ratisbon, and the 
throne was given to Konrad I. duke or 
count of Franconia. 

Ludwig V. (of Bavaria). One of 
the promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany 
(1314-1347). In 1338 the pragmatic 
sanction of Rense decreed that the 
elected king of Germany was ex officio 
kaiser, or emperor of the Holy Roman 
Empire. 

Ludwig V. placed two black eagles on the impe- 
rial seal, but Karl IV. changed the device into a 
black eagle with two he.^ds. He was the last of 
the emperors of Germany excommunicated by a 
pope. 

Ludwig, called * Louis the German,' 
third son of Louis I. le De'bonnaire, and 
grandson of Charlemagne. On the divi- 
sion of Charlemagne's empire, by the 
Treaty of Verdun (843), Bavaria and the 
whole country to the east of France 
(called Germany) ffell to his lot. 

Louis le Debonnaire had four sons : Lothaire, 
Pepin, Ludwig, and Charles. Pepin died before 



Ludwig the Child. 
' Louis the Infant.' 



See above, 



Ludwig the Saxon, second son of 
Ludwig the German. He died 882. 

Charlemagne, Karl I., or Charles I. 

Louis I. le De'bonnaire, son of Charle- 
magne. 

Ludwig the German, third son of 
Louis I. le De'bonnaire. (His two brothers 
were Lothaire of Italy and Pepin, who 
died before he did.) 



Kahl III. the Fat, third son of Ludwig 
the German. (His two brothers were 
Karlman of Italy and Ludwig the Saxon.) 

Arnulf (who reigned 888-899) was son of Karlman 
or Carloman of Italy, and nephew of Karl III. the 
Fat. As he died before his uncle, his kingdom wa3 
joined to the dominions of Karl III. the Fat. 

Arnulf s son was Ludwig the Cliild or Infant. 

Lugdunensis. That part of Gaul 
which lay between the Loire and the 
Seine. 

Luke's Iron Crown, referred to 

by Goldsmith in ' The Traveller,' should 
be ' Zeck's iron crown,' as it was not Luke 
but George Dosza who was tormented in 
the way described a.d. 1514. He was a 
Szekler, or peasant of Szekelyfiild, a dis- 
trict of Transylvania. The Jack Cade 
of Hungary was punished by being seated 
on an iron throne with a fire under it, 
crowned with a red-hot crown, and having 
his flesh torn off his bones by hot pin- 
cers. 

Hujusmodi libertatem propter seditionem et 
tumultuariam adversus universam nobilitatem, 
sub nomine cruciatse, ductu cujusdam scelerati 
Georgii Szekelii, insurrectionem, amiserunt. — 
Verboczi, Jus Conswtudinaiium Regni Hungario', 
1014. 

Lumley Exhibition, in the Uni- 
versities of Oxford and Cambridge, 1657. 
The Right Hon. Elizabeth viscountess 
Lumley founded ten scholarships of 4Z. 
per annum each for poor scholars. In 
1820 the number of scholars was reduced 
to five, and the value of the exhibition 
increased to 15/. a year, to be held till 
they become graduates. 

Luneville {Treaty of), 9 Feb., 1801. 
Between France and Austria. By this 
treaty Belgium and the Rhenish pro- 
vinces were ceded to France, and the 
states of Venice were given to Austria ; 
the pope was re-established, and the 
Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetian, and Bata- 
vian republics were duly recognised. 

Lurdane. A rich idle man ; a cor- 
ruption of ' Lord-Dane.' So the Danes 
who remained in England after the re- 
storation of Danegeld by Etheh-ed the 
Unready were called by the servile 
English, who stood in awe of them. 

More likely to be old French loiudan, modern 
French louidatid, a loggerhead. 

Lusitania, Portugal. The country 
of the Lusitiini. 

It included Portugal and Estreraadura. 

Lutatius says so, and 'therefore 
it must be true.' Hoc verum est; dixit 



542 



LUTESTRING 



LYONISTS 



enhn Lutatius (Cicero, 'De Oratore,' ii. 
40). Quiiitus Lutatius Catulus was the 
colleague of Marius in his fourth consu- 
late. The character of Catulus stood so 
high in Rome that no one disputed or 
doubted what he said. 

Lutestring Administration 

[The), 1765, That of Lord Rockingham, 
which followed the Grenville administra- 
tion. Marquis of Rockingham premier 
and lord of the treasury ; Grafton and 
General Conway secretaries of state ; Earl 
of Northington chancellor ; the old Duke 
of Newcastle privy seal ; the old Lord 
Winchilsea president of the council ; and 
Charles Townshend paymaster of the 
forces. As the ministry could not last, 
Charles Townshend himself said, ' It is a 
mere lutestring administration.' (Lute- 
string is a summer silk, unfit for winter 
wear.) 

'Lutestring,' a corruption of Imttrin, from the 
Italian lustiino, Frencli Zus^ce, a shining silli fabric, 
much worn at the time by ladies. 

Luther (Martin). Born at Eisleben 
in Saxony 10 Nov., 1483; entered the 
Augustine monastery at Erfurt in 1505 ; 
professor of philosophy at Wittenberg in 
1508 ; Leo X. issued a bull against him 
24 June, 1520 ; Luther burnt the bull at 
Wittenberg 10 Dec, 1520; he appeared 
before the Diet of Worms April 1521 ; 
was seized on his journey and carried to 
Wartburg, where he began his version of 
the Bible; he returned to Wittenberg in 
March 1522 ; discarded the dress of a 
monk in 1524 ; married Catherine de 
Bora, an ex-nun, 27 June, 1525 [he was 
42 years old at the time] ; and died at 
Eisleben 18 Feb., 1546. 

A monument was erected to him at Wittenberg 
in 1821, and one at Worms in 1808. 

Luther [The Danish). Hans Tausen. 
There is a stone in Viborg called ' Tau- 
sensminde,' with this inscription : ' Upon 
this stone, in 1528, Hans Tausen first 
preached Luther's doctrine in Viborg.' 

Luther of England (TZ/e). Arch- 
bishop Cranmer (1489-1556). He did 
the work of Luther, but was very unlike 
the rough German in character. 

Luther's Catechisms. Luther 
published two catechisms, the shorter 
one in 1520 and the larger one in 1529. 
These religious catechisms found a place 
iiiiong the symbolical books of the 
Lutheran churches. 



Lutheranism.. The platform of 
those Protestants who, like Luther, 
believe in consubstantiation, the use of 
images as aids to devotion, private con- 
fession, the form of exorcism in baptism, 
and some other semi-Catholic doctrines 
and practices. 

Luther said that Christ, in the sacrament, is 
present with the broad and wine, as fire is present 
with iron when the metal is red-hot. 

Luxemburg {House of). Fur- 
nished Germany with four kaisers, but 
other rulers intervened ; as Heinrich VII. 
(1308-1313); Karl IV. (1347-1373); Wen- 
ceslaus (1378-1400) ; and Siegmund or 
Sigismund (1411-1437). 

Lydford Law. Lydford is a village 
of Devonshire where we are told offend- 
ers were summarily punished. 
First hang and draw, 
Tlien hear the cause by Lydford law. 
There are many similar expressions ; as ' Brad- 
ford law,' ' Halifax law,' 'Cupar justice, 'Jed- 
burgh justice,' 'Burslem club-law,' 'Mob law,' 
' Abingdon law,' &c. 

Lydian Stone. So touchstone was 
called by the Romans, because it was 
found in Lydia of Asia Minor. 

Lying Dick Talbot. Richard 
Talbot duke of Tyrconnel, lord lieutenant 
of Ireland (*-1691). 

Lynch Law. The law of self-con- 
stituted magistrates. James Lynch was 
a Virginian farmer who in 1688 took 
upon himself to enforce better order by 
trying thieves, vagabonds, and other dis- 
orderly persons. This he did because 
there were then no magistrates or law 
courts in the neighbourhood. Lynch 
seems to have acted pretty fairly in his 
self-constituted office, insomuch that he 
was supported by his neighbours. 

Lyonists. The followers of Peter 
Waldo of Lyons, who died 1197. Peter 
Waldo had the four gospels translated 
into French, and found the prevailing 
religion so different to that taught in the 
gospels that he became a preacher, and 
soon gathered round him a large fol- 
lowing. The Lyonists rejected the dog- 
ma of apostolic succession ; accepted 
only two sacraments; maintained the 
sufficiency of scripture ; believed in only 
one Mediator, and therefore rejected 
the advocacy of Virgin Mary and the 
saints ; denied papal supremacy and 
purgatory; rejected masses for the dead, 



LYRIC 



MACCABEES 



543 



the adoration of images and relics, in- 
dulgences, and other innovations. 

The Lyonists, Waldenses, Cathari, and Albi- 
genses had so much in common, they are very 
frequently confounded one with another. 

Lyric Poets {The Prince of). 
Pindar (b.c. 529-435), a Boeotian. 

Franz Peter Schubert, the musical composer, is 
called ■ the Prince of Lyrists ' (1797-1828). 

Lysippus {The English). G-rinling 
Gibbons, the carver and sculptor in the 
reign of Charles II. (1648-1721). His 
favourite wood was lime or linden. 
Lysippus was a Greek sculptor in the 
time of Alexander the Great, whose most 
famous works were statues of Alexander, 
the chariot of the sun at Rhodes, and the 
colossus of Tarentum. 

Mabinogion {The). Welsh fairy 
tales. The MS. is of the 14th cent., and 
is included in the ' Red Book of liergest ' 
{q.v.). Lady Charlotte Guest published 
a translation of it in 1838-1849. ' Ma- 
binogi means 'instruction for youth,' 
from Mahan, a young child. 

Macabre {La Danse). An allegory 
representing all ages and conditions of 
men engaged in dancing, with Death pre- 
siding. Very popular from the 13th to 
the 15th cent., and found in a large num- 
ber of churches and cemeteries. The 
most ancient goes back to the year 1485, 
and the most famous are those of Min- 
den. Lucerne, Liibeck, Dresden, and 
Basle. The painting in the convent of 
the Dominicans is attributed to Holbein. 

Macadam {John Loiulon) intro- 
duced two improvements in roads : (1) 
Instead of making the centre of the road 
the lowest part, he made it the highest, 
so that the centre is the crown from 
which the road on both sides gradually 
lowers ; (2) his other improvement was 
to employ stones broken small instead of 
entire stones of various sizes. By the 
first improvement the roads are better 
drained ; by the second they are smoother 
and more firm (1756-1836). 

Macaroni Club {The), 1770. A 
club of dandies, first in Paris and then in 
London, in the latter half of the 17th 
cent. Their hair was dressed in an 
enormous toupee, with huge curls at the 
sides, and tied behind into a pigtail with 
a knot. A very small hat was perched 
on the top, and was lifted from the head 
by a small cane. Round the neck was a 



full white cravat tied in an enormous 
bow. Frills from the shirt-front pro- 
jected from the top of the waistcoat. 
The coat and waistcoat were both short, 
reaching only to the hips. The breeches 
were tight, of spotted or striped silk, 
with enormous bunches of strings at the 
knees. A watch was carried in two 
breeches pockets, from which dangled 
huge bunches of seals. The shoes were 
small, with diamond buckles ; and a 
walking-stick with long tassels completed 
the costume. It was the delight of the 
exquisites to be as rude as possible to 
modest women, and to bully all the weak 
and timid. 

Macaroni is an Italian cake. The slang expres- 
sion ' What a cake (oaf) you are ! ' may have risen 
from these empty-headed fops, or 'toffs,' called 
in 1888 ' mashers ' or ' dudes,' which -words are still 
(1890) in vogue : indeed have been appropriated by 
the lighter order of f eminines, who talk of ' mash- 
ing ' the male sex when they are persuaded their 
appearance is particularly effective. 

A kind of animal, neither male nor female, 
lately started up amongst us. It is called a 
Macaroni. It talks without meaning, it smiles 
without pleasantry, it eats without appetite, it 
rides without exercise.— Oa/ord Magazine (June 
1770, vol. iv. p. 228). 

Macbeth. Lady Macbeth's maiden 
name was Graoch. Macbeth did not 
murder Duncan in his castle of Inverness, 
but attacked and slew him at a place 
called Bothgowan or the Smith's House, 
near Elgin, in 1040. The claim of Mac- 
beth, as grandson of Malcolm II., was 
(according to the rule of Scottish succes- 
sion) much better than that of Duncan. 

Lady Macbeth was the granddaughter of Ken- 
neth IV., killed in 1003 fighting against Malcolm II. 

MacBriar (Ephraim), introduced 
by Sir Walter Scott in ' Old Mortality,' is 
the young preacher Maccail, so hideously 
tortured in the reign of Charles II. He 
died in a rapture. See Howitt, ' Hist, of 
Eng.' (Charles 11. p. 442). 

Maccabaaan Martyrs {Feast of 

the), 1 Aug. A mother and her seven 
sons were put to death by Antiochus 
Epiphiines. These were not Christian 
martyrs, but the festival was instituted 
by Cliristians. 

Maccabaeus {The French). Simon 
de Montfort, entrusted by Philippe 11. 
Auguste with the first crusade against 
the Albigenses. He cut down 20,000 of 
them with the sword and burnt 450 to 
death (1150-1218). 

Maccabees [The). The Asmonjcan 
princes of Judcea were so called from 



544 



MACCULLOCH 



MACEDONIANS 



Jehu'dah or Judah, surnamed ' Maccaby,' 
who succeeded his father Mattatlilas 
as leader of the Jews who revolted from 
Antiochos Epiphanes. See 'Asmo- 
nreans.' 

The Maccabees continued to be rulers 
of the Jews till the ai^pointment of 
Herod the Great. Mattathias had five 
sons, and was succeeded by Judah ' Mac- 
caby,' his third son ; after whom followed 
Jonathan, the youngest of the five ; and 
then came Simon, who transmitted the 
succession. 

Mattathias (B.C. 167-166) was father of Jochanan, 
Simon (142-1,%), .Tudah ' Maccaby ' (166-161), Kleazar, 
and Jonathan the high priest (;61-142). 

Simon was the fatlier of Joannes Hyreanus (B.C. 
136-107), the third son. 

Joannes Hyrcfmus wasthe father of Aristobukis 
(who assumed the title of ' king' B.C. 107-106), and 
Alexander Jannceus (also called ' king,' 106 79). 

Alexander Jannseus was the father of Hyreanus 
II. (B.C. 79, deposed B.C. 40, and put to death by 
Herod B^c. .SO),— and of Aristobulus II. (dethroned 
by HjTcanus II.). 

Aristobulus was the father of Mariamne, who 
married Herod the Great. 

*,* Maccaby is probably the Inscription of the 
Maccabsean banner, BI.C.C.B.Y. iUli L'mtu>-Co Be- 
elohim Yehovah — i.e. 'Who is like unto thee, 
O Lord, among the gods'?' Exod. xv. 11). After 
the same manner the Romans inscribed on their 
banners the acrostic S.P.Q.R. (i.e. Senatus Populus- 
que Komanus). See the Austrian A.E.I.O.U. 

MaeCulloeh {Cutlar). A corsair 
who made repeated incursions on the 
northern shores of the Isle of Man, 
carrying off all that was not ' too hot or 
too heavy ' (ICth cent.). 

God keep the good corn, the sheep, and the 

bullock, 
From Satan, from sin, and from Guitar BlacCul- 

loch. 

MacDonald {Half -hanged), 1772. 
MacDonald, a lad of 19 years, in the 
42nd Royal Highlanders, being irritated 
in a public-house in Bigg Market, seized 
one Parker and slapped his face soundly. 
Parker and one or two others rushed 
from the public, and MacDonald, rushing 
after the fugitives, caught the wrong 
man, struck him, and he died. Being 
tried, he was condemned and executed. 
The body was handed over for dissection, 
and left on the table while the students 
went to dinner. A young surgeon came 
into the dissecting-room and saw 
MacDonald sitting up. He begged for 
life, but the surgeon struck him with a 
heavy mallet and effectually dispatched 
the half-hanged man. 

Macedonian War {The). The 
First, B.C. 211-205 Between Rome and 
Macedonia. Philip V. king of Macedon 
not Alexander's father), thinking the 



disastrous battle of Cannae had esta- 
blished the Carthaginian supremacy, 
formed in B.C. 213 an alliance with Han- 
nibal ; but both Rome and Carthage were 
for the time being too busy with their 
own affairs to attend to other matters, 
and left the war to allies. In this war 
Philip had the advantage. 

In the first Macedonian war the ffitolians, 
Athenians, Khodians, and Egyptians, together 
with Attains king of Pergamus, took part with 
the Romans. 

The Macedonians, Carthaginians, Acarnanians, 
with Antiochus king of Syria, sided with Philip of 
Macedon. 

The Second Macedonian war, B.C. 
200-197. Also between Rome and Mace- 
donia. Philip of Macedon laid siege to 
Athens B.C. 200 ; but as Athens was an 
ally of the Romans, the Romans declared 
war against him, and entrusted the con- 
duct of the war to Quintus Flaminlnus, 
who met the army of Pliilip in Thessaly, 
and gained a signal victory at Kynos- 
keph'alae (the Dogshead Hills) in 197. The 
terms of peace were these : (1) Philip 
was to restore all the Greek towns to 
independence ; (2) he was to give up his 
fleet, and pay a tribute to Rome for ten 
years; and (3) he was to give his son 
among the hostages for the fulfilment of 
these terms. 

The Third Macedonian war, B.C. 172- 
168, was between the son of Philip, named 
Perseus, and the Romans. About twenty- 
six years after the second war, Philip 
being dead, his son Perseus (2 syl.), hoping 
to throw off the Roman yoke, made war 
with partial success for three years, but 
was at length utterly defeated by ^milius 
Paullus, at Pydna in Macedonia, B.C. 168. 
Perseus was led captive to Rome, and 
the kingdom of Macedonia was converted 
into a Roman province. 

The avarice of Perseus estranged from him all 
his allies, and though he behaved in the most 
abject manner to yl'.milius Paullus, he was cast 
into a dungeon at Home, and died of starvation 
and grief. His son .Alexander gained his bread in 
Alba Longa as a turner. 

Macedon'ians, or ' Pneumat'ics,' 
4th cent. The followers of Macedon'ius 
patriarch of Constantinople (843-360), 
who denied the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost. He was condemned by the Second 
General Council, held at Constantinople 
in 381. 

The First General Council- that of Nice, 325— 
condemned Arius, who denied the divinity of 
Christ ; and the Second General Council con- 
demned Macedoriius, who denied the divinity ol 
the Holy Ghost. 



MACFARLANE'S 



MACROBIOTS 



54& 



MacFarlane's Lantern. The 

moon. Tlieclau of MacFarlane occupied 
the fastnesses of the western side of 
Loch Lomond, and were great depre- 
dators on the low countiy. As their ex- 
cursions were made by night, the moon 
was proverbially called their lantern. 

Machiavelism. Crooked, per- 
fidious policy, in which expediency is the 
ruling principle and chicanery the chief 
instrument. So called from Niccolb 
Machiavelli of Florence, whose system is 
set forth in his 'Del Principe.' Cesare 
Borgia is his model of a perfect ruler 
(14G9-1527). 

Both Tiberius of Rome and Louis XI. of France 
are credited with the maxim, ' He wlio knows not 
how to deceive, knows not how to rule.' 



Maclean's People. 

tists. 



Scotch Bap- 



Macmillanites (4 syl.). Members 
of the ' Reformed Presbyterian Church ' 
((/.?'.) ; so called from Mr. Macmillan, one 
of their most distinguished preachers. 

Macrea {Jenny), 1777. Abducted and 
murdered by Lidians in the army of 
General Burgoyne. Miss Macrea was re- 
siding with Mrs. Macneil, a widow, close 
to Fort Edward, and her lover, Jones, 
was in Burgoyne's army. She was about 
20 years of age, intelligent and charming. 
On 27th July a party of Indians assailed 
Mrs. Macneil's house, and carried her off 
with Miss Macrea. Being pursued by some 
American soldiers. Miss Macrea was fas- 
tened to a tree, tomahawked, and scalped. 
The elder lady seems to have escaped. 

The burning houses, the scalped and murdered 
Americans, and the innocent blood of Miss Macrea 
made the names of the Six Nations terrible in 
Europe.— HowiTT, Hist. ofEng. (Geo. III.), p. 190. 



Macrobiots. Exceeding 100 years. [Greek ju.a*cp6s /Si'otos.] 



Age Year of 

death 

102. Hastings (ffe«n/) 1639 Forester to Charles I. 

Chevreul (3f.£.), French chemist 1889 aged nearly 103. 

107. Laugher {Thomas) 1807 of Markley, Worcestershire. 

Macklin (C/iaricf) ... ... 1797 the actor. 

108. The mntlwr of Thomas Laugher. 

116. AUce of PhUadelphia 1802 

Up to 120 the names are too numerous for insertion. TJiere are above 1,200 of them. 

he lectured at Rome when 120 years old. 

a physician of Paris. Died 5 Oct. 

a surgeon and famous anatomist of Paris. 

an Englishman. 

died at Neuchatel in Switzerland. 

an Augustine, who had been a priest for 91 years. Died in thg^ 

abbey of Claire-Fontaine, 
lived at Blexapao near Coimbra, on the road to Porto, 
having lost all his teeth, he cut a new set at the age of 116. 

The Prussian doctor Ufland is the authority for this state- 
ment. 
in the Serra da Estrella of Portugal, 
of Nice, died at Marseilles. He was a great eater and drinker 

His likeness, by J. Vernet, is in the Louvre, 
an Englishwoman, 
of Hampre, in Luxemburg. A little before death he could 

walk 6 or 7 miles. He was a labourer, 
died at Accomack, in Virginia. Button says she never touched 

alcoholic drinks, 
an agricultural labourer of the Jura. He presented himself 

to the Constituent Assembly in 1791. 
a labourer of Usquiole, in Berne. He never had a day's illness. 
a schoolmaster of Paris, 
died at Charleston, in South Carolina. She spoke fluently 

English, French, Spanish, Italian and Moorish; and knew 

both Arabic and Hebrew. 
— in the reign of Charles I. 
1760 of Luche, in the Maine. In 1757 her white hair turned to a 

blond or golden yellow. 
1753 a Spanish officer, died at Badajoz. 
17^3 died at Teschen, in Upper Silesia. 
1714 born at Shiffnal, and buried at Adbaston. He lived in the 

reign of eight sovereigns. 
1759 a Scotchman. 



120. Dragonetti, the Jesuit 

Fournelle (Pierre de) 

Grou (./('««) 

Ha.rp (Frederick) 

Jacot (Jacques) 

Levezier (Nicolas) 


1626 
1819 
1668 
1792 
1529 
1645 


Piedrede (Joanna Francesca de) 
120. A man of Eechingen 


1790 
1791 


A priest of Linhares 
121. Camoux (Annibal) 


1820 
1769 


MsilcoTason (Sarah) ... 
Ponce le Page 


1810 
1760 


Spicer (Eleonore, sic.) 


1773 


122. Jacob (Jean) 


1791 


LaPiole ^ 

Munier 

123. Barnet (dame) 


1739 
1708 
1620 



Countess of Arundel 
Guignard (Denis) ... 

124. T.ueno (Andre) 
Schrait (Andre) 
W&kley (William) ... 

Wish&tt (Thomas) ... 



It is said that A ttila king of the Huns died at the age of 124, on the night of his second m/irriage, a.D. 453. 



120. Barnesley (William) 
Grandez 



Martha Hannah 



1636 an Englishman. At the age of 100 he married a second wife. 

1754 of Pradez d'.\ubrac, in Languedoc, a silversmith. He never 
touched wine, and worked at his trade within twelve days 
of his death. Till then he had never suffered a day's illness. 

1808 an Irishwoman. 

NN 



546 



MACROBIOTS 



Year ol 

death 
. ICftS a Scotchman by birth, but lived chiefly at Skipton, in Eng. 

land. Latterly he lived by begging. 
... 17C4 an Irish labourer of Meafch. He had 6 Angers on each hand 

and 6 toes on each foot. Was never ill. 
... 17(!9 of Tadcaster, in Yorkshire. 
... 181-4 of the Isle of Skye. 
... 1701 grandson of old Parr. An ostler, who died at Michaelstown, 

and at death no faculty had failed. 
... 1711 she lived in the reign of 8 sovereigns. 
... 1776 she walked from Shiffnal to London when she was 120, and 

married at the age of 92 her third husband. 
... 1771 a Welshman. 
... im.S an Englishwoman. 
.. 1710 of Bize, in the diocese of Comminges. 
4April, 170G of Northampton. Keill made the post-mortem, which is 

entered in our 'Philosophical Transactions.' He was a 

sheep-drover, and continued his occupation to the last. He 

was a thin and sinewy meui. 
... 1778 
... 179.5 

... 17^0 of Liverpool. 
... 17156 
... 176G 

... 1753 dean of Worcester. 
... 1786 

... 1748 of Vemil, in Murcia, Spain. 
... 1707 
... 177H 
... 1775 
... 17(i4 

... 17o7 of Aberdeen. He served as a private in Monk's army. 
... 17i'l 
... 1767 
... 1777 

... 1C41 died in Paris aged 184 years and 10 months. 
... 1772 of Newnham, in Gloucestershire. Her youngest daughter 

was 109 at the time. So says the German historian John 

M tiller. 
... 1744 
... 1739 of Killevan, in Monaghan. A day or two before her death she 

walked 3 miles out and back again. 
We are told that when Vespasiaii was emperor there were 45 persons in his empire of the age of 135. 



126. Montgomery (i?o5<?r<) 

127. CaroUan (Owen) 

Hughes (William) ... 

Innes (Marii) ... 

Neuwel (John) ... „. 

Scrimshaw (Jane) 

Yates (Mary) 

129. Evans (Hem-y) 
Meigham (Mrs. Mary) 
Roger (Jean) ... 

130. B&yles (John)... 



Seattle ( William) ... 
Cameron (David) ... 
Ellis (William) 

King (George) 

Lasomel (Jeande) ... 
Lilley (Samuel) 
Macbride (Robert) ... 
Mestauza (Pierre) ... 

Taylor (John) 

Watson (John) 

131. Garden (Pt'ter) 
Taylor (Elizabeth) .. 

132. Msiccnlloch (Alexander) 

133. Merchant (Elir, sic.) 

134. Ague (Frarwis) 
Bvookey (John) 
Grappin (Anne Oudet) 
Kelt (Mrs.) 



135. Harrison (John) 
Lawler (Margaret) 



1759 

12 Dec, 1761 



136. For&ter (Margaret) . 
Lafitte (Jean) 

Morriat (John) 
Noon (Catherine) . 
Patter (Margaret) . 

Sheile (James) 

136. Wunder (George) . 

137. Causeur (Jean) 

Bichardson (./rt/jn) 1772 

Robertson (Jo;t)J) 1793 

188. Chim (Mrs.) 1772 

Fairbrother (John) 1770 

M'Donough (John) 1708 

Sharpley ( William) 1757 

A Pole 1803 



189. Cameron (Marie) 1785 

Vohson (Thomas) ... 1766 

140. Desmond (Catherine countess of) 1752 

Laland (IFiHiam) 1752 

Polotiman 



1771 

15 Dec, 1766 he was called Liaroux. 
always thrice a week. 

1770 

1768 

... 1739 



He died at Rouillao. He bathed 



buried at St. Margaret's, Westminster; and a portrait of her 

is in St. Margaret's Workhouse, 
an Irish farmer. 

at Salzburg. Doctor Uf^and of Prussia vouches for this fact. 
10, July, 1775 at St. Blathieu, near Brest. He was a provision merchant. 

He drank little, but washed often. Born at Lanfeust. 



of Hopton Hall, near Edinburgh. 



who received an annual pension of 36 rix-dollars from the 
king ol Prussia. He married for the first time at the age ol 
80, and two years afterwards his wife had twins. 



Ireland. 



Bam (Joseph) .. 
(James) 



Sury (Rebecca) 

142. Iv/arling 

143. M'Findlay (Charles) 
Hilario Pari .. 



144. Effingham (John) 



145. Williams (Eva7i) 
A soldier 



18'25 surgeon, of Vaudemont, in Lorraine. He never left his native 

place, never took any sort of medicine, and never went to 

bed sober. The day before his death he performed with 

perfect success an operation on an old woman for cancer. 

... 1808 a negro of Jamaica. He walked 4 miles a little before his 

death. 
... 1770 a Stalfordshire farmer. His wife died at the age of 120, and 
the two lived out five leases of 21 years on the same farm. 
7 April, 1827 of Falmouth, in Jamaica, a negress. Testified by her master. 
1773 a monk. 
1773 
— an Indian. Alex, de Humboldt conversed with him at Chi- 
guata when he was 143 years old. His wife was 117. Up to 
the age of 180 Pari walked daily 4 miles. 
. 6 Feb., 1757 of Cornwall. He was a teetotaller, rose every day it 6 A.M., 
and very rarely ate meat. 
... 1702 
... 1803 died at Stazatmer, in Germany. 



MACEOBIOTS 



MAD 



547 



Age 



Year of 
death 



146. Drah^kemberg {Christien James) 1772 of Aarhuus, in Jutland. He was taken captive in his youth 

by corsairs, and was a sailor for 91 years. He never covered 
his head with hat or cap ; married a woman of GO when ho 
■was 113 years of age ; and a little before his death walked 
4 miles. 
Mattathias died by misadventure at the age of 146, according to the Apocrypha. 

Outegro (Jean d') 1726 a day labourer of Galicia. He lived chiefly on Turkish wheat 

and cabbage ; and very rarely drank wine. 
Winsloe (Tliomas) 1766 

148. Mead (IT't^iam) ... 1752 

149. II is said that Antiochos Epiphanes king ofSyria died at the age o/149. 



150. Arganthonius 
Consir (Francis) 

152. Bowles (James) 
Newman (Thomas) 
Parr (Thomas) 



West (Hcni-y) ... 

154. Damme (Tliomas) 

155. Obst 



— a Spaniard 

1768 of Bury thorpe. Ma Iton, in Yorkshire. From the age of 60 he 

was on the parish. 

16-''6 of Killingworth, Waru-ickshire. 

1.542 

16 Dec, 1(335 of Alberbury, in Shropshire. He was an agricultural labourer, 
and worked at his calling up to tlie age of 130, even as a 
thresher. At the age of 1'22 he married his second wife. His 
food was chiefly bread and cheese, and he drank mUk. He 
was buried in Westminster Abbey. Old Parr lived in the 
reign of ten sovereigns. 

r. r. 1648 
18i5 



a villager of Zwronegoschutz, in Silesia. She worked in the 
fields to the day of her death. She was a large eater, and 
drank daily two glasses of brandy. 
157. Some say Epimenidcs tlie Cretan poet died at the age of 157, B.C. 450. 



160. Surrington (Joseph) 



168. Edwards (William).. 

169. Jenkins (Henry) ., 



1797 of Bergen, in Norway. He left a son of I 
behind him. 



and one of 103 



172. Rowin (John) .. 

175. Tuisco 

179. Truxo (Louisa.) 
185. Zorten (Peter) 



207. Carh (Thomas) ^ 



1740 



17S5 
1724 



Ufland, Professor of Medicine in the University of Jena, 
searched into this, and tells us that Jenkins lived chiefly on 
charity, but sometimes went out to sea fishing. 
of Temeswar. His wife at his death was 164, and his youngest 

son was 90. 
a German prince, mentioned by Tacitus. 
a negress, who died at Tucuman, in South .\merica. 
he was a vegetarian, and his portrait used to hang in the 
library of Prince Charles, Brussels. Claude Nicolas le Ca,t 
mentions him. 
1588 according to the parish register of St. Leonard's, Shoreditch, 
he was born in the reign of Richard II., and died in the 
reign of Elizabeth. 
These are the most noted of the Macrobiots. Some of the names are not worthy of credit, such as 
Rowin, whose wife was 164 ; Surrington, whose son was 108 ; Kelt, whose youngest daughter was 109. 
However, the list is a long one, and it is well to have it handy. 

*,* Of the antediluvian Macrobiots two solutions have been suggested : (1) that the years were not 
Bolar but lunar years ; thus inEcclesIasticus (xliii. 6, 7,) we read : ' He [God] made the moon to serve in 
her season for a declaration of times, and from the moon is the sign of feasts.' It is also quite certain 
that six months is sometimes called a year ; but neither of these suggestions relieves the main ditfi- 
culty. Another solution is this : the first date (Genesis, chap, v.) gives the age of the sheik himself, and 
the next the duration of his dynasty or race. Thus : Adam lived 100 years and he begat Seth. He died 
aged 100, but his dynasty continued altogether 930 years. Seth was also a sheik, who lived 105 years, 
but his race continued sheiks for 807 years. Enoa lived 90 years, but his race continued 815 years ; 
and BO on. 



Mc William (A). An Irish dress, the 
dress of an Irishman, significant of being 
thorough Irish, and therefore hating the 
Enghsh. In 1586 the Burkes said, 'they 
would have a McWilham or else go to 
Spain ' — i.e. they would assume the Irish- 
man and throw off their English manners 
and allegiance, or else leave the country. 
In the 1-ith cent, the Burkes adopted the 
Irish dress and assumed the name of 
McWiUiam. 

Mad King of Lacedaeraoii (The). 
Cleomenes, who killed himself in a fit of 
madness, B.C. 494. 

Mad Parliament (The). The par- 
liament assembled at Oxford in 1258, 



which provided three things : (1) The 
confirmation of Magna Charta; (2) the 
virtual deposition of Henry III. ; and (3) 
the appointment of twenty-four coun- 
cillors, with Simon de Montfort at the 
head, in whom the government of the 
nation was to be vested. See ' Chambre 
Introuvable,' ' Parliaments.' 

This parliament ordered that three parliaments 
a year should in future be called in the months of 
Feb., June, and Oct. ; that a new sheriff should be 
annually chosen by the votes of the freeholders 
in each county ; that no English heirs shall be 
under the wardship of a foreigner ; that no new 
warrens or forests shall be created in the nation ; 
and that the revenues of no county shall be let to 
farm. 



Mad Parson 

1667—1783 



{The). Dean Swift, 



N N 2 



548 



MAD 



MADMAN 



Mad Priest of Kent {The). John 
Ball, aWyclifite, executed in 1381. He 
was a leader in the ' peasant revolt,' and 
preached to the people the equality of 
man. ' If (said he) we be all come from 
Adam and Eve, how can our oppressors 
show they are better than we ? When 
Adam delved and Eve span, who was then 
the gentleman ? ' 

Let Mr. Ball first tell us what is meant by ' bet- 
ter ' before we answer. Abel was better than 
Cain in one sense. 

Mad Queen [The). Juana, the wife 
and afterwards the widow of Philip of 
Flanders, generally called Philip the Fair 
of Austria. As she was queen of Castile 
and very rich, Henry VII. proposed to 
niarry her in 1506, but this proposal was 
rejected, and Henry died in 1509. 

The wife of Henry VII. died in Feb. 15C3 ; there- 
fore he was free to marry again. 

Madame (without a name following) 
meant, in the reign of Louis XIV., the 
wife of Philippe due d'Orleans, the king's 
brother (who was entitled Monsieur). 
The son of Philippe was entitled Petit- 
fils cle la France, and their daughter 
Mademoiselle. 

Amazing as the affectation may now appear, it 
is well known that in the reign of the Grand 
Monarque the title of Madame was limited to cer- 
tain duly qualified bourgeoises, such as.the wives of 
provosts, magistrates, sheritt's, and so on. Hence 
we read of the ' widow Mademoiselle Molitre,' &c. 

Madame I'Ange. Madame Du 

Barry, mistress of Louis XV., was so 
called from her extreme beauty. She 
succeeded Madame de Pompadour. 

Madam.e la Ducliesse (without 
a proper name) meant, in the reign of 
Louis XIV., the wife of Henri Jules de 
Bourbon, eldest son of the Prince de 
Conde. Mdme. la Duchesse was grand- 
child of the king by his natural daughter 
from La Valliere. Henri Jules de Bour- 
bon was entitled Monsieur le Due. 

Madame la Princesse (without 

a proper name) meant, in the reign of 
Louis XIV., the wife of the Prince de 
Conde (a natural daughter of the king 
by La Valliere). The Prince de Conde 
was entitled Monsieur le Prince. Their 
eldest son was entitled Monsieur le Due, 
and their eldest daughter Maclavie la 
Duchesse. 

Madame Solidite. The pet name 
given by Louis XIV. to Madame de Main- 
tenon (1G35-1719). 



Madame Veto. Marie Antoinette, 
wife of Louis XVI. (1755-1793). The 
constitution of 1791 accorded to the king 
of France the right of veto, but this veto 
was merely suspensive. Louis XVI. 
availed himself of this right from the 17 
to the 29 Nov., and was nicknamed Mon- 
sieur Veto, his wife being Madame Veto. 

Madame Veto avait promis 
De faire egorger tout Paris; 
Mais son coup a manque, 
Grace a nos canonnie. 

Revolutionary Song. 
Madam Veto swore one day 
All Parisians she would slay ; 
But the cannoneers of France, 
Never gave her tl re t the chance. 

Madeleine (La), Paris. Napoleon I. 
in 1815 commenced this beautiful build- 
ing over the spot where the body of 
Louis XVI. was buried. It was 
founded after the battle of Jena, and its 
name was to be the Temple of Glory. 
The Bourbons finished it, and called it 
' The Madeleine.' It is a truly splendid 
shrine for a most ill-used king. 
Louis XVI. was the C6th of the kmgs of France. 

Madelonnettes {Les), 1618. A re- 
ligious house in Paris in the Rue des Fon- 
taines designed for repentant women, and 
founded by Robert de Montry. The 
direction of this penitentiary is .under 
the Soeurs de la Visitation de St. Antoine. 
In the revolution it was turned into a 
political prison, and at the present day it 
is a house of detention for les filles de 
mauvaise vie. 

Mademoiselle (without a proper 
name), the title of the eldest daughter of 
the king of France. Thus, in the reign 
of Louis XIII., the Duchesse de Montpen- 
sier, the eldest daughter of Gaston due 
d'Orleans (the king's brother) was Made- 
moiselle ; but in the reign of Louis XIV. 
she became la grande Mademoiselle, 
because the king's brother Philippe due 
d'Orleans had a daughter who was Made- 
moiselle. 

In the reign of Louis XIV. the king's son was 
Monselgnenr ; his brother (Philippe) was Monsieur, 
his wife Madame, and their daughter Mademoiselle. 

Madman (The). Apollodorus the 
Athenian painter, who was so irascible 
that he destroyed his own pictures upon 
the slightest provocation (died B.C. 440). 

Shelley (in his preface to the transla- 
tion of Plato's ' Symposium ') says, ' To 
borrow an image from Italian painters, 
he [Apollodorus] seems to have been the 
St. John of the Socratic group,' in allu- 



MADMAN 



MAGIANS 



549 



sion to his impassioned and enthusiastic 
disposition. 

Madman of the Worth {The). 
Carl XII. of Sweden (1682, 1697-1718). 
In 1700, with 8,000 men lie overthrew 
80,000 Kussians at Nar\'a, a success which 
made him madder than he was before. 

Madonna Bianca. The Italian 
'White Lady ' (Rogers, ' Italy '). 

Madras College. See 'Andrews 

[University of St.).' 

Madras System of Education 

(The), 1795. On the mutual instruction 
system. In 1807 Dr. Andrew Bell intro- 
duced his system among the i^oor in Lon- 
don. By this plan the more advanced 
pupils instruct the less advanced. The 
system was very popular for a time, and 
pupil teachers are still employed in our 
parish schools. 

Madrid {Treaty of), 1526. Conse- 
quent on the battle of IPavia in the year 
previous. By this treaty Francois agreed 
to renounce all claim to the duchy of 
Milan ; to yield to the Emperor Karl V. 
Flanders, Artois, and Burgundy ; to re- 
store Bourbon to all his titles and pos- 
sessions ; and to send his two sons as 
hostages till these several conditions 
were fulfilled. 

Maecenas of France {The). 

Francois I. (1494, 1515-1547). Also 
called Fere des Lettrcs, being a most 
munificent patron of literature and art. 

Maenad {A). A bacchant. From 
the Greek jaatVo/nat, to be mad or furious ; 
because the gestures and shouts of these 
worshippers of Bacchus were like the 
ravings of mad women (pi. Maenades). 

Turning the current of her youth from the sweet 
modesty of maidenhood to the self-destroying 
violence of a Maenad.— E. Lynn Linton, Undar 
whirh Lord! chap, xxiii. 

Magazine, 1731. The name first 
applied in England to a periodical (' The 
Gentleman's Magazine'). 

Magdalen College, Oxford, 1458. 

Founded by William Patten bishop of 
Winchester. The headmaster is called 
the president. [Pronounce Maudlen.'] 

William Patten is generally called William of 
Waynfiete, from the place of his birth. 

Magdalen Hall, Oxford, 145G. 
Founded as a preparatory school to the 
college, but in 1602 it became indepen- 



dent, and in 1822 was removed to the 
seat of the former Hertford College. In 
1874 Magdalen Hall was dissolved, and 
the college was incorporated, under the 
title of ' the Principal, Fellows, and 
Scholars of Hertford College,' in the 
University of Oxford. 

Magdalene College, in Cambridge 
University. Founded by Thomas baron 
Audley of Walden in 1519. Familiarly 
called Maudlen. 

Magdeburg Hemispheres (T/ie), 

1650. Two small brass cups (about two 
inches in diameter), each furnished with 
a brass handle. The two cups fit each 
other, and form a sphere. Tiie object of 
this pneumatic toy is to show the pressure 
of air, for when the air has been pumped 
out of them two strong men cannot pull 
them asunder, but the moment air is 
admitted they can be parted without the 
slightest effort. Invented by Otto von 
Guericke of Magdebui'g. 

Maggy Lauder. This is a scur- 
rilous song, in the time of the reforma- 
tion, on the Catholic Church. 

MagiofCappadocia(r72e). These 
were accounted heretics by the Parsees. 
They worshipped in temples, and had 
many material symbols of their fire-god. 
They also offered up human victims. 
The high priest of the Cappadocian Magi 
wore a mitre. Unlike the Parsees, they 
bury their dead. 

The Parsees neither burn nor bury their 
dead, but place them in circular towers where 
birds of prey may devour them. 

Ma'gianism. The religious system 
of the Magi. The Magi believed in one 
god, or rather that the sky was all one 
god. No temples were built to this god, 
but those who wished to worship him 
went to the top of a mountain and pi*os- 
trated themselves. The seven planets 
were supposed to be his seven chief 
ministers. At death the soul had to pass 
through seven gates before it reached 
the heaven of heavens. Brotherly love 
was a moral law of the Magi, and so was 
tenderness to dumb animals. Zoroaster 
reformed Magianism (b.c. 589-513). 

Mag-ans {The), or ' Magi.' Part of 
the old Persian empire. Herodotus calls 
them ' one of the six Median tribes.' 
* The Wise Men of the East ' spoken of 
in St Matthew's Gospel were Magians. 



550 



MAGICIAN 



MAGNA 



Simon who deceived the people of Sv 
maria (Acts viii.) and Elymas the sorcerer 
were both Magians. As a rehgious order 
they were organised by Zoroaster, who 
divided them into (1) learners, (2) masters, 
and (3) perfect scholars. They had three 
methods of divination, (1) by calling up 
the dead, (2) by cups and dishes, and (8) 
by water. Their learning was so great, 
and their ' tricks ' so wonderful, that 
magic or Magianism became a synonym 
of sorcery. 

Magician of the North {The). 

So Hamann (1730-1788) called himself. 
He was a Prussian philosopher who de- 
fended revelation against the attacks of 
the Rationalists. 

Magister ad Faculta'tes (4 syl.). 
The chief officer of the Court of Faculties 
iq.v.). 

Magister Glomerise. A non- 
academic functionary in the University 
of Cambridge, the superintendent of the 
masters of grammar, of which there were 
a dozen or more attached to different 
schools where youths were taught the 
elements of the Latin language. These 
schools were nurseries for the university. 
Glomeria, a corruption of Gramery, skill 
in grammar. 

There ■were probably a dozen or more separate 
schools, each presided over by a master of gram- 
mar, while the Blagister Glomeriae represented 
the supreme authority.— Mullingsr, University of 
Cambridge, 1873, pp. 139, 340. 

Magna Charta, 15 June, 1215. 
Based on the laws of Henry I., which 
embraced those of Edward the Confessor 
and the ' ancient customs of England,' 
derived mainly from the free institutions 
of the Saxons and Danes. Drawn up at 
Edmundsbury bj^ Stej)hen Langton (arch- 
bishop of Canterbury) and the barons or 
free tenants of the king, 20 Nov., 1214, 
and signed by King John at Runnymede 
in the seventeenth year of his reign. It 
contains sixty-one clauses. Twenty-five 
of the barons were elected to see it carried 
out, and if any article was infringed four 
of the number were to lodge a complaint ; 
and if immediate redress was not granted, 
the twenty- five barons were empowered 
to take possession of the royal castles till 
redress was fully obtained. A copy of 
the charter was sent to every cathedral. 
The facsimile engraved by the Board of 
Commissions on the public records was 
from the copy in Lincoln Cathedral, sup- | 



posed to be the most accurate. The 
following clauses will show the nature of 
the charter : — 

The English Church is to enjoy all its rights and 
liberties, and all elections to benefices are to bo 
free. 

General Provisions : — 

All towns to enjoy their charters. 

All forests afforested in the present reign [i.e. 
John's] to be disafforested. 

No officer of the crown to take corn, timber, or 
other goods without payment, or to borrow any 
man's horse or cart without the owner's consent. 

No scutage to be exacted except by order of 
the national council. 

Assizes to be held by justices in eyre four times 
a year, and the Court of Common Pleas to be fixed 
at Westminster. 

No man to be condemned on suspicion, but only 
after a fair trial on the evidence of witnesses. 

No freeman to be outlawed, except according to 
law. 

All men to have equal justice. 

Guardians to keep up the estate of their re- 
spective wards, and to deliver it over well stocked 
and provided. 

Chattels to be seized for debt before lands or 
rents. 

If a minor has borrowed money, and dies before 
he comes of age, onlj' the principal (without 
interest) shall be paid to the lender. 

All weights and measures in the realm shall be 
uniform. 

Personal Provisions :_ 

No one to be distrained to perform more service 
to his lord than is due. 

No vil or person but those bound to do so to be 
distrained for making bridges, i"tc. 

No lord, except to ransom his person, shall levy 
aid on his freemen, either under pretence of mak- 
ing his heir a knight, or of dowering his eldest 
daughter at marriage. 

Foreign merchants to be free to trade in the 
land, and all natives to go and come as they 
choose. 

Widows to remain widows if they like, but if 
they marry they must give legal notice of their 
intention. 

Every man to be at liberty to bequeath his per- 
sonal property as he likes, but his real estates to 
descend to his widow and children. 

The Four new Clauses added by Edicard I., 5 Nov., 
1297 :— 

1. No taxes to be levied without consent of par- 
liament. 

2. No provisions to be taken for the king's ser- 
vice without the owner s consent. 

3. No levy, under the name of custom, to be 
levied on wool. 

4. All liberties, laws, and customs hitherto en- 
joyed to remain in force. 

See also the ' Dictum of Kenilworth, ' 15 Oct., 12C6. 

Magna Charta of Hungary. 

See ' Golden Bull of Hungary.' 

Magna Charta of Manx (The), 
1704. The Act of Settlement is so called. 
By this act the purchaser of a farm or 
other real property is allowed to sell, 
alienate, or devise his estate ; and as 
soon as it passes into the new hands, the 
former possessor loses all rights therein 
for ever. The land not revertable, as it 
was among the Jews in the year of jubilee. 

Magna Charta of Ottoman 
Liberty {The), or Imperial Edict of 



MAGNA 



MAHDI 



551 



Gulhaneh, granted by Abdul Med j id sul- 
tan of Turkey (1823, 1839-18G1). This 
edict equalised taxation and regulated 
the administration of justice in Turkey. 

Magna Charta of Turkey {The), 

21 Feb., 1856. A firman gi-anted by the 
Sultan after the Crimean war. It con- 
firmed to Christians in the sultanate full 
civil and religious liberty; it abolished 
all class distinctions, leaving every office 
open to every subject irrespective of 
birth, race, religion, or language ; all 
subjects admissible to the civil or mili- 
tary schools ; flogging and torture made 
penal; all classes to pay their proper 
ratio of taxes according to a money scale ; 
the items of national expenditure to be 
published ; a council of delegates to 
meet annually ; all subjects to have an 
equal right of holding land ; trade to be 
free. 

Magna Charta of the Galilean 
Church {The), 1438. The Pragmatic 
Sanction of Bourges enacted by Charles 
VII. It declared a general council of 
superior authority to the pope ; it freed 
all elections to church preferments from 
the control of the pope ; it abolished 
mandats and first-fruits; and, in fact, 
did for France what the Constitutions of 
Clarendon had done for England ; that 
is, reserved the ecclesiastical preferments 
of the nation to natives, and prevented 
the im-periuni in imperio or collision of 
Italian interests with those of the kings 
and his subjects. 

Magna Charta of the Pro- 
testants of Ireland {The), 1662. 
The Act of Settlement and the Act of 
Explanation, The two together form 
the tenure under which most of the land 
of Ireland is held. The act was framed 
by the Duke of Ormond, lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, to confirm Protestants in the 
estates confiscated from Irish Catholics 
after the ' Great Rebellion.' 

By the Act of Explanation some few altera- 
tions were made in the most obnoxious of the 
clauses of the Act of Settlement {<;.?'.). Before the 
outbreak of the civil war the estates of Ormond 
brought him in an income of 7,000;. a year. After 
the Magna Charta they brought him in an income 
Of 80,OOOi. a year. 

Magna Q-raecia. Modem Calabria. 

Magnanimous {The). Philippe 
II. Align ste of France (1105, 1180-1223). 
Called ' Auguste ' because he was born in 
the month of August (21st of the month). 



Magnum Decreto'rum, seu 
Canonum,Volumen. A famous col- 
lection of canons by Burchard bishop of 
Worms, a Benedictine, who died 1027 at 
the age of 72. 

Magnus Saga {The). The history 
and miracles of Earl Magnus, patron 
saint of Kirkwall Cathedral. It was 
printed for the Master of the Rolls in 
1887, with other Sagas. It is in Icelandic 
and not translated. 

Mag'ophon'ia, b.c. 522. An annual 
ceremony observed by the Magi in re- 
membrance of the massacre of their 
tribe by Darius Hystaspes, because a 
pretender usurped the throne of Persia 
while Cainbyses was absent in Egypt. 
Canibyses heard of the plot, but died on 
his way back, and Darius, his successor, 
made a general massacre of the Magi. 
During the Magophonia no Magian ap- 
peared in public. 

Magyarised (pron. Mard'-yer-ised), 
1830. Made to use the language of the 
Magyars [Mard-yers] or native Hun- 
garians, instead of the Latin tongue as 
hitherto. The Croats and Sclaves said 
Nolumus Magyarizari when the Hun- 
garian diet proposed this change. 

Mahabad'ian Dynasty {The). 
An antediluvian and fabulous Persian 
dynasty, so called from Mah'ab'ad, said 
to be the first king that ever reigned. 
He divided the people into four classes, 
viz. the religious, the military, the com- 
mercial, and the servile. 

According to Sir W. Jones, this dynasty was 
established ages before the accession of Cayiimers 
or Kayomurz, great-grandson of Noah, some nine 
centuries B.C. The I'ishdadian dyn^isty (ij.v.) is 
called the first Persian dynasty by those who 
fear to extend the chronology of history much 
above 2,000 years B.C. The Mahabad-ian dynasty 
was followed by the Jy-anian or Holy Dynasty. 
Of course Mahabad means Great King. All the 
fourteen hypothetical kings of this dynasty are 
called Abad, and all were said to be prophets. 

Mah'di {The). Supreme pontiff of 
the Shiites. Only twelve of these 
imams have really appeared, viz. Ali, Has- 
san, Hosein, and the nine lineal descend- 
ants of Hosein. Mahommed, the last 
Mah'di, we are told, is not really dead, 
but sleeps in a cavern near Bagdad, and 
will return to active life before the 
Judgment-day to overthrow Dejal or 
Antichrist. In the royal stables of 
Persia two horses are always kept sad- 
dled, in readiness for the Mah'di and his 



552 



MAHOMETANISM 



MAIDS 



lieutenant Jesus the son of Mary. The 
Sunnites or ' orthodox ' Moslems called 
the sultan the true imam [e-maum']. 

Mahomed Achmet or Mohammed Ahmed of 
Dongola was born about 1840. He was a car- 
penter, and became Mahdi in 1888. The Mahdi of 
the Soudan in 1881 was only a ' false prophet,' who 
pretended to be the sleeping imam come back to 
active life to overthrow the enemies of the faith 
and restore all things. Mahdi means the guidedone. 

*^* It must be remembered that the Sunnites 
arc the ' orthodox ' Moslems, and the Sultan ol 
Turkey is the calif or head thereof. The Shiites 
are the Persian Moslems, hated by the orthodox 
party. The Mahdi and his party which are now 
(1890) disturbing Egypt are hated by the official 
Egyptians, who are Sunnites (2 syljlike the Turks. 
Latterly even the Sunnites have been expecting 
a Mahdi, who is to stamp out ' the infidels.' In 
fact, the expectation is almost universal among 
Moslems. 

Mahometanism. The belief that 
Mahomet was a prophet sent by God, 
and that the Koran is a revelation made 
to him by Gabriel in the cave Hoia. 
Mahomet or Mohammed lived 571-631. 

Of course Mahometans are deists. The sultan 
Is the calif of the orthodox Moslems or SunniU's 
(2 syl.), and the Mahdi is the head of the unortho- 
dox Moslems or Shiites (2 syl.). The Turks and 
Egyptians are Sininites (or 'orthodox'), the Per- 
sians and some Indians are SIdites (2 syl.) or hete- 
rodox Moslems. 

Mah-Oii's Act. See * Lord Mahon's 
Act.' 

Mahratta War (The), 1804-1818. 

The British declared war against Holkar 
16 April, 1804 ; won the battle of Deig 13 
Nov., 1804 ; of Bhurtpoor 2 April, 1805 ; 
of Mehudpoor 21 Dec; and concluded 
peace with Holkar 6 Jan., 1818. 

Mai {A), or 'Arbre de Mai.' A tree, 
bush, or branch planted before a house 
on May-day by those who wish to pay a 
compliment to the inmates thereof. In 
some villages of France the custom still 
lingers, and sometimes the 'tree' is 
decorated with ribbons and flowers. The 
clercs de la basoche used always to plant 
and dress such a tree every May-day in 
the grand cour du Palais. In the revo- 
lution trees of liberty were called Mais. 

Meanwhile the 20th June is nigh, anniversary 
of that world-famous oath of the Tennis-court, 
on which day certain citizens have in view to 
plant a Mai or Tree of Liberty on the Tuileries 
Terrace of the FeuiUants. — Caelyle, French Revo- 
lution, vol. ii. book v. 12. 

Mai'atae {The). An'ancient Scottish 
tribe. 

The Caledonians and Maiatte, resuming cour- 
age, took up arms to recover the possessions they 
had lost. The enraged emperor (Severus), com- 
manded his army to march into their country 
and to destroy it with fire and sword.— ^ra of 
Okiian, 



Maid {The). Joan of Arc (1412-1431). 
Also called ' The Holy Maid.' In French 
* La Pucelle.' 

Maid of Brittany (TTie). Eleanor 
sister of Prince Arthur, and niece of 
Richard Coeur-de-Lion. 

Maid of Kent (T/ie). Joan Bocher, 
who maintained that Jesus Christ was 
not truly incarnate of the Virgin Mary, or 
he would have been born in sin. For 
this opinion Cranmer condemned her to 
be burnt to death, but Edward VI. abso- 
lutely refused to sign the warrant for her 
execution. Cranmer insisted, and the 
young king reluctantly gave way. She 
was martyred in 1549. 

Some time after a Dutchman was burnt to death 
by Cranmer for holding incorrect views of the 
divinity of Christ. 

Maid of Wor"Way (T7ie). Margaret 
daughter of Eric and Margaret of Nor- 
way, and grandchild of Alexander III. of 
Scotland. At the death of her grand- 
father she was the acknowledged queen 
of Scotland, and had been betrothed to 
Edward, son and heir of Edward I. king 
of England. Margaret died on her pass- 
age from Norway, and consequently was 
neither wedded nor crowned. At her death 
thirteen claimants to the crown arose, but 
John Balliol was ultimately elected as 
the king. 

The claim was really between Robert Bruce and 
John Balliol, and according to English law that of 
Balliol was undoubtedly the superior. He was 
great-grandson of David earl of Huntingdon by 
Slargaret, the rider daughter ; whereas Bruce was 
the son of David s younger daughter Isabella. It 
was the grandson of this Bruce who was the great 
Scotch hero. 

Maid of Orleans {The). ' La Pu- 
celle d'Orle'ans.' Joan of Arc [Jeanne 
d'Arc], born at Domre'my 1412. Accord- 
ing to one account she was burnt as a 
witch at Rouen 30 May, 1431. According 
to M. Octave Delepierre she was married 
to Robert des Ai-moises in 1438, and died 
in 1444. Called the Maid of Orleans be- 
cause she compelled the English to raise 
the siege of Orleans. 

In regard to the burning of Jeanne d' Arc it must 
be remembered that the French had every motive 
to represent the English in France in the blackest 
colours. So Kichard III. was represented as de- 
formed in body and mind to flatter Elizabeth. 

*,* M. Delepierre cites a document discovered 
in the archives of Metz by Father Vignier in the 
17th cent, in proof of the marriage of Kobertsieur 
des Armoises with Jeanne d'Arcy, surnamed the 
Maid of Orleans. 

Maids of the Cross, 1265. A com- 
munity of young women wlao made vows 
of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 



MAIDEN 



MAIEES 



653 



Maiden {The). A rude sort of guillo- 
tine, introduced into Scotland from Hali- 
fax by Morton the regent. Morton him- 
self was beheaded by this machine as an 
accessory to the murder of Henry Darnley , 
husband of Mary queen of Scots (1566- 
1681). 

Maiden Castle (The). Edinburgh 
or Dunedin. 

In the engagement which ensued at Camelon 
(now Abernethy) in Perthshire, Druskenus the 
Pictish king was slain with the flower of his 
nobilitj'. His chief fortress, the Maiden Castle, 
now that of Edinburgh, surrendered, and the 
main body of the Pictish people fled beyond sea 
(A.D. 824).— Prince, Parallel History, vol. i. p. 401. 

Maiden Violin {The). A Stradi- 
varius (1709) called La Pucelle. It was 
exhibited at the South Kensington Exhi- 
bition in 1872 among ' antique musical 
instruments.' 

Maillotins {Les), 1382. Insurgents 
of Paris to resist the new tax on bread 
levied by the Due d'Anjou, regent of 
France in the minority of Charles VI. 
So called because they armed themselves 
with maillets de fer when they attacked 
the arsenal, jiut to death the officers, and 
set at large the prisoners. After the 
battle of Rosebecque, the same year, this 
sedition was put down. See ' French 
Brigands.' 

Pronounce Lay May-o-tah'n. 

Mails. Mail coaches began to run 
8 Aug., 1784 ; but 14 Aug., 1838 provision 
was made for the conveyance of mails, 
&c. by railways (2 Vict. c. 98). 

Main Conspiracy {The), 1603. 
Set on foot by Sir Walter Raleigh out of 
hatred to Lord Cecil, the chief minister 
of James I. The object was to depose 
Cecil, and induce James to ally himself 
with Spain instead of with France. Sir 
Walter Raleigh, with Lord Cobham and 
Lord Grey, were brought to trial and con- 
demned to death, but they were all re- 
prieved. It was called the ' Main ' con- 
spiracy because it was simultaneous with 
another conspiracy called the ' Bye ' {q.v.). 
Sir Walter Raleigh, Grey, and Cobham 
wei'e charged with participation in the 
' Bye,' but they utterly denied that they 
ever contemplated the elevation of Ara- 
bella Stuart to the throne and the de- 
position of James. See ' Bye Plot.' 

Grey, after his reprieve, was kept in the Tower 
ele V jn years, Cobham was sent back to prison, and 
Eulj igJi was sent back for twelve years. 

24 



Maine (U.S. America). Said to have 
been so called from Maine, in France 
(1638), of which Henrietta Maria, wife of 
Charles I., was the proprietor. The in- 
habitants are nicknamed Foxes. 

Maine Law {The), 1846. United 
States of N. America. The prohibition 
of the sale of intoxicating liquors in 
Maine. The original law was made more 
stringent in 1851, and is still in force as 
then amended. 

Maintainors. Bands of banditti 
in the reign of Richard II. who subsisted 
or maintained themselves by robbery. 
They assembled in great bands, seized 
people for their ransoms, and carried 
off the daughters of men of property. 
They abounded in Cheshire and Lanca- 
shire in about 1380. 

Maintenance. I. In History. The 
association of numbers of persons under 
some chief, whose badge or livery they 
wore, and to whom they were bound by 
oath to support him in his private quarrels 
against all other noblemen. Henry VII., 
after the conspiracy of Simnel (1487), 
insisted that the law against maintenance 
should be rigorously enforced. 

II. In Law. Intermeddling in suits of 
law, prohibited in 1540 (32 Hen. VIII. 
c. 9). 

Intermeddling by assisting either party with 
money, or otherwise, to prosecute or defend a 
suit. If such intermeddling is to assist another 
to obtain or retain land it is called Kuidlis ; if it is 
to assist a suit in any law-court it is called Ciiridlis. 

Maires du Palais. 'Majdres 
domus,' officers of the crown who had 
at one time charge of the administration 
of the priA'y purse of the king and the 
general government of the palace. Sub- 
sequently they became a very great poli- 
tical power. From 575 Gogon maire of 
Austrasia was charged with the govern- 
ment of the country. In 614 Wama- 
chaire maire of Burgundy compelled 
Clotaire II. to grant that the maires 
should no longer be nominated by the 
crown at pleasure, but by the great vassals 
for life. From 677 there were no longer 
any kings in Austrasia, but the maires 
under the title of dukes or princes of 
France reigned supreme. After the 
triumph of Pepin d'He'ristal over the 
Neustrians, at Testry, in 687, the maires 
became hereditary. And in 752 Pepin le 
Bref deposed Childeric III., and pro- 
claimed himself king of the whole king- 



554 



MAISON 



MALEFAMMI 



dom, with the sanction of Pope Zacha- 
rias I. The office was abolished by 
Hugues Capet [U Cap-pay\ 

Maison de Dieu means a mon- 
astic hospital or almshouse. The second 
league of the Grisons was called La Ligne 
de la Maison de Dieu or La Ligue Cadde'e, 
1401. 

Maitland Prize [The). For an 
essay connected with the propagation 
of the gospel in India. Given once in 
three years to graduates of not more than 
ten years' standing. Value about 80Z. 
Founded by the friends of Sir Peregrine 
Maitland, commander of the forces in 
South India, 1844. 

Majesty, as a royal title, was as- 
sumed in England in 1527 by Henry VIIL, 
and in France in 1559 by Henri II. Be- 
fore then the king or queen was addressed 
as 'Your Grace' or 'Your Highness.' 
Louis XI. and his successors were styled 

* Most Christian Majesty ' by a papal bull. 

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain were 
entitled by Pope Alexander VI., in 1491, 
' Most Catholic Majesty.' 

The King of Portugal is entitled his 

* Most Faithful Majesty,' a style of ad- 
dress bestowed by Benedict XIV., in 1748. 

Stephen duke of Hungary and Maria 
Theresa were styled 'Apostolic Majesty.' 

The Emperor of Austria is now styled 
'His Imperial Royal Majesty' ('K. K. 
Majestat,' i.e. Kaiserliche. KonigUche). 

The Sultan of Turkey is still ' Your 
Highness.' 

Henry IV. addressed as Your ' Grace.' 
Henry VI. „ „ Your ' Excellent Grace.' 

Edward IV. „ „ ' High and Mighty Prince.' 

Henry VII. „ „ Your ' Grace ' or ' High- 

ness." 

Henry VIII Your ' Highness ' till 1527. 

The Stuarts „ „ Your ' Most Sacred Ma- 

jesty.' 

Majorats [Mah-zjo-rah:], 1806. En- 
tail of property created by Napoleon. A 
majorat was annexed to the title of nobi- 
lity and passed with it to the next heir. 

Major's or Major Oak (The), in 

Birkland. A part of Sherwood Forest 
near Edwinstowe in the possession of 
the Earl Manvers. So called from Major 
Rooke the antiquary. It was formerly 
called the ' Cock-pen Tree ' (q.v.). An 
effort has been made by Lady Manvers 
to call it the ' Queen Oak,' but it is called 
generally 'The Major Oak' still. Its 
branches cover a space of 240 feet in cir- 
cumference. It has an opening into its 



hollow trunk through which a man can 
pass and fifteen persons can be packed 
inside the trunk. 

Inside the trunk are the letters J. R., and it is a 
fond belief of some that they stand for John Rex. 

Mai de Siam, or 'La Maladie de 
Siam.' The yellow fever was so called 
when from 1(594 to 1705 it desolated the 
Antilles (2 syl.). 

Maladie Diplomatique (La). A 

feigned or exaggerated illness from 
motives of policy — as when a member of 
the existing cabinet is invited to address 
a public meeting on a subject which the 
cabinet does not v/ish to be ventilated, 
he sends word that he is bidden by his 
medical advisers to eschew speaking for 
the present. 

Malakoff {The). MalakofE was the 
name of a man who once kept a tavern 
on the memorable spot which bears his 
name. He was a purser in the Russian 
navy, but, being kicked out of the sei^'ice 
for drunkenness, swindling, and smug- 
gling, he started a drinkshiip outside 
Sebastopol. As he sold drink cheaper than 
other men, his place was greatly fre- 
quented by Russian sailors, and, after a 
while, the stony hill where his shebeen 
stood became the Malakoff Redoubt. 

Mal'andrins (The), or ' The Grand 
Companies,' a band of 40,000 adventurers 
who, towards the end of the 14th cent., 
pillaged Altkirch and other parts of 
Alsatia. The English word is ' Mallen- 
ders ' (' Acta Sanctorum,' Life of St. 
Morandus). 

Malcontents (The), or ' Politiques ' 
of French history in the reigns of Charles 
IX. and Henri III., when the nation was 
divided into Catholics, Protestants, and 
a third party called Malcontents who 
were in accord with neither of the other 
two. They advocated mutual tolerance, 
and tried to find means of uniting the 
two communions. On the death of Henri 
III. they sided with Henri IV. against 
Philip II., a claimant of the throne of 
France. 

The chief of the Malcontents were FranQois 
d' Alengon (the king's brother), the King of Navarre 
(afterwards Henri IV.), the Prince de Conde, and 
the Montmorencys. 

Malefammi (TJie Baron). Corso 
Donati was so nicknamed. 

The Baron Malefammi, or Do-me-harm, -was 
Corso's nickname among the populace.— Mks. 
Oliphant, Makers oj Florence, p. 37. 



MALHEEBE'S 



MAN 



B55 



Malherbe's Canons, i.e. of French 

poetry. (1) Every word employed must 
be French ; (2) a word ending with a 
vowel must be followed by a consonant ; 

(3) no one line may run into another ; 

(4) the rhjTnes must be alternately male 
and female ; and the cassura of every line 
must be rigidly maintained. 

Malignants. In English history 
a royalist, or adherent of Charles I., so 
called by the Roundheads or opponents 
of the king. 

Cromwell retorted on them [the Scotch] that, 
though they pretended to covenant and fight 
against malignants. they had entered into agree- 
ment with the head and centre of the malignants 
himself [Charles II.].— HowiTT, Hist, of England 
(Commonwealth, p. 317). 

Malignity. The political tenets of 
the malignants or cavaliers in the time of 
Charles I. and II. Namely, the divine 
right of kings, the supremacy of royal 
prerogatives, the obligation of jmssive 
obedience, and the sinfulness of treason. 

Malleteers, 1381. See Maillotins. 

No doubt the terrors of the democrats of Flan- 
ders now again in full action, of the horrible Jac- 
querie and the ruthless Malleteers, at this time 
paralysing Paris, were present to the minds of the 
royal party.— Howitt, Hist, of England (vol. i. p. 
412). 

Malleus Ariano'rum. St. Hilary, 
bishop of Poitiers from 350 to 367. 

Malleus Hseretico'rum. I.Pierre 
d'Ailly ; in Latin Pe fries de Alliaco 
(1350-1425). 

II. John Faber (1470-1541), so called 
from the title of one of his works. 

St. .\ugustine is called by Hakewell ' that re- 
no^v■ned pillar of truth and hammer of heresies ' 

(395-430). 

Malleus Scoto'rum. Edward I. 

On his tomb in Westminster Abbey is the 
inscription : Edwardus longus Scotorwm 
inalleus hie est. 

Malt Silver. A payment of money 
instead of malt by the tenant farmer 
(14th cent.). 

Malta {Knights of), 1523. See 'John 
of Jerusalem.* 

Malthu'sianism. The doctrine of 
the Rev. Thomas Robert Malthus : That 
as population rapidly increases, but land 
is a fixed quantity, the time must come 
when the population will outgrow the 



means of food supply, and therefore 
government should make laws to restrict 
marriages and check the inci'ease of man 
(1766-1834). 

Mam'ertine Prison {The). So 

called from Mamers, the Oscan god of war. 
It was constructed of unhewn stone, 
underground, and had no door. It con- 
sisted of two chambers, the lower one 27 ft. 
by 20 ft. and 14 ft. high ; the upper one 
20 ft. by 10 ft. and 7 ft. high. The lower one 
was entered by a small hole in the ceiling, 
and the other one by a similar hole in the 
roof. Here Jugurtha was confined, and 
perisiied with cold and hunger ; and here, 
according to church chroniclers, both 
Peter and Paul were confined, a.d. 68, the 
last year of the reign of Nero. 

The Tiillidmim, in which Catiline was 
confined and put to death, was probably 
the lower dungeon of the Career Mam'er- 
tlnus. 

Mam'ertines (3 syl.) A sort of 
free-lances or condottieri about 300 years 
B.C. These sons of Mamers or Mars were 
Campanian adventurers of Samnite ori- 
gin, who took military service with any 
government wluch would pay them. 

Man in the Iron Mask {The), 
' Masque de Fer.' A state prisoner who 
went by the name of L'Estang. In 1662 
he was confined in the Chateau Pignerol. 
In 1686 he was removed to the He Saint 
Marguerite, and in 1698 to the Bastille, 
where he died in 1703. So that he was a 
state prisoner above 40 years. He was 
buried under the name of Marchiali. 

Voltaire says he was a twin brother of 
Louis XIV. ; some think he was the 
Comte de Vermandois, a natural son of 
Louis XIV. and Mdlle. de la Valliere, who 
was thus punished for boxing the ears of 
the dauphin ; others think he was the 
Duke of Beaufort, who disappeared in 
1669 at the siege of Candia; or the Duke 
of Monmouth, nephew of James II. ; or 
the Count Girolamo Matthioli, minister 
of the Duke of Mantua, who overreached 
Louis in a treaty for the purchase of 
Casal ; or John of Gonzaque, Matthioli's 
secretary; or an adulterous son of Anne 
of Austria (the king's mother) either by 
the Duke of Buckingham or the Cardinal 
Mazarin. 

Man of Blood {The). Charles I 
was so called by the puritans because he 



556 



MAN 



MANCHESTER 



made war on his parliament. The allusion 
is to 2 Sam. xvi. 7. 

Prince Bismarck of Prussia, born 1815, is some- 
times called the ' Man of Blood and Iron.' 

Man of Chios (The). Homer. 
Chios [Ki-oss] was one of the seven cities 
which claimed to be the place of his birth 
(10th cent. B.C.). 

Smyrna, Ehodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, 
Argos, Athene.— Varro. 

Man of December (The). Napo- 
leon III. So called because he was made 
president 11 Dec, 1848 ; he made his coup 
d'etat 2 Dec, 1851 ; and he was made 
emperor 2 Dec, 1852. 

Man of Destiny (The). Napo- 
leon I., who looked on himself as an 
instrument in the hands of destiny, and 
that all his acts were predestined. 

The Man of Destiny . . . had power for a time to 
bind liings with chains, and nobles with fetters of 
iron.— Sir W. Scott. 

Man of Ghent (The). M. Guizot, 
who joined Louis XVIII. at Ghent in 
May 1815. This was looked on by the 
Liberals as political treason, and called 
forth much controversy. 

John of Gaunt was John of Ghent. The pro- 
nunciation is nearly Gakn'. 

Man of Ross {The). John Kyrle,of 
Ross, in Herefordshire, noted for his 
benevolence and public spirit (1637-175-4). 

Man of Sedan' (The). Napoleon IIL 
who, after his defeat at Sedan, 2 Sept., 
1870, surrendered his sword to William 
king of Prussia, and was sent to Wilhelms- 
hohe. 

Also called ' The Man of Silence,' and ' The Man 
of December.' No man was honoured with more 
nicknames than Napoleon III. 

Man of Sedition (T/ie). So Madame 
de Maintenon called Jean Claude, the last 
of the eminent pastors of Charenton, who 
was born in 1619. At the Revocation he 
was ordered to leave France within 
twenty-four hours. 

Man of Silence (The). Napo- 
leon III. (born 1808, reigned 1852-1870, 
died at Chislehurst 1873). 

France ? You must know better than I your 
position with the Man of Silence.— For Sceptre and 
Crown, chap. i. 

Man of the People {The). Charles 
James Fox, the Whig statesman (1705- 

1774). 

Man without a Skin {The). 
Richard Cumberland (1732-1811) so 



called by Garrick from his irritable 
temper and dread of criticism. Sheridan 
satirised him as * Sir Fretful Plagiary.' 

Manchester {The American). 
Lowell, in Massachusetts, is so called 
from its numerous cotton-mills. 

Manchester Martyrs {The). An 
utterly absurd political term applied to 
a man named Larkin a tailor, Allen, and 
O'Brien, who murdered a policeman, 
named Brett, and after trial were duly 
hanged, 22 Nov., 1867. It was the Irish 
Fenians who canonised these three 
felons. 

Manchester Massacre {The), 16 
Aug., 1819. A most extravagant phrase 
to express the injuries received by the 
crowd which met in St. Peter's Field, 
Manchester, in defiance of the magis- 
trate's orders, to hear ' Orator ' Hunt, on 
parliamentary reform. About 80,000 
persons assembled, and the military was 
sent to disperse them. They used the 
flat of their swords, but about 100 per- 
sons were injured, either being knocked 
down in their flight or cut accidentally. 
It is said that six persons died or were 
killed — a very small number indeed in 
such a stampede. See ' Peterloo.' 

Hunt was arrested, tried, and imprisoned for 
three years. After his liberation he started in the 
blacking trade. Hunt wore a white beaver hat, 
and his admirers followed the fashion. 

Manchester Begiment {The), 
1745. A miserable squad which joined 
Charles Edward in his halt at Man- 
chester. ' The mere scum and ragamuf- 
finism of the place.' The Duke of Perth 
said of them ' If the devil would offer a 
shilling more than the prince, they would 
desert at once.' 

Manchester of Austria {The). 
Briinn. 

Manchester of Belgium {The). 
Ghent. 

Ma,nchester of France {The). 
Rouen. It is said to have contained 
200,000 inhabitants when it was besieged 
by Henry V. in 1418. It does not now 
contain above 89,000. 

Manchester of K'egroland 

{The). Kano, which exports annually 
1,500 camel-loads of blue cotton cloth. 

Manchester of Prussia {The). 
Elberfeld in Westphalia, one of the 



MANCHU 



MAP 



657 



greatest centres of industry in all Ger- 
many. Velvets, lace, silk fabrics, rib- 
bons, bed-ticking, cotton-goods, &c., are 
here manufactured in large quantities. 
Krupp's enormous works are at Essen. 

Manchii Dynasty (The). The 

22nd imperial dynasty of China, also 
called Tae-tsing. Began to reign 1644, 
deposing the Ming sovereign (Tsang- 
ching), and placing Shun-chi on the 
Chinese throne, with Peking for the 
capital. This dynasty still rules. 

Mandarins. From the Latin man- 
ddre, to command ; a Portuguese word 
given in Europe to the governors of pro- 
vinces in China and chief magistrates. 
The Chinese call them ko-hans. There 
are civil mandarins and military man- 
darins. 

Man'dates (2 syl.) or * Expectatives.' 
Letters of request from the pope praying 
that the benefices named in the letters 
may be conferred on the persons nomin- 
ated therein. 

Mandats, 1796. A sort of paper 
money issued by the French Directory 
for the redemption of their ' Assignats,' 
q.v. An assignat of the nominal value 
of 300 francs could be redeemed for a 
mandat of the value of 100 francs. A 
mandat, like an assignat, was a ' promise 
to pay ' in land, with this difference : an 
assignat was a jjromise to pay, but a 
mandat enabled the holder to tcike pos- 
session at once of public lands to the 
value of his mandat or mandats. As 
these mandats soon fell to a seventieth 
part of their nominal value, but might 
be given to government in payment of 
taxes, they were called in. They were 
called ' Mandats Territoriaux.' 

Mandrites (2 syl.) or Hegumeni. 
Superiors of convents in the Greek 
Church. General abbots are archiman- 
drites. 

ManichaBans (The), 3rd cent. Fol- 
lowers of Manes or Mani (215-276), who 
gave himself out to be the Paraclete or 
Comforter that Christ promised to send ; 
and maintained there were two souls or 
siiirits in man, one good and the other 
bad. He taught that the soul at death 
went first to the moon, then to the sun, 
and then to God. His creed was a mix- 
ture of the Persian Parseeism and Chris- 



tianity. The Manichseans took for food 
neither eggs, cheese, milk, nor wine. 
Mani was put to death by Varanes or 
Baharam. 

In fact Manes or Mani tried to weld together the 
doctrines of Zoroaster, the metempsychosis of the 
Hindus, and the tenets of Christi unity. He was 
put to death by Daharam I., CH.lled by the Greeks 
Varanes. Manichseism is also called dualism. A 
vast number of sects which believe in the two 
principles, one good and one evil, are called 
Manichaeans. 

Manifestation (The Writ of). 
The Habeas Corpus writ of Aragon 
(13th cent.), which provided that no per- 
son should be secretly incarcerated, as in 
France, nor smuggled out of the way, 
but that the body of every prisoner 
should be ' manifested ' and publicly de- 
tained, till brought to trial publicly in a 
court free to all. 

Man'ikin (The). The man so mer- 
cilessly satirised by ' Junius,' under the 
name of Manikin and Grildig, was 
Welbore Ellis, * a pigmy in mind and 
body ' who succeeded George Germaine, 
in 1782, in Lord North's ministry. 

Man-rent (Scotch history). A bond 
between chief and vassal, in which the 
lord stipulated to give protection, and the 
vassal agreed to give personal service 
and fidelity. 

The lords Sanquhar, Drumlanrigg, and others, 
finding him [Maxwell] thus inditferent, proposed 
to him that they should agree to grant him bonds 
of man-rent, and engage to follow him in his 
quarrels, provided he would effectually protect 
them by discharging his duty as warden.— Sir W. 
Scott, History of Scotland, xxxviii. 

Mansard Ornament (T/ie). Stone 
fretted like coral. So called from Fran- 
cois Mansard, the French architect 
(1598-1666). 

Mansard Roof {The). The roof 
broken into an elbow on each side, like 
the Tuileries, and not thus A. 

Mansfield College, Oxford 1889. 
The first Nonconformist college at Oxford ; 
for the education of young men for the 
Presbyterian ministry. 

Manx Bible {The). Translated by 
Dr. John Kelly in 1772. 

Map of Religion. A Christian 
society has published a map divided into 
squares, and the squares coloured diifer- 
ently so as to catch the eye. It calculates 
the present number of the earth's inhabi- 
tants at 1,500 millions. The heatlien are 



558 



MARABUTS 



MARCHES 



represented by hlacTc squares, Christians 
by white ones, and each square repre- 
sents a million people. Of the 1,500 
squares, only one and less than a quarter 
[ = 1,200,000] represents the entire Pro- 
testant community, including all its 
multitudinous * sects ' (1890). 

Mar'abuts {The). A corruption of 
marbuth (a Cenobite), of the Musuhnan 
faith. They still exercise spiritual power 
in Barbary and Guinea, in some parts of 
which ' The Great Marabut ' ranks next 
to the king. 

Marais {The Marsh), 1794. So the 
' Plain,' or floor of the Convention, occu- 
pied by the Moderate party, was called in 
the ' Reign of Terror,' and its occupants 
were nicknamed Grenouilles and Cra- 
pauds, or frogs and toads. The Red 
Republicans occupied the elevated seats, 
and were called the Mountain party 
{Montagnards) ; the Girondists sat on 
the right hand of the ministerial benches. 

Pronounce Mah'ray, Gi-uh-noo'-yee, Kra'-po. 

Mar'athon of Switzerland 

{T}ie). The battle of Morgarten, 1315, in 
which a few Swiss utterly discomfited 
their Austrian assailants, and confirmed 
the independence of the three cantons of 
Schwytz, Uri, and Unterwalden. 

Marave'di {The). See 'Almora- 
vides ' (4 syl.). 

Marbacli {The League of), 1404. 
Formed by the electors of Mentz and 
Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, and the 
markgraf of Meissen, against the kaiser 
Rupert. Later on the king of France 
and the king of Poland joined the league. 

Marcel's Revolt. French history, 
1357-1358. When Jean was in captivity, 
his son Charles acted as regent, and 
wanting money convoked a States- 
General. Etienne Marcel, the city pro- 
vost, said supplies should be granted 
if the regent promised to use them 
only for state purposes, and neither gave 
office nor pardoned crime for money. 
The regent made the promise, but re- 
fused to fulfil the conditions as soon as 
he received the subsidy. Civil war was 
the consequence, and the partisans of 
Marcel wore as their badge a chaperon 
or hood half red and half green. The 
revolters seized the regent, who escaped 



injury by adopting the provost's badge. 
No sooner, however, did he feel himself 
free than he collected an army together 
to avenge himself on the provost. Marcel 
proclaimed the king of Navarre ' king of 
Fi'ance,' and when the regent, at the 
head of an army, came to the city gates 
and promised to come to terms, Marcel 
went to ojjen the gates, and was trea- 
cherously struck dead with a battle-axe 
by one of the regent's immediate suite. 
This ended the revolt ; and the dauphin, 
entering the city on horseback, signalised 
his victory by a host of executions. 

Marcellus of Spain (T7?e). Jolm 
son of Ferdinand and Isabella. 

March and June Bills. Ex- 
chequer bills were so called till 1861, 
because they were payable, together with 
principal, in March and June; but in 
1861 the method of payment was changed, 
interest being calculated half-yearly, and 
paid on March bills on 10 March and 
10 Sept., and on June bills on 10 June 
and 10 Dec. 

March-treason. The treason of 
passing the marches or boundaries of a 
country as freebooters or for loot. 

March, pronounce Marsh, not like the month 
of March. 

He knew how many of his ancestors had fallen 
by the sword of the English, how many in do- 
mestic brawl, how many by the hand of the 
executioner for march-treason. — Sir W. ScOTT, 
The Monastery (Int.). • 

Marchess Rebellion, 1242. The 

Cointe de la Marche refused to pay 
homage to Louis IX. (St. Louis), and 
Louis declared war against him. He 
routed the insurgents in two battles on 
one day, one at the bridge of Taille- 
bourg in the Lower Charente, and the 
other near the city of Saintes (1 syL), 
The count was pardoned. 

Marches. Boundaries between two 
neighbouring kingdoms. The Sjpanuh 
Marches were from the Pyrenees to the 
Ebro. The boundaries between England 
and Wales, as well as those between 
England and Scotland, were called 
marches from the Saxon viearc, a 
boundary. 'Beating the bounds' of a 
parish is called in Scotland * riding the 
marches.' 

Our Marchion-ess, the wife of a marchion (mar- 
quis), preserves the word. The marchion or 
marquis was the officer set to guard a march or 



MAKCHETTA 



MARGAEET'S 



559 



Marehetta, or ' Marcliet.' A money 
tribute paid to a feudal lord by a tenant 
on the marriage of his daughter. It 
prevailed in England, Wales and Scot- 
land. Sometimes called gwalar-merched 
(maid's fee). Earl Brant, one of the 
earls of Crawford, was the last who 
claimed the droit de jamhage (16th 
cent.). 

Marching Watch. ' In 1547 Sir 
John Gresham, being lord mayor of 
London,' revived this picturesque and 
splendid pageant on Midsummer's Eve. 
It had been put down by proclamation 
in 1528 on account of the sw"eating sick- 
ness ; and again in 15o9. Henry VIII. 
took his wife Jane Seymour to Mercers' 
Hall to see the pageant. Stow says it was 
finally discontinued in 1549. The march- 
ing watch in London consisted of 2,000 
men decorated with flowers, wreaths, 
and ribbons. Kings, peers, and knights 
on horseback joined the procession. 
Cresset lights and bonfires turned night 
'into day, and banquets in the streets 
were liberally suj^plied. The march 
began at sunset and continued till sun- 
tise next morning. 

Mar'eionites (4 syl.), 2nd cent. An 
heretical sect founded by Marcion of 
Sinope, in Paphlagonia, son of the bishop 
of that city. His system is very imper- 
fectly known, but he taught that there 
are two principles, one the author of good 
and the other the author of evil. The 
soul, he said, emanates from the former, 
and the body from the latter. He re- 
jected the Old Testament, and retained 
only a few of the Epistles and a part of 
the third gospel in the New. Marcion 
had a large following, which subsisted as 
a distinct party till the 7th cent. 

Origen affirms that Marcion postulated three 
gods, viz. a God of the Jews, a God of Christians, 
and a God of the Gentiles. TertuUian makes him 
to have postulated Jii Iff Gods, and adds that the 
heresiarch denied the resurrection of the body, 
condemned marriage, and maintained that the 
living might be baptized for the dead. 

*,' What is said by the Fathers about ' heretics ' 
must be received with great caution. I/ike the 
Church historians, they much distorted their lives 
and doctrines, looking at them only from their 
own standpoint. 

Marcus Aure'lius of the Base 

Empire (27ie). John II. (Comnenus), 
also called Calojoan'nes, i.e. John the 
handsome. Reigned 1118-1143. 

The Base Empire, i.e. the Eastern Empire after 
Theodosius. 



Mardi Gras [Mah' -de-grah'^, or ' Fat 
Tuesday.' The last day of the carnival, 
when the prize ox of Paris is paraded in 
mock procession through the principal 
streets, and stops at the chief houses to 
gather contributions. The horns and 
hoofs of the ox are gilt, and the beast is 
decorated with ribbons ; beside it walk on 
each side men in mockery imitation of the 
Romish priests, and a long procession, 
representing in similar caricature a Roman 
triumph, follow with bands of music, the 
more grotesque the better. We are told 
that tiie procession represents a Roman 
saturnalia, but it seems very like those 
semi-religious processions of the middle 
ages, the Feast of Fools, the Fete of the 
Ass, the Fete of the Bottle, and the Ft- te 
of the Cornards or Cuckolds. In Venice 
for many centuries there was a similar 
procession of a fat ox and twelve hogs 
on the last Thursday of Carnival ; and 
there is still such a celebration at New 
Orleans, U.S.A. See ' Zobia-grassa.' 

Marfo'rio. An antique marble statue 
of colossal size, found in the Martis foro, 
and at one time jjlaced near the Braschi 
palace. As all sorts of placards, hand- 
bills, squibs, and satires used to be 
affixed to the statue, it was removed in 
1784 to the Capitoline museum. 

Margaret Professorship of 
Divinity {Lady), 1502. Founded in 
each of our two universities by Margaret 
countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 
VII. The professor must be a graduate 
in divinity, or an M.A. of at least seven 
years' standing in priest's orders. In 
Oxford all graduates in divinity and a'l 
members of the congregation (in deacon's 
orders) are electors. In Cambridge the 
office is nominally for two years, but as 
the professor is eligible for re-election, it 
is virtually for life. The electors (in 
Cambridge) are the vice-chancellor, all 
doctors, inceptors, and bachelors in 
divinity who have been regents in arts. 

Margaret's Kn^'ghts {The), 2 Aug. 
178G. An attempt was made by a mad 
woman, Margaret Nicholson, to assas- 
sinate Geoi'ge III. as he was alighting 
from his carriage at St. James's Palace. 
Addresses of congi-atulation on his escape 
came from all parts of the kingdom, and 
a very large number of mayors and other 
functionaries, deputed to present the 
addresses, were knighted. These were 



560 



MAEGARET'S 



MARONITES 



called ' Margaret's knights,' or * Peg 
Nicholson's knights.' 

Margaret's Shift. The main 
standard of Margaret's army in the battle 
of Falkoping, 1397, in which Albert king 
of Sweden was defeated by Margaret 
queen-regent of Denmark and Norway. 
There is still preserved in the cathedral 
of Upsala a ragged strip of linen fastened 
to a staff which tradition says was car- 
ried at this battle, to animate the troops 
by reminding them of the martial spirit 
of their leader. 

Margaret of Calais, 1347. The 
daughter of Edward III. and Philippa, 
born in Calais, just after the termination 
of the siege. 

Margit^S. Demosthenes called 
Alexander the Great ' another Mar- 
gitcs,' meaning a conceited superficial 
dolt. Margites was a man against whom 
Homer wrote a satire to ridicule his 
superficial knowledge and affectations. 

I'll take to writing poetry, a mock epic in 72 
books . . . and take Homer's ' Margites ' for my 
model.— KiNGSLEY, Hypatia, oh. xiii. 

Mar'grave or ' Mark-graf.' A Ger- 
man reeve or chief officer of a mark or 
march, i.e. a frontier ; like our marquis. 
The original function of this reeve was 
to defend a borderland from incursions. 
See ' Graf,' ' Pfalz-graf.' 

Marguerite des Marguerites 

(pearl of pearls). Marguerite de Valois 
queen of Navarre, sister of Francois I., 
born 1492, died 1549. It was her brother 
FranQois who called her La Marguerite 
des Marguerites. 

It was not Marguerite the wife of Henri IV. who 
was 60 called. 

Maria There'sa, 'mother of her 

country,' married Francis Stephan duke 
of Lorraine in 1736. Born 1717, suc- 
ceeded her father Kaiser Karl VI. in 
1740 ; her husband was crowned Kaiser 
Franz I. 1745, and died 1765 ; the widow 
died 1780, aged 63, mother of three sons 
and six daughters. On the death of 
Franz I. the eldest son Joseph II. was 
made ' king of the Romans,' and associ- 
ated with his mother as ruler of Germany; 
and at her death became kaiser-king. 

It was the daughter of Maria Theresa (named 
Marie Antoinette) who married Louis XVI. of 
France, and was guillotined. 

Marian Persecutions of the 

Protestants began in January 1555. 



Instigated chiefly by Philip, the Spanish 
husband of Mary. In this persecution 
fell the Archbishop Cranmer, Hooper 
(bishop of Gloucester), Latimer (bishop 
of "Worcester), Ridley (bishop of London), 
Ferrar (bishop of St. David's), and about 
300 more. Hundreds of others were 
banished, imprisoned, and heavily fined. 
It is much to be feared that religion and politics 
were so mixed up together that it was often 
morally impossible to separate ' heresy ' from 
treason. 

Marie-Jeanne {Mah'-re Zjahn'). A 
12-pounder of fine workmanship which 
the republican party (the blues) took in 
the Vendean war fiom the Chateau de 
Richelieu, where it had been placed by 
the famous cardinal. It was heroically 
retaken by the Vendeans (1794). 

Mariotte's Law. The elastic force 
of gases and vapours increase directly 
with the pressure. 

Maristes (2 syl.), 1818. A religious 
congregation at Bordeaux founded by 
the Abbe Cheminade, docteur de Sor- 
bonne, the object being the education of 
the young. It has ramified into all parts 
of France, and into Switzerland, Ger- 
many, and the United States. 

Maris chal College (New Aber- 
deen), 1593. Founded by George Keith, 
Earl Marischal, and united in 1858 to 
the University of Aberdeen. The motto 
of the college — ' They say. Qvhat say 
they ? Let them say ' — is that of the 
founder. 

Market Crosses. Places under 

cover for the sale of country produce on 
market days. Chichester Market Cross 
stands at the point where North and 
South streets. East and West streets meet. 
There are several mai'ket crosses still 
standing besides that of Chichester, such 
as "Winchester Market Cross, Malmes- 
bury Market Cross, Aberdeen Market 
Cross, &c. 

Marlbridge {Statute of), 52 Hen. 
III. c. 10 (1267), whereby all prelates, 
clergymen, peers, and women are dis- 
charged from attending court leets. 
The statute incorporated many of the 
'Provisions of Oxford ' (g.v.). 

Mar'onites (3 syl.) of Syria, 5th 
cent. Disciples of Jolan Maron. A very 
large number of tliem live a monastic 
life. Since 1445 they have been united 



MAEOON 



MARROW 



5C,1 



to the Church of Rome, but have some 
peculiar doctrines and church customs. 
The patriarch is always called Peter. 
Married men may become priests, but 
no priest may marry after he is in orders. 
The priests wear a blue scarf about their 
caps, but no surplice. They were mas- 
sacred by the Druses in June 1860, but 
their present number is about 100,000. 
Since 1588 the Maronites have been 
tributary to the Porte. 

Maroon Insurrection (The), 

1795. The Maroons were the runaway 
slaves of Jamaica and Cuba, who con- 
gregated in the woods on the north side 
of Jamaica, and lived a predatoi'y life. 
In 1795 two of them were punished with 
thirty-nine lashes for stealing pigs, and 
this drove the Maroons into insurrection. 
A bloody and successful war was waged 
by them, till the Assembly sent to Cuba 
for 100 bloodhounds. The Maroons then 
craved mercy, and all of them who 
would not promise to abandon their pre- 
datory habits were banished to Halifax, 
m Nova Scotia, whence in 1800 they were 
deported to Sierra Leone. The descen- 
dants of others have been peaceful occu- 
pants of a few towns built by themselves 
in the forests of Jamaica. 

There are also many Maroons in Guiana. 

Marprelate Tracts (The), 1588. 
Tracts written by one who signed him- 
self ' Martin Marprelate and his sons.' 
The object of these tracts was to vilify 
the Established Church. Penry, one of 
the five Independents put to death by 
Queen Elizabeth, was supposed to have 
been the author of some of these tracts. 
See ' Martin Marprelate.' 

The Anglican Church is called ' old rotten stuff 
. . . abstracted of [from] the pope's blasphemous 
mass book ' . . . the liturgy is ' stinking patch- 
ery.' Churchmen are 'blasphemous wretches, 
the subjects of the kingdom of the Beast ' ; while 
the Puritans are called 'the great learned preach- 
ers,' the good men, but with counterfeit discipline 
and perjured elders, in fact, ' Pharisees.' 

Marquis. From the Saxon and 
Norman marchio, a military officer whose 
duty was to protect the frontier where 
he was placed, and prevent inroads and 
invasions. A march means a frontier. 

Marquis Duke of Cadiz (The). 
Ponce de Leon, marquis of Cadiz, was 
created by Isabella a duke ; but, unwill- 
ing to resign the title under which he had 
won his laurels, he ever afterwards sub- 



scribed himself and was called by others 
the ' Marquis Duke.' 

Marrani. Renegade Moors. 

Marriage of the Adriatic (The). 
Instituted in commemoration of a naval 
victory won by Sebastian Ziani, doge of 
Venice, over Otto son of Frederick "Bar- 
barossa, 1174. In consequence of this 
victory Pope Alexander III., who had 
been driven to take refuge in Venice, 
gave to the doge the sovereignty of the 
sea, and every year the doge used to go in 
grand procession in his state barge, and 
threw a gold ring into the Adriatic, say- 
ing ' With this ring I thee wed.' 

The Signoria leaves the palace amid a countless 
throng and ascends the Bucentaur. The rowers 
of this state barge sit below the deck. The doge 
sits on the deck under a magnificent canop-" 
having the pope s nuncio on his right hand, and 
the French ambassador on his left. All the mag- 
nates of Venice sit according to their rank and 
arrayed in their official costumes. The great 
banner of St. Mark and the standard proper of the 
barge are displayed, and a band of trumpeters and 
hautboy players assist in the ceremony. When 
the Bucentaur reaches the mouth of the sea. the 
musicians begin a certain motet, and the doge 
drops into the sea a gold wedding-ring, saying: 
'Desponsamus te Mare nostrum in signum veri 
perpetuique dominii.' Flowers are then thrown 
into the sea, and the procession returns.— Villa- 
MO.N'T, Peregrinatio Sacra, ch. xxxiv. d. 3. 

Marriages {Close Times of). 1. ' Ab 
Adventu usque ad Epiphaniam ; (2) a 
Septuagesima usque ad octavas Pasche 
inclusive ; (3) a se cunda feria in Roga- 
tionibus usque ad primam dominicam 
post Pentecosten exclusive.' — Liber Sa- 
cerdotalis . . . secundum Bitum Sanctce 
Romance et Aj)ostolicce Ecclesice (15.S7). 

Married "Women's Property 
Act. Came into operation 1 Jan., 1883, 
enabling married women to acquire, hold, 
and dispose of property as their own 
separate estate, just as if they were 
single. They may also enter into con- 
tracts to the extent of their own separate 
property. By this act, a wife who robs 
her husband, or a husband who robs his 
wife, may be proceeded against as if they 
were strangers. 

The first Act was 3, 4 Will. IV. c. 74 (l.'«3)- the 
next was 20. 21 Vict. c. 57 (1857), amended in 1870. 

Marrow Controversy {The), in 
the Church of Scotland, 1614. So called 
from a book entitled ' The Marrow of 
Modern Divinity,' written by a Puritan 
soldier in the time of the Connnonwealth. 
The book was highly ' evangelical,' espe- 
cially on the subject of free grace. The 
General Assembly condemned the bor k 
OO 



562 



MARROW-MEN 



MARSHALSEA 



in 1720, and forbade the Scotch to read 
it. Twelve of the Evangelical clergy re- 
monstrated, but. being called before the 
Assembly, were severely rebuked. Here 
the matter ended ; but eleven years after- 
wards the Evangelical party seceded. 

Marrow-men (The), 1721. The 

twelve Evangelical ministers who pro- 
tested against the condemnation of the 
book entitled 'The Marrow of Modern 
Divinity.' Their names are James Hog 
or Hogg, Thomas Boston, John Bonner, 
James Kid or Kidd, Gabriel Wilson, 
Ebenezer Erskine, Ralph Erskine, James 
Wardlaw, James Bathgate, Henry David- 
son, William Hunter, and John William- 
son. They were called * The Twelve 
Brethren,' and were held by the Evan- 
gelical party of Scotland in great vener- 
ation. See above. 

Mars and Mahomet of Scan- 
dinavia {The). Odin. His true name 
was Sigge, son of Fridulph, but he 
assumed the name of Odin, chief god of 
the Scythians, of whom he was chief 
priest (B.C. 70-40). 

Mars of China {The). Quang-yoo, 
general of the Emperor Heou-tchao (who 
reigned 223-265). Quang-yoo died a.d. 
265, and Heou-tchao was compelled to 
abdicate. 

Marseillais {Les), 30 July, 1792. 
So the battalion of federates from Mar- 
seilles, invited by the Jacobins to Paris, 
was called. They went chanting a revo- 
lutionary song composed by Rouget de 
Lisle, a young officer at Strasburg. The 
song was called ' La Marseillaise,' mean- 
ing the song of the battalion from 
Marseilles. 

Marseilles {Plagtie o/), 1720-1726. 
A dreadful plague brought from Syria in 
a merchant ship. It first appeared in 
Marseilles, whence it spread to Aries, 
Aix, and Toulon. More than 80,000 
persons fell victims to it. See below. 

Marseilles' Good Bishop. Henri 
Francois Xavier de Belsunce (1671- 
1755). Immortalised by the eminent 
services whicii he rendered to the city of 
Marseilles during the plague of 1720. 
He is commemorated in the town-hall of 
Marseilles hy a painting in which he is 
represented in his episcopal robes, at- 
tended by his almoners, giving relief and 



benediction to those stricken with the 
plague — 

Intrepido vadens per strata cadavera passu. 

Marsh {The), 1792. The 'Centre' 
of the Convention which assembled in 
the Hall of the Hundred Swiss. The 
Girondins occupied the Right, the Left 
was nicknamed the Mountain, and the 
Centre (nicknamed the Plain or Marsh) 
was composed of the peaceably inclined 
and moderate party. 

Marshal {Earl) of England. Heredi- 
tary in the duke of Norfolk, the sole 
judge in questions of honour and arms. 
He is president of the English College of 
Arms, and appoints the kings-of-arms, 
the heralds, and the pursuivants. 

There is also a knight-marshal or marshal of 
the royal household, and a marshal (or provost- 
marshal) of the Admiralty, who acts under the 
Court of Admiralty. The Marshal of the King s 
Bench was abolished in 1849. 

Marshal Forwards. 'Marschall 
Vorwiirts,' Gebhard Lebrecht von 
Blucher (1742-1819). So called from his 
familiar exhortation to his hussars, 
Vorwdrts. ' Forwards ! my children, 
forwards ! ' in the famous campaign of 
1814. So again 18 June, 1815, the war- 
cry was ' Vorwiirts ! ' always ' Vorwiirts ! ' 

He crossed the Rhine 1-3 Jan., 1814; defeated 
Napoleon at Laon, 9-10 March : commanded the 
centre of the allies in the attack on Paris 30 
March ; entered Paris .31 March : resigned 2 April, 
but resumed command the following April, and 
contributed to the victory of Waterloo. 

Marshal of France, 1185. A 
dignity which originated with Philippe 
II. Auguste ; in 1627, when the office of 
constable was suppressed, 'marshal' 
was the highest dignity in the state. 
Suppressed in 1752, but revived by Na- 
poleon in 1804. 

Marshal of the Army of G-od 
and Holy Church. So was Robert 
Fitz-Walter called when he led the 
English barons to demand of Jolm the 
Great Charter. 

Marshall Prize for political eco- 
nomy, value 15?., to be spent in books. 
Founded for five years in the University 
of Cambridge by A. Marshall, M.A., of 
St. John's College. First awarded in 
1887. 

Marshaisea {The). I. The Knight 
Marshal's Court, commonly called the 
' Palace Court,' created by Charles I., 
with jurisdiction within twelve miles 
round Whitehall. Abolished in 1849. 



MARSHALSEA 



MARTYR 



563 



II. King's Bench Prison, in South- 
wark, where the marshal of the king's 
house was wont to sit, or keep his prison. 
Also abolished in 1849. 

'Little Dorrif was born in the Marshalsea 
prison, and the tale so called gives a full and 
graphic account of the prison and its inmates.— 
Charles Dickens. 

Marshalsea Court {The), or 
' Board of Green Cloth ' [q.v.), abolished 
with the Marshalsea Prison in 1849 (12, 
13 Vict. c. 101). 

Marshal is the German marschalk through the 
French, and means Master ol the Horse. 

M artel. A surname given to Karl 
or Charles, natural son of Pepin d'He- 
ristal, after his great victory over Abd-el- 
Rahman, the Saracen invader, on the 
plains of Poitiers, a.d. 732. 

Des lors tous commencerent a le surnommcr 
'Martol,' parce que, comme le martel [a hainnwr] 
brise toute esptce de fer, ainsi Karle, avec I'aide 
du Seigneur, brisait ses ennemis dans toutes les 
batailles.— MolSSAC, Clironique. 

Similarly Judas Asmonseus was called ' Macca- 
baeus' (the hammerer). 

Martello Towers. ' Torri da 
Martello,' erected on the coasts of Sar- 
dinia and Corsica, 1530-1550, to defend 
the coast. "Warning was given by striking 
a bell with a martello or hammer. Similar 
towers were erected on the Kent and 
Sussex coasts in 1795-1800 ; but coast- 
guardsmen have superseded their utility. 
Similar towers, not now in use, have been 
found m Canada and in the United States. 

Martin Marprelate Contro- 
versy {The), 1585. A controversy con- 
sequent on the dogmatism and tyranny 
of the Ecclesiastical Commission ap- 
pointed by Queen Elizabeth to settle all 
disputes of doctrine and practice in the 
Church of England. Archbishop Whit- 
gift tried to gag the press. Printing was 
restricted to London, and the two Uni- 
versities, and all candidates for a license 
to print were placed under the super- 
vision of the Company of Stationers. A 
series of anonymous pamphlets, signed 
'Martin Marprelate,' had an enormous 
sale ; but the press was seized, JohnPenry 
(a young Welshman) died in prison, and 
Udal, a minister, was put to death on 
the scaffold. But the mischief was done, 
synods and classes were organised, spread 
into the reign of James I., and. led to the 
Civil War. See ' Marprelate Tracts.' 

Martin's Act, for the ' better treat- 
ment of poor horses, dogs, and donkeys.' 
Iixtroduced by Richard Martin, M.P., of 



Ireland. See ' Humanity 



Cro Martin, 
Martin.' 

Martinalia. A goose-feast. After 
the Gauls were foiled in their attack on 
the Capitol by the cackling of the sacred 
geese, B.C. 390, they annually sacrificed 
a goose to their war-god. They were 
converted by St. Martin, and the goose- 
feast was changed to honour the saint. 
Hence Naorgeorgus — 
Altera Martinus dein Bacchanalia praebet : 
Quern eolit auseribus populus, multoque Lyceo. 

In regard to Queen Elizabeth, it is 
said she was dining on 9 Aug., I.'i88, 
with Sir Nevile Umfreville at Tilbury 
Fort when the news was brought her of 
the discomfiture of the Spanish Armada. 
There happened to be a roast goose on 
the table, and the queen resolved, as long 
as she lived, to commemorate the day 
with a roast goose. St. Martin's day is 
11 Nov., the Armada day was 9 Aug., 
but the great goose-feast is on Michael- 
mas day, 29 Sept. 

Martinidre {La). There are three 
schools so called — one in Calcutta, one 
in Lucknow, and one at Lyons in France. 
They were built and endowed by money 
left for the purpose by Major- General 
Claude Martin (1732-1800). He was the 
son of a Lyons manufacturer, and en- 
tered the English army of the Indian 
Company, where he rose from a private 
to become a major-general, and accumu- 
lated 396,000Z. sterling. He died in 
Lucknow. 

Martinists. I. Calvinists were so 
called from M. Martin, president of the 
consistory of Geneva. 

II. Disciples of Martinez Pasqualis 
(1710-1779). He was a Portuguese Jew, 
and established a cabalistic rite called 
Cohens, which he introduced into certain 
masonic lodges of Marseilles, Toulouse, 
and Bordeaux. 

Cohen is a Hebrew word meaning priest. 

Martyr City {The). Moscow, burnt 
in 1812 (15-18 Sept.) by the mhabitants 
to prevent its giving harbourage and 
spoil to the invading army of Napoleon. 
It was a magnificent holocaust, the 
grandest the world has ever seen. 

Martyr King (T/ie). L Henry VL 
of England (1421, 1422-1461, died 1471). 
The crown was claimed by Edward duke 
of York 16 Oct., 1460, and he was de- 



564 



MAETYRS 



MART 



clared king 3 March, 1461. Henry was 
declared a usurper by 1 Edw. IV. c. 1 
(1461) ; placed in Hardlough Castle, 
Merionethshire, 1462-1464 ; taken to the 
Tower 1466; released by Warwick, and 
again imprisoned by Edward IV. in 
April 1471 ; and found dead 22 May, 1471. 

Here o'er the Martyr King [Hen. VI.} the marble 

weeps, 
And fast beside him once-feared Edward [IV.] 



Sleeps ; 
The grave unites where e'en the grave finds rest, 
And mingled lie th' oppressor and oppressed. 

Pope. • 

II. Charles I. of England (1600, 1625- 
1649). 

After the Restoration January 30 was observed 
in the Church of England with a special religious 
service, ' Being the day of the Martyrdom of the 
Blessed King Charles I.,' Ac. This service, with 
one or two others equally objectionable, were 
abolished by Act of Parliament in 1859. 

III. Louis XVI. of France (1754, 1774- 
1793). He has as great a right to be 
called a ' Martyr ' as Charles I., and in 
both cases the word is a misnomer. 
Both were executed by their indignant 
subjects, who believed that kings were 
made for the people, and not the people 
for kings. And in both cases the bolt of 
vengeance fell on the heads of amiable 
men. 

Martyr means one who suffers death for the 
sincerity of his belief. Henry VI. believed he was 
lawful king ; Charles I. believed he bad a right 
divine to the cro^vn : and Louis XVI. believed that 
he was right and the republicans wrong. They 
died ' martyrs ' to their creed. Whether that creed 
was right or wrong is beside the question. The 
orthodoxy of one age may be the heterodoxy of 
another, and v. v. The Bollandists call Edwin king 
of Northumbria ' Saint and Martyr.' 

Martyrs. See ' Manchester Martyrs.' 
Martyrs' Era (The), a.d. 803, &c. 

The tenth and last persecution. It began 
in February, at the Roman Terminalia, 
or festival of the god Terminus. In this 
persecution fell, as it is said, St. George of 
Cappadocia, St. Januarius (patron saint 
of Naples), Quirlnus bishop of Siscia, &c. 

It is very doubtful whether these names, and 
those of many other 'martyrs,' are not apocry- 
phal. 

Martyrs' Fund (The), 1883. This 
was a fund organised in New York at the 
suggestion of Patrick Egan, ' for the 
families of such convicted assassins as 
neither pleaded guilty nor confessed 
their crime.' 

The relatives of Caflrey, 'who apologised' for 
what ho had done knd tried to explain it away, 
were excluded from its benefits by the lady distri- 
butors. Miss Ellen Ford and Miss M. Doherty, 10 
Nov., 181,3. 



Martyrs' Meeting (The), 2 July, 
1883. Held at New York to do homage 
to the twenty-one assassins who took part 
in the Phoenix Park (Ireland) murders of 
Mr. Burke and Lord Frederick Cavendish. 

Of all perversions of the word martyr this is the 
very worst. But Ireland has done no little to 
degrade the term ' martyr ' into a byword and a 
hisbing. 

Marvellous Boy {The). Thomas 
Chatterton (1752-1770). So called by 
the poet Wordsworth. 

Marvellous Year (T7ie), 1588. The 

year of the Spanish Armada's destruction. 

The first number of the ' English Mercurie ' (q.v.) 
is supposed to have appeared ;his yefu- (10 Aug.) 
to announce the destruction of the Armada. 

Mary Queen of England, born at 
Greenwich (1516, 1553-1558). 

Father, Henry VIII. ; Mother, Ka- 
tharine of Aragon ; Husband, Don Pi- 
lippo [Philip IL] son of Karl V. of Spain. 
He was a widower, aged 27, and had a son 
named Don Carlos. Mary was eleven 
years his senior. 

Her style and iitle : ' Mary, D.G. of England, 
France, and Ireland, queen ; Defender of the Faith, 
and Supreme Head of the Anglican and Hibernian 
Church.' After her marriage her husband was 
associated with her and called King Philip. 

After the death of Mary Philip married Isabella 
of France in 1559. She died in 1568, and he mar- 
ried the Archduchess Anna Maria in 1570. 

Philip left England in 1555, his father abdicated 
5 Oct. the same year ; Mary died in 15i>s, his 
father Karl V. in Sept. 1559 ; he married his third 
wife in 15.59, sent the Armada against England 
in 1588 ; his ministers tried to assassinate Eliza, 
beth in 1594, and he died in Sept. 1598. 

Mary Queen of Scots. Married 
Francois [IL] of France ; and, on the 
death of Mary queen of England in 
1558, they assumed the title of king and 
queen of Scotland, England, and Ireland. 
The arms of England were also em- 
broidered or painted on their equipage, 
furniture, and plate. 

Father, James V. of Scotland; Mo- 
ther, Mary of Lorraine ; Husbands, 
(1) Francois [IL] of France ; (2) Henry 
Lord Darnley, her cousin ; (3) Bothwell. 

Issue by Darnley, James VI. of Scotland and I. of 
England. Executed by Queen Elizabeth. 

The claim of Mary Stuart was through her grand- 
mother, a daughter of Henry VII. Elizabeth, the 
queen of England de facto, was daughter of Henry 
VIII., but had been bastardised by him. 

Mary and Darnley. 

Henry VII. (Tudor) was the father of Henry 
VIII., and Margaret Tudor, who married twice, 
first James IV., and then Archibald Douglas. 

Henry VIII. was the father of Elizabeth ; his 
sister Margaret (as wife of James IV.) was the 
mother of James V. Thus Elizabeth and James V. 
were coutins. James V. was the father of Mary 



MARY 



MASS 



565 



queen of Scots, who was second cousin to Eliza- 
beth. 

Bj' her second husband, Archibald Douglas, 
Margaret was the mother of Margaret Douglas, 
who married Lord Lennox, and their son was Lord 
Darnley (the husband of Jiary queen of Scots). 
So Darnley was half cousin to Mary his wife. 

*.* Both Mary and Darnley were second cousins 
of Elizabeth. 

Mary Hall (St.), Oxford, 1333. 
Founded by Oriel College, to which St. 
Mary's Church belonged. The head of 
the hall is called the principal. 

Maryland (U.S. America). So 
called in 1633 by Lord Baltimore in 
compliment to Henrietta Maria wife of 
Charles I. of England. The nickname 
of the Marylanders is Craw- thumpers. 

Masaniello [Ma-san-yeV-l6\. A 
contraction of Tommaso Aniello, a fish 
salesman of Amalfi who in 164 7 raised 
a revolt in Naples against the Spanish 
viceroy, the Duke of Ai'cos, in consequence 
of a tax levied by him on fruits and 
vegetables. The insurgents were success- 
ful, and for seven days Masaniello was 
master of Naples, when he was assas- 
sinated and his body thrown into a ditch. 
The seven-days' king held Naples from 
10 July to 17 July, 1647. 

Mason Prize for Biblical Hebrew. 
Value about 24^ a year, given to the best 
of the Tyrwhitt Scholars. Founded in 
the University of Cambridge by the 
friends of the Rev. Peter Hamnett Mason, 
M.A., Fellow of St. John's, 1883. See 
' Tyrwhitt Scholarship.' 

Maso'rah {The). A collection of 
traditionary observations (orthographi- 
cal, critical, grammatical, and exegetical) 
which had been made by Jewish rabbins 
during a period of 300 years, on the Old 
Testament. They began to be made by 
a college of Jews at Tiberias, in Pales- 
tine, and were originallj' written on the 
margins of manuscripts, but were ulti- 
mately collected into separate books. 
Constant additions were made from the 
6th to 11th cent. a.d. 

There was the Great and the Little Masorah. 
The Great Masorah means the entire mass given 
in full ; also called /trtaZ, because these annota- 
tions were added to the end of the Scriptures as 
a supplement. The Little Masorah is an abridg- 
ment, called the manjiiud Masorah, because it 
was inserted on the margins of the MSS. 

Masque de Fer {Le). The Man in 
the Iron Mask. In the MS. memoirs of 
M. de la Reinterie we are told that while 
he was in command of the fortress of Pi- 



gnerol, the Masque de Fer attemj^ted to 
escape, but was recaptured. The officer 
wlio conducted him back drew his sword, 
when the Mask cried out in a very com- 
manding voice ; ' Songez a ce que vous 
faites, Monsieur ! Respectez le sang de 
vos souverains.' M. de la Reinterie adds 
that he told this to several persons about 
the court, and gives a list of the names 
to whom he told it. 

' Detenu prisonnier en France plus de 40 ans, il 
portait sans cesse sur la figure un masque noir, 
qui etait en fer selon les uns. en velours noir selon 
les autres. Mis sous la garde de St. Mars, il fut 
conduit au chateau de Pignerol en KjCG, puis trans- 
fere en 1686 a 1 lie Ste-Marguerite, et en 1608 a la 
Bastille, oii il mourut en 1703. II fut enterre sous 
le nom de Marchiali. Onadit quec'etait un frrie 
jumeau de Louis A'/f (qui est I'opinionde Voltaire, 
et la plus vraisemblable), qu'on aurait fait dis- 
paraitre pour prevenir la rivalite des deux freres. 

2. Le comU' di' Vervwndois, fils naturel de Louis 
XIV et de MUe de Valliere, qui fut enferme pour 
avoir donne un soufflet au grand dauphin ; 

3. Le due de Beaufort, quidisparut au siege de 
Candle en 1669 ; 

4. Le ditcde Monmouth, neveu de Jacques II, que 
la France aurait soustrait au supplice ; 

5. Le comte Girotamo Matlkioli, ministre du due 
do Mantoue, qui aurait ete enleve de Turin pour 
avoir empeche son maitre de vendre Casal au roi 
de France ; ou (6) Jean de Gonzague, secretaire do 
Matthioli ; ou (7) unfilsadaUerin d'Anne d' AuiricM 
[the king's mother] et de Buckingham ou de Ma- 
zarin. La le hypothese est la plus vraisemblal>le ; 
mais il y a aussi des probabilites pour la '2e hypo- 
these.— BOUILLET, Diet. Universel (p. 1205 col. 2). 



Mass. See also- 

Ambrosian mass. 
Annual mass. 
Aurora mass. 
Cardinal's mass. 
Christmas Eve mass. 
Dry mass. 
Golden mass. 
Gregorian mass. 
High mass. 
Hunter's mass. 



Judicial mass. 
Low mass. 
Midiii{,ht mass. 
Missa. 
Naval mass. 
Nuptial mass. 
Paschal mass. 
Peregrine mass. 
Sacrificial mass. 
Votive mass. 



Mass. The celebration of the eucha- 
rist in the Catholic Church. The service- 
book, called a 'missal,' contains four 
parts : the Introitus, the Consecration, 
the Communion, and the Post-Com- 
munio. The Canon of the Mass was 
compiled by Gregory the Great in 599. 

The prayers of the mass are not generally in 
the vulgar tongue. In tlie Koman Church they 
are in Latin ; in the Greek Church they are in 
ancient Greek ; among the Maronites and Jaco- 
bites they are in Svriac. In some Eastern 
churches, however, and even in some Roman 
Catholic churches of tlie Eastern rites, the vulgar 
tongue is now used. Thus the Roumanians use 
the Roumanian language, and the (Roman Catho- 
lic) Melchites of Syria use the Arabic. This, how- 
ever, is by a kind of toleration, and not by ofQcial 
sanction. 

*,* Prohibited in England in 1548 (2. 3 Edw. VI. 
c. 1) ; in Scotland it was prohibited In 1560 under 
penalty of death ! ! 

Low mass is when a single priest simply reads 
the service in a low voice ; high mass is <7(fl)(/('(f, 
and several ministers assist the officiating priest. 
In the celebration of the mass the priest wears 
five special garments, two of linen and three of 



566 



MASS 



MASSACRE 



Bilk. The colour varies accordingto the occasions. 
They are white, red, green, purple, and black. 
•»* Pope Celestine introduced the Intro'it and the 
Gloria in exct-lsis ; 
Gregory the Great ordained to say the 

Kyrie Ekisoii nine times ; 
Gelasius ordained the Kpistle and the 

Gospel ; 
Damasus ordained the Credo ; 
Alexander introduced this clause into the 

canon, qui pridio quam pateretur ; 
Sixtus introduced the Sanvtus ; 
Innocent introduced the Pax ; 
Leo introduced the Orate Fratres, and the 
words in the canon. Sanctum Hacriji- 
ciuni etlmnuiculatam Hostiam. 
Edward KinesMan, Lives of the Saints, 1623, 
.p. 187 (an extremely rare old book). 

Derivation of the word. Du Cange 
says (vol. iv. p. 698) : — 

De vocabuli origine [Mass] varise sunt scriptorum 
sententicB. Hanc enim quidam, ut idem Baronius, 
ab Hebrffo Missali, i.e. ' oblatio,' arcessunt; 

Alii a viittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deum, ut est 
apud Alcuinum de Divinis Offieiis. . . . Bk i. c. 2 ; 

Alii rursum a rnissa, quae vox est sacrificiorum, 
ut scholiastes Bedanse Historiis Saxonicae, p. 4 ; 

Verum missis ejusmodiet similibus conjecturis, 
constans est et recepta ab omnibus viris eruditis 
sententia scribentium viissam dictam a misso cai4>- 
chumenorum, ea scilicet parte sacraj Liturgise, in 
qua flnita concione, et Epistolae ac Evangelii lec- 
tione, catechumeni exire jubebantur, diacono 
dicente, Ite, MUsa est. 

Mass for the Dead. ' Missa Ani- 
marum.' High mass for the repose of 
departed souls. See ' Missa.' 

Mass of Lances (The). So Igor 
(913-945) son of Rurik called his mas- 
sacre of the priests in Paphlagonia, Pon- 
tus, and Bithynia. He compelled them to 
don their richest robes, and then pierced 
them to death in their churches with 
long lances. 

Mass of the Catechumens (The). 

'Missa Cat'echumeno'rum.' All the Com- 
tounion service up to the introitus, at 
ivhich j)oint of the service the catechu- 
mens were dismissed by the deacon with 
these words, ' Si quis non communiat, 
det locum.' See ' Mass of the Faithful.' 

Mass of the Faithful (TZ/e). The 

communion service, from the consecration 
of the elements to the close. See ' Mass 
of the Catechumens.' 

Mass of the Presanctified (T/ie), 

* Missa Praesanc'tificato'rum,' celebrated 
on Good Friday. No consecration of the 
elements takes place on that day, but 
the priest distributes to communicants 
the ' host ' which was consecrated on the 
previous day. See ' Missa.' 

In the Greek Church all through Lent a ' Pre- 
Bancfcified Muss is administered every day except 
ou Sditordays and Sundays. 



Massachusetts (U.S. America). An 
Indian word meaning the ' Blue Hills.' 
The ' Blue Hills ' referred to are those 
at Milton, near Boston. 

Massachusetts was the name of one of the 
Indian tribes. 

Massacre. See also — 

Bartholomew's Slaugh- i Irish Massacre. 

ter (St.) I Jalfa Massacre. 

Bartholomew's Slaugh- j Manchester Massacre 

ter (St.) of the Ottoman Meerut Massacre. 

Empire. Michelade. 
Dragonnades. Shibboleth. 

Day of Ferdinand. Sicilian Vespers. 

Hango Massacre. I Vendean Massacre. 

Massacre of Amboyna (one of 
the Moluccas), 17 Feb., 1623. The British 
establishment was destroyed, and the 
English of the island massacred, several 
of them being tortured first and executed 
afterwards. Satisfaction for this outrage 
was obtained by treaty between Cromwell 
and the United Provinces, Aug. 30, 1G54. 

Massacre of Antwerp {The), 
4 Aug., 1788. Troops were drawn up and 
cannon planted in the public square of 
Antwerp to keep down the populace, 
which had risen in insurrection because 
Kaiser Joseph II. had resolved to break 
up the university of Antwerp as that 
of Louvain had been broken up. The 
professors were turned out of doors, and 
the doors of the college locked. An 
assault was made on the soldiery ; Dalton 
ordered the soldiers to fire on the people, 
and thirty or forty persons were killed, 
many more being wounded. All Nether- 
lands was indignant, and Europe heard 
with horror of this wanton massacre. 

Massacre of Athenry, in Ireland, 
1599. In which the Irish put to the sword 
all the inhabitants because they were 
adopting English customs. 

Massacre of Avignon, 30 Aug., 
1792. Jourdan Coupe-tete and his accom- 
plices closed the gates of Avignon, broke 
into the houses of the citizens, and mas- 
sacred men, women, and children, on the 
pretence of taking vengeance on the 
enemies of the revolution. 

Avignon, pronounce A-vi-nyon, with final n nasal. 

Massacre of Belgrade (The), 
1095. When Peter the Hermit with his 
rabble rout of crusaders reached Hungary 
a rumour was circulated that the Hun- 
garians intended to attack them on one 
side of the river and the Bulgarians on 
the other. Some clothes belonging to 
crusaders were found suspended on the 



MASSACRE 



MASSACRE 



567 



walls of Semlin. Peter instantly com- 
manded the crusaders under him to 
attack Belgrade, and above 4,000 of the 
inhabitants were barbarously massacred. 
The dead bodies floating down the river 
brought the first intelligence of this 
shameful outrage. 

Massacre of Berwick {The), 
Good Friday, 1296. When Edward I. 
entered the town of Berwick he mowed 
down 8,000 of the inhabitants, and burnt 
alive the Flemish traders who held the 
town-hall against him. Berwick was 
then the chief merchant city of the north, 
but sank into a petty seaport. 

Some say the number massacred was 17,000. 

Massacre of Chataigneraie 

\_Shah-tai)i-ye-rai/], 1595. This was a 
repetition of the massacre at Vassy. The 
Due de Mercoeur fell suddenly on a con- 
gregation of Huguenots, and butchered 
200 men, women, and children, wholly 
defenceless, and guilty of no offence'. 

Massacre of Corcy'ra {The), b.c. 
425. In the Corcyrean sedition {q.i>.) 
about 500 fugitives fortified themselves 
on the hill Itone, and made a compact 
that ' they would abide the arbitration of 
the Athenians.' The terms were accepted, 
with this proviso, ' if any one of them 
attempted to escape, the compact should 
be void.' Now follows the villanous 
part. The men of Corcyra sent messages 
to these appellants advising them to 
flee, as the Athenians were ill-disposed 
towards them. They took the bait, and 
fled. The truce being thus broken, the 
fugitives were delivered up to the Corcy- 
reans, who imprisoned them in a large 
edifice. Some 60 were marched out and 
slain; the rest refused to quit the build- 
uig, so the Corcyi-eans unroofed it, and 
massacred them all with arrows and other 
missiles. 

Massacre of Crowland {The), 

A.D. 870. When the Danes marched to 
Crowland, the old abbot, with all the 
inmates of the abbey either too old or 
too young to save themselves by flight, 
assembled in the choir, with the hope 
of disarming by their feebleness the 
cruelty of the invaders. Soon a furious 
swarm of the barbarians rushed howling 
into the choir, and massacred all with- 
out mercy, except only a child of ten, 
which Jarl Sidroc took a fancy to and 
saved from death. Having put all others to 



the sword, the spoilers broke down the 
tombs and monuments, and then com- 
mitted the abbey to the flames. 

Massacre of Drogheda [Dro'- 
e-dah], 13 Aug., 1649. One of the most 
savage butcheries ever perpetrated. 
Cromwell gave orders to his soldiers 
to give no quarter and to spare no one. 
At least 2,000 men, women, and children 
were butchered. Some 1,000 of the 
people took refuge in the church, but it 
was set fire to, and all the inmates wei'e 
burnt alive. Those who escaped both 
fire and sword were shipped off to 
Barbadoes. 

Massacre of Glencoe (2 syl.), 13 

Feb., 1692 — i.e. the Massacre of the 
McDonalds of Gleneoe in Argyllshire. 
The English government issued a pro- 
clamation that every Scotch rebel who 
did not come in and take the oaths of 
allegiance to William and Mary before 
1 Jan., 1692, should be deemed a traitor 
and be treated accordingly. Maclan 
deferred doing so till 31 Dec, 1691, 
when he presented himself at Fort 
William to take the oaths. Colonel Hill 
said he was not a magistrate, and 
that Maclan must go to Inverary and 
swear before the sheriff. This was 
wholly, impossible before the days of 
grace expired, and Maclan did not reach 
Inverary before 6 Jan., 1692. William 
signed a warrant for the extirpation of 
the ' rebels,' and an order was sent to 
Governor Hill to ' kill every man, woman, 
and child in the whole glen.' Colonel 
Hamilton was sent on the errand, 
and ordered Captain Campbell (better 
known as Glenlyon) to reconnoitre the 
place. Glenlyon and his men lived at 
Gleneoe on apparently friendly terms for 
about a fortnight, and Lieutenant Lind- 
sn y used to play cards every night with 
Maclan and his sons. Having made 
himself fully acquainted with the glen 
and its inliabitants, a total slaughter 
was to be made on 13 Feb., early in the 
morning. Fortunately the treachery was 
discovered, and many of the glenmen 
escaped ; but above thirty were but- 
chered, and many of those who fled per- 
ished in the snow. In all history nothing 
more treacherous and brutal than this 
slaughter is recorded, and the names of 
Breadalbane, Stair, and Glenlyon are 
held in abhorrence for the part tliey took 
in the massacre. 



568 



MASSACEE 



MASSACRE 



Massacre of Ispalian' {The), 

1721, by Mahmoud the Afghan invader. 
Mahmoud, having made himself master 
of Ispahan, resolved to reduce the whole 
male population to an insignificant num- 
ber, and for fifteen days slaughter fol- 
lowed slaughter. He began with the 
massacre of 300 nobles and their children ; 
then followed the slaughter of 3,000 of 
the shah's guard taken into his pay ; 
then every person in the pay of the late 
shah, and then an indiscriminate butchery 
of the meaner sort. 

Massacre of Magdeburg {The), 
1631. In the Thirty Years' "War. As 
many as 30,000 were killed, and upwards 
of 6,400 corpses were thrown into the 
Elbe. Tilly, by a stratagem, succeeded 
in forcing his way into Magdeburg, when 
his soldiers committed outrages which 
have no i^arallel in history except in the 
Sepoy insurrection in India. 

Massacre of Magh-Cru, in Con- 
naught, A.D. 90. The lower orders and 
old Celtic population of Ireland con- 
certed together to cut off all the i)rinces 
and chiefs while assembled at Magh-Cru 
for public business. The massacre suc- 
ceeded, and the legitimate monarchy was 
overthrown. The insurgents put Carbre 
Catcan on the throne. He reigned five 
years, during all which time there was 
' no grain on the stalk, no fruitf ulness in 
the waters, the herds were barren, and 
but one acorn on the oak.* 

Massacre of Mahmoud {The). 
This is the Massacre of Ispahan' {q.v.). 

This Mahmoud usurped the throne of Persia, 
where he reighed for three years (1722-1725), when 
he died raving mad. 

Massacre of M^rindol {The). 
Me'rindol, in Vaucluse, was laid in ruins 
by the President d'Oppede because it 
was the abode of Vaudois. The entire 
population was exterminated. It has 
since recovered, and is still a stronghold 
of Protestants. 

Massacre of Mithrida'tes {The), 
B.C. 88. During the marriage festival of 
Mithridiites VI. king of Pontus with a 
young Greek woman of Stratonicea, he 
sent forth an edict to every city in the 
province of Asia to massacre every 
Italian within its borders. In one day 
as many as 80,000 Italians were slaugh- 
tered in compliance with this edict. 

This cannot but call to mind the Massa,cre of 



St. Bartholomew's Eve, during the marriage fes- 
tivities of Henri [Henri IV.] and the Princess 
Blarguerite. 

Massacre of Muscovites by 
the Poles {The), 1611. While Vla- 
dislaus son of Sigismund III. was fight- 
ing his way to the throne of Russia, the 
Poles fell upon Moscow and massacred 
above 100,000 defenceless women, old 
men, and children. 

Massacre of 'NB^ncj [Nahn-see'\ 
Aug. 1790. The inhabitants of Nancy, 
having risen in rebellion, were attacked 
by Bouille, commander of the royal 
army, who marched from Metz upon the 
insurgents. A fearful slaughter of rebels 
ensued, known in French history as the 
Massacre of Nancy. This was only a 
month after the supposed settlement of 
the differences between king and people 
by the famous ' civil oath ' taken in 
the Champ de Mars 13 July, 1790. 
Champ de Mars, pronounce Shanid Mar. 

Massacre of Wishapiir {The), 
1269. We are told by several historians 
that the slaughter at Nishapur by Gengis 
Khan was 1,747,000 human beings, and 
that it took twelve days to count the 
dead (Petit la Croix and Habeeb al 
Seyer). 

Massacre of Wismes [Neeiyi], l 

April, 1703 (Palm Sunday). Marshal de 
Montreuil, being informed that some 300 
Camisards were assembled in a mill near 
Nismes for religious worship, hastened 
with a troop of soldiers to the place, 
burst open the doors, and put to the 
sword those assembled. The process 
being too slow, he set fire to the mill, 
and only one, a young girl, escaped, and 
she was hanged the next day. 

In 1791 and 1815 were bloody religious and 
political massacres at Nismes. 

Massacre of Otranto {The),U80. 
The slaughter of 800 ecclesiastics by 
Mahomet II., when he took Otranto. 
We are told that the corpses of these 
martyrs, though left unburied for thirteen 
months, showed no signs of corruption, 
and were never violated by bird or beast. 
They were ultimately interred at Naples ; 
but when Solyman the Magnificent, in 
1537, threatened Otranto with assault, 
the ghosts of these ecclesiastics, with a 
host of angels, appeared on the ramparts 
and saved the city. Again, in 1(544, the 
same ghostly army averted another 



MASSACEE 



MASSACRE 



569 



Turkish assault, and those who pro- 
fessed that they could not see the army 
of martyrs were put to death. 

Massacre of Pa'via [The), Aug., 
A.D. 408. As the Emperor Honorius was 
passing through Bologna, a mutiny of 
the guards gave Olympius a pretext for 
cutting off the friends of Stilieho, whom 
he sought to supplant. Accordingly, 
two praetorian prefects of Gaul and Itixly, 
two generals of cavalry and infantry, the 
master of offices, the quaestor, the trea- 
surer, and the count of the domestics 
were massacred. The lives of many 
others were lost also ; many houses were 
plundered, and on the '23rd Stilieho him- 
self was basely put to death. 

The death of Eucherius the son of Stilieho 
followed; the Emperor Honorius had divorced 
his wife Thermantia daughter of Stilieho, and 
all the friends of Stilieho who had escaped 
the massacre were persecuted with roleiit'ess 
acrimony by Olympius. Even his wife Serena 
(niece of Theodosius the Great and foster-mother 
of Honoriusi did not escape, being absurdly ac- 
cused of purloining the magnificent necklace of 
the statue of Vesta. \NTien Alaric invested Rome 
Bhe was strangled. 

Massacre of Peterborough 

{The), A.D. 870. The monastery of Peter- 
borough was the glory of the age, and its 
library unequalled; but the Danes, 
having destroyed Crowland Abbey, 
marched to Peterborough bent on its 
destruction also. They assailed the 
monastery gates, they attacked the walls, 
they forced their way in, slew the old abbot 
and all the monks. Every other inmate 
of the place was massacred. The much- 
admired monastery and its valuable 
treasures were ruthlessly set on fire, and 
the conflagration continued for fifteen 
days. 

Massacre of Rathlin {The), 22, 
23 July, 1575. The island being taken 
by Essex, the Scotch were massacred. 

Massacre of St. George's 
Fields [The), 1708. Six men shot and 
fifteen wounded by the soldiers in the 
Wilkes riots. Wilkes had been cast 
into the King's Bench, and the mob, 
demanding his release, assembled tu- 
multuously in St. George's Fields. The 
soldiers being called out were violently 
assailed, and gave chase to a man with a 
red waistcoat. They shot a man with a 
red waistcoat, but it was not the right 
man. The mob became frantic, and the 
soldiers, being ordered to fire on them, 
killed six and wounded fifteen. 



Massacre of Savenay [Sahve. 
nay], 22 Dec, 1793. Here the Vendeans 
were massacred by the republicans under 
Kle'ber and Marceau. The Vende'ans 
had fled to Brittany, but most of them 
returned, and on their route were at- 
tacked by the republicans. They re- 
treated to Mons, where they were defeated, 
and they then crossed the Loire ; but 
the republicans wedged them in at 
Savenay, between the Loire, the Vilaine, 
and the sea, overwhelmed them with 
artillery, and literally cut to pieces 
every man, woman, and child with merci- 
less fury. Kle'ber wrote to the Conven- 
tion, ' The Vendeans are not only quieted, 
they are no more.' 

This dispatch was an exagjreration, for they 
were in arms up to 19 Feb., 17jo, when thev sub- 
mitted. 

Massacre of Scullabogue Barn 

{The), 1798. In the Great Irish Rebel- 
lion. This massacre by the rebels, and 
that at Wexford Bridge, were the most 
fearful of all the outrages in this terrible 
msurrection. 
Wexford was the head-quarters of the rebels. 

Massacre of September {The). 
2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792, when 300 assassins 
were sent by Danton, the ' minister of 
justice ' in Paris, to the different prisons 
to massacre all the prisoners 'suspected 
of being averse to the revolution.' The 
prisons they were sent to were Les 
Carmes, the Abbaye, the Force, the Ber- 
nardins, and Bicetre ; and the number of 
persons massacred was about 10,000, 
chiefly ecclesiastics or gentry. Amongst 
the assassinated was the Princesse 'de 
Lamballe, the queen's friend, and super- 
intendent of her household. 

Ecclesiastics were confined in Les Carmes (a 
Carmelite convent), .\ristocrats were confined In 
L' Abbaye. Among the ecclesiastics who fell were 
the Archbishop of Aries and the Bishop of Saintes. 
If the 'judge' said to the warder 'Convey thp 
prisoner hence to some other prison,' which he 
named, it was a sentence of death. 

Massacre of Siniga'glia {The), 
1502. Paolo Orsini, Francesco Orsini, 
Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, 
and some other of the great magnates 
of Italy conspired to assassinate Cesare 
Borgia ; but Cesare by craft contrived to 
assemble them, apart from their troops, 
in the castle of Sinigaglia, and there 
every one of them was strangled. 

Massacre of Smerwick {The), 
1579. In the reign of Queen Elizabet]i 
Felipe of Spain sent an army of 700 men 



570 



MASSACRE 



MASSACRE 



to Kerry, tliinking that all Ireland would 
flock to his standard. They entrenched 
themselves in -the fort of Smenvick ; but 
the fort was obliged to surrender to the 
queen's troops, and Lord Grey, the lord 
deputy, ordered the whole garrison to be 
massacred. 

Massacre of Stockholm (The). 

Sten Sture, the administrator of Sweden, 
consented to the elevation of Gustavus 
Trolle to the see of Upsala. Gustavus 
was a tool of Christian II. king of Den- 
mark, and promised to do his best to 
betray Sweden into his hands. His trea- 
son being found out, he was compelled to 
resign, and his castle was razed to the 
ground. Leo X. placed Sweden under an 
interdict, and confided to Christian king 
of Denmark the task of punishing the 
schismatics. Accordingly, the Danish 
king invaded Sweden and, having effected 
a landing, was publicly crowned at Stock- 
holm. During the coronation festival, 
Gustavus Trolle demanded of the king 
'justice and revenge'; and on 8 Nov., 
1520, at dawn, all the gates of the city 
being closed, 94 of the leading men of the 
city opposed to the invader were massa- 
cred. The victims consisted of ecclesi- 
astics, senators, knights, and burgo- 
masters. In this slaughter fell the father 
of Gustavus Vasa. 

Massacre of Thessaloni'ca 

{The), A.D. 390. The Thessalonians, 
being goaded into insurrection by being 
deprived of their favourite charioteer. 
Circus, slew Botheric, the Roman go- 
vernor, and several of his officers. Theo- 
dosius sent word to his ministers to avenge 
the death of his lieutenant, and they pro- 
claimed a grand show in the circus, given 
by the emperor. When the amphitheatre 
was full, and the trumpet sounded for the 
sports to begin, a number of soldiers 
rushed on the assembly, and put them 
indiscriminately to death. The massacre 
was estimated to be between 7,000 and 
15,000 persons (Gibbon, chap, xxvii.). 

Massacre of Vassy (T/ie), l March, 
1562. A massacre of the Huguenots by 
the Guises. This was the beginning of 
that religious war which desolated France 
in the latter half of the 16th cent. 

About l,'2O0 Huguenots had assembled in a large 
barn, and were celebrating tiieir worship un ler 
the protection of the edict of January iq.v.), when 
the Duke de GuiSe with a large escort rode by 
Bhouling ' Huguenots ! dogs ! rebels ! ' Some ol 



the Huguenots shut the doors, when the Duke's 
escort cried aloud, ■ Kill ! kill ! mort dieu ! Kill the 
rebels ! ' Stones wire thrown, and Guise received 
a blow on his forehead. The fray became serious, 
60 were slain and '200 wounded. Morel the minister 
was seized, but subsequently escaped. (See FELICE, 
' Hist, of the Protestants of France,' v.) 

Massacre of Wyo'ming (The). 

In Pennsylvania, June and July 1778. 
The whole colony was either butchered 
or driven into exile by the British and 
Indians under Colonel John Butler, 
during the American War of Independ- 
ence. Campbell has a poem on the sub- 
ject, entitled ' Gertrude of Wyoming.' 

Massacre of 1641 (T7ie). Ireland. 
The Catholics of Ulster whose estates 
had been confiscated entered into a 
general conspiracy to extirpate the 
English settled in Ireland. Roger More 
headed the insurgents, and Richelieu 
promised him a supi)ly of French troops. 
The plot was discovered and frustrated, 
but O'Neale and his confederates were in 
arms and seized the houses, cattle, and 
goods of the English in Ulster. A general 
massacre followed ; public; buildings were 
burnt to the ground, private houses 
destroyed, the rebellion spread, and 
40,000 persons perished before the 
onslaught could be stayed. It was ten 
years before the rebellion was stamped 
out; because Charles I. was too much 
occupied with his own affairs to attend 
to those of Ireland. 

Massacre of the Albigenses 

(The). 1208-1224 (Philippe II. Auguste) ; 
1227 (Louis VIIL le Lion); 1545-1547 
(Francois I.). The Albigenses were re- 
ligious reformers, and the first massacre 
was entrusted by Philippe Auguste to 
Simon de Montfort, ' the French Macca- 
baBUs.' He massacred 20,000 of them at 
Beziers, and burnt 450 to death at Car- 
cassone (3 syl.). The second massacre 
was urged on by Pope Honorius III., who 
commanded Louis le Lion to ' purge his 
land of heretics.' The third massacre 
was in the reign of Francois I., who com- 
missioned John of Oppido to root out the 
accursed heretics, and the baron but too 
faithfully executed this horrible commis- 
sion. All the inhabitants of 22 towns 
and villages Avere put to the sword or 
burnt to death at midnight in their own 
houses. 

How Catholics can declaim against the perspci- 
tions of th'' lloTnan emperors is p :st undersbaaJ- 
iug. Oh ! for the beam and the mote ! 



MASSACRE 



MASSACRE 



571 



Massacre of the Arabian Bri- 
gands, 1802. The emirs, the kadis, 
and fakirs' contrived a plot to extirpate 
the Arabian brigands. Having got to- 
gether four companies of men, they fell 
on the brigands north, south, east, and 
west simultaneously. * And,' we are told, 
' from the province of Djized on the west 
to that of Atfih on the east, every Arab, 
old or young, male or female, was ruth- 
lessly massacred. Of these 16,000 were 
ripped up ; and if a fugitive Arab took 
refuge in a town, the word dakik was 
put to him as a shibboleth, and if the 
Arabic word kafwas heard, instant death 
followed ' (Taki-Eddin Ahmad Makrizi, 
' History of the Mamlook Sultans,' trans- 
lated by M. Quatremere). 

Massacre of the Armagnacs 
[Ar-!)ui-ni/ak], 11, 12, 13 June, 1418, by 
the Paris mob. "The Parisians had been 
driven to madness by the Burgundian and 
Armagnac factions, increased by the in- 
vasions of Henry V., the scandalous con- 
duct of Queen Isabella, and the imbecility 
of the king. In their fury they fell on 
the Orleanists and Armagnacs, hoping to 
extirpate them, under the belief that they 
were in alliance with the English. We 
are told that 14,000 were slaughtered 
in three days, beginning with Sunday, 
12 June. The constable, the chancellor, 
six bishops, 3,500 persons of rank, besides 
the common people, fell in this dreadful 
massacre at Paris. 

Massacre of the Benjamites 

(3 syl.). Judges xx. A Levite having 
lodged a complaint against the Benja- 
mites respecting a concubine, 400,000 
Israelites took up arms to jDunish the 
offending tribe. The Benjamites in self- 
defence flew to arms, and brought to the 
field 26,000 men of war, and 700 men of 
Gibeah (v. 15). In the first day's conflict 
the Benjamites slew 22,000 Israelites, and 
on the second day 18,000 more (a total of 
40,000). Finding they had no chance in 
open fight, the Israelites laid an ambush 
in the meadows of Gibeah, and pretend- 
ing to flee, inveigled the Benjamites to 
the meadow, when the ambush fell on 
them and slew 25,100 of them (v. 35). 

It is quite beyond the scope of this dictionary 
to reconcile these statements, which seem to re- 
quire some amendment. All that is here set down 
is tlie fact that the Benjamites were almost extir- 
pated in this massacre. 

Massacre of the Bsn-OufSas, 

by the French, 6 April, 1833. The whole 



subjugation of Algeria by the French is 
marked by treachery ; but none of their 
acts was more disgraceful than the mas- 
saci'e of the Ben-Ouffias by General 
Savary due de Rovigo. On G Ajiril, 1833, 
he sent a battalion of the foreign legion 
and a squadron of chasseurs to fall on 
these unsuspecting victims in the dark 
hours of the night, and at daybreak they 
were all dead men, who had been mas- 
sacred in their sleep. Savary returned 
to Paris death-stricken, and died the June 
following. 

This calls to mind the narrative of Lactantius in 
his ' De MortibusPersecutorum.' 

Massacre of the Blues. All 

Constantinople in the 6th cent, was 
divided into two factions, the Greens and 
the Blues. Anastiisius the emperor was 
a Green (491-518), and the Greens, hav- 
ing concealed daggers, entered the liij)po- 
drome, and massacred 3000 of the Blues. 
Justinian the Great was a blue (527-560), and 
then the Blues were the nuisance of the streets, 
molesting, robbing, brawling, and even murdering 
those found in the streets alter sunset. 

Massacre of the Burgundians 
in Soissons [SwossOng], 1414. When 
the Armagnacs drove the Burgundians out 
of Paris they marched to Compiegne and 
laid siege to Soissons. When the gates were 
opened the Armagnacs rushed in and 
perpetrated one of the most frightful 
massacres in history. Men, women, and 
children were slaughtered without mercy ; 
the churches and monasteries were 
pillaged ; the sacred vestments and orna- 
ments were scattered; the relics and 
images demolished; the heads of the 
governor and his chief officers were cut 
off, and 200 Englishmen were hanged. 

Massacre of the Champ de 
Mars, 17 July, 1791. When La Fayette 
and the mayor Bailly dispersed the mob 
assembled in the Champ de Mars to peti- 
tion for the abolition of royalty. Brissot 
had prepared the petition, and the people 
were called upon to sign it on Sunday 
17 July, at the wooden altar in the Chamj) 
de Mars. Brissot did not put in an 
appearance, and the mob, tired of waiting, 
drew up their own petition, still preserved 
in the archives of Paris. At 6 p.m. 
Bailly the mayor and La Fayette with his 
national guards arrived to disperse the 
crowd. The mob assailed them, and La 
Fayette commanded the guards to tire. 
Several were killed and more wounded ; 
some say thousands; Desmoulinsput tlio 



572 



MASSACEE 



MASSACRE 



number at 400, but probably between 30 
and 40 was the real number. A terrible 
panic ensued, and all the ' patriots ' hid 
themselves till the panic had passed away. 

Massacre of the Danes {The). 
St. Bryce's day, 13 Nov., 1002. On this 
night Ethelred the Unready caused all 
the Danes in the kingdom to be secretly 
murdered. This massacre was accom- 
panied with circumstances of shocking 
barbarity. Among other cruelties, the 
Danish women were placed in holes in 
the earth as deep as their waists, and 
then mastiff dogs were set on them. The 
sister of Sweyn was not spared. Her 
name was Gunilda, and she is said to 
have been married to a noble Dane settled 
in England, and named Paleng. Her 
children were first murdered in her pre- 
sence, and she herself afterwards. 

Her brother Swej^n (or Sueno) Fork-Beard (q.v.) 
in revenge subjugated all England, and was 
crowned king in 1013. 

Massacre of the Gothic Youths 

{The), A.D. 378. After the battle of 
Hadrianople, so disastrous to the Romans, 
and the death of Valens, Julius master- 
general of the troops proposed to the 
senate a general massacre of all the 
Gothic youths distributed for purposes of 
education through the different cities of 
the East. Having concerted his plans, 
the Gothic youths were invited to assemble 
on a given day in the forum ' for the pur- 
pose of receiving a grant of land.' They 
assembled according to the proclamation, 
and being assembled were all indiscrimi- 
nately slaughtered. 

Massacre of the Greens, a.d. S32. 

Justinian (527-5G5) was a Blue, his pre- 
decessor Anastasius (491-518) had been a 
Green. The two factions united for a 
few days in the ' Nika Sedition ' {q.v.), 
but the Blues separated again, and tlie 
two factions were as fierce as ever. The 
place of general assembly was the hippo- 
drome ; and one day Belisarius with his 
veteran troops entered the place to quell 
a disturbance. The Blues left in a body, 
and ' more than 30,000 Greens were mas- 
sacred.' 

Massacre of the Helots, b.c. 424. 
The eiglith year of the Peloponnesian 
War was notorious for the massacre of 
2,000 Helots by the Lacedaemonians. 
Alarmed lest these slaves should turn 
against them, the ephors proclaimed that 



all Helots who had distinguished them- 
selves during the war should come for- 
ward and claim their liberty. A large 
body appeared, out of whom 2,000 were 
selected as worthy of emancipation. 
Crowned with garlands, these unhappy 
Helots were secretly massacred by the 
ephors, to rid the state of what might 
prove a future danger. 

Massacre of the Innocents 

{The). At the birth of Jesus, Herod the 
Great, in order to destroy 'the future 
king of the Jews,' massacred all the 
infant children of Bethlehem from two 
years old and under. 

Micah V. 2 tells us that Bethlehem was a little 
place ; it was a suburban village. Suppose it con- 
t lined a thousand inhabitants, the male infants 
under two years of age would be about half a 
dozen. 

Massacre of the Italians {The), 
by Mithridates, B.C. 88. MithridatOs 
king of Pontus, during the solemnities of 
his marriage with a Greek v/oman of 
Stratonicea, sent forth an edict to every 
city in the province of Asia to put to 
death every Italian within its borders. 
In one day as m.any as 80,000 Italians 
were massacred in compliance with this 
edict. 

This reminds us of the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholow's Eve, which was also executed during 
the marriage festivities of Henri [Henri IV.] and 
the Princess Blarguerite. 

Massacre of the Jan'iaaries 

{The), 15 June, 1826. The janizaries 
were organised (1326-1359) into the 
sultan's body-guard by Orchan sultan of 
Turkey. In 1800 they were increased to 
115,000 men, but became, like the Roman 
praetorian guard, too powerful, and 
Mahmoud II., who owed his throne to 
them, resolved to suppress such a dan- 
gerous power. A mutiny being excited, 
the sultan unfurled the sacred standard, 
and the soldiers cut down the janizaries 
with grapesliot in the narrow streets of 
Constantinople. At least 20,000 fell, and 
the rest were disbanded. 

The Janizaries deposed Bajazet II. in 1.512, and 
raised Selim to the throne; in 1595 they compassed 
the death of Amurath 11. ; in 1(52-2 they deposed 
and slew Othman II. ; the same year they elevated 
and deposed Mustapha ; in 1G49 they deposed 
Ibrahim ; in 1703 they deposed Mustapha II. ; in 
1730 they procured the death of the grand vizier, 
imprisoned Achmet III., and elevated Mohammed; 
in 18J6 they slew Selim III. ; and in 1826 they re- 
belled against Mahmoud, and were stamped out. 

Massacre of the Ma'gians {The), 
B.C. 522. On the death of Cambyses 
king of Persia, the Magians, one of the 



MASSACKE 



MASTER 



573 



six tribes of the Medes, put forward one 
of their number, named PatizIthCs, to 
assume the name of Smerdis son of 
Cyrus, who had been put to death by 
his brother Cambyses. Darius HystaspOs 
discovered the conspiracy and made a 
general massacre of the Magi. 

Massacre of the Mameluke 

Beys, 1811. At Cairo Egypt was 
governed by 800 Mameluke beys, but 
Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, supplanted 
these 300, and kept the government in 
his own hands. Fearful of a rising, the 
pacha invited all the beys to a splendid 
procession in honour of his son Tossun 
being created general-in-chief. They 
came in all their pomp, but being within 
the palace court, were fired on by the 
pacha's soldiery and killed. Mehemet 
then sent to the governors of his several 
provinces to send the respective beys in 
chains to Cairo, where they were put to 
death. The entire number of beys thus 
massacred was from 600 to 700. 

Massacre of the Mar'onites 

(3 syl.) or Christians of Syria by the 
Druses. It began 28 May, 1800; mas- 
sacre at Hasbeyd 5 June, 1800 ; massacre 
at Deir-el-Kammer, 21 June ; massacre 
at Damasus 9 and 10 July, 18G0. 

The Druses inhabit the range of Mount Lebanon, 
and divide possession of some 200 towns with the 
Maronites. Their religion is a mixture of the 
Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan. The Maro- 
nites, since 1445, have been united to the Ch»irch 
of Home. See ' Druses.' 

Massacre of the Mitylenaeans 

(The), B.C. 427. A large number of pri- 
soners fell into the hands of the Athenians 
in the Mitylenasan war. It was discussed 
by the conquerors how these prisoners 
should be disposed of, and Cleon advo- 
cated their instant massacre. After 
more than 2,000 had been put to death, 
the Athenians sickened with the whole- 
sale slaughter, and the massacre was 
stopped. 

Massacre of the Monks of 
Bangor, a.d. 607. Ethelfrith king of 
Northumbria attacked Chester. Hard 
by the city 2,000 monks assembled in the 
monastery of Bangor, and after a three 
days' fast, followed the British army 
to the field. Ethelfrith watched the wild 
gestures and outstretched arms of these 
monks as they stood apart invoking the 
vengeance of heaven on the foe. He took 
them for enchanters, and cried aloud, 



' Bear they arms or no aiTns, they cry 
against us to their gods,' and as he spoke 
his soldiers rushed upon them, and put 
them all to the sword. 

These monks were praying for the success of 
Brocmail king of Powys, but when his army saw 
the massacre, it fled, and the victory of Ethelfrith 
was complete. 

Massacre of the Paulicians 

{The). The Paulicians were the Hu- 
guenots of the 8th and 9th cents., and 
Theodora was the Catharine de Medicis 
who ' hated them with a perfect hatred.' 
In a few years this zealous empress put 
to death by gibbet, stake, or sword 
100,000 of these Christians. See ' Slaugh- 
ter,' ' Persecutions,' &c. 

This is a long and sickening list, but by no means 
exhaustive. No mention, for example, is here 
made of the many massacres of the Jews, in which 
Russia of modern states stands sadly pre-eminent. 

Massil'ianism. The same as 
' Semi-pela'gianism ' (q.v.) : so called 
from Massilia, the Latin for Marseille, 
whence the ' heresy ' arose. 

The doctrine was this : Man can go to the palace 
door, but must be ushered into the presence- 
chamber. In other words, man can repent, for- 
sake sin, and wish to be a Christian, but having 
thus come to the door, God's grace must then lead 
him all the rest of the way till he enters into the 
presence-chamber of God. 

Massoretes (3 syl.). Jews who 
helped to fix the vowel points of the 
Hebrew Scriptures on the authority of 
tradition {massOra). The vowels added 
by these doctors are called the Massoretic 
jwints. 

The main authority for these points is the 
school of Tiberius in the 5th cent. 

Master. In Oxford University, the 
title held by the head of three of the 
colleges, Balliol, Pembroke, and Uni- 
versity College. In Cambridge University 
the head of King's College is called the 
provost and of Queen's president, but of 
all the other colleges he is called the 
master. 

Master of Gray (The). Son of 
Lord Gray, employed by Queen Elizabeth 
to undermine the influence of Stuart earl 
of Arran in Scotland. In 1585 Arran 
was driven from the royal presence and 
his estates were confiscated. 

Master of Sentences (The), 
'Magister Sententiarum.' Peter Lombard 
the Schoolman, who died llGi. So called 
from his book entitled ' Sententiarum 
Libri IV.,' a collection of quotations or 
sentences from St. Augustine and other 



574 



MASTER 



MATHEMATICS 



Fathers on sundry points of Christian 
doctrine, with objections and replies. 
It was a manual for the scholastic dis- 
putants of the middle ages. 

Master of the Buckhounds. 

Who has control of all matters relating 
to the royal hunts, with a salary of 1,1001. 
a year, but he goes out of office with a 
change of ministry. 

Master of the Ceremonies, 1603. 
Instituted for the more ceremonious 
reception of ambassadors and persons of 
distinction. 

Beau Nash was called ' Master of the Cere- 
monies,' but all that this designation signified was 
that he arranged dictatorially the amusements at 
Bath, or was president of the Bath entertainments. 

Master of the Horse. The third 
great officer of the court, having the 
superintendence of the royal stables. 
He is master of the equerries, pages, 
grooms, coachmen, saddlers, farriers, and 
all artificers working in the royal stables. 
He is responsible for the disbursements 
in his department, but his accounts are 
audited. On state occasions he rides 
next to the sovereign. The salary is 
2,500Z. a year. 

Master of the Household. An 

officer in the lord steward's department 
whose duty it is to superintend the choice 
of servants. Salary 1,158Z. a year. 

Master of the Rolls, in Chancery, 
128G. A judge of the Court of Chancery, 
who ranks next to the lord chancellor. 
Since 1838 he has been keeper of the 
public records ; his salary is 7,000Z. a year. 
He has a deputy-keeper, with several assistants 
and senior clerks. 

Master-singers, 1350-1570. The 
highest degree of the Guild of Rhetoric 
in Germany. The three degrees were 
apprentices, companions, and masters. 
The guild consisted of poets and musi- 
cians ; the former were, strictly si^eaking, 
master-poets, and the latter master- 
singers. These literary guilds were first 
established in Mainz, Niirnberg, and 
Strasburg. They held their guild every 
Sunday in the cathedral of the city, and 
Karl IV. gave them corporate rights and 
a corporate seal. By far the most eminent 
of these master-singers was Hans Sachs 
(1494-1578), a cobbler by trade, but a 
true genius, and j)rince of satirists. 
Sachs, pronounce Sax. 



Master's Side (The), for murderers 
and other capital offenders. 

When Newgate was used as the chief convict pri- 
son, the 'Master's side' was the part so appro- 
priated. 

Masters {The Four) : 1. Michael 
O'Clerighe, who died 1643; 2. Cucoi- 
righe O'Clerighe; 3. Maurice Conry ; 4. 
Fearfeassa Conry ; authors of ' Annals of 
Donegal.' 

O'Clerighe is sometimes Anglicised into CUrk- 
son and Cucoirighe into Perrqrine. 

Masters and Fraternity of the 
Passion and Resurrection {The), 

13th to 15th cents. A company of 
monks incorporated by Charles VI. of 
France to represent dramatically in 
churches religious mysteries. The most 
famous of their dramas were ' The 
Passion,' ' The Resurrection,' ' The In- 
carnation,' and ' St. Catherine.' The 
first two were performed before the king 
on his marriage with Isabeau of Bavaria. 
See ' Ober-Ammergau.' 

Masters in Chancery. Chief 
officers under the judges in the Court of 
Chancery, whose duty it was to take 
minutes of the j)roceedings, and tax the 
bills of cost. Abolished 1852. 

Masters of Court. The chief 
officers under the judges. Their duties 
are to attend the sittings of the courts 
during term, make minutes of the pro- 
ceedings, and to tax bills of costs. 

Matemans. So the Lollards were 
called from their frugal lives and the 
poverty of their appearance. Also called 
' Alexians ' {q.v.), ' Brethren and Sisters 
of Alexius,' and ' Cellites ' {q.v.). They 
rose in Antwerp about 1300, and were 
admitted by Sixtus IV. amongst the 
religious orders in 1472. 

Materialists. Those who believe 
that man has only a material nature, and 
that thought, conscience, intelligence, 
&c. are works of the brain. They deny 
the existence of soul or spirit, and deny 
also all that is supernatural, as the spirit 
god, miracles, and the resurrection. 

Mathematicians (2nd cent.). As- 
trologers, magicians, and diviners. In 
Justinian's code is a chapter headed 
De Maleficis et Mathematicis ; and the 
Theodosian code enjoins the banishment 
of mathematicians from all Roman cities 
and the burning of their books. 

Mathematics {Professorship of). 
In the University of Cambridge, 1663, 



MATHIAS 



MAXIMILIAN 



575 



founded by Henry Lucas, and endowed 
with an estate in Bedfordshire worth 
150^. ; but the present stipend is 8501. 
See ' Sadlerian Professorship, &c.,' 
* Smith's Prizes,' ' Lucasian Professor,' 
'Adams' Prize.' 

Matlli'as, brother of Kudolf II., and 
son of MaximiUan II. ; kaiser-king qf 
Germany of the House of Austria (1556, 
l(il2-1619). Having no chikl, he adopted 
his cousin Ferdinand, in whose reign was 
the Thirty Years' War against the Pro- 
testants. Contemporary with James I. 

Father, Maximilian' II. [his brother 
Rudolf II. preceded him on the throne] ; 
Mother, Mary, daujrhter of Kaiser Karl 
V. ; Wife, Anne of Austria, no issue. 
Conteniporary witli James I. 

Mathurins {The), or ' Maturins,' 
1199. A rehgious order instituted by St. 
Jean de Matha and Felix de Valois for 
the redemption of Christian slaves in 
Barbary. They were originally called 
Trinitaires, or Les Beligieux de la 
Saints Tri)iite. The name ' Mathurins ' 
was given to them in France, because in 
1226 they occupied a church built in 
Paris in honour of St. Mathurin. The 
order was suppressed in 1790. 

St. Mathurin (Maturimix) lived in the 4th and 
6th cent. He was a confessor born in Sens and 
buried at Larchant, in the Gatinais. where a 
church was erected to his honour. Another was 
built in Paris, which was given to the Trinitarians. 
His relics are preserved in the parish church of 
Moncontour, in Brittany, and many pilgrims 
during Pentecost flock to the church every year. 

Matilda tlie G-OOd, cousin and first 
wife of Henry I. of England, daughter of 
Malcolm king of Scotland, Married 1100. 
died 1118. 

Matins, or ' Nocturns.' One of the 
eight daily services of the Catholic 
Church, and the first of the four great 
ones at daybreak. See ' Canonical Hours. ' 

Matronalia, 1 March. The festival 
of the Roman matrons to commemorate 
tlie reconciliation of the Sabine women 
with their fathers and brothers after the 
•Rape of the Sabines.' 

Matthew Parker's Bible, 1572. 
The second folio edition of the ' Great 
Bible ' iq.v.), with corrections and several 
prolegomena under the supervision of 
Archbishop Parker. See ' Bibles.' 

Matthews' Bible, 1537. A version 
of the Bible in English edite.d by John 



Rogers, superintendent of an English 
church in Germany, and published by 
him under the fictitious name of Thomas 
Matthews. It was based on the transla- 
tions of Tyndale and Miles Coverdale. 
' Cranmer's Great Bible ' was a corrected 
edition of Matthews' Bible. See ' Bibles.' 

Mat'urins (The). See ' Mathurins.' 

Matutinal Mass. ' Missa Matu- 
tinalis,' a mass ' qua^ post exactas matuti- 
nas dicitur.' The matutlnse follow the 
nocturns. See ' Mass.' 

MatutintB in profestis et dominicis, quibus tar- 
dius nocturnae preces persolvebantur. — Du 
Cange, vol. iv. p. 607, col. 1. 

Matuti'nus Pater, i.e. ' Father of 
the Morning ' ; so Janus was called by 
the ancient Romans, and prayers were 
addressed to him by pious Romans every 
morning. 

Our word January is derived from this mytho- 
logical deity. 

Mausole'um (The), b.c. 351, or 
Sepulchre of Mausolus of Caria, built by 
his widow Artemis'ia, and considered 
one of the seven wonders of the world. 
A.D. 1500 the sculptures of this marvellous 
mausoleum were actually employed by 
the knights of Rhodes in fortifying Hali- 
carnassos ! Some of the sculptures have 
been rescued, and in 1846 were placed 
in the British Museum, as the ' Budrum 
Marbles.' 

Max O'Rell. The pen-name of 
Paul Blouet, author of ' John Bull and 
his Island,' &c. His grandfather was 
Max Blouet, an officer in the French 
army. Being taken prisoner he was sent 
to England, and fell in love with an Irish 
girl, named O'Rell, whom he married. 

Maxima Csesariensis. One of 

tlie five provinces into which Britain was 
divided in the reign of the Emperor 
Severus. It included the northern part 
of England extending to the Wall of 
Severus, between the Tj^ne and the Sol- 
way. It had its own ruler, but that 
ruler was subject to the prtefect or 
governor-general of the island. 

Maximilian I., ' the Pennyless ' 
and ' Taciturn.' Second monarch of the 
house of Austria (or Habsbuvg). Like 
his father, he died from a surfeit of 
melons (1459, 1486-1519). 

Father, Kaiser Friedrich III. the 
Pacific; Mother, Elenore of Portugal; 
Wives, (1) Mary of Burgundy, only child 



576 



MAXIMILIAN 



MAYOR 



of Charles le Temeraire, and heiress of 
17 provinces; (2) Bianca Maria [Sforza] 
niece of Ludovico Sforza II Moro. Con- 
tetnporarij with Henry VII. and VIII. 

His eldest son was Philippe the Handsome, who 
married the Infanta .Tuana of Spain (daughter of 
Ferdinand and Isabella), by which marriage 
Spain became united to the house of Austria. 
Philippe died leaving issue the famous Karl V. 
(Charles-quint) afterwards King of Spain, Austria, 
and America (the Golden Age of Spain). It was 
the son of Karl V. who married Mary queen of 
England. 

*,* It was a magnificent period of European his- 
tory -the period of Luther, the Humanists, print- 
ing, and Columbus. The popes were Alexander VI., 
Pius III., Julius II., and Leo X. The first of these 
was the patron of Michael Angelo and Raphael. In 
Spain were Ferdinand and Isabella ; in Portugal 
Emmanuel the Great, founder of the Portuguese 
navy, the Miecenas of Arts and Sciences, and the 
friend of Vasco da Gama. In England were Henry 
VIII. and Cardinal Wolsey; and in Turkey was 
Bajazet II., the conqueror of Constantinople. 

Maximilian II. Kaiser-king of 
Germany (1525, 1564-1576), nephew of 
Kad V. (Charles-quint), and of the house 
of Austria. He had fifteen children. 

Father, Ferdinand I. ; Mother, Anne ; Wife, Mary 
his cousin, daughter of Karl V. Contemporary with 
Elizabeth. 

May {The Maids^). There were four 
historic Mays in the eventful life of ' the 
Maid ' (Jeanne d'Arc). 

1. At Vaucouleurs the Maid announced 
her mission to De Baudricourt, governor 
of Vaucouleurs, in May 1428. 

2. At Orleans she compelled the Eng- 
lish to raise the siege, 8 May, 1429. 

3. At Compiegne she was besieged by 
the Duke of Burgundy and the English, 
May 1430; captured in a sortie against 
the Burgundian quarters, 24 May ; given 
uji to the English ; and condemned to 
be burnt as a heretic by the University 
of Paris, 24 May, 1431. 

4. At Kouen she was burned to death, 
80 May, 1431. 

Some say she was not burnt, but married to 
Robert des Armoises about 1438 ; that she was 
living in 1444 ; and that her sentence was reversed 
by the pope 7 July, 1456. 

May Meetings [The). The great 
annual religious meetings held in Exeter 
Hall, Strand, London, during the month 
of May. 

May 31 {TJie Day of), 1793. In the 
French Revolution, the commencement 
of the Reign of Terror, when the people 
of Paris, conducted by Henriot, invaded 
the Convention, compelled them to set 
Hebert at liberty, and to arrest the 
Girondins (q.v.). 

The Reign of Terror was from 31 May, 1793, to 
27 July, ITJi (the fall of Robespierre). 



Maynooth [The Boyal College of 
St. Patrick], in Ireland, 1795. Founded 
by Act of the Irish Parliament for the 
education of students designed for the 
Catholic priesthood. It was incorporated 
and endowed in 1845 by Acts 8, 9 Vict. 
c. XXV. ; but in 1809 these acts were I'e- 
pealed, and the college received a large 
endowment in lieu of its previous annual 
subvention. 

Mayor {In England). The title of 
Bailiff was changed to that of ' Mayor of 
London ' in the reign of Henry II. Rich- 
ard I., in 1189, granted the citizens the 
right of choosing their own mayor ; and 
the title was changed to Lord Mayor in 
1354 by Edward III. 

The chief magistrate of York was made 
Lord Mayor in 1389. 

The first mayor of Dublin was ap- 
pointed in 1409, and he was styled Lord 
Mayor in 1665 by Charles II. 

The Mayor of the Palace, in France, 
existed as far back as 560, but merged 
into royalty on the accession of Pepin le 
Bref in 752. 

The title of ' Right Honourable ' was conferred 
on the Lord Mayor of London by Edward III. Hia 
salary is 8,0iT0?. for the year of office. 

The first Lord Mayor's Show was in 1454, when 
Sir John Norman went by water to be sworn in 
at Westminster. 

Mayor {The). Elected since the 
' Municipal Corporations Act ' {q.v.) in 
1835, from the councillors. If any coun- 
cillor so elected does not choose to serve, 
he must pay a fine of lOOl. The qualifi- 
cation of a mayor is the fact that he is a 
councillor, and if any other person serves 
in the office the fine is 501. The mayor 
presides at all meetings of the council, 
and lias (during his year of office) preced- 
ence in all places within the borough. 
He revises, with his two assessors, the 
burgess list, which he must sign in open 
court. He presides at the election of 
councillors, and is magistrate for the 
borough both during his official year and 
for the year following, when he is deputy 
mayor. He is also the returning officer 
at the election of members of Parliament. 

Mayor of Garrett {The), 1741. 
Garrett is a hamlet between Tooting and 
Wandsworth in Surrey. Tlie first mayor 
was the chairman of a club organised to 
prevent encroachments on the common. 
An encroachment took i)lace not long 
afterwards, and the villagers won their 
suit, with costs, during a general election 



MAYOR 



MEAL-TUB 



577 



after Walpole's resignation. The event 
was celebrated by the election of a 
'Mayor of Garrett,' who held office so 
long as the parliament sat, and with 
every new parliament a new mayor was 
elected, whose inauguration was cele- 
brated with a village feast. Foote wrote 
a farce entitled ' The Mayor of Garrett.' 
There have been several such' mockery mayors. ' 
As the Seaside Mayor of Newcastle-under Lyme ; 
the mock mayor of Kandwick in Gloucestershire ; 
the mock mayor of Weston near Bath, <i;c. 

Mayor of the Palace (The). 
' Major domus ' ; in French ' Maire du 
Palais,' keejjer of the privy purse and 
superintendent of the royal household ia 
France. The Mayor of the Palace be- 
came the head of the aristocracy, and 
was the virtual ruler of France during 
the reigns of the Bois Faineants (638- 
742). The office was curtailed by the 
Carlovingian kings and abolished by 
Hugues Capet. 

Mazarin of Letters {The). 
D'Alembert (1717-1783), French mathe- 
matician, philosopher, and encyclopaedist. 

Maz'arinades (4 syl.), 1649-1652. 
Political squibs during the Fronde war. 
* Pres de quatre miile ecrits satiriques, 
la plupart diriges centre Mazavin, et 
dicta's par la haine la plus acre,' Motte- 
ville says, ' Never man of equal authority 
pardoned so many of his enemies, and 
never man committed so few to prison.* 

Mazarine Bible {The). The Guten- 
berg (? Schbffer) Bible, the earliest book 
printed in movalale metal type. It con- 
tains no date, but a cojty in the ' Biblio- 
theque Mazarine,' formed in 1648 for the 
Cardinal Mazarin by G. Naude, and 
given to the public in 1688, contains the 
date of the illuminator Cremer, 1456, so 
that the Bible must have been printed 
before that date. Only seven copies in 
vellum exist, but there are Iniown to be 
twenty-two copies on paper, some of 
them very imperfect. In 1855 Mr. 
Quaritch, bookseller, of Piccadilly (ac- 
cording to the ' Methodist Recorder '), gave 
8,900Z. for a copy at Sir J. Thorold's ; 
certainly in 1887 he gave 2,650Z. for the 
copy in the library of the late Earl of 
Crawford. One was sold in 1873 for 
8,400^., and a copy was sold in 1889 for 
2,000Z. See ' Bibles.' 

A good vellum copy is worth 4,000i. 

Of course it was called the Mazarine Bible 
because the copy in the Mazarine Library, Paris, 
gives the approximate date. There is another 
25 



Bible called the Mazarine Bible, printed before 
1466 by Eggestein. 

*,* A Psalmorum Codex (Sir J. Thorold's sale) 
was sold for the unprecedented sum of 4,500i. 

Mazarin, a proper name ; Mazarine, the adjec- 
tive. 

Mazarin'ians. Those who sided 
with Cardinal Mazarin in the Fronde 
War (1648-1653). The opponents were 
called the Frondeurs. The cause of 
this contention was Mazarin's prohibi- 
tion of the Act of Union {q.v.), the 27 
articles of demand by the Paris lawyers. 

Such as the abolition of monopolies ; the reduc- 
tion of imposts; the prohibition to levy taxes 
without the authority of the States General, or of 
arrest without assigning the cause; the obliga- 
tion of bringing prisoners to trial within a given 
time, &c. Mazarin and the court party pro- 
nounced these demands an encroachment on 



Maz'daas'nanism or 'Mazdaism.' 
The ancient Persian religion. So called 
from Ahura Mazdao, the all-wise spirit 
or supreme god of the Persians. This 
supreme god was supposed to be creator 
of the world, god of light and truth, 
without beginning of days or end of 
years. Mazdaism was reformed by Zoro- 
aster or Zerdusht, whose disciples were 
called Guebres or Parsees. 

Mazdaasnan means worshippers of Ormuzd. 
Parsees mean people of Pars or Fars (i.e. 
of Persia) ; and Guebre is a proper name = Cheber 
or Jebah. The Persian gawr means an infidel. 

Mazzulo, 1503. A plague which 
desolated Italy. It carried oS Philip of 
Burgos in 1506. Machiavel tells us in 
his ' Political Correspondences ' that it 
especially attacked the head and chest, 
and was accompanied by a cough. It 
appeared in Padua in 1558, 1568, and 
1580, and was most disastrous. See 
' Plagues,' &c. 

It appeared in France, and went there by the 
name of Coqui'lxwhc. 

M.C. Master of the ceremonies [in 
court] ; in the U.S.A. it means ' Member 
of Congress.' 

Meagher of the S-word. Thomas 
Meagher, son of a Waterford merchant, 
the orator of the Young Irelanders. He 
emigrated to America, and became 
General Meagher. He obtained his 
sobriquet because his speeches were 
warlike harangues, and he himself was a 
dashing cavalier. 

Meal-tub Plot {The), 1680. A sup- 
posed Presbyterian plot to seize the 
crown and prevent a popish succession. 
Revealed first to the Duke of York by a 
PP 



578 



MEDIATOE 



MEGALESIAN 



young man named Dangerfield. When 
the whole affair was proved to be false, 
and Dangerfield was committed to New- 
gate, he said with great seeming penitence 
that what he had told the duke was un- 
doubtedly a forgery to cover a real plot. 
The real plot he said was a popish one, 
and the notes of the sham one would be 
found in a meal tub in the house of Mrs. 
Cellier, a Eoman Catholic midwife. The 
papers were found there, and the plot 
was called the Meal-tub Plot. 

This was the second of three plots. The first 
■was the popish plot revealed by Titus Gates, and 
the third was the Byehouse plot. 



Mediator of the Helvet'ic 
League, 1803. A title and ofifice as- 
sumed by Napoleon. By the treaty of 
Luneville it was stipulated that the in- 
dependence of Switzerland should be 
respected; but the French troops not 
being withdrawn, perpetual feuds were 
fomented by their instigation between one 
canton and another. Napoleon declared 
that this state of things must cease ; and 
assuming to himself the right of arbitra- 
tion, he reduced Switzerland to a kind 
of dep ndency under the military yoke 
of France. For this ' service ' the Swiss 
were ordered to supply 16,000 men to 
the French army. 

Medical Rose {The), or 'Rosa 
Anglica,' about 1492, The medical work 
of John Gaddesden. Gaddesden was 
educa^ted at Merton College^ Oxford, and 
was thought to be the grand luminary 
of physic ; but his prescriptions are a 
wonderful compound of superstitions, 
theological injunctions, charms, and 
quackery. 

Medice'an Stars [The). Jupiter's 
satellites were so called by Galileo, who 
discovered them, but the term has not 
come into general use. Galileo's cele- 
brated work, ' The Sidereal Messenger,' is 
dedicated to Cosmo de' Medici II. fourth 
duke of Tuscany. 

Med'icis {A). A huge standing 
collar propped up by a wire frame, and 
inclosing the whole back of the head. 
This ugliness superseded the ruff, and 
was introduced by Marie de Medicis, wife 
of Henri IV. of France. 

Mediaeval History closes with the 

invention of printing and the discovery 
of America, and modern history begins 



with the Lutheran reformation. All 
these three events occurred about 1500. 
So that mediaeval history closes with the 
15th cent., and modern history begins 
with the 16th cent. 

Printing made generally known 14S0 

Columbus set sail for America . 1492 

Keformation begun in Germany by Lnther 1617 

Mediaeval Schoolmen. For those 
bearing complementary titles see p. 261. 

Medjidie, 1852. An order of honour 
instituted in Turkey by the Sultan Abdul- 
Medjid for foreigners as well as natives. 

Medmenham Club {The), 18th 
cent. It was held in Medmenham Abbey. 
The club consisted of wild spirits, called 
eui^hemistically ' wits and humourists,' 
who assumed the name of ' Monks of St. 
Francis.' The inscription over the door 
was ' Fais ce que tu voudras.' Langley 
gives an account of it, and significantly 
suggests that it is wise to draw a curtain 
over it. 

Rabelais savs the motto over the door of the 
Abbey of Theleme was FAIS CE QUE vouLDKAS.— 
Grtif/aiiiKai. 52-57. 

Medon'tidae. The thirteen archons 
of Athens, so called from Medon son of 
Kodros the first archon. 

Meerut Massacre {The), 10 May, 
1857. The native troops or Sepoys re- 
volted, shooting their European officers, 
firing the bungalows, and massacring 
the European inmates without respect 
to age or sex. See ' Indian Mutiny ' and 
' Massacre.' 

Megaelean {A). A pertinacious 
and obnoxious political opponent, so 
called from Megacles the Athenian ar- 
chon. In the time of Cylon and Pittacos 
Megacles and his adherents were for ever 
striving to upset the government, and 
restore it to an archonate. 

Megale'sian Games ( The),B.c. 206. 
In honour of Cybele, the great [megale] 
goddess. They commenced 4 April, and 
lasted a week. During the Second Punic 
War an oracle had declared that the 
Romans would conquer the Carthagini- 
ans if they carried off their palladium, a 
great aerolith, sacred to Idea or Cybgle. 
The senate sent an ambassador to de- 
mand it, and it was transported to Rome 
in grand procession. A temple was 
erected and games instituted in its 
honour. 



MEISTER-SANGEE 



MELLIFLUOUS 



579 



Meister-sanger, 14th cent. A 
corporation of German poets and mu- 
sicians which succeeded the Minne- 
sangers. They were for the most part 
artisans, by far the most celebrated being 
Hans Sachs [Sax]. In 1378 Karl IV. 
gave them a charter and a seal. See 
' Master singers.' 

Mek'hitarists. So called from 
Peter Mekhitar (1G76-1749) of Cappa- 
docia. While in Constantinople (1700) 
he joined the Armenians, and afterwards 
the Catholics. Being driven from Con- 
stantinople by religious persecution, 
Mekhitar took refuge in Smyrna, then 
in the Morea. To Mekhitar we owe an 
Armenian Bible (1733), an Armenian 
grammar, and an Armenian dictionary. 

His disciples, the Mekhitarists of St. Lazzaro 
(degli Armeni) are learned Benedictines whose 
publications have a European reputation. 

Melancholy Isle (The). Tobago, 
in which an English colony was i^lanted 
in 1737. So called because, viewed from 
the north, it seems only a mass of lofty 
and gloomy mountains, with black preci- 
pices descending abruptly to the sea. It 
is under a lieutenant-governor, a council 
of nine, and a house of assembly of 
sixteen members. 

Melancholy Jacques (The). Jean 
Jacques Rousseau (1712-1777). He was 
a misanthrope and a recluse, of morbid 
sensibilities and unhappy spirit. The 
phrase is from Shakespeare's 'As You 
Like It.' 

Melancholy Magyars (The), «55. 

The Hungarian fugitives in the great 
battle of Augsburg, on the river Lech. 
They were condemned by their country- 
men to servitude. 

Magyars, pronounce Mard'-yars. 

Melbourne Ministry (r/?^), 1835- 
1841. Called by Sir George Trevelyan 
' that melancholy period.' Mr. Torrens 
says that Lord Melbourne was neither 
an orator, nor jurist, nor financier, nor 
great legislator, nor gi-eat leader, nor 
consistent politician. This is true, but 
he was a man of most wonderful tact. 
Of the Melbourne Ministry Praed says 
their policy was 

To promise, pause, prepare, postpone, 
And end by letting things alone ; 
In short, to earn the people s pay 
By doing nothing every day. 



Melbourne's Six Acts, 1835- 

1841. 

Corporation Reform (England), 1835. 

Corporation Reform (Scotland), 1836. 

New Marriage Law (by registration, 
&c.), 1836, 1837, 1840. 

Tithe Commutation, 1836, 1837, 1839. 

Poor Law Reform (Ireland), 1838. 

Municipal Corporation Reform (Ire- 
land), 1840. 

Melchites (2 syl.), or ' Imperialists.' 
Syriac, Egyptian, and Levantine Chris- 
tians generally so called in reproach on 
account of their implicit submission to 
the edict of the Emperor Marcian for the 
publication and reception of the doctrines 
and ceremonies of the Greek Church, and 
for submission to the decisions of the 
Council of Chalcedon. Their head is 
called the Patriarch of Antioch, and 
dwells at Damascus. 

They are Roman Catholics of the Eastern rite, 
and have a service in Arabic. The Copts of the 
Greek Church are called Melchites by their mo- 
nophysitic brethren. 

Mele'tian Schism (The), 4th cent. 
Caused by Meletius bishop of Lycopolis, 
who had been deposed for offering sacri- 
fice to idols to avoid persecution. When 
Peter of Alexandra died Meletius took 
on himself the power of ordination, and 
was most relentless in rejecting the 
lapsed. The Council of Nice, a.d. 325, 
decreed him to be schismatic. 

Mele'tians, 300-400. Followers of 
Meletius bishop of Lycopolis, in Egypt. 

See above. 

Melitine (The). A legion, also 
called the Thundering or Fulminant 
Legion from its dash and courage. It 
was composed of Christians, and it is 
said that the army of Marcus Aurelius 
was saved by its prayers in 174, when on 
the point of perishing in the desert. 

Mellifluous Doctor (The). St. 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091-1153, 
canonised by Alexander III. in 1174). It 
was this St. Bernard who preached up 
the second crusade in 1146, and was the 
founder of the Bernardins {q.v.). Called 
the ' Last of the Fathers ' and the 
' Oracle of the Church.' 

St. Bernard procured the condemnation ot 
Abelard at the Council of Sens, in 1140; was 
mainly instrumental in the death at the stake of 
Pierre de Bruys and Arnaud de Brescia, two 
religious reformers, who declaimed against the 
ill lives of the clergy, and vehemently opposed 
Gilbert de la Porree. bishop of Poitiers, who had 
attacked the Nominalists (q.v.). However, when 

P p 2 



580 



MELON 



MENANDRIANS 



the monk Raoul proposed to massacre all the Jews, 
St. Bernard rerfolutely opposed the suggestion. 

*,* The St. Bernard who founded the hospice 
■was St. Bernard of Menthon, and lived about a 
century earlier c930-1008). 

Melon Colic. The first three 
kaiser-kings of the house of Austria or 
Habsburg died from dysentery brought 
on by eating melons : Albert [Albrecht] 
II., Friedrich III., and Maximilian I. 

Melton Mowbray Hunt {The), 
established 1759. The four chief mem- 
bers used to form a sort of authorised 
court in all matters connected with the 
chase in England. The three original 
packs were (1) the Duke of Eutland's ; (2) 
Mr. Osbaldeston's, or the Quorn hounds, 
Leicester ; and (4) the Earl of Lonsdale's, 
or the Cottesmore hounds, of Rutland- 
shire. There has been no such ' hunt ' 
for many years, but the Leicestershire 
hounds are still celebrated, and the Duke 
of Rutland's hounds, the Quorn, and the 
Cottesmore hounds are well known 
(1890). 

Member of the Sacred Orow^n 

(A). A nobleman of Hungary. Hungary 
was the Land of the Sacred Crown. The 
Sacred Crown was the crown given by 
the pope to St. Stephen, king of Hungary 
(979, 997-1038). 

Members' Prizes {The). Of the 
University of Cambridge. Two prizes of 
thirty guineas each, one for a Latin 
essay and one for an English essay, on a 
subject connected with English history. 
Founded 1752, when there were four 
prizes, which in 1870 were reduced to 
two. Any student below the degree of 
M.A. may be a candidate. 

Memmia or Remmia {Lex), or- 
dained that an accusation should not be 
admitted against those who were absent 
on the public service ; and if anyone 
was convicted of false accusation, he 
was to be branded on the forehead with 
the letter K {kaluninia). 

As for those who have calumniated you by 
leasing-making, I protest to heaven I think they 
have justly incurred the penalty of the Memnonia 
Lex, also called Lex Bhcvuiia.— Sir W. ScOTT, 
Wavertey, chap. xli. (Abbotsford edition). 

Memnon. The same as Proteus, 
and either of these is the same as Rameses 
V. Proteus is not a proper name at all, 
but a Greek word equivalent to ' Egyp- 
tian king,' or Pharaoh. Rameses V. 
died B.C. 1165. 



Memorable 2,000 {The), 1661. 
The 2,000 ministers who refused to com- 
ply with the Uniformity Act passed in 
the reign of Charles II., and threw up 
their preferments. See ' Seven Bishops.' 

The health of 'the Protestant dissenting 
ministers, the worthy successors of the memorable 
2,Li00,' was proposed by the Chairman, the Duke of 
Essex. 

Dinner given at the Freemasons' Hall to com- 
memorate the Kepeal of the Test Act, 1828. 

Memorial Crosses. Raised some- 
times where the bier of an eminent 
person stopped for a time, on its way to 
the place of burial, as the memorial 
crosses of Eleanor of Castile, called 
' Eleanor Crosses,' as those of Waltham, 
Northampton, and Geddington. Charing 
cross was destroyed in 1647, but a model 
of it stands in front of the South-Eastern 
Railway station, Strand, London. 

Memphitic Version of the Scrip- 
tures in the dialect of Lower Egypt. 
Also called the ' Coptic' Supposed to 
be of the 3rd cent. See ' Scriptures.' 

The version in the dialect of Upper Egypt, 
called the ' Sahidic ' or ' Thebaidic,' is supposed 
to be the older of the two. 

Men of '89 {The). The leaders of 
the French revolution, such as Mirabeau, 
Danton, Robespierre, Marat, St. Just, &c. 

Men of the 14th of July. Red 

republicans of France. The reference is 
to the ^taking of the Bastille, 14 July, 
1789. 

A letter was handed in by Santerre to the 
president, stating that the petitioners wanted to 
be admitted to . . . prove themselves still the 
Men of the 14th July.— Ho WITT, Hist. o/Eng. (Geo. 
III. p. 617). 

Menageries {Les). The reunions 
of Mme. de Tencin in the regency of 
Louis XV. In these reunions one met 
with Montesquieu, author of the ' Persian 
Letters '; Helvetius, author of ' L'Esprit '; 
Fontenelle and Lamotte, Rollin, Vertot, 
the two Daciers, Voltaire, and Lord 
Bolingbroke. They were the nursery of 
the encyclopaedists. 

Menander, the Samaritan, who suc- 
ceeded Simon Magus, gave himself out to 
be one of the ^ons, and that no one could 
be saved who was not of his baptism; 
but that all who were so baptized should 
be subject neither to death nor to the 
infirmities of old age (Eusebius, bk. lii. 
chap. 26). 

Menandrians. Followers of Me- 
nander. See above. 



MENDICANTS 



MERCHANTS 



581 



Mendicants or Begging Friars 

{The). Numerous orders which truly- 
infested the church in the 13th cent. 
They broke in everj'where upon the 
parochial clergy, usurped their office, set 
up altars of their own, withdrew the 
people from communion with their parish 
priests, and became so rich that they 
raised stately palaces, and became the 
most famous and most contemptible of 
all the clere^y. In 1274 the Council of 
Lyons restricted them to the four orders 
of Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, 
and Augustines. 

Menippean Satire {The). A poli- 
tical pamphlet, partly in verse and partly 
in prose. The object of the satire was 
to show up the perfidious intentions of 
Spain in regard to France, and the 
criminal ambition of the Guise family. 
The chief writers were Leroy (died 1593), 
Pithou (1544-1596), Rapin the poet 
(1540-1609), andPasserat (1534-1602). 

Called Menippean from Menippus, a cynic 
philosopher of the 1st cent. 

Men'nonites (3 syl.). Followers of 
Menno (called Simonis, i.e. ' Son of 
Simon') of Holland (1496-1561). He 
was the founder of the reformed 
Anabaptist school, after the death of 
John of Leyden. Menno was a man of 
most gentle, earnest, modest, and 
spiritual nature, wholly unlike the wild 
fanatics kno^vn as Anabaptists. Like 
the Quakers the Mennonites will take no 
oath, nor will they hold office, employ 
force, or sanction capital punishment. 
They baptize by sprinkling, but only 
after a confession of faith. The New 
Testament is their only rule of faith ; 
they object to the word ' person ' as 
applied to the Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost, and disbelieve in original sin. 

In 1683 a following was established in 
America, where they number at least 
250,000, and they are abundant in 
Southern Russia. They are divided into 
Mild and Strict Mennonites. 

Mensal Lands {The). A grant of 
land from each of the pro\ances of Ireland 
to enlarge the county of Meath. Exacted 
by Tuathal, son of Feredach the Just, 
A.D. 136. 

Merca'tor {Isidore). A Cenobite of 
the 8th cent, for many years supposed to 
be the author of the ' False Decretals ' 
iq.v.), now generally assigned to Bene- 



dict Levita of Mentz, or to Riculfe arch- 
bishop of Mentz, who introduced them 
into France in 811. 

Mercator's Projection. Maps 
so constructed that the lines of longitude 
are straight and not curved. This de- 
vice of representing a globe La perspec- 
tive on a flat surface is due to Edward 
Wright, an Englishman ; but the chart 
so arranged by Wright was printed and 
published by Gerard Mercator, a printer 
of maps in Flanders, who died at the 
age of 82, in 1594. 

Mercator's real name was Kauffmann, but a 
foolish fashion prevailed of adopting Greek or 
Latin names, generally translations of the Ger- 
man. Thus Melanchthon's real name was Schwarz- 
erdt ; Desiderius Erasmus is a classical form of 
Gheraerd Gheraerd; (Ecolampadius is a Greek 
form of Hausschein. Nostradamus is a Latinised 
form of Notre-Dame (Michel de Notre-Dame) ; 
Joannes Stobseus is John Stubbs. 

Other names not classical are Jacopo Robusti, 
known as Jacopo Tintoretto ; Francois-Marie 
Arouet, known as Voltaire ; Moliere was the as- 
sumed name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, &c. 

Merchant Adventurers ( The), or 
* Brotherhood of Sir Thomas a Becket,' 
1296. A society established by John 
duke of Brabant, and sanctioned by 
Edward I., to promote woollen manufac- 
tures. Foreign mercho.nts were allowed 
trial by jury, half the jury being foreign- 
ers, and they had a justiciary [consul] 
in London for their protection. See 
' Merchants of the Steelyard.' 

It received a patent in l.'SOS from Henry VII., 
and was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1564. 

The clergj' were called Sir, and addressed aa 
' Sir-reverence,' in the ' good old times.' 

Merchant Queen {The). Venice. 

The Merchant Queen, in order to preserve in- 
violate the Levantine commerce, humbled her- 
self at the footstool of the Sultan. — History of 
Venice, vol. ii. p. 81 (Murray, 1838). 

Merchant Taylors' School, 1568. 
Founded by the Merchant Taylors' 
Guild. 

Merchants {The Statute of) 
' Statutum de Mercatoribus,' 1283. The 
statute of Acton Bumel is so called. It 
was passed at Acton Burnel, in Shrop- 
shire, in the reign of Edward I., and its 
object was the speedy recovery of debts 
due to merchants and traders. The 
security which the merchant obtained in 
1285 by a seisin of the debtor's lands, 
&c., was called a ' Statute Merchant.' 
See ' Statute of Acton Burnel.' 

Merchants of the Steelyard. 

London Hanse Town merchants, formed 
into a company early in the 13th cent. 



MERCHANTS' 



MESSENIAN 



In 1235 they obtained privileges from 
Henry HI., and received a charter in 
1280 from Edward T., with further pri- 
vileges from Edward IV. and Henry 
VII. Finally abolished by Elizabeth in 
1578. This company in 1505 was opposed 
by the ' Merchant Adventurers ' {q.v.). 

Merchants' Petition The), 1820. 
Drawn up by Mr. Tooke for free trade, 
especially in com. Being signed by 
more than half the court of directors of 
the Bank of England, and a large num- 
ber of the chief London merchants, it 
was presented to the House by Alex- 
ander Baring [Lord Ashburton]. 

Mercia. The last formed and largest 
of the kingdoms, since called the Hept- 
archy. It was founded a.d. 582 by 
Crida or Creda, and included 17 counties 
and most of Herts. 

The counties were— Staffordshire, Worcester- 
shire, and Warwickshire ; Cheshire, Derby and 
Kotts ; Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, and Bucks ; 
Shropshire and Herefordshire ; Leicestershire 
and Rutlandshu-e ; Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Hunts, 
Bedfordsliire, and mosD of Herts. 

Mercian Province. So called 
from the river Mersey. 

Merciless Parliament (The), or 
' The Unmerciful Parliament,' 3 Feb. to 
3 June, 1388. A junto or council of 14, 
the tools of Thomas [Plantagenet] duke 
of Gloucester, which assumed royal pre- 
rogatives, and attempted to depose the 
king [Richard II.], then nearly 21 years 
of age. Sir Nicholas Brembre, thrice 
Lord Mayor of London, was condemned 
for siding with the king ; the Archbishop 
of York fled for his life ; the king's con- 
fessor was driven from the kingdom; 
several of the judges were condemned to 
death ; Blake the secretary, and Usk the 
under-sheriff, were put to death. Sir 
John Beauchamp, Sir James Berners, 
Sir John Salisbury, and Sir Simon Bur- 
ley were all executed. In May 1399 
the young king took the reins of go- 
vernment into his own hands, and Glou- 
cester's power was shattered into dust. 
See ' Parliaments.' 
Sometimes called ' The Wonderful Parliament.' 

Mercu'rius Au'licus. A court 
journal published in the reign of Charles 
J I. under the court's own direction. 

M6re des Peuples (La). Mar- 
guerite de France duchesse de Berry, 
daughter of Francois I. (1523-1574). 



Mer'inides or Merinites (3 syl.). A 
Saracen dynasty in Morocco which suc- 
ceeded the Almohades in 1270, in 
Morocco, and were overthrown by the 
sheriffs or cherifs in 1516. 

Descendants of Merin Abdallah king of Fez. 

Mermnades (2 syl.). The third 
dynasty of the kings of Lydia. So named 
from Mermnas son of Gj^ges, the first 
king, B.C. 708-545. Croesus was the 
last of this dynasty. 

Merovin'gians {The), or the Mero- 
vingian dynasty (420-737). The first 
race of French kings, called Merovingian 
from Mer-wig or Meroveus, the third of 
the line, presuming Pharamond and 
Clodion to have preceded him. After 
an interregnum the second race, called 
the Carlovingian, succeeded. 

Merwig is ini'r, great ; wi^i, warrior. If Phara- 
mond ever existed, he was only Duke of the 
Francs. He is said to have been the son of Mar- 
comir, and to have died 428. His son Clodion is 
said to have died 448, and Meroveus was his son. 
Then followed Chilperic (448 481), and then his 
son Clovis [=Louis]. 

Merry Monarch. [The). Charles 
II. of England (born 1630, crowned 1661, 
died 1685). 
Called by Rochester ' The Mutton-eating King." 

Mersen {Treaty of), a.d. 870. By 
which the eastern part of Lotharingia 
(Lorraine), between the Maas and Rhine, 
was added to Germany. 

Merton College, Oxford. Founded 
in 12u4, by Walter de Merton bishop of 
Rochester, at Maiden, Surrey, but re- 
moved to Oxford in 1274. The head- 
master is called the warden. 

Mesne Lords or Barons, i.e. 
middle or intermediate lords ; who hold 
their lands, not from the king, but from 
some subject, who in this case was the 
mesne lord's overlord. The vassal of a 
mesne lord is called an arriL>re vassal, the 
vassal of a vassal. Lands which owed 
no allegiance to a lord were called 
allodia (sing, allodiu-m). See ' Land.' 

Messali'na of the North {The). 

Catherine H. of Russia (1729, 1762- 
1796). 

Messe'nian War {The First), b.c. 
743-724. Between the Messenians and 
Spartans. By the terms of peace the 
Messenians were reduced to the condi- 
tion of helots, had to pay Sparta half the 
produce of their land in tribute, and to 



METHODISM 



METTEENICH'S 



588 



send a deputation of women to the 
obsequies of Spartan kings. 

The Second, b.c. 685-t5G2. The Spar- 
tans were again the victors. Aristo- 
menes was the Messenian hero. 

The Third, B.C. 490. The Spartans 
were again victorious, and banished the 
Messenians from the soiL Tyrtceus the 
Athenian poet inspired the Spartans 
with his lays. 

The Fourth, B.C. 465-455. The helots 
revolted, and found refuge in Naupactos. 

Methodism, 1729. Sprang up at 
Oxford under Mr. Morgan and Mr. 
Wesley. Whitfield joined the party in 
1735. In 1738 Wesley and Whitfield 
separated on the ' five points.' Wesley 
took the Arminian views and Whitfield 
the Calvinistic. Wesley taught that, 
through the merits of Christ, man's sins 
are forgiven, and that conversion is a 
gift of God conveyed instantaneously, 
so that the converted know when the 
change takes place. The first Methodist 
societies were established in 1739. When 
in 1752 Whitfield separated from the 
Methodists, those who followed Wesley 
were called ' Wesleyan Methodists ' or 
'Wesleyans,' and those who followed 
Whitfield were called ' Calvinistic Metho- 
dists.' 

Called Methodists because the societies were 
governed by certain rules, and the members were 
required 'to walk orderly and methodically 
under their respective leaders.' There was a 
college of physicians in ancient liome called 
MethoclhUe, from the strict regime which they 
enforced on their patients ; probnbly this may 
have suggested the name to the Oxford scholars. 

Methodist Episcopal Church 

{The), 1784. A society of Wesleyan 
Methodists in the United States of 
America, first formed in 1766 by immi- 
grants from Ireland. Like Wesley, they 
regarded themselves as members of the 
English episcopal church. Wesley or- 
dained Dr. Thomas Coke, the first Metho- 
dist bishop. They accept Wesley's 
abstract of the ' Thirty-nine Articles,' 
and use his abridgment of the Common 
Prayer-book. The bishops are itinerant, 
and ordain bishops, elders, and deacons. 

Methodist Protestant Church 
in the U.S. of America {The), 1830. 
Seceders from the ' Methodist Episcopal 
Church ' iq.v.). They objected to ej)isco- 
pacy, and desired a popular and inde- 
pendent form of church governipent. 



Meth'uen [Treaty of), 6 May, 1703. 
A treaty of commerce between England 
and Portugal. By this treaty the duty 
on all Portuguese wines was one-third 
less than on French wines. Modified in 
1810, and abolished in 1835. 



John Methuen was the English ambassador to 
the court of Portugal. The king of Portugal at 
the time was Pedro II. 

Metiers de Paris [Statuts des). 
From the ' Documents ine'dits sur I'His- 
toire de France,' I'ecently published. 
These statutes are supposed to belong 
to the period of St. Louis (1226-1270). 

Meton'ic Cycle {The), 19 years. 
About B.C. 432 Meton discovered that 
235 lunar months very nearly corre- 
sponded with 19 solar years ; but about a 
century later Callippus discovered that 
in a hundred years the Metonic cycle 
would be a day too long, as a solar year 
contains 365;^ days, and not 365. So 
Callii^pus suggested that a cycle should 
consist of (19 x 4) 76 years, instead of 19. 
See • Callii^pic Cycle.' 

Metropolitan Board ofWorks 

{The), transferred in 1889 to the London 
County Council {q.v.), had its standing 
committees and sub-committees. The 
former included the Bridges' Cormnittee, 
the Building Acts' Committee {q.v.), the 
Fire Brigade Committee {q.v.), the Parks, 
Commons, and Open Spaces Committee 
{q.v.), and the Special Purposes and 
Sanitary Committee {q.v.), including gas 
and gas-meters, the Contagious Diseases 
Act Committee, and so on. 

The nine sub-committees were (1) the 
Artisans' Dwellings' Act ; (2) the coal 
and wine dues, (3) the examination of 
accounts, (4) the municipal government 
of the metropolis, (5) officers, (6) over- 
head wires, (7) sewer emanations, (8) 
supplementary main drainage, and (9) 
tramways. 

Metternich's Maxim. 'All for, 
but not thro^igh, the people.' In other 
words, the king and his government, 
not the popular wish, judge what is best 
for the general welfare, and the people's 
interest. Of course, the king and his 
council must be absolute ; popular con- 
stitutions could in no wise be conceded 
according to Metternich's political 
maxim. 

In schools and private families Metternich's 
maxim is acted on ; but nations are cliibi, not 



584 



MEVELAVITES 



MICHELADE 



schools or families ; and in clubs the members, 
not the elected chairman, make the laws. 

Mevela'vites (4 syl.). Dancing 
dervishes, so called from Mevela'va, their 
founder, who whirled round and round 
for four continuous days, without rest, 
food, or refreshment. While Mevelava 
spun round like a top, Hamsa played on 
a flute. After the fourth day the dervish 
fell into a trance, in which marvellous 
revelations were made to him. 

Mexican Revolution (T7ie), 1822, 
by which the republic was converted 
into an empire. Augustino Iturbide, the 
leader of the coup d'etat, was proclaimed 
emperor under the name of Augustin I. 
of Mexico. He abdicated in March 1823, 
and retired to Leghorn in Italy; but 
returned to Mexico in March 1824, was 
arrested and shot. 

Mezentian Thraldom, i.e. being 
fastened to a dead body. Mezentius was 
a king of the Tyrrhenians when iEneas 
invaded Italy. He was notorious for his 
cruelty, especially for tying an offender 
face to face with a dead man, and leaving 
him to die in his thraldom. 

Divorce frees a man from that loathsome 
Mezentian thraldom — the chaining of a man for 
life to a cold putrefying corpse.— Mids Robinson, 
Whitehall, chap. xix. 

*,* Paul seems to refer to this sort of punish- 
ment in Bom. vii. 24 : ' Who shall deliver me from 
this [dead body] ? ' 

Mezuz'ah, pi. Mezuzoth. A piece 
of parchment fixed by the ancient Jews 
to the doorposts of a house, according to 
Deut. vi. 9 ; xi. 13. The parchment was 
rolled up, put in a case, and labelled 
Shadcn, one of the names of God. A 
mezuzah was fixed not only on doorposts, 
but to door knockers on the right side. 

The Tephelim which these pedants wore on 
their left wrists, and the Mezuzah which they 
fixed on the right side of their doors to keep ofl 
devils.— King SLEY, Hiipatia, chap. v. 

Micare Digitis [Mi-cd-re didg-i- 
tis\. A game played by the ancient 
Romans, and still common in Italy. Two 
players sit opposite to each other, and 
each one holds out a certain number of 
fingers, and he who guesses right the 
soonest is the winner. Thus, if A holds 
out all the fingers of one hand and 
three of the other, and B holds out two 
of one hand and three of the other, the 
number is 13. If done very quickly it is 
by no means easy to guess the right 
number. Our talking with the fingers is " I 



sometimes called mication, from * micare 

digitis.' 

This game is called morro; it is often seen 
among Italian immigrants in America. 

Mlcel Synod {The). The greai 
council or Witenagemot of the Anglo- 
Saxons. 

Michael {Order of St.), 1469. Insti- 
tuted in France by Louis XI. ; reor- 
ganised in 1661 by Louis XIV. Extinct 
since 1830. 

Michael {Order of the Wing of St.). 
Instituted in Portugal by King Alfonso, 
1172. 

Michael and St. George {Knights 
of St.), 1818. A British order founded 
chiefly for Malta and the colonies. 

Michael Angelo of Battles 

{The). M. A. Cerquozzi of Rome (1600- 
1660). Battles and shipwrecks were his 
favourite subjects. Also called Michel- 
Ange des Bamboches. 

Michael Angelo of France 

{The). Jean Cousin (1500-1590). His 
great picture is the ' Last Judgment,' or 
Le Jugement Universel. Michael Angelo 
has a grand fresco on the same subject 
called the ' Last Judgment.' 

Michael Angelo of Music {The). 
Gluck (1714-1787) is so called by Dr. 
Burney, and also father of modern opera. 

Michael Angelo of Opera {The). 

Richard Wagner (1805-1864). 

Michael Angelo of Sculptors 

{The). I. Pierre Puget (1623-1694). 
IL Rene' Michel Slodtz (1705-1764). 

Michael Angelo of the Lyre 

{The). Palestrlna (1529-1594). 

Michael Angelo of the Refor- 
mation {The). Martin Luther (1483- 
1546). 

Michael College (St.), or 'St. 

Michael House,' 1324. The second foun- 
dation in the University of Cambridge, 
founded by Harvey de Stanton chancellor 
of the exchequer to Edward II. This 
college in 1546 was with other foundations 
consolidated in Trinity College. 

Michelade [Mi' -kel-aid], 1567. The 
massacre of 48 French Catholics at 
Nismes by Huguenots on St. Michael's 
Day. The day before they had murdered 
72 of their prisoners (Felice). 



MICHIGAN 



MILAN 



585 



Michigan [Mish'-e-ga7i]. In the 
United States of America, so called, in 
1805, from the lake of the same name 
(Indian). The inhabitants are usually 
nicknamed Wolverines. 

Miehing Mallecho, Esq. The 

pen-name of Shelley in ' Peter Bell the 
Third.' 

Microcosm. An epitome of all 
things in one. Paracelsus taught that the 
human body was such an epitome, con- 
taining in itself a part of all visible 
nature, including the sun, moon, stars, 
and even the poles of heaven. 

Mid Lent. The Fourth Sunday in 
Lent, called Lcetare Sunday, ' Eefresh- 
ment Sunday,' ' Mothering Sunday,' and 
Dominica de Bosa. See each of the 
phrases and ' Boeuf-gras.' 

Middle Ages (The). About 1000 
years. Hallam in his ' Middle Ages ' be- 
gins this period with the conquest of Gaul 
by the Franks, about a.d. 500, and ter- 
minates it with the invasion of Italy by 
Charles VIII. about 1500. Perhaps the 
most convenient landmarks would be 
from the fall of the Roman Empire to 
the Reformation, which would practically 
be the same thing ; for Augustulus Ro- 
■ mulus, the last of the Roman emperors, 
was deposed a.d. 475, and the Reforma- 
tion was between 1516 and 1540. See 
' Mediaeval History,' 

Middle Passage (The). The sea 
passage of kidnapped African slaves. The 
first i^assage is from their African homes 
to the ship, and their third passage is 
from the slave market to the cotton or 
sugar plantations. 

Middle Persian Empire {The 
First), 226-642. Founded by Artaxares, 
or rather Ardisheer Babigan Sassane, a 
conmion soldier of Persia who killed 
Artaban king of Parthia, a.d. 226, and 
founded the dynasty of the Sassanides 
(3 syl.), which lasted for 416 years. 

Midnight Mass {The). Missa de 
nocte. On Christmas Day there are three 
masses : the midnight mass, the mass at 
daybreak, or in aurora, and high mass. 
There is also the vigil of Christmas Day. 
See ' Mass.' 

On Christmas Eve the mass was sung. 

Sir W. Scott. 
When the clock strikes midnight all the bells 
ring merrily, mass commencea at the principal 



churches, and at San Lulgi del Francesci and the 
Gesu there is a great illumination . . . and very 
good music— W. W. Story, Roba di lioma, vol. i. 
p. 63. 

. . . Get shut up, as I have been, after midnight 
mass on a Christmas night.— R. H. BuSK, Notes and 
Queries, 6 July, ias9, p. 10. 

Midrash Rabboth. A compila- 
tion of legends, allegories, and tales, 
commenced about a.d. 700, to explain or 
elucidate the Hebrew Scriptures. 

Mignon ( Un). A dandy or fop was 
so called in Paris under Henri III. ; under 
Louis XIV. he was called un libertin ; 
under the Regent tin beau or tin talon 
rouge ; under the Directory U7i incroy- 
ahle ; later on un petit maitre, merveil- 
leux, elegant, creve, . gonimeux (sing. 
and pi.), becarre. 

a libertin in Moliere's time meant a freethinker. 
Mignon, pronounce Min'yo'iie. 

Mignon {Le). Henri III. of France 
(1551, 1574-1589), a man-milliner, 'weaker 
than woman, and worse than harlot.' See 
above. 

Chicot the Jester had a seat at the council board 
of the Mhiion king. — Hist, of France. 

Migration of Nations {The). 
The migration of the northern and eastern 
hordes towards the civilised west and 
south, which brought about the fall of the 
Roman power. 

Milan {Edict of). March a.d. 813. 
Made by Constantine the Great in favour 
of Christians. By this edict, the perse- 
cutions of the Roman governors against 
Christians ceased, and every Roman sub- 
ject was free to choose his own religious 
faith. N.B. What were called heretics 
soon fell into the exception. 

Much has been said about the Roman persecu- 
tions, but Buckle tells us ' It is estimated 1,000,000 
persons perished during the Ariau schism ; 
1,000,000 in the Carthaginian struggles; 7,000,000 
during the Saracen slaughters in Spain ; 5,000,000 
during the Crusades ; 2,000 000 of Saxons and 
Scandinavians ; 1,000,000 in the wars against the 
Netherlands, Albigenses, Waldenses, and Hugue- 
nots ; 100,000,000 during the Justinian wars ; about 
25,000,000 Peruvians and Mexicans ; to say nothing 
of the dragonades, minor conflicts, secret murders, 
and so on ; 140 millions ! What were the twelve 
persecutions compared with this ? 

Milan {The League of), 1575. A 
French Protestant league, the object of 
which was to place the Due d'Alen^on on 
the throne. This league was aided and 
abetted by Queen Elizabeth, who was 
attached to the duke personally. In 
1577 King Henri III. put himself at the 
head of a Catholic league, and another 
religious war broke out. 



586 



MILAN 



MILLEEISM 



Milan Decree {The\ 17 Dec, 1807. 
The counterpart of the Berlin decree {q.v.). 
extending the ' continental system ' to 
all Italy, except the pope's dominions, 
which followed soon afterwards. This 
decree ordained that ' any vessel which 
had been searched by an English ship, or 
which had submitted to be sent on a 
voyage to England, or had paid any duty 
to the English Government, should be 
declared denationalised, and be treated 
as if English.' 

Most certainly Napoleon was no politician. 

Milanese Liturgy {The), or Am- 
brosian Liturgy {q.v.). 

Mile'sian Sect, B.C. 557. Originated 
with Anaximander, who taught that man 
was concocted of earth and water baked 
in the sun's rays ; and that heaven is a 
solid concave in which the stars are fixed 
as nails to prevent its falling. However, 
he taught that the earth is spherical. 
See Gen. i. 24, and compare with i. 20. 

Milesians {The). A Scotic [i.e. 
Gothic] colony which came to Ire- 
land with Milesius and his eight sons. 
They landed in the south-west of the 
island, and dispossessed the dynasties 
of Tuatha-na-Danaan {q.v.). Five of the 
sons perished, and ultimately the entire 
island fell into the hands of Heremon or 
Erimhon, who furnished twenty succes- 
sors, all of whom resided at Tara in 
Meath. About B.C. 900 Ollav Folia 
[Ollamh Fodhla], of the family of Ir, a 
collateral branch, became king. The 
Milesian race is the glory of Ireland, 
Every Irishman loves to trace his line to 
the Milesians, and the chroniclers strive 
to outvie each other in heaping glory, 
honour, and antiquity on the race. The 
Milesian kings are called the Scotic — a 
list of 136 is given before the advent of 
St. Patrick - and the race lasted 2,000 
years, according to tradition ; probably 
half that time would be more historically 
correct. 

Anastasius, the Sinaite, says: 'Those called by 
the ancients Scythians or Scoti are Goths and 
Danes. Many Irish chroniclers tell us that the 
Milesians came from Spain. The Celto-ScythsB 
formed a part of the people of Spain.' 

Military Colours. Each British 
regiment has a pair of colours, the Boyal 
and the Begimental. The latter contains 
the names of the most important engage- 
ments in which the regiment has taken 
part. 



Military Knights {The). The 
title given by William IV. to the ' Poor 
Knights ' {q.v.). He also allowed naval 
officers to share in the benefits of the 
brotherhood. 

Military Orders. See under 
' Monks and Monastic Houses,' 

Milk-woman of Bristol {The). 
Ann Yearsley, a poetess, died 8 May, 1806. 
Hannah More took an interest in her, and 
raised 600Z, on her behalf ; but Ann 
Yearsley proved very ungrateful to her 
benefactress, 

Mill-boyof the Slashes. Henry 
Clay (1777-1852). So called from ' The 
Slashes,' a swampy country in the 
neighbourhood of a place in Hanover 
County, Virginia, where he was born, and 
where he worked as a mill-boy. 

M illena'rians, 2nd cent. Believers 
in the millennium. God worked six days 
and rested on the seventh. Psalm xc, 4 
says, a thousand years are in God's sight as 
one day, and therefore the working world 
will last 6,000 years, and then will follow 
the millennial rest for 1,000 years, which 
will be ushered in by a general resurrec- 
tion. Fifth-monarchy men, 

Papias, IrenoBus, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, 
Lactantius, Nepos, and others were believers in 
the millennium. 

Millenary Petition {The), 1603. 
Presented to James I. of England on his 
accession by 800 clergymen, praying for 
a reform in the church courts, the provi- 
sion and training of godly ministers, and 
the suppression of ' popish usages ' in 
the Book of Common Prayer. James 
paid no heed to the petition, but con- 
vened the Hampton Court Conference 
{q.v.). 

The petition was presented by a full tenth of all 
the clergy of the realm, and was called Millenary 
because, roughly speaking, it was signed by a 
thousand clergymen. The chief objections were 
the use of the cross in baptism, the interrogatories 
to infants answered by sponsors, contirmation, 
and a few minor particulars. 

Miller {A Joe). A pun, so called from 
Joseph MiUer (1684-1738), an actor, noted 
for his suppers in which wit and pun 
sparkled. John Mottley compiled a col- 
lection of jests which he attributed to 
Joe Miller, and since then any jest is 
called a Joe Miller, especially those 
anonymous and somewhat stale. 

Millerism, or ' Second Adventism,' 
derives its name from William Miller, 



MILLIONI 



MINNESOTA 



587 



'the American Prophet ' (1781-1819), who 
fixed by minute calculation the end of 
the world 10 Oct., 1843 or 1844, Before 
his death he 'demonstrated from pro- 
phecy ' that, as 1844 had failed, the years 
1857, 18G7, 1873, and 1889 were indubit- 
ably fatal years between 15 and 25 Oct. 

In 1857 was the financial panic of America, and 
in 1873 the great financial crash. Between 1857 and 
lSf>7 occurred the 'great rebellion.' These, how- 
ever, were not the end of the world, nor did tliey 
bring on the millennial advent, and yet Miller had 
a following of at least 10,000 in the Western States, 
Kew England, Middle States, and Canada. 

Millioni, the millionnaire. Marco 
Polo was called by the Venetians ' Messer 
Marco Millioni ' (1256-1323), and his 
house is still called ' La Corte del Mil- 
lioni.' It is on the canal of St. Giovanni 
Crisostomo. 

Milioni, with one ' 1,' is now the more common 
spelling. 

Milton of Germany {The). Fried- 
rich Gottlieb Klopstock, author of ' The 
Messiah' (1724-1803). 

A very German Milton indeed.— Coleridge. 

Milton of Painting (T7ie). Fuseli 
(1706-1781) not only because, like Milton, 
he united terrihiles visu formcB with the 
molle atque facetum, but also painted 
and exhibited a ' Gallery of Milton.' 

Mind Ether, or ' Mind Atmosphere,' 
An ether which produces by its undula- 
tions on the nervous tissue the sensation 
of light and thought. A concentration 
of this nervous tissue forms ganglia, and 
the union of ganglia forms brain. This 
hypothesis is made to explain ' Thought 
Heading ' : thus : Nervous surface, it is 
said, transmits sensation faster than the 
undulations of mind ether, and there- 
fore the thought of the tliinker is com- 
municated to the reader, who is further 
off from the brain, simultaneously with 
the impression made on the brain, which 
is much nearer. 

Mind of the School [The). Aris- 
totle was so called by Plato (b.c. 384-322), 

Ming Dynasty [The). The twenty- 
first Imperial dynasty of China, preceded 
by the Yuen or Y'en and followed by the 
Manchoo dynasty. It gave seventeen 
emperors, and lasted 276 years (1368- 
•1644). The seat of government was Nan- 
kin, This dynasty is celebrated for its 
princes, especially Hong-voo and Tchin- 
Tsu-wen-tee, 



Minims {The), 1431, Founded by 

St. Francis de Paula. Often called 

' Hermits of St. Francis ' [i.e. of PaulaJ. 

These are not the Blinorites (3 syl.) or Frtrea 

Mineurs of St. Francis [of Assisi] founded in 1221. 

Ministerial Whitebait Dinner 

{The). A dinner given to the cabinet 
ministers at Greenwich soon after Trinity 
Monday, that is, a short time before the 
close of the session. These dinners began 
with Sir Robert Preston, M.P. for Dover, 
who invited his friend Old George Rose, 
secretary of the Treasury, to dine with 
him at Dagenham Lake, where he had a 
'fishing cottage.' After a year or two 
Pitt was asked to join, and subsequently 
Greenwich was selected as a more con- 
venient place of tryst. Lord Camden 
was next asked to join the trio, and then 
Mr. Long [Lord Farnborough]. The 
private dinner next became a ministerial 
dinner, in which each of the guests paid 
his quota, and the invitations were sent 
out by the private secretary of Lord 
Farnborough, 

Ministers' Bill (T/ie), 1660. Passed 
by the convention parliament {q.v.). By 
this bill all ministers installed within a 
stated time were to be expelled from the 
pulpits of the Anglican Church. This 
bill did not give satisfaction, because it 
did not go back far enough, and many 
pulpits remained in the occupation of 
Presbyterians, 

Ministers' Money. A tax imposed 
on the householders of Dublin, Cork, 
&c. for the support of the Estabhshed 
Church, Abolished in 1857, 

Minnesingers {The). Minne 
means love ; the Minnesingers were love- 
poets, contemporary in Germany with 
the House of Hohenstauffen {q.v.), be- 
cause these kings spoke Suabian, the 
richest, smoothest, and most musical of 
the German dialects. Though called 
love- singers, some of their poems were 
national ballads, and some were extended 
romances. Walter of Vogelweide was 
by far the best of the lyrists ; Heinrich 
of Veldig was the most naive and in- 
genious ; Hartmann the most classical ; 
Wolfram the most sublime; and Gott- 
fried the most licentious. See ' Wartburg 
Contests.' 

Minnesota (U.S. America). An 
Indian word meaning ' Sky-tinted Water.' 



588 



MINNING 



MISE 



The state receives its name from the 
river. The nickname of the inhabitants 
is Gophers. 

Minning Day, i.e. 'Reminding day.' 
The anniversary of a person's death, when 
a mass is offered up for the repose of the 

BOUl. 

Mi'nors, Min'orites (3 syl.), or 
'Grey Friars,' 1209. Founded by St. 
Francis d'Assisi ; confirmed 1210 ; and 
settled in England 1224. 

Minute Men, 1775. The miHtia of 
12,000 men enrolled by the American 
congress adjourned from Concord to Cam- 
bridge. So called because they were to 
turn out at a minute's notice with musket 
and rifle. Soon augmented to 20,000, 

Miquelets, 1675. Spanish guerillas 
in the Pyrenees, on the frontiers of Cata- 
lonia and Aragon, who armed themselves 
to push back the French invaders led by 
Schomberg. So called from their leader 
Miquelet de Prats. To combat them 
Louis XIV. created 100 companies of 
fusiliers de 7nontagnes, also called 
Miquelets. 

The mountain guides in the Pyrenees 
are called Miquelets. In 1808 Napoleon 
I. organised them to put down the 
Spanish guerillas. 

The country swarmed with Miquelets, a sort of 
lawless Catalans, who declared for the Austrians. 
— HowiTT, Hist. o/Eiig. (Anne, p. 212). 

Mirabeau of the Gironde {The). 
Vergniaud, the most eloquent man of the 
Second Assembly. 

Mirabeau of the Sans Culottes 

{The). George J. Danton 1759-1794. 
Also called the ' Mirabeau of the Mar- 
kets,' and the ' Mirabeau of the Mob.' 
He was Mirabeau cast in a more vulgar 
mould. 

Pronounce Me'-rah-bo ; Sahii [nasal] ku-lot.' 

Miracle of the A^e {The). So 
Eoger Bacon is called by Dr. Freind, in his 
' History of Physic' 

Miracles at St. M^dard, 1690- 
1727. Referred to by Paley in his 
'Evidences' as sufficiently grave to be 
worthy of his consideration. The Abbe 
de Paris, a very charitable man, was 
bu'ried in the cemetery of St. Me'dard, 
and miracles were said to be performed 
at his tomb. The crowd so increased 
tltat government found it necessary to 



forbid anyone visiting the tomb. The 
abbe was a Jansenist, and all Jan- 
senists insisted that the cures were 
miraculous; but their opponents attri- 
buted the cures to excitement operating 
on the nervous system. Convulsions 
were the general malady. 

A wag wrote over the gates a doggerel to this 
effect : 

The king henceforth forbids God's grace 
To show his wonders in this place. 

Miraculous Campaign {The), 
1670. That of John Sobieski the Polisa 
general, who triumphed over the allied 
Cossacks and Tartars, instigated to war 
by Louis XIV. of France. 

Mirror of all Martial lion 

{The). Thomas earl of Salisbury (died 
1428). 

Mirror of Courtesy {The). Sir 
Philip Sidney, author of the ' Arcadia ' 

(1554-1586). 

Mirror of Justice {The). Queen 
Victoria. In 1882 prayers were offered 
in the mosques of Cairo and the pro- 
vinces for Queen Victoria under that 
appellation. 

Mirror of Salvation {The). A 

sacred picture book with Bible stories 
and sacred legends in rhymes, with illus- 
trative pictures. This book and the 
' Biblia Pauperum ' {q.v.) were immensely 
popular before the Reformation. 

Mise of Amiens {The), 23 Jan., 
1264. Louis IX. undertook to mediate 
between Henry III. of England and his 
barons, and gave his verdict wholly in 
favour of the king, cancelling the ' Pro- 
visions of Oxford ' {q.v.) passed by the 
Mad Parliament. Tlie verdict adjudged 
that the great officers of state should be 
appointed by the crown ; and that aliens 
should be allowed to hold castles in Eng- 
land, and state offices if the king pleased, 
&c. The decision of King Louis was in- 
dignantly rejected by the Londoners, and 
led to the battle of Lewes, in which Simon 
de Montfort and the Londoners proved 
the victors. 

Mise, pronounce Tneez. 

Mise of Lewes {The), 14 May, 
1264. A truce after the battle of Lewes. 
By this mise {_meez] it was provided that 
the king was to be supreme, but was to ' 
be assisted by a council nominated by the 
Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Gloucester, 
and the Bishop of Chichester. It was 



MISHNA 



MISSA 



589 



at this crisis that Simon de Montfort 
summoned for the first time two citizens 
from every borough to take their seats 
with the laiights of the shires m the par- 
liamentary assembly. 

Mishna (The). A collection of the 
civil laws and traditions of the Hebrews. 
The Jews say that Moses on Mount Sinai 
received, besides the decalogue, many 
other laws which he taught the 70 elders. 
Judas, a learned rabbi, collected these 
floating traditions, and codified them. 
The Mishna was written in the 2nd cent. 
A.D. at Tiberias, and forms the first part 
of the Talmud (q.v.) 

The rabbi Judas was called 'the saint.' 

Missa Adventi'tia. A votive 
mass. 

Missa Ambrosia'na. Instituted 
by St. Ambrose (374-397), and used in 
Milan Cathedral. 

Missa Anima'rum. High mass 
for the dead. 

Missa Annua'lis. Daily mass. 

Missa Audi'ta. Mentioned by 
Robert of Gloucester. 

Hora sexta pro grammatistis parva lectio fiat, 
■ut aptius congregentur in sacello. et hora septinia 
prsecise celebretur Missa, ut loquuntur, ' Audita.' 

Missa Au'rea. An unusually grand 
mass celebrated in mediaeval times once 
a year in honour of the Virgin Mary. 

Missa Cardina'lis. Mass cele- 
brated by a cardinal. 

Missa Cat'ecliumeno'ruin. The 
mass up to the introTtus, when all cate- 
chumens are dismissed by the deacon 
with these words, ' Si quis non communi- 
cat, det locum.' 

Missa Copeta'ta. A mass accom- 
panied by the striking of a bell on one 
side with several distinct strokes. ' Cam- 
panae alteram latus divisis et distinctis 
ictibus pulsare.' 

Missa Die'i. The mass celebrated 
after the usual early mass, ' orto jam die.' 

Missa Familia'ris. A private 

mass. 

Missa de Jeju'niis. The mass 
which is celebrated on fast days. 

Missa Judicii. A mass which is 
an appeal to God of a man's innocence of 



some charge brought against him. This 
is of the nature of an ordeal. 

Missa Lu'rainum, or ' Chande- 
leur.' In German ' Lichtmesse ' for the 
Feast of Purification (Candlemas), 2 Feb., 
in commemoration of the ' churching ' of 
the Virgin Mary after the birth of Jesus. 
Said to have been instituted by Justinian 
in 542. 

Missa Lunat'ica. Mass celebrated 
on the day of the new moon. 

Missa Matutina'lis, or 'Missa 
Minor,' 'quae post exactas matutinas 
dicitur.' 

Missa Wava'lis, or ' Missa Nau- 
tica.' Mass celebrated aboard ship. It 
is a missa sicca [q-v.), because the roll- 
ing of the ship might cause the wine to 
be spilt. 

Missa Nova. A celebrant's maiden 
mass. 

Missa !N"uptia'lis. A mass cele- 
brated at a wedding. 

Missa Pascha'lis. Tlie seven 
m.asses during the Easter festival. 

Missa Peregrino'rum. A mass 
for all except the ordained clergy. After 
the chapter the jDoor are summoned by a 
bell to the ' Missa Matutinalis,' and the 
celebrant for the week sings the Greater 
Mass. The alms being then distributed, 
he proceeds with the 'Missa Peregrino- 
rum,' which is said, not sung. 

Peregrin! dicuntiir omnes qui non sunt de epl- 
Bcopatu ordinatis, sive sint clerici, sive laici. 

Du Cange, vol. V. p. 246, col. 1. 

Missa Perfecta. A mass where 
both bread and wine are administered to 
the communicants. 

Missa Prassan'ctificato'runi. 

A mass without consecration, as on Good 
Friday, when there is no consecration of 
the elements. They are consecrated the 
previous day. The Greek Church cele- 
brates such masses in Lent, except on 
Saturdays and Sundays. See ' Mass of 
the Presanctified.' 

Missa Sicca. A mass without the 
elements. This may occur when a priest 
has already administered a previous sa- 
crament. ' Sacerdos non potest conficere 
quia forte jam celebravit, vel ob aliam 
causam potest accepta stola Epistolam 
et Evangelium legere, et docere Oratio- 



590 



MISSA 



MISSISSIPPI 



nem dominicam, et dare benedictionem,' 
&c. DuRANDUS, ' Rationale divinorum 
officiorum libris viii. distinctum ' (Book 
iv. chap. 1, n 23). 

Sacerdote agente quae sunt celebrantis, cum In- 
troitu, CoUecta, Epistola, Evangelio, et Canticis ; 
qui tamen, quia non vult communicare, non con- 
Becrat ita ut Missa sit sine corpore et Sanguine 
Domini.— EcKius. 

Missa Venat'ica. A short mass 
celebrated very early in the morning for 
persons about to follow the chase. 

Missa Voti'va. A mass * quae ex 

proprio voto, seu motu, peragitur et dici- 

tur, ad differentiam Missas quae a Kalen- 

dario praecipitur (Monachus Milstatensis, 

in Miraculis B. Domitiani,' n 20). 

Missa de A^uinaldo. Aguinaldo 
is Spanish for ' New Year's gift.' Latin, 
strena. French, etrennes (2 syl.) This 
mass is offered before daybreak. 

Missse vero quas Hispanice ' de Aguinaldo ' 
vocant, antequam dies illuxerit, ne celebrentur. 

—Concilium Mexicanum, 1585. 

Missa de Excepta'to. In the Am- 

brosian Missal, is a mass celebrated the 
day preceding Christmas Day. ' Prsepa- 
ratio ad vesperam Natalis Domini.' 

Missse BifaciatsB, TrifaciatsB, 

&C. When the celebrant joins together 
two or more masses having different 
objects. 

MisS83 Feria'les. Seven masses 
celebrated at the Festival of the Holy 
Trinity. First day in honour of the 
Trinity; second day in honour of the 
Logos ; third day in honour of the Holy 
Ghost ; fourth day in honour of Charity ; 
fifth day in honour of the Holy Angels ; 
sixth day in honour of the Cross ; and 
seventh day in honour of the Virgin 
Mary. 

Missal {The), 5th cent. A book 
which serves for the celebration of the 
Roman Catholic mass. It contains the 
text of all the different masses used 
during the year. Pope Gelasius, who 
died A.D. 496, composed the first missal ; 
it was in 2 vols., which Gregory the 
Great reduced to one (died G04). Each 
diocese and each religious order has its 
own missal. There are also the Greek, 
Spanish, Coptic, Ambrosian, and other 
Missals. 

The daily service book is called the ' Breviary ' 
(q.c). 



Missi Domin'ici. Eight commis- 
sioners sent into the provinces to inspect 
the conduct of dukes and counts. They 
were first organised by Charlemagne, 
who divided the empire into ten Mlssa- 
tica. Charles le Chauve increased the 
Missatica to twelve. Each was visited 
in January, April, July, and October by 
two Missi (a count and an abbot). The 
custom was discontinued at the close of 
the Carlovingian dynasty. 

Missing Link (The). The link 
between man and the ape. According to 
the theory of evolution, the lower animals 
develop into the higher animals, so that the 
larvaa of Ascidians (a marine moUuscoid) 
developed gradually into apes, and pro- 
bably apes are only one link from man ; 
but hitherto no trace of that link has 
been discovered, unless, indeed, it be in 
the Neanderthal skull found in the Rhine 
province of Prussia, which seems to be 
between the skull of an ape and the skull 
of a human being. See ' Alali.' 

Evolution goes much further back than this. 
The condensation of nebulous vapour may be 
called the first step. 

Mission {Pretres de la), 1632. 
Established by St. Vincent de Paul. 
Also called ' Lazarists.' 

Mississippi (U.S. America). So 
called (1800) from the river. It is an 
Indian word meaning the ' long and great 
waters.' The inhabitants are nicknamed 
Tadpoles. 

Mississippi Scheme [The), 1716- 
1720. A financial scheme proposed by 
John Law to the French government, 
whereby he himself was to be the sole 
creditor of the nation, and was to be 
allowed to issue paper-money to ten 
times the value of the national debt — 
that is, he relieved the nation of 208 
millions sterling on the right of issuing 
paper-money to the value of 2,080 
million pounds. The regent was so 
charmed with the scheme that he gave 
Law permission to open at once The 
Boyal Bank of France, and to issue his 
notes. The bank received deposits, dis- 
counted bills, gave promissory notes, all 
in paper. It was a prodigious success, 
and the regent gave ' the Royal Bank ' 
the exclusive right of coining money, 
transferred to it the old East India 
Company, and granted it the exclusive 
trade of Louisiana on the banks of the 



MISSOURI 



MOHAMMEDAN 



591 



Mississippi. A 500Z. share was now 
worth 18,000Z., and John Law was made 
Comptroller-General of France. In 1720 
the scheme exploded, and 20s. would 
have purchased 160,000 pounds' worth 
of Law's notes. The nation was well 
nigh ruined. See ' South Sea Scheme.' 

Missouri (U.S. America). So called 
(1821) from the river of the same name 
(Indian) . The inhabitants are nicknamed 
Pukes, or more commonly Pikes. 

Mr. Speaker. The office of Speaker 
dates back to the reign of Edward III. 
Sir Walter Hungerford, however, was 
the first to receive the title of ' Mr. 
Speaker,' 1414. The Speaker is addressed 
by members as ' Sir ' or ' Mr. Speaker.' 

Mithridat'ic "Wars (The). Be- 
tween the Romans and Mithridates king 
of Pontus. 

1 (B.C. 89-85). Fimbria defeated Mi- 
thridates at Pergamos. 

2 (B.C. 83-81). Sulla took from Mithri- 
dates all the Ionian cities in Asia Minor. 

3 (B.C. 74-68). Pompey defeated Mi- 
thridates VI., and the king of Pontus 
killed himself. 

A ' mithridate,' or antidote to all poisons, is 
named from Mithridates the Great, who knew the 
secret of such an antidote. 

Mitred Abbots. Lord abbots who 
sat and voted in the House of Lords. 
So called because they wore mitres. 

Moal'lakats {The Seven). The 
seven most ancient sacred poems of the 
Arabians, a copy of which (according to 
Caussin de Perceval's ' History of the 
Arabs ') is always suspended in the Kaaba 
of Mecca. 

The authors are: Imroulcays. Tarafa, Labid, 
Zohair-AbuSelma. Antara, Amribn-Kolthoum, 
and Harith. Armand Caussin has translated his 
father's book into French. 

Mob Monday, 8 Feb., 1886. So 
called from the riots of the unemploj'ed 
which took place in Trafalgar Square, 
London. 

Model Prison (The). Pentonville, 
Caledonian Road, London. 

Moderates (Th^). The Russell, 
Sydney, and Hampden factions, in the 
great republican plot headed by Lord 
Shaftesbury, in the latter part of the 
reign of Charles II. The more violent, 
such as Lord Howard, Rumbold, and 
Colonel Rumsey, were more ' thorough,' 



and would have assassinated both 
Charles and his brother James in order 
to establish a Commonwealth. 

Moderates and Highfliers. 

1835, in the Scotch Presbyterian Church. 
The Moderates were also called ' Intru- 
sionists.' That is, they did not consider 
the Veto Law {q.v.) an arrogant intru- 
sion of the patron's right of presentation, 
but only a moderate check on that right. 
A presentee could not be rejected from 
causeless])rejudice,hnt only for adequate 
reasons. See ' Intrusionists.' 

The leaders of the Moderates were Dr. Bryce, 
Dr. Cooke, and Dr. Kobertson. 

Modern Charlemagne {The). 
Napoleon I. (1769-1821). 

Modern History begins with the 
16th cent. About which time occurred 
the invention of printing, the discovery 
of America, and the Lutiieran Reforma- 
tion. 

Printing made generally known 1460 

Columbus set sail for America 14J3 

Kelormation begun in Germany by Luther... 1517 

Modern History {Professorship 
of). In the University of Cambridge, 
1724, instituted by George I. Present 
stipend 'dill, a year. See ' Prince Con- 
sort Prize.' 

Modern Wimrod {The). Napo- 
leon Bonaparte (1769-1821). 

Modern Scepticism {Father of). 
Bayle (1647-1706). Famous for his ' His- 
torical and Critical Dictionary.' 

Modhafferians {The). A petty 
dynasty of Turkomans, which reigned 
over Farsistan (1335-1394), when it was 
overthrown by Tamerlane. It gave four 
princes, the founder being Modhafier. 
They were contemporary with the II- 
khanians, and were always at war with 
other princes in Persia. 

Modus {The), i.e. ' Modus deci- 
mandi.' A composition for tithes. It 
may either be perpetual or for the lives 
of the contracting parties. 

Mogh's Half of Ireland. The 

southern half; the other moiety was 
called Conn's half, from the sons of a 
king who divided the island into two 
parts. This was about half a century 
after the death of Tuathal. 

Mohammedan {A). This word is 
an insulting misnomer. Tiie system of 



592 



MOHOCKS 



MONAD 



the prophet is Islam (submission to and 
faith in God), and a single adherent of 
that faith is a Moslem, a word from the 
same root as Islam. As well call a Jew 
a Mosaist as call a Moslem a Moham- 
medan. 

God is most great, and there is nothing else 
great, is the Moslem's creed. Man must submit to 
God, and find in him his only true and greatest 
happiness in the Moslem's life. Almsgiving, fast- 
ing, prayer, and pilgrimage are his four chief 
duties. 

Mohocks, or Mohawks, 1711- 

1714. A set of disorderly people who 
infested the streets of London at night 
and toi k pleasure in wounding and dis- 
figuring those whom they met. In 1711 
the government offered lOOZ. reward for 
the apprehension of any one of the gang. 
The Coxe MSS. (in the British Museum) 
inform us that Marlborough was advised 
to suborn these ruffians in 1712, ' to scour 
the streets by night and strike terror 
into the population.' This seems to be 
a blunder, as the scourers who scoured 
the streets of the Mohocks were another 
set of street brawlers. 

These Mohawks were bands of young men, 
many of them of good families, who issued into 
the streets at night and committed all sorts of 
riots and brutalities, even on women and children 
. . . whom they met with in the badly lighted 
streets.— HowiTT, Histori/ of Eve/land (Anne, 292). 

In 1712 Sir Mark Cole and three other gentlemen 
•were tried at Old Bailey for attacking the 
watch in Devereux Street. They slit two per- 
sons' noses, cut a woman in the arm with a knife 
so as to disable her for life, and rolled another in 
a tub down Snow Hill. Gay, in his ' Trivia," 
mentions these atrocities committed by the 
Mohocks. Mohocks or Mohawks were one of the 
five confederated nations of the Iroquois. 

Moidart. See ' Seven Men of,' &c. 

Moiley, i.e. Assassination, 1798. A 
word adopted by the ' United Irishmen.' 
A person obnoxious to the secret society 
was 'consigned to the Moiley' — that is, 
was doomed to assassination. When a 
murder became known, it was said that 
' Moiley had had him,' or ' Moiley had 
eaten him.' See ' Irish Associations.' 

Captain Moonlight and Kory of the Hill were 
the phrases used in the last quarter of the 19th 
cent. 

Mo'linism. The doctrine of Louis 
Molina the Spanish Jesuit. See ' Moli- 

nists.' 

Mo'linists. Disciples of Louis 
Molina (1535-1600), a Spanish Jesuit, 
who attempted to reconcile Free Grace 
with Free Will. He taught that God's 
reprobation and election were conse- 
quent on God's foreknowledge ; that 



God -gives to all sufficient grace for their 
salvation if they would but accept it ; 
but to the elect He does more — with this 
general grace He gives also co-operative 
grace. It is a shade of Pelagianism, from 
which, however, it differs in this : Molina 
distinctly presupposes the inability of 
man to turn to God without a super- 
natural act of grace. 

Molinists, or the disciples of Molina, must not 
be confounded with Mollnosites (QuietisU), the 
disciples of Mollnos. See below. 

Moli'nosites (4 syl.). Disciples 
of Michael Mollnos (1627-1696) of Spain, 
author of ' Perfect Contemplation ' or 
Quietism, for which he was imprisoned by 
the Inquisition in 1685. See ' Quietism.' 

Molly MagfU-ires. Irish Eibbon- 
men, named Maguire from Cornelius 
Maguire, baron of Inniskillen, who in 1641 
took part with Sir Phelim O'Neil in the 
project of the Irish rebellion. Called 
Molly because the banded marauders 
conducted their forays in the guise of 
women's dresses. The association was 
planted also in Pennsylvania, where a 
charter was granted them under the 
name of ' The Ancient Order of Hiber- 
nians.' The Molly Maguires made them- 
selves conspicuous in the sanguinary 
Tithe War {q.v.), 1830-1835. They also 
perpetrated many dreadful crimes in the 
U.S., where numbers of them were exe- 
cuted. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Molly Maguires were generally stout active 
young men, dressed up in women's clothes, with 
faces blackened or otherwise disguised ... In 
this state they used suddenly to surprise the un- 
fortunate grippers, keepers, and process-servers, 
and either duck them in bog-holes, or beat them 
in the most merciless manner, so that Molly 
Maguires became the terror of our officials. — 
Tbench, Realities of Irish Life, p. 82. 

Momonians. Natives of Munster, 
in Ireland. The Irish for Munster is 
Murnha (pronounce Mooa). Cf. Estho- 
nian, Muhuma, ' rich land ' ; muhu- 
nestd, ' [men] from the rich land.' (De 
Kay.) 

His claims were admitted after a desperate 
battle was fought, in which 7,000 Momonians fell, 
1151.— O Conor, History of the Irish People, p. 47. 

Monad. According to Pythagoras, is 
the impartible, a mathematical point 
without parts. Length is a duad, breadth 
a triad, depth a tetrad. Physically, he 
says, intellectual capacity which is im- 
partible is a monad; scientific knowledge 
is a duad ; opinion is a triad ; and sense is 
a tetrad, because it is apprehended by the 
senses. 



MONADS 



MONITOEIAIi 



593 



Monads [The Theory of). By Wil- 
helm Leibnitz of Germany (1646-1716). 
He says there are two kinds of proto- 
plasms — spiritual monads and material 
monads. The former make mind, and 
the latter body. Spirit monads, he says, 
possess innate consciousness, — material 
monads possess innate sensibility. Spirit 
monads are the protoplasms of the soul, 
material monads are the protoplasms of 
the body. 

A moimdis the indivisible element of an element. 

An atom is the indivisible element of a simple 
substance. 

A molecule is the indivisible element of a com- 
pound substance. 

A microbe is a minute livinq organism. 

Protoplasm is the physical basis of life. 

*,* An atom of gold is gold, but a monad is the 
indivisible basis of the element of gold. Zeno, 
Leucippos, Democritos, and Epicuros preceded 
Leibnitz in this theory of created things. 

Monarcllians, ' Monarchiani.' Those 
who maintained the monarchy of God 
{q.v.). Tertullian refers to them. 

Monarchy of G-od(T7ie;). A phrase 
used by anti-Trinitarians to express the 
one and only supremacy of the one God, 
the one Ruler of the universe. 

It is difficult to find words to express this one- 
ness, but it means that God has only one person- 
ality, not three personalities, according to the 
Athanasian Creed. 

Monarchy of the Barricades 

{The). Louis-Philippe of France, called 
'Le Roi Citoyen' (1733, reigned 1830- 
18-48, died 1850). Made king after the 
Grande Semaine, when Charles X. was 
driven from the throne of France. Louis- 
Philippe was ' King of the French,' not 

* King of France.' 

Monastery of the Curses of 
Ireland [TJce). The monastery of St. 
Ruan was so called because in 554 the 
abbots and monks cursed those who 
dragged therefrom to Tara a fugitive 
criminal who had fled to it for sanctuary. 
The criminal was put to death, and the 
abbot and monks went in procession to 
Tara and cursed it. ' From that day no 
king ever sat again in Tara.' 

Monastic Orders. See under 

* Monks and Monastic Houses.' 

Monatti. A class of men, professed 
attendants on the plague, ever ready for 
the most dangerous and disgusting ser- 
vices. It was their duty to convey those 
sick of the plague to the hospitals, and 
attend them there ; to watch over those 
who remained at home while the plague 



lasted, and to carry away the dead for in- 
terment. 

Mondays (Unluchj). There are 
three unlucky Mondays in the year : (1) 
the first Monday in April, on which day 
Cain was born and Abel slain ; (2) the 
first Monday in August, on which day 
Sodom and Gomorrah were overthrown ; 
and (3) the last Monday in December, the 
day on which Judas was born. See 
' Egyptian Days.' 

Money. 



Roman 








£. s. d. 


Xeruneius 








OJ 


Sestertius or Nummus, 


marked H 


s.'. 




a corruption of LL.S. 


.e. 2.> lbs. 




(sevUs) 








If 

7i 


Silver denarivs 




... 


... 


Aureus 


... 


... 




16 


Great Roman talent 


.*.*.* 


... 




1125 


Ordinary talent ... 


v.*. 






'M 


Small talent 






... 


GO 


Gkeek 










Brass obolos 


... 




... 


li 


Silver draclnna ... 


!!! 






7? 


Golden statej- 








10 Ij 


Mina 








8 


Talent ^ 


•M 






180 


Jewish 










Gcrah (silver) 


^^ 






li 


Shekel (sUver) 


... 


•M 


^. 


2 6 


Mina 


... 






5 14 


TaUnt of silver ... 








842 


Talent of gold 








5475 


Persian 










Daric, worth 25s., was 


used In Athens 


and some- 


times called a stater. 











Money-bote. A commutation of 
punishment by a money fine. All offences 
except parricide, sacrilege, and the mur- 
der of a master by his slave, could be so 
commuted. 

Mong-koo (The). So the Mogul 
Tartars are called by the Chinese. ' Koo ' 
means dominion, power, &c., and ' Mong- 
koo ' means ' Tiie Mogul power or 
dominion,' founded by Ginghis Khan in 
1206. 

Mongolian Bonaparte (The). 
Tamerlane or Timur the Tartar (1336- 
1405). 

Mongrel Parliament (The), 1681. 
Held at Oxford, consisting of Whigs and 
Tories, by whom the Exclusion Bill was 
passed, and all Catholics having an in- 
come exceeding lOOZ. a year were 
banished and their children taken from 
them to be educated in the Protestant 
faith. See ' Parliaments.' 

Monitorial System {T7ie). Mu- 
tual Listruction {q.v.), whereby the 
cleverer pupils are made to teach the 
less advanced, the pupil teachers being 
called ' the Monitors.' There are many 
QQ 



594 



MONK 



MONKS 



objections against it : (1) a pupil so em- 
ployed cannot himself make the same 
progress as if his time were devoted 
to iiis own advancement; (2) the under 
pupils are not so well instructed as 
they would be by an experienced master ; 
(3) the respect of children to older chil- 
dren is very different from that which they 
feel to a full-grown person; (4) unless there 
is some official to keep order, to watch 
closely what is done, and to inspire both 
teachers and learners with a right spirit, 
but little progress can be expected. The 
only one recommendation is economy. 

Monk Lewis. Matthew Gregory 
Lewis, born in London, died 1818, at the 
age of 45. He received his sobriquet 
from his novel of ' The Monk,' which at 
the time of publication was immensely 
popular. 

Monk of Bury {The). John Lyd- 
gate, poet (1375-14G0). 

I am expertein poetry 

As the monke of Bury.floure of eloquence. 
Stephen Hawes, The Pussr-tijnu; of Pleasure (1515). 

Monk of Eis'leben {The). Martin 
Luther (1483-1546). He was born at 
Eisleben in Saxony. 

Monk of Westminster {The). 
Richard of Cirencester, chronicler (14th 
cent.). See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

It is generally supposed that this chronicle is a 
forgery bv Dr. Charles Julius Bertram, professor of 
English in Copenhagen. He brought it to light in 
1747, but never produced any ' original.' 

Monk of Wittenberg {The). 
Martin Luther the reformer (1483-1546). 
He was professor of philosophy at Wit- 
tenberg in 1508, and preacher at the city 
church of Wittenberg in 1516. It was at 
Wittenberg that he burnt the Pope's 
bull in 1520, and at Wittenberg he 
preached against the Zwickau prophets 
in 1522. A monument was erected to 
him at Wittenberg in 1821. 

Monks and Monastic Houses. 

I. Originated (320-333) in the land of 
Egypt by Pachomius. 

Introduced into Palestine by Hilarion, 
A.D. 828. 

Home by Athanasius, 340. 

Gaul by St. Martin of Tours, 370. 

England in 592 by Gregory the 

Great. 

II. Suppressed 1524-1534 in the Pro- 
testant states of Germany. 

Dissolution 1536 of the lesser monas- 
teries by Henry VIII. in England, and in 



1539 of the rest. Altogether 190 were 
suppi'essed in England. They contained 
50,000 inmates, and their united incomes 
amounted to 2,853,000Z. At the time the 
wages of a master workman was id. a 
day and of an ordinary artisan 3fZ. Beef 
and mutton were hd. a pound. 

Supi^ressed 1790 by the Constituent 
Assembly in France. 

(1765-1790) in Austria by Joseph 

II. 

1855 in Sardinia by Victor Em- 

manuel. 
Partly suppressed 1861 in Italy. 
Suppressed 1868 in Spain. 

MONASTIC ORDERS. 

The chief orders are the Augustines, 
the Basilians, the Benedictines, the Car- 
melites, and the Franciscans, each of 
which has its special rule or system of 
observances. See ' Rule.' 

I. Augustines, those who follow the 
rule of St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430). 

Augustinians, Barefooted Augustinians, founded 
by Thomas of Jesus, Portugal, in 1574. 

Brhjettines (3 syl.), or Nuns of St. Saviour, founded 
by St. Brigett, in 1344. 

Dominicans, or Preaching Friars, founded by 
St. Dominic of Calahorra in 1215. 

Jacobins, the French Dominicans. 

Order of Mercy, oi 'of Redemption,' founded by 
Pierre Nblasque, for the redemption of Christian 
slaves, 1223. 

Order of St. John of God, or ' Brothers of Charity,' 
founded in 1495. 

P), r,i>iistraiensian.?, or Norbertines (3 syl.), re- 
formed canons regular of Augustine, founded by 
St. Norbert, in 1120. 

II. Basilians, those who follow the 
rule of St. Basil. They belong to the 
Greek Church and the Eastern rites. 

The so called Basilians of the Latin church are 
not of this rule. 

Calniiers, a very strict branch of the order found 
on Mount Athos, in the Morea, and in Patmos. 

III. Benedictines, those who follow 
the rule of St. Benedict of Nursia, 
A.D. 529. 

Bernardines, reformed Benedictines, founded by 
St. Bernard of Clairvaux in 1115. 

Cnmaldidians, so called from the monastery of 
Camaldoli, 80 miles from Florence. Founded by 
St. Romuald in 1012. 

Carthusians, founded by Bruno in 1084. 

Celestines (3 syl.), founded by Pietro of Moron 
[Pope Celestine IV.] in 1254. 

Cistercians, founded by Robert abbot of Molesme 
in 1098. 

Cluniacs, founded by Bernon first abbot of Cluny, 
and reformed by Odo in S42. 

Feuillants, founded by Jean de la Barriere in 
1577. 

Feuillantines (4 syl.), reformed Feuillant nuns, I'OO. 

Trnpiiists, the most severe of the Cistercian order, 
founded by Rotrou comte du Perche, in 1140. 

IV. Carmelites (3 syl.), those wlio 
follow the rule of Albert patriarch of 



MONMOUTH 



MONSEIGNEUR 



595 



Jerusalem, who founded a monastery on 
Mount Carmel in 1209. 

The reformed order of Barefooted Carmelites 
was founded by St. Theresa iii 1502. 

V. Fkanciscans, those who follow the 
rule of St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1228). 

Beguins, founded by Lambert Begg or Lambert 
le B6gue,inll70. Of the Third Order of St. Francis. 

Capucim, or 'Capuchins,' so called from their 
capuclion pointit, founded by Matthew Baschi in 
lo25. 

Ciarisses, or ' Poor Clares ' (1 syl.), a barefooted 
order of women, founded by St. Francis in lt2i. 

Cordeliers, bound round tlie waist by a cord. 
Founded by Bernardoni in 1'210. 

Fraticelli, founded by Father Maurato and 
Father de Fossombroni. 

Fratres Minores, or ' Minorites,' a general name 
for the Franciscans. 

Greu Sisters oi Flanders. 

Minhns, or ' Hermits of St. Francis,' founded by 
St. Francis of Paula, in 1431. 

UbserviDits, or 'Fathers of the Observance,' 
barefooted Franciscans, founded by Paul of 
Foligno in 1363. There were other Observants. 

Picpus. reformed Franciscans, so called from the 
monastery of Picpus, near Paris, founded in loOl. 

liecoUeUi, reformed Franciscans, founded in 1484. 

Urbcwists, founded for women at Longchamps by 
Isabelle in 1200. Named in honour of Urban II. 

*^* Other religious orders. 
Annunciades in honour of the Annunciation. 

1. The Aniinncirnies of Savotj, founded by Ama- 
deus VI. count of Savoy in V6{>-2. 

'2. The Annunciades of BouryesH syl.), founded by 
Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis XI., in 15J0. 

3. The Anmmciad4;s of Celestes {-2 syl.), or ' Filles 
Bleues,' founded by Maria Vittoria Fornari in 
1(!04. 

MILITABY ORBEKS. 

St. John of Jerusalem, or ' Knights Hospitallers' 
(11th cent.). Same as ' Knights of Rhodes ' and 
'Knights of Malta.' 

Knights Templars, founded in 1118. 

Teutonic Knights, who established themselves in 
Germany, conquered and converted Prussia and 
I'omerania, organised by Frederick duke of Suabia 
In 1190. 

Jesuits, or 'Clerks of the Order of Jesus,' 
founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534. 

*,* For Orders, dx. of less note see under each name. 

Monmouth. [DuTce of). Son of Lucy 
"Walters or Barlow. His father, some 
say, was Charles II., but Macpherson 
('Papers,' i. 77) says, 'All the knowing 
world, as weU as myself, had many con- 
vincing reasons to believe he was not the 
king's son, but [Colonel] Kobert Sydney's.' 
*Lucy was previously the mistress of 
Colonel Robert Sydney ; and her son bore 
so strong a resemblance to that officer, 
that the Duke of York always looked 
upon Sydney as the father ' (' Life of 
James,' i. 491). Lingard calls Lucy a 
vile worthless woman, and Evelyn de- 
scribes her as ' a browne, beautiful, bold, 
but insipid creature ' (' Diary,' ii. 11). 

Monopli'ysite Controversy 

{The), 5th and 6th cents. Respecting the 
nature of Christ. Arius in the 4th cent. 



had insisted that Christ had but one na- 
ture, the human, but in the 5th cent. 
Eutyches and others maintained that 
his humanity was merged in his divinity 
as a drop of rain is lost in mid-ocean. 
Eutyches, who published his views on 
the subject in 447, was condemned by 
the Council of Constantinople in 488 — 
the sentence was reversed by the Council 
of Ephesus in 449, but he was con- 
demned again by the Council of Chalce- 
don in 451. A schism was made between 
the eastern and western churches on the 
subject in 484 ; the Monophysites were 
condemned by the Council of Constan- 
tinople in 53G, and again in 553 ; and the 
sect revived under Jacob Baradseus 
about 570. 

The word monophysite is equivocal, for tha 
Arians believed that Christ had only one nature, 
viz. the human; but the word is usually restricted 
to the Eutycheans, who denied the humanity and 
maintained that it was swallowed up in the 
divinity. The Copts and Jacobites (3 syl.) are 
Monophysites (4 syl.). 

Monoth'elites (4 syl.), 7th cent. 
Those who believed that, although Jesus 
Christ had two natures, He had but 
one will, the human being absorbed in 
his divine will. The first person who 
taught this dogma was Theodore bishop 
of Pharan, in Arabia. The doctrine was 
condemned as a heresy by the Third 
Council of Constantinople in 680, and 
the sect died out. Their descendants are 
the Maronites {q.v.). 

Greek, /ioi/o?, BcX^fj-a, one will. 

Monroe Doctrine [The), 1823. 
Against European interference or inter- 
vention in American affairs. Monroe 
[2 syl.] was the fifth president (1816- 
1824). He enunciated a firm opinion 
that Americans should never entangle 
themselves in European broils, nor ever 
permit any state of the Old World to 
interfere with the affairs of the New 
World. 

Mons Meg. An old gun of great 
size made of bars of hammered u"on 
hooped together. It is still to be seen in 
Edinburgli Castle. 

Monseigneur {tvith a name after 

it). A title given in the time of Cardinal 

Richelieu to French bishops, previously 

entitled ' tres-saint ' and ' bien-heureux.' 

Pronounce Moi'n]-sen-ure. 

Monseigneur {without a name 
after it) meant the king's son in the reign 
of Louis XIV. See above. 

qq2 



596 



MONSIEUR 



MONT 



Monsieur (without a proper name 
after it) the French king's eldest brother. 
The Due d'Alen^-on in the 16th cent., only- 
surviving brother of Henri III., was 
' Monsieur,' and hence the phrase La 
Paix de Monsieur given to the treaty- 
signed at Loches in 1576. In the reign 
of Louis XIII. Gaston due d'Orleans was 
Monsieur; in the reign of Louis XIV. 
Philippe due d'Orle'ans was Monsieur, 
and his wife Madame; in the reign of 
Louis XVI. Louis conite de Provence 
[afterwards Louis XVIII.] was Monsieur, 
and in the reign of Louis XVIII. Charles 
comte d'Artois [afterwards Charles X.] 
was Monsieur. 

The last two princes so called "were the Comte 

de Provence (.i.e. Louis XVIII.) in the reign of hia 

brother Louis XVI., and the Comte d'Artois 

(Charks X.) in the reign of Louis XVIII. 

Pronounce Mo-ss u. 

Monsieur de Paris. The execu- 
tioner. 

Prononnce Mo-se'u de Parri. 

Death arrives, like ' Monsieur de Paris,' to strip 

■the criminal, to clip liis collar and hair, and lop 

away from him life and love and delight. — E. 

Arnold, Death and Afterwards, p. 12. 

Monsieur le Coad'juteur 

(without a proper name) meant, in the 
reign of Louis XIV., Paul de Gondi, who 
was afterwards Cardinal de Retz. 

Monsieur le Due (without a 
proper name) meant, in the reign of Louis 
XIV., Henri Jules de Bourbon, eldest 
son of the Prince de Conde and his wife 
(Mile, de Nantes, eldest daughter of La 
Valliere, the king's mistress). The wife 
of Henri Jules de Bourbon was entitled 
Madame la Duchesse. 

Monsieur le G-rand (without a 
proper name) meant, in the reigu of Louis 
XIV., the Grand Equerry. 

Monsieur le Prince (without a 
name after it) meant, in the reign of 
Louis XIV., the Prince de Conde', ' pre- 
mier prince du sang ' (who married Mile. 
de Nantes, a natural daughter of Louis 
XIV. by La Valliere). His wife was en- 
titled Madame la Frincesse, their eldest 
son Mo7ideur le Due, and their eldest 
daughter Madame la Duchesse (1621- 
1G86). 

Monsieur Veto. Louis XVI. In 1789 
the National Assembly resolved that there 
should be no second chamber, but that 
the king should have a ' suspensive ' veto 
on decrees sent up to him from the As- 
sembly. The king availed himself of this 



right on 17 and 29 Nov., and was nick- 
named Monsieur Veto. The veto of 17 
Nov. was in favour of the emigrants, that 
of 29 Nov. in favour of the ecclesiastics. 

Many believed the veto to be a tax, others 
thought it was an enemy that ought to be hanged 
on a lamp-post. 'Don't you know what a veto 
is ? ' said one countryman to another. ' Well, I 11 
tell you. Suppose your pot is full of good broth, 
and the king bids you empty it out to the dogs, 
you would be forced to do it.' 

Monster [The), 1790. Renwick 
Williams, who prowled the streets of 
London at night-time armed with a 
double-edged knife with which he shock- 
ingly wounded women in their breasts 
and tliighs, and sometimes in lonely 
places mutilated them horribly. He 
was tried and convicted. Other street 
rowdies have occasionally ' delighted ' in 
wounding and disfiguring women, espe- 
cially the Mohocks or Mohawks in Queen 
Anne's reign. See ' Jack the Ripper.' 

Monster Grievance [The). So 
O'Connell called the Established Church 
in Ireland, 1832. O'Connell said the 
500,000 Lutherans in Ireland cost but 
little less than nine million Lutherans in 
England, and that while England had 
twenty-six bishops, Ireland had twenty- 
two. 

Monster Petition {The), 10 April, 
1818, for the repeal of the corn laws. 
This petition was three miles long. 

Monsters [Human). Incredible as 
it may seem, St. Augustine bishop of 
Hippo says that he himself had seen in 
Ethiopia ' many men and women without 
heads, who had their two eyes in their 
breasts.' And furthermore, that in 
countries further south he met with a 
people ' who had but one eye, and that iji 
the forehead.' ' Notes and Queries,' 3 
May, 1890, p. 357. 

Sir John Mandeville's accounts (A.D. 1356) of 
human monsters are equally incredible. The eye 
in the forehead (reported also by him) is a personal 
feature of the giant's wife in the story of Jack and 
the Beanstalk. Halliwell's edition of Mandevi le 
(or Maundevile) has an engraving of a man with 
the eye in the forehead. 

Mont de Piet^. A pawnbroker's 
shop, or rather a loan bank for the poor, 
where money is advanced on pawns. 
The loan is for a year, and if not then 
redeemed or renewed the pawn is sold by 
auction, and whatever remains over and 
above the interest and expenses is 
handed to the pawner. In Paris the 
interest required is 9 per cent., but in 
some departments as much as 15 j)el 



MONTAGNAEDS 



MONTEAGLE 



597 



cent. Introduced 1778 ; abolished 1789 ; 
re-established by the Directory in 1797 ; 
and reorganised in 1804. 

There are forty-five monts de piete in 
France, and all are under the authority 
of the ministre de I'inte'rieur. 

Monts de piete were introduced into 
France from Italy, where they are called 
* Monti di Pieta,' and were established 
as far back as 1450. 

Monts de piete were introduced into Germany 
In 17(i(i, the interest being fixed at from 8 to 12 per 
cent. Belgium and Holland have their monts de 
piete also, but England has no such institution, 
The needy in the British Isles are handed over to 
the mercies of pawnbrokers and money-lenders. 
Pronounce Mont-d' pe-cy-tey. 

Montagnards. The party in the 
first French Revolution under the leader- 
ship of Robespierre. They occupied in 
the Convention the most elevated seats 
called La Montague, in opposition to 
the Plaine or the lowest seats occupied 
by the moderate party called the Giron- 
diiis. The Mountain party overthrew 
the Girondists on May 31, 1793, but was 
in turn overthrown ' le 9 Thermidor An II ' 
when Robespierre met with his downfall 
(1794). Both the Mountain and the Plain 
were left of the Speaker. 

Montalto {Louis de). The pen- 
name of Pascal in the famous ' Provincial 
Letters ' in defence of Antoine Arnauld 
the Jansenist. 

Monta'ni (Mountaineers). * Heretics ' 
similar to the Waldenses {q.v.), and pro- 
bably a branch thereof. So called, says 
Eberard of Bethune, ' because, in time 
of persecution, they concealed themselves 
in the mountains.' 

Another derivation Is that they were Waldenses 
of Liguria, the inhabitants of which were called 
Montani. 

Mon'tanists, a.d. 171. Followers 
of Montanus, a Phrygian who called him- 
self the Paraclete, and said that the two 
ladies who went about with him (Priscilla 
and Maximilla) were prophetesses. The 
Montanists looked on marriage as a 
spiritual union which would continue 
after life, and utterly condemned second 
marriages. They observed rigid fasts, 
advocated celibacy, encouraged martyr- 
dom, and observed three Lents every year. 

Monte G-ibello, or Mongibello. 
Mount Etna is so called by the Sicilians. 
Monte, 2 syl. 

Monte de' Dodici (The), or 
Oligarchy of the Twelve. The Nine 



Oligarchs, or Monte de' Nove, having 
greatly abused their trust, were deposed, 
and the government of Siena was then 
committed to twelve men, also elected 
from plebeian families. 

Monte (2 syl.), Do'-dee-che. Nove (2 syl.). 

Monte de' K'obili {The). One of 
the five oligarchies which successively 
ruled in Siena. This v.'as first of the 
five oligarchies, for Siena had originally 
been controlled by certain noble families 
to the exclusion of all other citizens 
from state offices. 

Monte (2 syl.), No-be'-le. 

Monte de' Nove {The), or Nine. 
One of the five governing bodies which 
ruled Siena in succession. When the 
Monte de' Nobili split into parties 
among themselves, they agreed to re- 
linquish the government to nine plebeian 
families chosen from the most wealtliy 
and influential of the non-privileged 
class. Nove, pronounce No'vy. 

Monte del Popolo {The). The 
last of the five governing bodies of Siena. 
These five were elected from all Avho 
were eligible to a seat in the great 
council of the State. In the IGth cent. 
Pandolfo Petrucci made himself what 
the Greeks would call Tyrant of Siena. 

Monte de' Sedici {The), or the 
' Monte de' Riformatori.' Being tired of 
the twelve oligarchs, the Sienese next 
committed the government to sixteen 
men chosen from the very dregs of the 
people, who assumed the name of the 
Riformatori. Like all red republicans, 
they were too fond of bloodshed, and all 
parties joined together to depose them. 

Monte (2 syl.) Sey'-dee-cJie. 

Monteagle {Lord). Sir Edward 
Stanley, 5th son of Thomas first Earl of 
Derby, was at Flodden Field. By a 
sudden feint he induced the Scots to 
descend a hill, which was their strong 
position, and thus very greatly contri- 
buted to their overthrow. About a 
year after the battle, as Henry VIII. was 
keeping Whitsuntide at Eltham, in 
Kent, he spoke of Sir Edward's exploits, 
and especially his ruse which drew the 
Scots from the hill. Sir Edward's crest 
was an eagle, and the king created him 
Lord Mont-Eagle or Baron Stanley, Lord 
Monteagle. 



598 



MONTHS 



MOONLIGHTEES 



Months {Anglo-Saxon). 

January. — Se seftera Geola (the latter 
yule), 

February. — Sol-monath (the soil or 
mud month). 

March. — Hreth-monath (the fierce 
month ?). 

April. — Easter-monath. 

May. — Thri-mylce (the three-milkings 
month). 

June. — Se aerra Litha (the former 
Litha, or warm month. Litha = mild). 

July. — Se seftera Litha (the latter 
Litha, or warrn month), 

August. — Weod-monath (weed month). 

September. — Halig-monath (holy- 
month or time of sacrifice). 

October. — Winter-fylleth (winter fall). 

November. — Blot-monath (sacrifice 
month). 

December. — Se aerra Geola (the former 
yule). 

(' Notes and Queries,' 20 April, 1889, 
page 301.) 

' Blot month ' probably refers to the custom of 
slaving animals for the winter store. Hence ' Slay 
Fair ' in Chichester and other places in this month. 

Month -with no New Moon 

{The), Sept. 1752. This month, in con- 
sequence of the change of style, con- 
tained only nineteen days. The New 
Style began on 3 Sept., which was called 
the 14th. The first quarter of the 
moon was 15' Sept., at one o'clock in the 
afternoon, and the full moon was on the 
23rd. All days from 2 to 14 (neither 
included) were annihilated, consequently 
there was no new moon in that month. 
The month ran 1, 2, 14, 15, 16, and so on 
up to 30. 

Montijoyeux, or 'Montijocrisses.' 
The party of the Empress Eugenie, wife 
of Napoleon III. of France. Before her 
marriage she was Eugenia de Montijo 
{Mon-te'-ho\ of Spain. 

Monument {The London). Begun 
1671, and finished 1677, to memorialise 
the Great Fire of 1666. Pope says : — 

Where London's column pointing to the skies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts its head and lies. 

The following ill-worded inscription was 
written by Dr. Thomas Gale, afterwards 
dean of York. ' The burning of this Pro- 
testant city was begun and carried on 
by the treachery and malice of the Popish 
faction, in order to the effecting their 
horrid plot for the extirpating the Pro- 
testant religion and English liberties, and 



to introduce Popery and heresy.' And the 
Latin inscription contained this sentence : 
' Sed furor papisticus, qui tarn dira patra- 
vit, nondum restinguitur.' All this was 
erased by order of the city on 6 Dec, 1830. 
Not a vestige of proof was ever fouiid to 
justify Dr. Gale's calumny. {See Howell, 
' State Trials,' vi. 807-866.) 

Monumental Figures. 

Those in armour represent knights. 

Those with crosier, mitre, and pon- 
tificals represent bishops. 

Those with hands on the breast and a 
chalice represent priests. 

Those built into the church wall 
represent founders. 

Those east of the altar and elevated 
represent saints ; those not elevated 
represent holy men not canonised. 

Moollah. A Turkish scribe, a kind 
of D.D. and LL.D. ; for Turkish law is 
based on the Koran, and therein differs 
from Christian law, wliich is wholly in- 
dependent of the Bible. 

A defendant would be laughed at who justified 
himself by a quotation from the Bible ; but a text 
from the Koran would be indisputable law. 

Moonlight (Copit.), 1878. The name 
assumed by some unknown Irish chief of 
the Land League and Fenians. He used 
to write warning letters to those who 
refused to join the league, and these 
letters were followed up by horrible 
mutilation of the person's cattle, or his 
being shot through the legs, or murdered, 
or boycotted. For several years Ireland 
was dominated by Capt. Moonlight, and 
every one was in terror of a visitation 
of the villain's gang. See ' Irish Asso- 
ciations.' 

Daniel Connell was 'Lieutenant Moonlight' in 
1882, and was offered a Parnell medal for bravery. 

Moonlighters. Adherents of the 
Moonlight gang. There were Moon- 
lighters in Scotland in the rebellion of 
1745. In ' Redgauntlet ' Sir W. Scott 
makes Maxwell say to Fairford (chap, 
xii.) that the passport at that moment 
was ' What is the age of the moon ? ' If 
the interrogator was answered ' Not light 
enough to land a cargo,' he was answered, 
'Then plague on Aberdeen almanacs,' 
upon which the person would hold free 
intercourse with the stranger. But, he 
adds, these moonlight lads do not take 
freely to lawyers. 

The Moonlighters of Ireland (1879) 
seem to have grown out of and succeeded 



MOBA-STONE 



MOKGANATIC 



599 



the White Boys. Their chief was called 
' Capt. Moonlight.' There was an inner 
circle of Moonlighters called ' Our Boys.' 
See ' Irish Associations.' 

Mora-stone {The). In Swedish 
Morasteen (the stone on the moor), on 
which the kings of Sweden were crowned. 
It was, in fact, a circular range of stones 
in the plain of Mora, near Upsa'Ja. The 
coronation stone itself was a large round 
stone, but it was surrounded by twelve 
others of smaller size with wedge-shaped 
blocks. When Mr. Coxe visited Mora in 
1782 he found ten of the stones, but the 
largest was only six spans long. Probably 
Sfconelienge on Salisbury Plain was used 
for a similar purpose. The Lia Fail of 
Tara, in Ireland, was used as a coronation 
stone. It was removed to Scone in 
Scotland, and used as the coronation 
stone of Scotch kings. Ed .vard I. brought 
it to London, and it is inclosed in our 
own coronation chair still. 

Moral Grower [The). So John 
Gower, the poet, is called by Chaucer, 
from his ' Speculum Meditantis ' and 
* Confessio Amantis,' the former ' treat- 
ing of the Vices and the Virtues, and of 
the vario.us degrees of this age,' and 
seeking ' to teach by a right path the way 
whereby a transgressed sinner ought to 
return to the knowledge of his Creator.' 
No copy of this work is known to exist. 
The latter is a grave discussion of the 
morals and metaphysics of love. Pro- 
bably Chaucer referred to the solemn 
sententiousness of the ' Confessio ' more 
than to the ' Speculum.' 

Moral Philosophy {Professorship 
of), in the University of Cambridge, 
1683. Founded by John Knightbridge, 
D.D., Fellow of St. Peter's. Stipend 
1001., exclusive of fees. 

Moral Science Tripos {The). 
Three classes into which students in the 
University of Cambridge are classified 
who have passed with credit their final 
examinations in the Moral Sciences. The 
five Moral Sciences are : 1. Psychology 
(consciousness, feelings and movements, 
reflex action, instinct, sensation and per- 
ception, dreams, thought, desires and 
volition). 2. Logic and Methodology 
(as the laws of thought, syllogisms, induc- 
tion and deduction, &c.). 3. Metaphysics 
(as what is Being, Reality, Finity and 
Infinity, the Ego and Non-ego, &c.). 



4. Moral and Political Philosophy 
(pleasure and pain, desire and aversion, 
conscience, judgment, happiness the end 
of rational action, politics, jurisprudence, 
forms of government, &c.). 5. Political 
Economy (as capital and labour, rate of 
increase, land-rent, profit and wages, 
currency, monopolies, banking, &c.). See 
' Natural Sciences.' 

Moralities. Dramas of an allego- 
rical character to encourage good morals. 
They succeeded the Mystery plays {q.v.), 
the subjects of which were the Religious 
Mysteries, interdicted in the 16th cent. 
The dramatis person ce of tliC Morality 
plays were such as Mr. Carnal-minded, 
Mr." Great-heart, Faithful, Hopeful, 
Despair, Youth, Age, and so on. 

Moran's Collar. A collar worn by 
ancient Irish judges, which gave warning 
by tightening round the neck when the 
wearer was about to give an unjust 
judgment. Hence the proverb ' I swear 
to it by Moran's collar.' Moran was the 
son of the usurper Carbre Catcan; on 
the death of his father he refused the 
crown and restored to the throne the 
royal race in the person of Feredach, 
who appointed Moran judge. It is the 
justice of Moran which gave rise to the 
fable of the lodhan Moran. 

Moravians, or 'The United 
Brethren.' Said to have exir.ted in the 
9th cent., when the kings of Bulgaria 
and Moravia were converted, and united 
in communion with the Greek Church. 
They are episcopal in constitution, and 
are attached to the Augsburg Confession 
of Faith. They still exist in large num- 
bers, and have exercised considerable 
influence on the Christian religion. 

It was in 1457 that Michel Bradacz, of Bohemia, 
united them under the name of ' The United 
Brethren.' In 1721, after the Thirty Ye irs' War, 
they found an asylum at Hernhutt, under Count 
Zinzendorf, and changed their name to HcrnkUUer. 

Morbus Anglicus. The sweating 
sickness. 

Morden College, Blackheath, 1695. 
Founded by Sir John Morden, a Turkey 
merchant, for decayed Levant merchants. 
There are 40 pensioners, allowed 40/. 
per annum each, and a treasurer. The 
pensioners have apartments, coals, 
candles, washing, and service found ; 
and dine in a common hall. 

Morganatic Marriage. Legal- 
ised concubinage. It is a German fiction. 



600 



MOKLEY 



MOEVEN 



A person of rank ' marries ' a woman of 
inferior social position, and gives her a 
dowry on the wedding day, called mor- 
gangina, Saxon for a 'morning-gift.' 
Tlie offspring of this woman are not 
heirs, though legitimate, and the bride- 
groom gives her his left hand instead of 
his right, whence the phrase ' left-handed 
marriage.' 

A disgrace to common honesty, to say nothing 
of Christianity. 

Morley {Mr. and Mrs.). The Prin- 
cess Anne and Duchess of Marlborough 
mutually agreed to abandon all formality 
and court etiquette in their intercourse 
with each other. To this end, Anne vfas 
to be called ' Mrs. Morley,' her husband 
* Mr. Morley,' and the Duke and Duchess 
of Marlborough 'Mr. and Mrs. Freeman.' 

Mormons, or 'The Church of Jesus 
Christ of Latter-day Saints,' 1830. A 
religious sect founded by Joseph Smith, 
of Vermont, who declares that he received 
his mission from an angel in 1823. This 
angel told him where to find certain 
pliites containing the records of the ancient 
Anieiican prophets. These plates were 
about as thick as tin, and held together 
by three rings running through them all. 
The character employed was ' Reformed 
Egyptian,' and with the plates were 
deposited the ' Urim and Thummim,' or 
spectacles for deciphering them. The 
plates say that the Americans were a 
colony from the Tower of Babel at the 
confusion of tongues. The Mormonites 
receive their name from the prophet 
Mormon who wrote the plates called 
' The Book of Mormon.' 

Their written Scriptures are called the books 
of Enos, Jarom, Zeniff, Ether, &c. 

Morning Star of Reformation 

{The). 1. In England, John Wycliff 
(1324-1384). 

II. In France, Pierre Waldo (1120- 
1170) of Lyons. 

He taught that the laity might conduct the 
offices of religion as well as the clergy ; that the 
doctrine of transubstantiation has no warrant 
from Scripture ; that it is wrong to invoke saints ; 
that there is no such place as purgatory ; that 
there are only two sacraments ; that the Pope of 
Rome does not hold the keys of heaven, and that 
he never received them from St. Peter. 

Mortar Boards. See' Square caps.' 

Mortification, in Scotch law, means 
what the English call ' Mortmain.' 

Infeftments of mortified lands are those which 
are granted to the kirk or other incorporation 
having no other reddendo than prayer and sup- 
plicatioDB. Such were the mortifications of the 



kirk-lands granted by the king to kirkraen, or by 
private men to provosts and prebendars.— SXAIR, 
book ii. title 3, 39. 

Mortimer's Hole. A subterra- 
nean passage through the soft sand rock 
on which Nottingham Castle stands, and 
leading from the castle-court to the 
river Leen. Through this passage Ed- 
ward III. and his conspirators found 
access to the castle, broke open the door, 
seized Mortimer, and brought him before 
the parliament, by whom he was con- 
demned to death. He was hanged at 
the Elms, near London, 29 Nov., 1330, 
with three others, and the queen-mother 
was shut up in her own house of Risings, 
where she lived for 27 years. 

Mortmain {The Statute of). 7 
Edw. I. c. 2, 15 Nov., 1279, forbidding 
the alienation in mortmain of real pro- 
perty to religious houses or other cor-' 
porations. This statute was based on 
the ' constitutions of Clarendon ' {q.v.). 

Lands held by the clergy and corporate bodies 
were in dead hands Onortiiis manibus) so far as 
the overlord was concerned, because corpora- 
tions can neither fight for their overlord, nor do 
they die, like individuals ; consequently the lord 
of the fee lost the fitie which accrued to him on 
change of tenants. As Coke says, ' the lords lost 
their escheats, and the services for the defence 
of the realm, wards, reliefs, marriages, and so 
on.' As a dead hand yields the lord »o service, so 
lands held by corporate bodies yielded the lord 
no services. 

Morton's Fork. The wealthy can 
pay because they can spare something 
out of their superfluity. The thrifty can 
pay because they do not squander their 
money in self-indulgence. The tale is 
that Henry VII. in 1507 wanted money — 
no unusual thing — and levied a ' benevo- 
lence ' on the whole realm. Cardinal John 
Morton, archbishop of Canterbury, was 
appointed chief commissioner to extort 
money from the clergy. The rich clergy, 
who tried to get exempt, he said could 
afford to give because they had abun- 
dance, and the poor frugal clergy could 
afford to give because they were thrifty. 
Bacon, ' Life of Henry VIII.,' p. 436. 

Erasmus tells a similar tale of Richard Fox 
bishop of Exeter (1487-1491). Ecclesiastes ii. 

Morven {Kings of). The following 
are said to have rule over the north-west 
of Scotland, called Morven. 
Trenmor began to rule . a.d. 32 
Fingal (father of Ossian) . . 210-246 
Ossian I. (the poet) . . . 246-287 

Oscar 287-300 

Ossian II. (Picts and Scots first 

BO named) .... 300 



MOSCOW 



MOST 



601 



Mosco"W Expedition {The), 15 
Sept. to 19 Oct., 1812. The disastrous 
invasion of Moscow by Napoleon. The 
loss of the French in the expedition and 
retreat is set down at the enormous total 
of 200,000 human beings. Some estimate 
the loss of life as very much greater. 

It was Rostopchin who set fire to the city. On 
the retreat Napoleon left his army at the Beresina, 
took his route towards Zemlin, and reached Paris 
18 JDec. 

Moses of Mesopota'mia [The). 
Jacobus or St. Jacobus, a bishop who 
prayed that God would protect Nisibis 
when the city was besieged by Sapor II. 
(a.d. 350). Whereupon a swarm of 
gnats attacked the Persian elephants 
so fiercely that they ran away, and the 
city was saved. [See Gibbon, ' Decline 
and Fall,' xviii., and Theodoret, ' Eccle- 
siastical History,' ii. 26.) 

Moslim (vulgarly ' Mussulman,' 
plu. ' Mussulmans '). A true believer in 
Mahomet's mission ; but Moslem or 
Moslemin means ' belonging to Islam or 
the creed issued by the prophet.' 

The adjective is Moslem. 

Moss {Treaty of), 16 Aug., 1814. A 
treaty of peace between Norway, Sweden, 
and Denmark. Prince Christian Frede- 
rick had been proclaimed king of Nor- 
way, 19 May, 1814 ; but Russia, Prussia, 
Austria, and Great Britain interfered, 
and induced the prince to abdicate. As 
resistance would have been madness, he 
had no choice left, and Norway was con- 
firmed to Sweden according to the terms 
of the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan., 1814. 

Moss Backs. The Victorians, or 
people of Victoria, are so called by the 
Vancouverites, ' because they move so 
slowly that moss is apt to grow on their 
backs.' 

Most Catholic King {The). The 
ruling king of Spain. The king of 
France was the ' Most Christian.' 

Most Christian Doctor, 'Doc- 
tor Christianissimus.' Jean Charlier de 
Gerson, chancellor of the University of 
Paris, born at Gerson (Reims) (1363- 
1429). It is to this Gerson that many 
attribute ' The Imitation of Christ,' 
usually ascribed to a-Kempis, and cer- 
tainly Gerson's ' Consolation Internelle ' 
resembles it in an extraordinary degree. 

Most Christian King, or ' Chris- 
tianissimus,' was first applied to the 
26 



kings of France by Paul II. in 1469. It 
is very strange that Louis XI. should 
have been the king so honoured. Henry 
VIII. was called ' Defender of the Faith,' 
for his book against Luther; but the 
retention of the title after the Reforma- 
tion was a mere perversion of its original 
meaning. 

Some say that Pope Anastasius conferred the 
title on Clovis at his baptism, because he was nob 
an Arian as all or almost all the Christian princes 
of Europe were at the time. The Spanish king 
received the title of ' Catholic ' for expelling the 
Moors ; the Portuguese kings were entitled ' Most 
Faithful.' 

Most Enlightened Doctor 

{The). Doctor Illuminatus, or Illu- 
minatissimus, Raymond Lully (1234- 
1315). 

Most Methodical Doctor. John 
Bassol, a Scotch savant, who died in 
1347. 

Most Profound Doctor, 'Doctor 
Fundatissimus ' and ' Theologorum Prin- 
ceps.' iEgidius de Colonna, i.e. Giles of 
Cologne (1247-1316), a disciple of Thomas 
Aquinas, and archbishoj) of Bourges. He 
was a zealous Realist {q.v.). It is said of 
this scholastic, ' Lux in lucem reducit 
dubia.' (He was the luminary who 
brought dark (or abstruse] things to 
light.) 

Probably modern scholars would say he argued 
so abstrusely that he did not himself understand 
his own expositions. 

Most Resolute Doctor {The). 
' Doctor Resolutissimus.' Guillaume Du- 
rand de St. Pour^ain bishop of Meaux 
(1267-1332). He was at first a follower 
of Thomas Aquinas, and a Nominalist, 
but afterwards became a Scotist and 
defended Realism. This gave great 
offence to the Thomists, and one of 
them wrote this epitaph : 
Durus Burandus jacet hie sub marmore duro, 
An sit salvandus ego nescio, nee quoque euro. 
Harder than stone, hard by, lies Hardy here 
If saved or not I neither know nor care. 

John Bacon thorpe, who died 1333, a 
provincial of the Carmelite Order, was 
called ' The Resolute Doctor.' See p. 
261, ' Doctors, &c.' 

Most Subtile Doctor, 'Doctor 
Subtilissimus.' John Duns Scotus (1265- 
1308), the great opponent of Thomas 
Aquinas and defender of the Immaculate 
Conception. He was a Dominican, the 
great opponent of the Franciscans, and 
was born at Duns. 



602 



MOTAZALITES 



MOUNTAIN 



Mota'zalites (4 syl.). Mohamme- 
dan sectaries of the sect of Ah. They 
mamtain that God has no attribute 
separable from his essence, and that the 
Koran was neither the work of God nor 
yet perpetual. They reject the dogma 
of fatalism. 

Mother. Anne Lee (1736-1784). 
The chosen of God to reveal the mystery 
of iniquity, and the true mother of all 
living in the new creation. She was 
born in Toad Lane, Manchester, and her 
father was a blacksmith. She married 
Abraham Standley, also a blacksmith, 
and joined the Shakers, by whom she 
was called ' Mother,' but she called her- 
self ' Anne the Word.' In 1774 she went 
to America, and settled in New York, 
where she was received as the ' Morning 
Star of Christ's Second Coming.' 

Mother Duehesse. So Carlyle 
calls the Tricoteuse of the French re- 
volution. 

Citoyennes who bring their seams with them, or 
their knitting-needles, and shriek or knit as the 
case needs. Famed Tricotcusrf:, patriot knitters. 
Mere Duehesse . . . giving the key note.— Car- 
lyle, French Revolution, vol. iii. book ii. 5. 

Bull- voiced St. Huruge is heard, and the hys- 
teric eloquence of Mother Duehesse, chap. 6. 

Mother Guilford. So Mary the 
sister of Henry VIII. called Lady Guil- 
ford, her governess, to whom she was 
greatly attached. 

Mother Ludlam's Cauldron. 

Deposited in Waverley Abbey, whence 
(at the dissolution of the monasteries) 
it was removed to Frensham Church. 
Mother Ludlam was a white witch who 
assisted her neighbours by lending them 
such culinary utensils and household 
articles as they wanted for special occa- 
sions. The petitioner went to Mother 
Ludlam's cave at midnight, and pro- 
mised to return the loan in three days. 
On one occasion a cauldron was bor- 
rowed, but Qot returned at the stipulated 
time, and Mother Ludlam refused to 
take it back, and discontinued her loans. 

Mother Shipton, the prophetess 
of South Wales, was T. Evan Preece. 
She predicted the death of Wolsey, Lord 
Percy, and others, in the reign of Henry 
VIII. 

She predicted that ' the end of the world would 
come in 1882.' This prophecy was safe enough for 
300 years. The ' Prophecies ' of Mother Shipton 
are still extant. 



Mother of Universities. Bo- 
logna, 1088. A medal was struck m 1888 
to commemorate its eight hundredth an- 
niversary. 

Mother of her Country {The). 
Maria-Theresa of Austria (1717, 1740- 
1780). 

Mother of the Gracchi (The), 
' Mater Gracchorum.' Cornelia daughter 
of Scipio Africanus. 

When Queen Victoria, in her childhood, read 
the story about Corneli-i showing her sons as 
hsr jewels, the princess said to her tutor, ' Not 
jewels, but Cornelians.' 

Mother of the People {The). 
' La Mere des Peuples.' Marguerite of 
France, daughter of Francois 1. (1523- 

1574). 

Mothering Sunday. Mid-Lent, 
when children go home to their mothers 
and eat ' mothering cakes.' See ' Sun- 
days.' 

Motu Proprio, 1816. An impor- 
tant measure introduced by Cardinal 
Ercole Consalvi, for the reform of abuses 
in the papal states. It suppressed all 
monopolies, feudal taxes, and exclusive 
rights. 

Mount of Corruption {The). 
The Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem. 
So called because thereon Solomon built 
temples to the gods of the Ammonites 
and Moabites, out of complaisance to 
his wives (1 Kings xi. ; 2 Kings xxiii. 13). 

Mountain {The), Sept. 1791. In 
the National Convention of France the 
cote droit was the constitutional party, 
the cote gauche was the democratio 
party. This latter party soon divided 
itself into two, viz. the Mountain and 
the Gironde. The former seated them- 
selves on the most elevated benches of 
the hall, hence their name ; the Giron- 
dists occupied what was called the plaine 
or the floor. At first, all the cote gauche 
worked together ; but 31 May, 1793, the 
Mountain overthrew the more moderate 
Gironde ; and 1794 the Mountain fell to 
pieces with Robespierre their chief. 

Several young men of Hungary entered into 
correspondence with the chiefs of the Mountain. 
— GoDKiN, Hist, of Hungary, p. 209. 

Mountain Brutus {The). Wil- 
liam Tell (1282-1350). 

Mountain Tiger of K'epaul 
{The). Runjeet Singh, who died 1839. 



MOUSQUETAIEES 



MUNDANE 



Mousquetaires (3 syl.). A com- 
pany of horse-soldiers armed with mus- 
kets, created in 1022 in the service of the 
king of France. In 1661 they formed 
two companies — the Grey and the Black 
Mousquetaires, so called from the colour 
of their horses. Their uniform was 
scarlet-red, and hence that part of the 
palace appropriated to them was called 
the ' Maison Eouge.' In times of peace 
they followed the king d. la chasse, but 
in war they fought both on horse and 
foot, like the French dragoons. The 
Mousquetaires were suppressed in 1791 ; 
they were re-established in 1814, but 
disappeared on the second return of 
Louis XVIII. See ' Gauts Glaces.' 

Mozarabic or Gothic Liturgy 

{The). Consisted of the liturgy of Rome 
inixed with the oriental liturgies of-*the 
Arian Goths. Its use was suspended by 
the Council of Braga, a.d. 772. It was 
reprinted in 1500 by Cardinal Ximenes. 
The Gothic Liturgy is used only in 
Toledo. See ' Spanish Liturgy.' 

Mud-Cabin Votes, 1884. The 
Irish franchise extended to one-pound 
householders and under, the number of 
which was 32,829 in the county Mayo 
alone. 

Making every allowance for thedisquolification 
of occupiers on account of parochial relief, the 
' Mud-cabin ' voters in county Mayo would out- 
number the existing voters at least ten to one.— 
Standard, 9 Ma.y,lt<tii. 

Mufti. A * doctor of the law ' in the 
Mussulman religion. He interprets both 
the text and ideas of the Koran. The 
Grand Mufti, called the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,' 
resides at Constantinople, and is head of 
the lawyers and priests or ulemas. His 
ordinances, called, fetf as, must be blindly 
obeyed. It is the Grand Mufti who girds 
on the sultan's sword at his coronation. 
Every town has its mufti. 

Muggleton^ans. A religious sect 
which arose in England about the year 
1651, and so called from Ludovic Muggle- 
ton (1609-1697), a journeyman tailor, 
who professed to be the mouthpiece of 
one Jolin Reeve. The two gave them- 
selves out to be the ' two witnesses ' of 
Rev. xi., and assumed the right of ' curs- 
ing' all who opposed them. They de- 
nied the doctrine of the Trinity, held 
anthropomorphic opinions of deity, and 
believed that the devil became incarnate 
in Eve. They existed as a sect in the 



first half of the 19th cent., but the census 
of 1851 showed no trace of them. 

Mules of Ma'rius {The). When 
Marius, in his second consulate, raised 
an army to march against the Cimbrians, 
he found considerable difficulty in enlist- 
ing men. His sternness repelled them, 
his arbitrary habits were offensive, and 
those who submitted patiently were 
called ' the mules of Marius ' ; but the 
term of reproach soon became a term to 
be proud of. 

Multipliers. Alchemists who pre- 
tended to multiply the precious metals. 

Mul'vian Bridge {The). Outside 
the city, about two miles from Rome. 
The most northerly of the eight bridges 
over the Tiber. Built by Scaurus. 

Mumping Day. The 21st Dec. 
(St. Thomas's Day). ' To mump ' is to 
beg, and on St. Thomas's Day the poor 
used to go about the country begging 
corn for the Christmas feast. 

Munce'rians. A sect of Anabaptists 
in Germany, so called from Muncerus 
their ringleader, who died 1525. 

Mundane Era {The). This era 

begins Oct. B.C. 4008. 

According to the modern Greek Calendar B.C. 1SS8 

„ Josephus , 7282 

„ Scaligcr... „ 5829 

„ Professor William Hale ... ,, 54X1 

„ ' L art de Verifier les Dates ' „ 4963 

„ Usher „ 4004 

„ Calmet , 4000 

%* Of course, all such speculations, in the light 

of modern science, are wholly worthless, except 

as historical landmarks, and even then they are 

most misleading. 

Mundane ^ra {The Alexandrine), 
29 Aug., B.C. 5502. 

Mundane Era {The Ecclesiastical) 
of Constantinople, 1 April, B.C. 5508. 

{The Civil) of Constantinople, 1 Sept., 
B.C. 5508. 

Mundane Era {The Grecian), 1 
Sept., B.C. 5598. 

Mundane Era {The Jewish). Ver- 
nal equinox, B.C. 3761. But the civil 
Jewish era is Oct. 3701. 

Mundane Era {The Julian), 1 
Jan., B.C. 4713. 

Mundane Era of Abyssinia 

{The). Begins 29 Aug., B.C. 5493. 

Mundane Era of Antioch {The). 
1 Sept., B.C. 4592. 



604 



MUNICIPAL 



MUSICAL 



Municipal Corporation Act 

{The), 5, 6 Will. IV. c. 76, 9 Sept., 1835. 
For the regulation of municipal corpora- 
tions in England and Wales. This act 
abolished the ' freemen,' as they were 
called ; the prohibition of any but free- 
men keeping a shop or following a trade 
in a corporate borough ; and the power 
of purchasing one's freedom. Instead of 
freemen the burgesses were endowed 
with municipal powers ; a burgess being 
any male of full age who has been an 
occupierfor two years within the borough 
or within seven miles of it, and has paid 
poor rates, provided his name has been 
duly inscribed on the burgess-roll. The 
mayor and aldermen are to be elected 
annually by the council ; the councillors 
by the burgesses ; and the council from 
the aldermen and councillors. See 
' County Covmcil.' 

The ' Irish Municipal Corporation Bill,' altering 
the entire structure of the cornorations of Ireland, 
is S, 4 Vict. c. 108, 10 Aug., 1H40. The Municipal 
Corporation Act does not apply to London. 

Municipal Reform Acts (The), 
1835. The passing of a Bill which gave 
the right of voting to all ratepayers in 
towns and boroughs, besides allowing 
the freemen to retain their former privi- 
leges. The lists of voters were as follows : 
Freemen's KoU, Burgess List, and Ward 
List. 

Muns. A name assumed soon after 
the Restoration by a clique of young 
blades in London, whose delight was to 
break windows, upset the night watchers, 
kiss the pretty girls, molest sober citizens, 
render the streets somewhat dangerous, 
and get themselves talked about as 
' impudent young dogs,' ' sowing their 
wild oats.' See ' Street Bullies.' 

' Muns ' means the face or mouth, and these 
simpletons so called themselves because they 
kissed the pretty young women and made mouths 
at the coarse and older ones. It would seem 
more likely to be a contraction of the French 
'Muscadins,' only the Muns existed many years 
before the Paris Muscadins. 

Miinster [Truce of), closing the 
Thirty Years' War. It led to the ' Peace 
of WestphaHa,' 24 Oct., 1648. 

Murab'itins {The), i.e. devoted to 
religion. So the followers of Abdallah 
ben Yassim (1046) were called. Some say 
• Al-Moravides ' {q.v.) is a variant of the 
same word. * Moravides ' (3 syl.). 

Murat of the Magyar Army 
(r/ie). Paul Kiuisi (15th cent.). Like 



him in ostentation, like him in brilliancy, 
like him as a hemi sabreur, and he was 
raised, like him, for his valour, from the 
ranks. 
Murato'rian Canon {The). A 

list of the books of the New Testament, 
said to have been compiled about a.d. 
150, discovered in the Ambrosian library, 
Milan, and published by Lodovico An- 
tonio Muratori in 1740. Its genuineness 
is very doubtful. 

The author of the Muratorian Canon appears 
to take for granted that the apostle [Paul] went 
into Spain.— Wordsworth, New TcsUiment (Pau- 
line Epistles, p. 429). 

Muscadins of Paris (1705). Paris 
dandies or exquisites, who aped London 
cockneys after the Reign of Terror. 
Their dress was top-boots with thick 
soles, knee-breeches, a dress-coat with 
lon^ tails and high stiff collar, and a 
thick cudgel called a ' constitution.' 
They affected a huskiness of voice, 
bearish manners, and vulgarity both of 
speech and behaviour. 

Littre says the affectation came into 
use during the Revolution, and he derives 
the word from muscarde, which he de- 
duces from muse. He says : ' Petit- 
maitre, homme qui affecte une grande 
recherche dans son costume. Ainsi dit 
du parfum des muscadins,' See ' Partis 
en France.' 

Cockneys of London, muscadins of Paris. 

Bykon, Don Juan, viii. 124. 

Muse of Tragedy {The). Mrs. 
Siddons the great actress (1755-1831). 

Mushroom Cities. Chicago, St. 
Louis. 

Music of the Spheres {The). 
The music produced by the seven planets 
rolling in their orbits. Pythagoras 
noticed that different lengths of string, 
stretched like those of a harp, produce 
different sounds, and as the seven planets 
revolve in seven orbits of different cir- 
cumferences, they must, like an ..^olian 
harp, produce different sounds as they 
whiz through space. These seven sounds 
or musical notes Pythagoras called the 
' Music of the Spheres.' 

Musical Scale {The Greek). 

Called 

1 Ut Hypate = Principal \ 

2 Re ... Par-hypate = Post-principal { A Diatcs- 

3 Mi .. Lichanos = Index ( saron. 

4 Fa ... Mese = Medium J 

5 Sol ... Para-mese = Post-medium \ 

6 Ke ... Trite = Third I A Diates- 

7 Mi ... Para-nete = Ante-penult i saron. 

8 Fa ... Nete = UltimMte J 



MUSICAL 



M.W.S. 



605 



The ' DiapentG ' is from Ut to Sol, and from Sal 
to Fa is tlie ' Diatessaron.' The ' Diapason ' = the 
Diapente plus the Diatessaron. Similarly, from 
Fa to Fa is a Diapente. In both cases there are 
three tones and one semitone m a Diatessaron. 

Musical Small-eoal Man {The). 
Thomas Britton (1(350-1714). An amateur 
musician and antiquary, dealer in small 
coals in Aylesbury Street, Clerkenwell. 
The room of his gatherings, says Dr. 
John Hawkins, ' was over the coal-shop, 
and his weekly concerts were attended 
by the highest order of nobility.' Dr. 
Pepusch and, later on, even Handel 
played the harpsichord at these concerts. 
Here used to assemble Mr. Needier, 
accountant-general of the excise, the 
poet Hughes, Woolaston the painter, and 
many others. Walpole says that Britton 
took money from his visitors. 

Musketeers {The). ' Les Mousfc[ue- 
taires,' 1622. A company of gentils- 
hommes a clieval who formed the garde 
da roi created by Louis XIII. There 
were two companies — the Grey and the 
Black — so called from the colour of their 
horses. Being dressed in scarlet, the 
part of the palace where they lodged was 
called the Maison-Eouge. Suppressed 
in 1791 ; restored in 1814, but not organ- 
ised again by Louis XVIII. on his second 
restoration. 

Mutiny Bill (T/ie), or 'Mutiny Act,' 
1689 (1 WilUam & Mary, c. 5). It enacted 
that any military offenders might be 
arrested by military authority, and tried 
and condemned by court-martial, in per- 
fect independence of the civil courts. 

This bill also provided for the better payment 
of the army, and for better quarters. 

Mutiny of the * Bounty' {The), 
1789. H.M. ship ' Bounty,' commanded 
by Capt. Bligh, was sent to Otaheite for 
bread-fruit, and on the return voyage 
the crew rebelled, led by Fletcher Chris- 
tian, the master's mate. The rebels 
forced Capt. Bligh and 18 of the men 
into a boat and set them adrift, but they 
landed in time at a Dutch settlement, 
and reached England. The British 
government sent Capt. Edward Edwards 
to seize and bring home the rebels, when 
fourteen were apprehended, but nine 
were missing. The captives were tried 
by court-martial, and three were sen- 
tenced to death. Twenty years after- 
wards the nine missing were heard of at 
Pitcairn's Island (1800) ; but only one — 



viz. Alexander Smith {alias John Adams) 
— was alive. He had become a religious 
man, and was farmer, schoolmaster, phy- 
sician, and pastor in the island, in which 
were 170 inhabitants, 88 being males and 
82 females. He died in 1829. 

Mutiny of the Kore {The), 22 

May, 1797. Suppressed in June. This 
mutiny was preceded by a rebellious 
dissatisfaction of the seamen of the 
channel fleet at Spithead, who deprived 
their officers of command and threatened 
their lives. This uprising was quelled 
by an increase of pay ; but it was suc- 
ceeded by a mutiny of the fleet at the 
Nore, led by one Parker, and very ex- 
travagant terms were demanded. After 
a few weeks the men surrendered at dis- 
cretion, and Parker was executed. 

It was to encourage loyalty among our sailors 
that, at this period, Charles Dibdin wrote his 
sea-songs, and was rewarded with a pension. 

Mutton-eating King {The). 
Charles II. of England (1630, 1659-1685). 
Here lies our mutton-eating king, 

Whose word no man relies on 
He never naid a foolish thing, 
And never did a wise on'. 

Eakl of Rochester. 

Mutual Admiration Society 

{The). In French, 'La Societe' d'Ad- 
miration Mutuelle.' A jocose appellative 
applied in Paris to the ' Societe d'Ob- 
servation Medicale.' 

In England it has been applied to 
several sets ; as Shakespeare, Ben Jon- 
son, Beaumont and Fletcher, itc. 

Another consisted of contributors to 
the ' Spectator,' such as Addison, Steele, 
&c. 

A third was the famous ' club ' of 
Jolinson, Goldsmith, Burke, Reynolds, 
Beauclerc, and Boswell. 

Mutual Instruction, 1795. A 
system of education introduced by Dr. 
Bell in the Madras schools, where the 
more advanced pupils were set to teach 
the less advanced, whereby the number 
of the staff of j)aid teachers was very 
greatly reduced. Joseph Lancaster in 
1798 caught the idea, and for a time the 
mutual instruction plan was largely 
adopted in our charity and parish 
schools. The only remnant now left is 
that of pupil teachers. 

M.W.S., 1798. The legend on the 
black flags of the Irish rebels in the 



608 



MYRMILLONS 



NAG'S 



United Irislimen's sedition. The initials 
of Murder Without Sin. 

Myrmillons ( The), or ' Mirmillones ' 
(4 syl.). Gladiators on foot who combated 
with the retiarii. So named from a fish, 
called by the Greeks /Aop/xvpo?, which 
surmounted their helmets. 

Mysteries, 13th, 14th, 15th cents. 
Dramatic representations of the ' reli- 
gious mysteries,' such as the Incarnation, 
the Crucifixion, the Holy Trinity, and 
the Real Presence. They were acted by 
monks, generally in a cathedral. At 
their decline they were replaced by the 
Moralities {q.v.). 

The four best Mystery plays were the ' Passion,' 
the 'Resurrection.' the 'Incarnation,' and 'St. 
Catherine.' Tlie ' Mystery of the Passion ' is still 
(1890) performed in the Tyrol during 'Passion 
Week." 

Mystics. Those Christians who 
believe there is a natural and mystical 
meaning in Scripture, the latter to be 
gleaned only by particular inspiration 
and ' converse with heavenly habitants.' 
They are great in visions, dream revela- 
tions, and inward lights. 

' Let there be light ' means, in a natural sense, 
' Let there be the light of day ' — the light which 
now proceeds from the sun— but mystically it 
means ' Let there be divine inspiration and the 
light of glory ; let light illumine the soul ; let 
light be diffused in the heart, that it may know 
the divine mysteries, and see what is hid from 
the natural understanding." 

Mythical School {The) of Theo- 
logy in Germany was founded by Strauss, 
who tried to prove that the gospels are 
not real history, but beaux-ideals of 
ancient prophecies personified. His 
'Life of Jesus,' in 1840, produced an 
immense sensation. His ' Christian 
Doctrine and Faith' enters on the 
struggle between science and the Bible 
(1808-1874), 

Naamans. A religious party founded 
by Alexander Knox and Rowland Hill, 
half churchmen and half dissenters. 
They were like Naaman in the house of 
Rimmon, 

N"ab. To seize unexpectedly. Nabis 
king of Sparta (b.c. 206-191) made a 
statue resembling his wife, and clothed 
it in magnificent apparel. When any- 
one refused to deliver up his riches to 
* the tyrant, he was led up to the statue, 
and the statvie by secret springs seized 
the victim in her arms and squeezed him 
to death against iron spikes secreted by 



her dress. If this is not philologically 
tenable, it is at any rate an historical 
curiosity. See ' Bullies.' 

Similarly, to Burke, to Boycott, &c. The Nor- 
wegian ' nappe ' (to seize) is a cognate word. It 
may possibly be a contraction of apprehend (seize) 
with an initial »i. 

Wabathaean Kingdoms {The). 

The kingdoms of the east. Arabia Felix 
is called Nabathaea from Nebajoth the son 
of Ishmael (Gen. xxxvi. 3). The people 
of Arabia Petraea are called the Naba- 
thasans, but the term is very widely ap- 
plied. 

Eurus ad Auroram Nabathseaque regna recessit 
Persidaque, et radiis juga subdita matutinis. 
Vesper et oeciduo quse littora Sole tepescunt, 
Proxima sunt Zephyro; Scythiana septemque 

triones 
Horrifer invasit Boreas ; co itraria telUis 
Nubibus assiduis pluvioque madescit ab .\ustro. 
Ovid, Meiamo)yhoses, bk. i. 61, &c. 

ITabonassar. See ' Era of.' 

Naboth's Vineyard. A posses- 
sion coveted by others. Thus in 1885, 
when half the nations of Europe were 
swooping down upon places for colonies 
or annexation, it was said that ' Gei-many, 
France, and Italy were looking about for 
a Naboth's vineyard,' that is, a part of the 
world which they could appropriate. Of 
course the allusion is to King Ahab in 
1 Kings xxi. 

Nag's Head Ordination {The). 
In 1.559, 17 Dec, Matthew Parker was 
consecrated archbishop of Canterbury. 
Pennant says the ceremony was to have 
been performed by Anthony Kitchen 
bishop of Llandaif , but Bonner interfered ; 
whereupon fourteen ecclesiastics deter- 
mined to consecrate each other to the 
vacant' sees. Scory, a deposed bishop, 
met the party at the Nag's Head Tavern, 
Cheapside, and consecrated Parker arch- 
bishop ; this being done, Parker proceeded 
to consecrate the rest. Strype refutes this 
tale in his ' Life of Archbishop Parker,' 
and in Bennet College library is an in- 
strument said to have been used on the 
occasion, and being the consecration in 
Lambeth chapel by William Barlow (late 
bishop of Bath and V/ells), John Scory 
(late bishop of Chichester), Miles Cover- 
dale (bishop of Exeter), and John Hodg- 
kins (suffragan bishop of Bedford), of 
Parker and others. The Nag's Head tale 
is attributed to Father Talbot and an- 
other Jesuit named Holy wood. Dr. Doyle 
in 1824-25, before a committee of the 



NAILS 



NANEKISM 



607 



House of Commons, revived the Nag's 
Head tale. 

The story is this : the Nag's Head is the tavern 
•where the dean of the arches and the civilians 
•went to refresh themselves after the contirma- 
tion of a bishop, and wliile the ecclesiastics 
■were there, one Neale (Bonner's chaplain) peeped 
through the keyhole to see what was going on. 
He saw Kitchen bishop of Llandaff solicited to 
assist in the consecration service, but he stoutly 
refused to take any part therein. Scory (late 
bishop of Chicliester) then made all kneel down, 
and said to Parker, ' Take thou authority to 
preach the "word of God sincerely.' This tale was 
accepted as an historic fact for at least forty 
years : but we are told that the Earl of Nottingham 
was present and contradicted it, and that Arch- 
bishop Abbot produced the register of Canterbury 
to disprove it. Of course Neale's tale, as well as 
that of the earl and archbishop, are so doubtful 
that no reliance can be placed on either of them. 

Trails {The), used at the crucifixion. 
Gregory Nazianzen asserts that there 
•were only three nails used, but Cyprian 
maintains that there •were four. The 
number of those said to have been found 
in the cave where the three crosses were 
buried is equally uncertain. One was 
sent to Rome, and is deposited in what 
was afterwards the Santa Croce ; two 
others v,'ere sent by the Empress Helc^na 
to her son Constantine, one of which was 
welded as an amulet to his helmet that 
he might not be slain in battle, and the 
other was set in his horse's headstall ; a 
fourth the empress threw into the Gulf 
of Venice to allay a storm ; a fifth was 
beaten out into a thin band, and is set 
in the famous ' iron crown of Lombardy,' 
with which Charlemagne and Napoleon 
were crowned. So that the find of the 
empress did not settle the disputed point, 
but only made it more doubtful. See 
' Crucifixion, Relics of the.' 

Similarly the dispute about the wood of the 
cross was not settled by the discovery of the ' true 
cross.' Was it o-ak, pine, cedar, gopher wood, or 
what ? Some affirm it was made of three or more 
different kinds of wood. Certainly the relics 
which profess to be parts of the cross vary, so 
that the question is still undecided. 

Calvin enumerates fourteen nails : one in the 
Sant-a Croce at Rome, another in Siena, a third in 
Venice, a fourth in the church of the Carmelites 
in Paris, a fifth in the Holy Chapel, a sixth at 
iJraguignan, a seventh at Trenaille, an eighth at 
Treves, a ninth at Monza, a tenth in the crown of 
Lombardy, one was thrown into the Gulf of 
Venice, one was welded into the helmet of Con- 
Btantine, one was set in the headstall of the em- 
peror s horse (Gregory of Tours says two of the 
nails were set in the headstall). This would make 
fourteen. Not the slightest reliance can oe placed 
on the genuineness of any of the relics of the cru- 
cifixion, or of the ' saints.' 

Nails found in Coffins. A nail 
was at one time placed in a coffin for 
luck, much as a horseshoe is nailed to a 
stable door. The Romans drove annually 
on the ides of September a nail into the 



side wall of the temple of Jupiter Capito- 
llnus (Livy, vii. 3). 

It is supposed that the nails were originally a 
sort of tally for marking the number of years, and 
were continued out of reverence to an old custom 
(Festus). The nail driven into the temple was 
technically called ' Clavus annalis.' 

Thames Classicised. It was much 

the fashion, especially with German and 
Dutch authors who wrote in Latin, to 
convert their names into a Greek or Latin 
equivalent, or to give them a classic turn, 
as : — 

Agricola (1492-1566) the reformer, and 
friend of Luther, whose real name was 
Schneider (a tailor). This wcs assuming 
another name. 

Bucer (1491-1551), a Dominican and 
friend of Luther, whose real name was 
Kuhhorn (cow-horn), of which bucer is 
the Greek. 

Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536), a 
Dutchman whose real name was Gheraerd 
Gheraerd, of which Desiderius is the 
Latin, and Erasmos the Greek. 

Melanchthon (1497-1560), one of Lu- 
ther's friends, whose real name was 
Schwartzerde (black earth). Melanchthon 
is the Greek for a ' heap of black earth.' 

CEcolampadius, the Latinised name of 
Johann Hausschein, the reformer (1482- 
1531). 

Paracelsus (1493-1541), Graeco-Latin 
for bombast, the real name being A. T. 
Bombast. 

Porphyry, the Grecised name of Malk, 
the retal name of the disci j)le of Plot in 
(233-304). 

Regiomontanus, a Latinised form of 
Kbnigsberger. So Johann M tiller called 
himself (1436-1475). He was born at 
Kbnigsberg in Franconia. 

StobfEus is Stubbs Latinised (5th cent.). 

Till after the reign of Friedrich II. the Great 
(1740-1786) the Germans were ashamed of their 
language, and all their standard works -were 
written in Latin or Greek. Of course this does 
not apply to Porphyry, though probably he dis- 
liked the name of Malk. 

Nameless Finger {The). The 3rd 
finger of the right hand. The right- 
hand fingers are the pointer, long finger, 
nameless finger, little finger ; of the left 
hand they are the pointer, long finger, 
ring finger, and little finger. 

nSTanekism. The religious system 
of Nanek, founder of the religion of the 
Sikhs, which is a fusion of Islamism 
and Buddhism. The Sikhs recognise 
both the Vedas and the Koran. 11 y 



608 



NANTES 



NAPOLEON 



code is called the Adi-granth. Lahore 
is the centre of Nanekism. 

Nanek was born 1469, and died 1539. 
N j3__' Sikh ' is one of a Hindu sect, and means 
disciple. ' Sheik ' is an Arab chief. 

Nantes {Edict of), July 1591, 
granted by Henri IV. to the Protestants 
of Prance, was only a revival of the Edict 
of Poitiers conceded by Henri in 1577. 
The difference was this: the Edict of 
Nantes was enforced, that of Poitiers was 
a dead letter. In 1597 the edict was 
extended, and the Huguenots were al- 
lowed the public exercise of their religion 
in all places in which it had obtained a 
footing in 1597, and in the suburbs of 
towns. Permission was given to lords of 
high rank to hold religious services in 
their castles, and to noblemen of second 
rank to admit thirty co-religionists to 
their private chapels ; the reformed were 
admitted to public offices, their children 
to schools, and the poor to a share of 
alms ; the right of printing books in cer- 
tain towns was conceded, equal represen- 
tation in some of the palements, four 
academies of scientific and theological 
instruction, and a certain number of places 
of security. 

Napier's Bones, 1617. A contri- 
vance by John Napier baron of Merchis- 
ton for saving the tedious processes of 
multiplication and division by shifting 
about slips of ivory or bone, and, after 
the slips have been arranged, merely 
adding or subtracting the figures on the 
slips. 

Thus a sum of multiplication by five figures 
•would (after the bones are arranged) be per- 
formed by simply adding five lines of figures. 

Napoleon {The Code of), 1803-1804. 
The ' Code Civil,' consisting of three 
books, the first of persons, under 11 
titles ; the second of goods, under 4 
titles; and the third of the ways of 
acquiring property, under 20 titles. 
The whole code contains 2,281 articles. 
Tronchet was ' the soul of the code,' but 
he was assisted by Roederer, Portalis, 
Thibaudeau, Cambaceres, and Lebrun. 

Though the Napoleon Code means the Code Ci- 
vil, yet there are several other codes for different 
branches of the law, as the ' Code Penal,' the ' Code 
des Delits et des Peines,' the ' Code d'Instruction 
Criminelle,' &c. 

Napoleon le Grand. Napoleon I. 
(17(59, 1804-1814, died 1821). Banished 
to Elba 1814 (he was deposed 4 April, 
and arrived at Elba 4 May). Fhght 



from Elba 26 Feb., 1815 ; reached Paris 
20 March ; defeated at Waterloo 18 June. 
He gave himself up to Caj)t. Maitland of 
the ' Belleroxihon,' 15 July ; was banished 
to St. Helena, and arrived there in the 
' Northumberland,' commanded by Ad- 
miral Sir George Cockburn, 16 Oct. He 
died 5 May, 1821. His remains were re- 
moved to Paris in 1840, and were de- 
posited in the Hotel des Invalides 15 Dec, 
1840. 

His ' day of the Violets * is 1 March, the day when 
he reached Cannes after his escape from Elba. 
See ' Violets.' 

Father, Carlo Buonaparte of Corsica; Mother, 
Maria Letizia Ramolina ; Wives (1) Josephine, 
widow of Beauharnais, divorced ; (2) Maria Louisa 
archduchess of Austria; Son, Francois Joseph Na- 
poleon Bonaparte. Cont.'mporary with George III. 

Memoranda. Napoleon Bonaparte was sublieu- 
tenant of artillery 1785, captain 1792, commander 
of the National Guards 1792, brigadier-general 1791, 
commander-in-chief of the army in Italy 1796, First 
Consul 24 Dec, 1799, First Consul for life 2 Aug., 
1802,. Emperor 18 May, 1804. He won flfty-two vic- 
tories. His life was attempted in Dec. 1800 by an 
' infernal machine ' planted in the Piue St. Nicasse. 
The intention was to kill him on his way to the 
opera. He was once wounded slightly in battle, 
and was excommunicated by Pius VII. in 1809. 

His abdications : I. Deposed by the 
senate, and abdicated at Fontainebleau 
4 April, 1814. Sent to Elba in the British 
frigate called the ' Undaunted,' under 
the command of Caj)t. Usher ; went on 
board 28 April, and arrived at Elba 4 May, 
1814. 

II. After the battle of Waterloo he 
abdicated a second time, 22 June, 1815. 
He gave himself up at Rochefort to Cap- 
tain Maitland, commander of the ' Belie- 
rophon.' Accompanied by Count Ber- 
trand. Count Montholon, Count Lascases, 
Baron Gourgaud, a surgeon, and twelve 
domestics, he was then sent to St. Helena 
in the ' Northumberland,' under the com- 
mand of Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 
and arrived there 16 Oct., 1815, Sir Hud- 
son Lowe being governor of the island. 
He lived in Long wood House, and died 5 
May, 1821, amidst a phenomenal tempest. 

His crack regiments were the 30th, 
43rd, and 96th. To belong to one of these 
infantry corps was a warrant of reckless 
courage and undaunted bravery. Napo- 
leon and all his staff uncovered and 
bowed low as any one of their tattered 
colours filed in review before them. 

Napoleon II. Son of Napoleon I. 
and his second wife Maria Louisa arch- 
duchess of Austria. He was created 
' King of Rome ' from the moment of his 
birth (20 March, 1811), and, when his 



NAPOLEON 



NATIONS 



600 



father abdicated in 1814, the Senate pro- 
claimed him Napoleon II., a title which 
the powers of Europe would not allow. 
On the fall of his father in 1815, the lad 
retu-ed to the court of his maternal grand- 
father, the emperor of Austria, and re- 
ceived the title of ' Duke of Reichstadt.' 
He died of consumption at Schonbrunn 
in 1832. 

Napoleon III., Emperor of the 
French (1808, reigned 1852-1870; de- 
posed, and died 1873). 

Father, Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I : 
Mother, Hortense de Beauharnais, daughter of 
Josephine by her first husband (her second hus- 
l)and was Napoleon I.) ; Wife, Marie-Eugenie de 
Guzman, comtesse de Teba. Contemporary with 
Queen Victoria. 

*^* His life was attempted six times. 

1852, 24 Sept. An infernal machine 
was found at Marseilles designed to kill 
him. 

1853, 5 July. His assassination was 
attempted as he was leaving the Ope'ra 
Comique. 

1855, 28 April. Giovanni Pianori fired 
at him in the Champs Elysees. 

1857, 7 Aug. Barcolotti, Gibaldi, and 
Grillo came to London to assassinate him 
while he was on a visit to Queen Victoria. 

1858, 14 Jan. Orsi'ni [q-v.) attempted 
his life. 

1863, 24 Dec. Greco attempted his 
life. 

Orsini organised his infernal plot in London, 
Pianori did the same ; Mazzini, Ledru-Kollin, and 
Campanello in London supplied plotters with 
arms, itc. The French ambassador complained to 
the British government ; and these plotters again t 
the French emperor nearly dragged us into a war 
with France. 

Special Constable in London, 10 April, 
1848. Louis Napoleon, with 170,000 
noblemen, gentlemen, merchants, and 
tradesmen, volunteered to be sworn in as 
special constables to prevent disturbance 
of the peace by the Chartists when they 
presented their monster petition {q.v.). 
Louis Napoleon acted under the Earl of 
Eglinton. 

*»• Nicknam>'x : — 

COMTE D'ARENSBERG. So he called himself 
after his escape from the fortress of Ham. 

Bauingiet. The name of the mui he shot in 
his Boulogne escapade. 

BousTRAPA. A compound of Bou[logne], Stra- 
[sbourg], and Pa[ris], the places of his no-ed esca- 
pades. 

Grosbec. So called from the rather unusual 
size of his nose. 

Man of December. So called because December 
was his month of glory. Thus he was elected 
president 11 Dec, luirf: he made his coup d elnt 
2 Dec, 1851 ; was chosen president for life by 
plebiscite 21 Dec, 18ol ; and was created emperor 
2 Dec, l«o2. 



Man of Sedan. So called because at Sedan he 
surrendered his sword to William king of Prussia, 
Sept. 1870. 

Man of Silence. .Sfce p. 548. 

Oui-Oui was thepetname given him by Hortense 
in his childhood. He was a quick, intelligent boy, 
beautiful as a girl. 

Ratipole (3 syl.). The same as the West of 
England word rantipole. meaning a harum-scarum 
fellow, half idiot and half madcap. 

Sedantaire. a pun on Sedan. See above. 

SOULOUQUE (q.v.). 

The Little. Victor Hugo gave him this title, but 
the hatred of Hugo for Napoleon was a mono- 
mania. 

Verhuel. The name of his supposed father. 
He was born while his mother was separated from 
her husband. Scandal says she had been sepa- 
rated thirteen months. 

*»* Whatever maybe said of Napoleon III., two 
things deserve mention: (1) He was the only 
crowned head of France who' visited England as a 
friend : and ('2) all through his reign he knew his 
best policy was to remain friendly to England. 
From this wi e policy he never swerved, although 
sometimes goaded to animosity by his military ad- 
visers. Our relations with France have certainly 
not improved by the substitution of a republ c 

ITapoleon of Peace (T/ie). Louis- 
Philippe king of the French (1773-1850, 
reigned 1830-1848). Also called 'The 
Citizen King.' 

Napoleon of the East (Thf^). 

Mehemet AH pacha of Egypt (17C9- 
1848). 

War>oleon of the Turf {The). 
Lord George Bentinck (1802-1848). 

Ifassae Diamond (The). For- 
merly in the possession of the East 
India Company ; weighed 89f carats, but 
since the Duke of Westminster had it 
cut anew it weighs only 78,4 carats. Its 
value is about 30,000Z. See ' Diamonds.' 

Nation of Shopkeepers {A). So 
Louis XIV. called Holland. Napoleon 
Bonaparte applied the phrase to Eng- 
land; but whether England or France is 
the more given to trade would be hard 
to determine. Probably the pi'oportion 
of men independent of trade would be in 
favour of England ; and without the least 
doubt the money-grabbing or commer- 
cial spirit in Frenchmen is very much 
stronger than it is in Englishmen. I 
lived eight or nine years in France, and 
mixed with all classes — the court, the 
military, the medical profession, the 
literati, the bourgeois, and the proletariat. 

Nations {Expedition of the), a.d. 
G25. When the Koreish were defeated 
by Mohammed. They had been defeated 
by him in 623 at Bedr and Ohud. See 
' Ditch.' 

Rll 



610 



NATIONAL 



NATIONAL 



National Anthem (The) of Hun- 
gary is ' Rakotski's March.' See ' God 
save the King.' 

Prince Franz Leopold Rakotski, a Transylvanian 
prince, protector of Protestantism (died 1676). 

Wational Assembly {The). 

I. Of France, 17 June, 1789. ' L'As- 
semblee Nationale,' the tiers etat, which 
withdrew from the States-General, while 
the nobles and clergy were debating how 
the votes were to be counted, and whether 
they should sit in the same house with 
the deputies. 

The nobles and clergy wanted to have three 
houses and to vote by houses. This, of course, 
■would be simply to ignore the tiers etat. The 
deputies, v.'ho numbered 584 members, while the 
two other estates numbered both together only 
561, insisted on voting pt-r capita. 

II. Of Germany, 1848. It superseded 
the old German ' Diet ' {q.v.), which held 
its meetings at Frankfort. The National 
Assembly met at Berlin, and offered 
the imperial crown to William king of 
Prussia, but he declined the honour. It 
formed a constitution with two chambers ; 
the upper one was to contain 200 members 
and the lower one to consist of repre- 
sentatives of the people, one-third of the 
members to retire every two years. The 
kaiser was to have the absolute right of 
declaring peace and war, and of making 
treaties. Free municipal institutions 
were to be established ; and perfect free- 
dom in religion, education, science, and 
the press to be conceded. All this fell 
through in 1849, when a new legislative 
body was constituted, consisting of two 
chambers, which met at Brandenburg. 

The National Assembly of Berlin proved so 
refractory that the city was deserted, trade was 
paralysed, and Prussia was reduced to the verge 
ol civil war. 

National Association for the 

Repeal of the Union {The), i.e. the union 
between Great Britain and Ireland. Or- 
ganised in Ireland 1840, and monster 
meetings were held on the Hill of Tara 
to promote the object 15 Aug., 1843. The 
subject of repeal has agitated Ireland 
ever since 1810, and in 1886 Mr. W. E. 
Gladstone brought in a bill with a view 
of putting an end to the ever-recurring 
agitation. In 1840 Daniel O'Connell was 
the great agitator; and from 1881 to 1890, 
under the name of ' Home Rule ' and the 
leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell, 
the question of repeal obstructed almost 
all parliamentary business. See 'Irish 
Associations.' 



National Association of Ire- 
land {The), 1864. Fomied to dis- 
establish the Irish Church, and to alter 
the land laws. The church was disesta- 
blished in 1869. See 'Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

National Board {The), Ireland. 
The ' Commissioners of National Educa- 
tion ' {q.v.). 

National Confederacy of Po- 
land {The). The dissident^ under 
Prince Radzivil. They amounted to 
72,000 noblemen and gentlemen, and 
were ojoposed by a Catholic association 
called the 'Confederacy of Bar' {q.v.), 
which in 1774 conspired to assassinate 
the king (Stanislaus Augustus Ponia- 
towski), suspected of favouring the 
dissidents. The king escaped in a 
miraculous manner, lived through the 
two partitions of Poland, was compelled 
by Catharine of Russia to abdicate in 
1795, and died in obscurity in 1798, 



National Convention {The). 

I. Of Chartists, 1838. Up to 12 Aug. 
the delegates met at the Arundel Coffee 
House, in the Strand, London. It was 
declared illegal by the Convention Act 
Dec. 1839, but meetings continued to be 
held for ten years longer. 

The Chartists were strongly averse to the Anti- 
Corn-Law League, because, they said, it would 
reduce the labouring man's wages, which were 
virtually regulated by the price of corn. 

II. Of France. ' La Convention Na- 
tionale ' (from 21 Sept., 1792 to 26 Oct., 
1795). The French legislature which 
succeeded the Legislative Assembly {q.v.). 
On the very first day of meeting it 
abolished royalty and proclaimed France 
to be a republic. On 17 Jan., 1793, it 
pronounced sentence of death on Louis 
XVI. On 5 Oct., 1793, it declared that 
all dates should be computed from the 
foundation of the republic (22 Sept., 
1792). On 16 Oct., 1793, it brought 
Marie-Antoinette to the guillotine. On 
21 Oct. it condemned to death twenty- 
one of the Girondists. On 5 April, 1794, 
it condemned to death Danton, Camille 
Desmoulins, and many others of the 
Cordeliers {q.v.). On 27 July, 1794, it 
condemned to death Robespierre. On 
26 Oct., 1795, it declared itself dissolved. 

On the ri(iht sat the Girondists, on the left the 
Montagnards, in the centre the middle-men. The 
number of members was originally 721 ; reduced 



NATIONAL 



NATIONALISTS 



611 



to 500 in Year III. and to 300 in Year VIII. (21 Sept., 

1792). 

National Covenant {The), 1638. 

A bond of union drawn up at Edinburgh 
by the leading Presbyterian ministers, 
embodying the Confession of 1580, and 
binding all who signed it to spare nothing 
in the endeavour to preserve their na- 
tional religion. The proximate cause of 
this bond was the attempt of Charles I. 
to enforce on Scotland episcopacy and 
the Common Prayer Book. 

National Debt {The), 1664. The 
national debt began in the reign of 
Charles II., to make up the deficiencies 
of the revenue. In 1672 he declared 
that the interest could not be paid, but 
in 1684 the payment of interest was re- 
sumed. In 1699 the rate of interest was 
fixed at 3 per cent. Future sovereigns 
increased the debt chiefly for war ex- 
penses. The debt was highest in 1817, 
when it was almost 811 millions. In 1888 
the interest was reduced to 2| per cent. 

National Defects. The special 
plague of China is leprosy, so was it of 
the ancient Jews; of Japan and India 
smallpox and cholera ; of Southekn Italy 
physical deformities ; of Holland spinal 
diseases ; of Germany defective eyesight ; 
of Switzerland goitre and rotten teeth ; 
of North America rotten teeth and early 
baldness ; of France ' the French disease ' ; 
of England consumption, especially 
among girls. 

National Gallery {The), 1824. 
The National Picture Gallery in Trafal- 
gar Square, London. The foundation was 
the collection of Mr. Angerstein, pur- 
chased by government ; enriched by the 
gifts of Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, 
Mr. 'J. W. M. Turner, and others. 

The buildin() in Trafalgar Square by Wilkins was 
opened 9 April, 18.S8, enlarged by Pennethorne in 
18(50. The caateni wing was granted to the lioyal 
Academy of Arts for their annual exhibition of 
pictures, &c., formerly shown at Somerset House ; 
and the wesU'ni wing was set apart for national 
pictures of ancient and modern deceased artists, 
formerly exhibited in Pall Mall. In 18G8 the Royal 
Academicians removed their exhibition to Bur- 
lington House, and left the whole of the National 
Gallery for the exhibition of national works. 

National Land League of 
G-reat Britain, March 1881. To 
abolish rent altogether in Ireland ; and 
to make Ireland an independent nation, 
' with its own flag among the nations of 
the world.' This league was in substitu- 
tion of Michael Davitt's Land League 



{q.v.), which was suppressed in 1882. 
Proclaimed as unlawful Aug. 1887. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

In 1885 there sprang up, in the U.S. of North 
America, the ' Irish National League of America." 

National League {The), 1882, 
Ireland, had for its objects : — 

1. National self-government. 

2. Land law refoura. 

3. Local self-government. 

4. Extension of parliamentary and 
municipal franchise. 

5. The development and encourage- 
ment of. native industries and manufac- 
tures. 

The Land League, instituted in 1881, was sup 
pressed in 1882. Hee ' Irish Associations.' 

National School Society {The) 
of England, 11 Nov., 1811. Parochial 
schools in connection with the Church of 
England, supported by voluntary contri- 
butions, school pence, and government 
grants. The schools are examined by 
government inspectors and are under 
diocesan inspection also. See ' Board 
Schools.' 

National Schools {The), of Ire- 
land, 1833. Introduced by Mr. Stanley, 
chief secretary. These schools are under 
a board called the ' Commissioners of 
National Education in Ireland ' {q.v.). 
The schools are strictly undenomina- 
tional, and no pupil need attend any 
religious instruction which the parents 
or guardians do not approve ; but any 
pupil may receive special religious 
instruction at a fixed appointed time. 
No book to be introduced without the 
express approval of the commissioners. 

National Subsidy {The English), 
1770. The interest of the large subscrip- 
tions made in Great Britain for the aug- 
mentation of the pastors' salaries in the 
Piedmontese valleys. This was in addi- 
tion to the ' Royal Subsidy ' {q.v.). ' 

Nationalists (1886). An Irish 
party led by C. S. Parnell, M.P., which 
wanted to secure for Ireland a separate 
parliament, with the ulterior view of 
separating Ireland from England, and 
making it an independent kingdom. In 
1886 Mr. Gladstone brought in a bill for 
Home Rule in Ireland. Those Whigs who 
favoured this bill were called Separatists, 
and those who opposed it were called 
Unionists. See ' Irish Associations.' 

BR 2 



612 



NATURA 



NAZOREANS 



Natura Naturans. ' Nature ope- 
rating is Nature's creator.' Bruno's 
phrase (1550-1600), by which he meant 
that it was not God who created all 
things out of nothing, but that ' energising 
Nature ' was the true creative force. Not 
' Deus creavit omnia ex nihilo,' but 
' Natura naturans naturavit naturam,' 

Si^inoza taught that God and Nature 
are identical ; and Stahl taught that God 
is the anima mundi, or its vital prin- 
ciple, as the soul is of the body. 

Natura ISTaturata. Nature made 
Nature ; or Nature is the outcome of 
natu al en n-gy . 

K"atural Experimental Philo- 
sophy. See ' Jacksonian Professor.' 

K'atural Science Tripos. Three 
classes into which students in the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge are divided who have 
passed with credit their final examina- 
tions in the Natural Sciences. The Na- 
tural Sciences include (1) Chemistky 
(the laws of heat, and the laws of metallic 
and non-metallic bodies) ; (2) Botany 
(the structure, &c. of vegetable cells, the 
vessels of plants, the functions of their 
organs, their means of reproduction, and 
their classification); (3) Zoology (the 
genera of animals, their special forms and 
skeletons, nervous system, digestive 
system, circulatory system, organs of 
respiration, ova, and embryo); (4) Geo- 
logy (the leading facts of Physical 
Geography, the order of the stratified 
rocks and their general character). ' And 
these six other subjects : Biology, Physics, 
Mineralogy, Comparative Anatomy, Hu- 
man Anatomy, and Physiology. Of 
course, no examination includes all these 
nine subjects. See ' Moral Sciences.' 

Nauteh Girls {The). See under 
' Bayaderes ' (3 syl.). 

IN" aval Mass. The mass celebrated 
on board ship, when the rolling of the 
vessel might cause the wine to be spilt 
or the ' bread ' to be scattered. In this 
mass the oblation, the consecration of the 
elements, and the communion are all 
omitted. 

3S"avarrais(T;ie), 1357-1364. Charles 
the Bad of Navarre, son-in-law of Louis 
X. of France, who conspired with the 
dauj)hin against Jean II. le Bon. He was 
in; prisoned, but made his escape after the 



battle of Poitiers. In 1357 he joined the 
English, and while Jean was in captivity 
in London, laid claim to the crown of 
France (1358). At the death of Jean, his 
son and successor Charles V. sent Ber- 
trand du Guesclin against these invaders 
and marauders. He encountered thena in 
Normandy, routed them utterly, and slew 
their leader the Captal de Buch. 

Charles the Bad met with a very singular death. 
He was advised by his medical attendant to sleep 
in a nightdress steeped in spirits of wine. He did 
so, his dress caught tire, and he was burnt to death. 

l^avigation Act {The\ 1651. Pro- 
mulgated by Cromwell. Its object was 
to exclude all foreigners from English 
ports, and to secure to England and its 
colonies all the carrying trade. Hitherto 
Holland had been the great carrying 
state, but by this act it was ordained 
that no goods from Asia, Africa, or 
America should be imported to Great 
Britain except in ships belonging to Eng- 
land or its colonies. Abolished in 1849. 
See ' Reciprocity Act.' 

Nazarenes(3syl.),orKazar8earis. 

A sect mentioned by Tertullus in 
Acts xxiv. 5. The Christians were so 
called insultingly ; but the word was sub- 
sequently applied to Judaizing Christians, 
who demanded exact conformity to the 
Mosaic ritual. The only gospel they 
accepted was ' an heretical gospel ' ascribed 
to Matthew. 

In Evangelio juxta Hebraeos, quod Chaldaico 
quidem Syronue sermone, sed Hebraicis Uteris 
conscriptum est, quo utuntur usque hodie Naza- 
reni. — Jerome, hialotj. adv. Pelagiaiws, book iii. 2. 

Nazarites (3 syl.). Persons sepa- 
rated or consecrated to God (Numb. vi.). 
(1) They abstained not only from wine, but 
even from the grapes of which wine is 
made ; (2) they were never allowed to 
cut their hair ; (3) they were never 
allowed to defile themselves by contact 
with a dead body, not even if that body was 
the nearest and dearest, as husband or 
wife, father or mother, son or daughter, 
brother or sister. 

Nazoreans. ' Nazireans,' ' Naza- 
reans,' or ' Nousaieriens,' a sect (men- 
tioned by St. Epiphanius), and said to 
have been in existence before the Chris- 
tian era. They had a scripture called the 
' Book of Adam,' containing most of our 
' Book of Genesis.' When Christ came, 
they abjured his mission, and called their 
own founder the real Messiah (' Anaca- 
lypsis,' p. 657). 



NEBRASKA 



NEOLOGIANS 



613 



Nebraska (U. S. America). So 
called from the river Nebraska (Indian), 
now the River Platte. The inhabitants 
are nicknamed Bug -eaters ; they are 
said to have once eaten locusts during a 
visitation of those insects. 

Necessary Doctrine or Erudi- 
tion {The), 1543. A book of directions 
drawn up in convocation by the bishops 
inclined to the reformation. This book 
was of authority in the English Church 
during the remainder of Henry VIII.'s 
reign. 

Necessitarians. Those who deny 
the freedom of the will, such as Augustine 
and Calvin. Thus Augustine insisted 
that conversion is solely by free grace, 
independent of the human will ; and Cal- 
vin insisted that those saved were pre- 
destined to be saved. Pelagius and 
Arminius insisted that man is free to 
accept or reject the gospel. 

Negative Elements of our 
Balief {The). The Unitarian Confes- 
sion of Faith, contained in four articles 
(Martineau, ' Studies,' p. 77). 

The Positive Ones, as described by Dr. Beard, are 
about eight or nine. 

Negative Oath {The\ 1641. An 
oath imposed on the clergy in the reign 
of Charles I., that they ' would not con- 
sent to alter the government of the 
Church.' The University of Oxford pro- 
tested against this oath. 

Neill of the Showers {King), 
795- . So called because on the night 
he was born three showers fell in Ireland : 
a shower of honey, a shower of silver, and 
a shower of blood. 

Nelson {The Danish). Peter Torden- 
skiold (1691-1720). He was a tailor's ap- 
prentice in Trondhjem, and raised him- 
self to the rank of vice-admiral. 

Trondhjem, pronounce Tron-yem. 

Nelson's Column, in Trafalgar 
Square, was erected in 1843 ; the lour 
lions by Landseer were added in 1867. 

The design of the column was furnished by 
W. Railton, who took for his model a column of 
the Temple of Mars Ultor at Rome. The order is 
Corinthian, and the material Devonshire granite. 

Nelson's Eye. August 1794, at the 
siege of Calvi, a very strongly situated 
and fortified place in Corsica, Nelson lost 
the sight of one of his eyes by gravel 



driven into it by a shot which fell near 

him (age 36). 

He lost his arm in July 1797, in an attack on 
Santa Cruz, Teneritte (age 39). 

Neme'an G-ames. Held in Neme'a, 
in Argolis. Instituted by the seven heroes 
on their return from Thebes ; but histori- 
cally B.C. 575. Philip of Macedon pre- 
sided at the opening games. They were 
held four times a year, and the original 
prize was an olive wreath. Eleven of 
the Odes of Pindar are in celebration of 
victors in these games. 

Nemedians {The). Invaders of 
Ireland under Nemedius, who compelled 
the subjugated Fomorians {q.v.) to build 
forts for them, and afterwards put the 
architects to death. They were driven 
out of the island by the natives, but a few 
left behind had a district awarded them 
(Keating, p. 121). 

Moore, in his 'History of Ireland,' says the 
Fomorians were African pirates who overcame 
the Nemedians, dispersed them, and destroyed 
them.— Chap. v. 76. 

Nemours {The Treaty of), 1585, in 
which Henri ill. of France engaged to 
deprive the Huguenots, not only of the 
public exercise of their religion, but also 
of liberty of conscience. It was ordered 
by this treaty that all the Calvinistic 
clergy should quit the kingdom within 
a month, and that all Huguenots, who 
would not abjure, should emigrate before 
six months under penalty of confiscation 
of goods and death. This term of six 
months was afterwards reduced to fifteen 
days. 

Nao-Fenians, 1878-79. Founded 
by John Devoy. His ' new departure ' 
had for its object the ' uniting of the 
forces of revolution and constitutional 
agitation, with a view of advancing the 
aims of the separatist party.' See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Neolo'gians, Neol'ogy. A ra- 
tionalistic form of Christianity introduced 
in the 18th cent, by Eichlaorn and Paulus, 
who denied the divine origin of the Scrip- 
ture ; maintained that the Old Testament 
is like any other history ; that clergy- 
men are mere professors of theology, 
as lawyers and medical men are profes- 
sors of their respective professions ; and 
that miracles, if worthy of any credit, 
are only natural occurrences. 



614 



NEOPLATONISM 



NETHEELANDS 



Neoplat'onism. This philosophy 
developed itself in Alexandria, and its 
object was an amalgamation of Plato's 
philosophy with Eastern mysticism. The 
Neoplatonists gave objective reality to 
abstract ideas. Thus Wisdom was made 
a person, and it is thought by some that 
' The Word ' referred to in the gospel of 
St. John is an instance in point. The 
Trinity of the Neoplatonists consists of 
Unity, Wisdom or the Word, and the 
Mundane Soul. The chief exponents 
are Ammonius Saccas, Plotlnus, Por- 
phyry, Jamblichus, Proclus, and Julian 
the Apostate. 

Ncoplatonism, in Alexandria, originated with 
Phiilo about A.D. 35 or 40 ; but was more definitely 
constituted by Ammonius Saccas about lt)0-240. 

!N'eph'ites (2 syl.). The second 
American race according to the Book of 
Mormon. The first were Jaredites, so 
called from Jared, who led a colony to 
America at the dispersion when God con- 
founded the tongues of the builders of 
the Tower of Babel. The first colony 
were all slain by internecine war. The 
Nephites were so called from Nephi 
(youngest of the four sons of Lehi), who 
led the second colony, and was appointed 
by God to rule over the colony settled in 
Chili. 

As the brothers of Nephi opposed this decree ot 
God their sl^ins were blackened, and they became 
the founders of the American Indian tribes. Nephi 
heard the earthquake at the crucifixion, and 
Christ himself appeared to him forty days and 
revealed to him the truths of Christianity. In 
A.D. 384 the race of Nephi was annihilated. See 
' Book of Mormon." 

Neri (The),^ 1294. A political faction 
in Pistoia, similar to the Donati of Flor- 
ence, and favourers of the Guelf s. Their 
opponents were the Bianchi (q.v.). 

The names were derived from two 
powerful families ; the Neri represented 
the high aristocratic class, and the 
Bianchi the rich merchant class. See 
the ' Blacks and Whites.' 

ISTero of Persia (The). Sefi or 
Sophi, grandson of Abbas the Great 
(1628-1642). This tyrant had not one 
redeeming quality. 

Nero of the North {The). Chris- 

tiern II. of Denmark (1480, 1513-1523). 

Nero's Torches. Christians 
smeared with oil or tar, stuck in the 
ground, and set alight. It is said that 
the Emperor Nero threw on the Chris- 
tians the charge of setting fire to Rome, 



and thus tortured some of them in public 
thoroughfares a.d. 64. 

It must not be forgotten that religion and poli- 
tics were united in the Roman empire, and that 
the persecution of Cliristians was in all cases more 
a matter of civil policy than of aversion to Chris- 
tian dogmas. 

Nertschinsk {Treahj of), 1689. 
Between Russia and China, fixing the 
boundary line between the two countries. 
Tlie river Kerbeschi (the Gorbitza) was 
made the line of separation. 

Nestor of Europe {The). Leopold 
king of Belgium (1790, 1831-1865). 

Nestor of German Poesy {The). 
Christoph August Tiedge (1752-1841). 

Nestor of German Sculptors 

{The). John Heinrich Dannecker (1758- 
1841). 

Nestorian Liturgy {The). No 

Nestorian liturgy has been printed, but 
probably the Anglican missionaries sent 
to the Assyrian Church in 1887 will make 
it a part of their duty to print these ser- 
vice-books. The Nestorians teach that 
there are two persons, not two natures, in 
Christ. Their chief bishop used to be 
called the Catholicos, but is now called 
the Patriarch. They do not accept the 
canon of Scripture as authorised in the 
Council of Rome 494. They have seven 
sacraments, but these are not identical 
with the sacraments of the Western 
Church. They are rigid Sabbatarians, and 
acknowledge three orders of the ministry. 

Nestorians, a.d. 428. The followers 
of Nestorius patriarch of Constantinople 
(died 439). He maintained that Jesus 
Christ was the union of two persons, the 
Divine Word and the man Christ Jesus. 
The former dwelt in the latter as in a 
temple, and Mary was not the mother of 
God, but only the mother of the man 
Christ Jesus, for ' God ' could not be 
born, neither could He die. This heresy 
was condemned by the General Council 
of Ephesus in 431. There is a Nestorian 
Liturgy. See ' Theophoron,' &c. 

Theodore of Mopsuestia first broached this 
heresy, which still subsists in Persia and Turkey. 

One party insisted that the Virgin Mary was 
' Theotocos ' (mother of God), another insisted 
that she was ' Anthropotocos ' (mother of man); 
Nestorius devised a middle term, ' Christotocos ' 
(mother of Christ), and thus offended both sects. 

Netherlands {The), 1548. The 
seventeen provinces which under Charles 
V. formed the ' circle of Burgundy.' They 
passed to Spain in 1556. Seven of the 



NEUSTRIA 



NEW 



615 



northern provinces in 1579 lea.^ed to- 
gether in what is called the ' Union of 
Utrecht,' threw off the Sj)anisli yoke, and 
became in 1594 'the Republic of the 
Seven Provinces.' 

Under Louis XIV. of France Artois, 
with parts of Flanders, Hainaut, and 
Namur were united to France, and the 
rest was called the ' Spanish (or Catholic) 
Netherlands.' By the peace of Rastadt, 
in 1714, these provinces were ceded to 
Austria, and received the name of the 
* Austrian Netherlands.' In the French 
Revolution, France took these provinces 
from Austria ; and in 1814 sixteen French 
departments were formed into the ' king- 
dom of the Netherlands,' and given to 
William I. of the house of Nassau. In 
1830 the kingdom was divided into ' the 
kingdom of the Netherlands ' (Holland) 
(north), and the ' kingdom of Belgium ' 
(south). 

The king of Holland still calls himself the ' king 
Of the Netherlands.' Hee 'Holland.' 

Neustria. The ancient name of 
Normandy. 

Neva'da (U.S. America). So called 
from the Sierra Nevada, or ' snowy moun- 
tain chain,' which traverses the state. 
The nickname of the inhabitants is Sage- 
hens. 

Neuters. Presbyierians to be added 
to the Rump. They would have no power 
and no influence against the satellites of 
Cromwell, who would form an overwhelm- 
ing majority. 

Scarcely had they met the next morning, when 
Colonel Ingoldsby hastened in and informed them 
that the Commons were hard at work pushing 
forward their bill for increasing their own num- 
bers by the introduction of the neuters.— HOWITT, 
Hist, of England (Commonwealth), p. 329. 

Neutralisation of the Black 

Sea (The), 30 March, 1856. All ships of 
■war (with recognised exceptions) pro- 
hibited from entering the waters of the 
Black Sea, but it was free to the mercan- 
tile marine of every nation. 

The exceptions were that Russia and Turkey 
might each have six steamships of 600 tons and 
four light vessels of 200 tons each. 

New and Latter House of 

Israel (T7te). /See ' Jezreelites.' 

New Church (The). The Sweden- 
borgians. 

New College, Oxford, 138G. Foun- 
ded by William of Wykeham, bishop of 



Winchester. The head-master is called 
the warden. 

New Connection {The), 1797. 
Seceders from the Methodist Connection 
led by Alexander Kilham. In doctrine 
they follow Wesley, but in discipline they 
resemble the Presbyterians. The people 
choose their own officers, and send rei^re- 
sentatives to all the synodical meetings 
of the denomination. They seceded be- 
cause they thought the conference is not 
sufficiently representative ; and they gi\ e 
an equal share in all administrative affair.^ 
to laymen and ministers. 

New Departure (The), 1880. lu 
Irish history, commented on the visit of 
Mr. Paruell to North America. It com- 
bined the murderous violence of the Clan- 
na-Gael or United Brotlierhood with the 
craft of the 'constitutional agitation in 
Ireland,' and the craze of the peasantry 
(stirred up by the Land League at the 
suggestion of Michael Davitt) of paying 
no rent for their farms. See ' Irish Na- 
tional Brotherhood.' 

New Franciscans (The), 1768. A 
club of twelve profligates who met in an 
old Cistercian abbey at Medmenham on the 
banks of the Thames, and there carica- 
tured the rites and processions of the 
Catholic brotherhood by obscene rites and 
profane imitations. Over the portal they 
inscribed the motto which Rabelais says 
was placed over the gate of Theleme 
Abbey: fay ce que voudras. They 
rivalled in licentiousness and profanity 
the Hell Fire Club. 

Amongst the members were Wilkes (editor of the 
' North Briton '), Sir Francis Dash wood (chancellor 
of the exchequer), Paul \\Tiitehead, Lord Sand- 
wich, Ac. Called ' Franciscans from Francis (the 
Christim name of Dashwood, who had his likeness 
taken in the habit of a Franciscan friar. 

New General Baptist Associa- 
tion (The), 1770. Seceders on the 
question of the divinity of Christ. 

New Hampshire, in N. America, 
previously called ' Laconia,' received its 
present name from Captain John Mason 
of Hampshire, to whom it was conceded 
in 1029 by the Plymouth Company. It 
is a state of mountains and lakes, and 
called ' the Granite State ' and the 
' Switzerland of America.' The inhabi- 
tants are nicknamed ' Granite Boys.' 

New Inn Hall, Oxford, 1383. 
Founded by Dr. Cramer dean of Carlisle. 
The head of the hull is called the principal. 



616 



NEW 



NEW 



Ne'W Jersey (U. S. America). So 
called, 1664, in compliment to Sir John 
Carteret, who had defended Jersey (in the 
British Channel) against the Parliamen- 
tarians in 1642. Charles II. gave the 
territory to his brother James, and James 
gave it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
Carteret. Lord Berkeley resigned his 
right to Penn and others, but Philip 
Carteret tlie governor divided the territory 
v^ith them by a straight line from north- 
w^est to south-east. Carteret took the 
east side and Penn the west. The in- 
habitants are nicknamed Jersey Blues, 
S'paniards, Crows, and Clam-catchers. 

T^ew Jerusalem Church {The). 
The Swedenborgians {q.v.). 

Wew Method (T/ie), 1720-1724. The 
work of John Wesley was so called at 
Oxford. His ' method' was to visit the 
sick, and go from place to place preach- 
ing. Methodism as a system arose in 
December 1739. 

]Srew Model [The), 1645. The re- 
organised army according to Cromwell's 
plan. Essex, the leader of the parliamen- 
tary army, ' who was afraid to conquer 
his king,' was replaced by Sir Thomas 
Fairfax. Cromwell said, ' If I met the 
king in battle, I would as soon fire my 
pistol at him as at any other man.' No 
officer of either House was to command 
the new-modelled army, for the tenure 
of military and civil offices in the same 
person is incompatible. The army must 
be wholly severed from the parliament. 
The soldiers must be i^icked men, honest 
and God-fearing. Young men are to be 
preferred. In a word, the aristocratic 
element was to be eliminated, and the 
whole army to be constructed on the 
model of Cromwell's ' Ironsides.' They 
were volunteers, not pressed men, men 
who left their farms and shops for a pur- 
pose, and would return to them when that 
purpose was accomplished. 

ISTew Moral World {The). The 
' model parallelogram ' of Robert Owen ; 
established at Orbiston, in Lanarkshire, 
1825. Only one corner of the parallelogram 
was ever built, and only 200 inmates were 
ever collected together at any one time. 
It was treated as a great moral nuisance, 
and the building was soon levelled to 
the ground. Owen's next scheme was in 
* Harmony Hall,' Hampshire, 1844, where 



he was president. This, like the Orbiston 
parallelogram, was an utter failure, and 
Owen was deposed by his own disciples. 
He went to Paris in 1848, but made no 
mark, and died in 1858. 

Beside the Orbiston paralleloffram and the Har- 
mony Hall, he had a place in Indiana (Amerioa) 
which he called New Harmony, also an utter 
failure. 

ITew Republic [The). The follow- 
ing names in Roman letters are supposed 
to be the academy figures of the charac- 
ters in italics, introduced into the novel 
entitled ' The New Republic ' by Wil- 
liam Hurrell Mallock. Donald Gordon, 
Thomas Carlyle; Lady Grace, Mrs. 
Mark Pattison (Lady Charles Dilke) ; 
Herbert, Professor Ruskin; Dr. Jen- 
kinson. Professor Jowett ; Leslie, Mr. 
Hardinge ; Luke, Matthew Arnold ; 
Bose, W. Pater; Saunders, Professor 
Kingdon Clifford, or else F. Harrison ; 
Seydon, Dr. Pusey; Mrs. Sinclair, 
Mrs. [Violet Fane] Singleton ; Stockton, 
Professor Tyndall ; Storks, Professor 
Huxley. The ' Historian,' chap, ii. bk. 3, 
is Professor Freeman. 

New River {The). The united 
streams of two rivulets in the parishes 
of Ware and Amwell (Hertfordshire), 
brought by Hugh Myddelton through a 
course of twenty miles, to supply London 
with water. Begun 1609, completed and 
opened in 1613. 

!N"ew Style. The reformed calendar 
introduced by Gregory XIII. in 1582. It 
was at once adopted in Italy, Spain, and 
Portugal by abridging October eleven 
days, and calling 5 Oct. the 15th. Fnince 
adopted the reform the same year 
by calling 10 Dec. the 20th. Catholic 
Switzerland, Germany, and the Nether- 
lands adopted the new style in 1583 ; 
Poland in 1586 ; Hungary in 1587 ; 
Protestant Germany, Holland and Den- 
mark in 1700 ; Protestant Switzerland in 
1701 ; England in the reign of George II., 
1752, when Wednesday 2 Sept. was 
followed by Thursday 14 Sept. ; that is, 
3 Sept. was called 14 Sept. (Holy-rood 
day). In Sweden the new style was 
adopted in 1753 ; Russia alone of Euro- 
pean nations retains the old style. 

In all cases such rules have been adopted as to 
prevent the recurrence of any appreciable error ; 
but the change is observable in our quarter- 
days : thus new Midsummer day is 24 June, but old 
Midsummer day is (> July; new Christmas day 
is 25 Dec , but old Christmas day is G Jan. ; now 
Lady day is 25 March, bat old Lady day is G April ; 



I 



NEW 



NEWTON 



017 



so new Michaelmas day is 29 Sept., but old Michael- 
mab day is 11 Oct. 

!N"ew Testament {The), was origi- 
nally written on Egyptian papyrus ; but 
in the 12th cent, it was written on silk 
paper. 

From the 5th to the 8th cent, it was 
written in uncial letters {i.e. inch-large 
letters), but from the 9th cent, cursive 
letters were employed. 

At first there were no divisions of 
words. Euthalius (a deacon at Alexan- 
dria), in the 5th cent., divided the words 
into stichs (o-Tixa), that is, paragraphs. 
In the 6th cent, the text was divided into 
breves. In the 13th cent. Hugo de Santo 
Caro (a French cardinal, Hugues de St. 
Cher) divided the gospels into chapters 
and verses, and Robert Stephens in the 
16th cent, extended the division and in- 
troduced the chapters and verses still in 
general use. 

The earliest MSS. of the New Testa- 
ment are in uncial letters. And the 
oldest known MS. is the ' Codex Vati- 
canus ' {q.v.). 

TTew Yoar's Day. The Franks 
began the day on 1 March, the day 
of their Champ de Mars or national 
assembly. In the reign of Charlemagne 
it was shifted to Christmas day, and con- 
tinued so till the 16th cent., when 1 Jan. 
was constituted New Year's day. There 
are numerous relics of the custom of 
beginning the year on 1 March. 

Jlarch is a repetition of January. The moon 
repeats itself, thus if it is new on 1 Jan. it will be 
new on 1 March, &,c. 

ITew York (U. S. America). Re- 
ceived its present name in 1661, in com- 
pliment to James (afterwards James II. 
of Great Britain and Ireland) duke of 
York, to whom the territory was given by 
his brother Charles II. The inhabitants 
are nicknamed Knickerbockers. 

It had previously been called New Amsterdam. 

Newdig^te {The). A prize for Eng- 
lish verse given in the University of 
Oxford annually, value 211, Founded 
by Sir Roger Newdigate in 1808. In 
Cambridge a medal is given called ' The 
Chancellor's English Medal ' {q.v.). 

Newmanism. The proper adjust- 
ment of Christianity and the world accord- 
ing to the opinions of the Oxford Trac- 
tarians. 



The Oxford Tractarians (ia33 1841) were 'A,' i.e. 
Rev. John Keble, professor of poetry ; ' B,' the Rev. 
Isaac Williams ; ' C the Rev. E. B. Pusey, D.D., re- 
gius professor of Hebrew; 'D,' the Rev. John 
Henry Newman, author of ' Tract No. 90 ' (ho 
subsequently joined the Catholic Church, and was 
made a cardinal ; died in 1890) ; ' E,' the Rev.Thomas 
Keble ; ' F,' Sir John Provost, Bart. ; ' G,' the Rev. 
R. F. WUson. 

The Rev. John Henry Newman, born in London 
1831 ; seceded from the Established Cliurch in lb45 ; 
was made a cardinal in 1879 ; and died in 1890. 

I^ewmarket Oracle {The). Og- 
den, a professional betting-man, who rose 
from nothing (18th cent.). 

Ne-wnham College, 1880 (Cam- 
bridge), for the residence and instruction 
of ladies. Miss Fawcett's position in 
the Mathematical Tripos of 1890, ' above 
the senior wrangler ' of Cambridge, put 
this college in the first rank. 

Newspapers. 

In ancient Rome an offlcial gazette, called ' Acta 
Diurna ' ('7.r.).was issued under the management 
and authority of the government, and posted 
up daily in some prominent place in tlie city. 
In Venice a paper of public intelligence, 

called ' Gazzetta,' was published in 1620 

In England the first weddii newspaper 
was published by Nathaniel 

Butler in 1622 

,, the first (irtiZi/ newspaper in ... 1709 

In France the first icpekly newspaper was 

published in 1C31 

,, the first (/(7(ii/ in ... 1777 

In America, at Boston, a newspaper was 

published in 1C90 

In IjRELAND the first newspaper, called 
' Pue's Occurrences,' ap- 
peared in 1700 

,, the oldest Dublin newspaper, 

'The Freeman s Journal,' in 1755 
In GERM.4.NY the first newsx^aper was pub- 
lished in 1715 
In Holland the first newspaper was pub- 
lished in ... .. 178-2 



In Australia the first newspaper was pub- 
lished in .... 18 .'5 
*,* For particular newspapers see each under 

its own title. 

IN'ewton {The American). David 
Rittenhouse (1732-1792) of Pennsyl- 



ISTewton and the Apple, 1666. 
It is Voltaire who states that Mrs. Con- 
duit, Newton's niece, told him the story. 
Newton, she said, was at Woolsthorpe, 
and, seeing an aj)ple fall, was led into a 
train of thought which resulted in his 
discovery of gravitation. 

The story is discredited by Martin Folkes, 
Hegel. Gause, and many others. And certainly 
neither Whiston nor Pemberton mentions it. 

Newton of Harmony {The). 
Rameau (1683-1764), the most philoso- 
phical musician of France. His great 



618 



NEWTOWNBAERT 



NIHILISM 



work is a ' Dissertation on the Principles 
of Harmony.' 

IQ"ewtownbarry Kiot {The), 18 
June, 1S31. On the occasion of a seizure 
of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
between the yeomen and people, in 
which 35 persons were wounded or 
killed. The jury could not agree, and 
was discharged without coming to a 
v&rdict. 

T^iaar'ara Falls Association 

{The), 1888. To promote legislation and 
other measures for the restoration and 
preservation of the natural scenery at 
Niagara Falls in accordance with the 
plan proposed by the Commissioners of 
the State Survey in their special report 
on the subject. The State of New York 
gave a million and a half (dollars) for 
the purpose, and the ' Falls ' were made 
free to all mankind for all time to come. 
The bill was signed in 1885 for the pay- 
ment of the ' Fails ' in state bonds, and 
on 15 July, 1885, the Niagara Falls, in- 
cluding Goat Island and the lands con- 
tiguous (on the American side), were 
declared free to the world for ever. 

IN'iesean Barks. The ships of Alex- 
ander the Great. They were under the 
command of Nearchos, and sailed from 
the Indies to the Persian Gulf and to 
Susa, They were called Nicasan barks 
because they were built at Nicaea. 

ISTicene Creed, or * Symbolum 
Nicasnum,' 325, concocted at the First 
General Council of Nicaea, but com- 
pleted by the Council of Constantinople 
in 381. This is the creed in the Com- 
munion Service. 

The Apostles' Creed in its present form was 
adopted in the Church in the 11th cent. ; but a 
formula containing some of the articles existed 
in the 2nd cent. 

Tlie Athanasian Creed was adopted in the 
Latin Church in 673 ; in France in 850: in Spain 
and Gc.rvuvny a century later ; in England about 
1000. It was not the work of Athanasius, who 
lived 296- -372, but was supposed to incorporate 
what he taught on the subjects contained in tlie 
Creed. 

Nicholites (3 syl,), or ' New Quak- 
ers.' An extinct sect of liberal Quakers, 
once found in Maryland, but long since 
united with the Hicksites (2 syl.). 

ISTicias {Peace of), b.c. 421. A peace 
for 50 years, in the eleventh year of 
the Peloponnesian war, between Sparta 
and Athens. By this treaty each party 
agreed to restore all the prisoners and 



places mutually taken during the war. 
The signatories were the Athenian Nicias 
and the Spartan king Pleistoanax. 

Nickers. London night-larkers 6f 
the 17th and 18th cent., whose delight 
was to nick or hit a pane of glass and 
break it, by flinging a copper at it. He 
was the best nicker who nicked the 
highest panes. See ' Street Bullies.' 
His scattered pence the flying Nicker flings. 
And with the copper shower the casement rings. 
Gay, Trivia, iii. 

M'icode'niUS [Gospel of), or 'Acta 
Pilati.' An apocryphal gospel supposed 
to have been forged somewhere between 
320-376. See ' Spurious Gospels.' 

By ' Acta Pilati ' is generally meant an apocry- 
phal account of the Crucifixion, said to be the des- 
patch of Pilateto the Emperor Tiberius. Eusebius, 
book ix. chap. 5, speaks of another ' Acta Pilati ' 
' full of every kind of blasphemy against Christ, 
which, with the consent of the emperor, was cir- 
culated throughout the whole Roman empire.' 
In these Acts Christians are charged with the most 
revolting crimes. • 

K"icola'itans (5 syl.). Condemned 
in Eev. ii. 6, 15. They taught the law- 
fulness of a community of wives; that 
Christians might partake of the heathen 
feasts ; and maintained that God dwelt 
in the body of Jesus as in a temple, but 
was not united like body and soul. 

Nicolas was one of the first seven deacons. — 
Acts vi. 5. Peter is supposed to refer to this heresy 
in 2 Epis. ii. 15-20. 

l^ight of Al Kadr {The), 24 
Ramadan. The night when Mohammed 
received his first revelation from Gabriel. 

Verily we sent down the Koriin in the Night of . 
Al Kadr. — The Koran, chap, xcvii. 

!N'igllt - boys. Same as Moon- 
lighters {q_.v.). See ' Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

TTightingale of Twickenham 

{The). Alexander Pope, who lived at 
Twickenham (1688-1744). 

i'or my own part I abhor your irregular ge- 
niuses, and I love to listen to the little nightin- 
gale of Twickenham.— Disraeli, Vcnetia, bk. vi. 
0. 8 (Cadurcis). 

Nightingale of Wittenberg 

{The). So Hans Sachs [Sax] the master- 
singer {q.v.) in 1523 calls Luther in a 
poem addressed to the reformer. It 
seems a strange comparison, but Sachs 
means that Luther was a bird which 
sang in moral darkness, as a nightingale 
sings at night. 

Nihilism started into existence in 
1848 under Herzen, a radical philoso- 
pher of the Hegel school. He was 



NIKA 



NINE 



619 



joined by Bakunin, and the two became 
joint editors of a commnnistic journal 
called the ' Bell ' (Kolokol), published in 
London, but widely circulated in Russia. 
In 18G6 the emperor was shot at by a 
young man, and the danger of Nihilistic 
teaching roused the serious attention of 
the Russian authorities. Soon after the 
death of Bakunin the secret Nihilistic 
societies greatly multiplied till 1881, 
•when the Emperor Alexander II. was 
horribly assassinated. Since then the 
dogmas of the Niliilists have been 
gradually spreading, especially among 
the common people. 

In 18C8 the following manifesto was circulated : 
(1) Tear out of your hearts the belief in the exist- 
ence of God, or you can never know what free- 
dom is ; (2) the second lie to get rid of is liighl, 
■which is only the bastard of Might. Might makes 
Right. Without Might there is no such thing. 
Away with it ! (3) having got rid of these two lies, 
civilization, property, marriage, morality, and 
justice will snap like pack-thread; (4) let your 
own happiness be youf only law ; but, in order to 
enjoy this law, you must destroy everything that 
exists in the shape of government and social 
organisation. Annihilate everything as it now 
exists — the good with the bad — make a clean 
sweep of all ; lor if but one atom of the old leaven 
is suffered to remain, it will corrupt the new 
order, and all the work will have to be done 
again. 

It is said that this manifesto was drawn up by 
Bakunin, who died between l87ti and 1878. 

Nika Sedition {The), Jan. a.d. 
532. A sedition between the Greens 
and the Blues {q.v.), which lasted five 
days, and almost laid Constantinople in 
ruins. It occurred in the 5th year of 
Justinian on the ides of January. The 
Greens appealed to the emperor for pro- 
tection, when the Blues rose up against 
them like raging lions. Seven of the 
ringleaders were condemned to death, 
but, being rescued by the mob, were 
carried in triumph through the streets, 
and as they were Greens and Blues, the 
two factions united for the nonce against 
the magistrates, and used for their 
watchword Niica, that is Victory. The 
military were called out, and, hurling 
firebrands against the insurgents, set 
fire to the city, burning down the cathe- 
dral of St. Sophia, the baths of Zeuxip- 
pus, a part of the imperial palace, a 
hospital, and many churches, edifices, 
and private houses. Some 30,000 Greens 
fell in this sedition. 

Nimbus in Christian Art {The). 
The representation of a glory round the 
head. 

For Angels, the nimbus consists of rays, sur- 
rounded by a circle of quatrefoils, like 
pearls and roses. 



For Apostles, Martyrs, and Confessors, the 
nimbus is golden. 

„ Christ, the. nimbus is more or less cruci- 
form. Sometimes the glory, called aureola, 
envelops the whole figure. 

„ God the Father, the nimbus is triangular, 
or a circle with hand in the act of blessing. 
Sometimes the glory, called aureola, en- 
velops the whole figure. 

,, Penitents, the nimbus is yellow, more or 
less shaded. 

„ Prophets and Patriarchs, the nimbus is 
white or silver. 

„ Saints d) liciiui, a square nimbus. 

,, ,, (2) married, the nimbus is green. 

„ ,, (3) who have stni(i;iled hard icUhtcmpta- 
Hon, the nimbus is red. 

" Virgin Mary, the nimbus consists of small 
stars. Like God the Father and God the 
Son, her whole body is sometimes inclosed 
in an aureola. 

5th to 12th cent., a disc over the head. 
14th cent., the triangular nimbus was 
introduced. 

15th cent., a broad band behind the 
head, and the inscription of the na.me of 
the saint in the nimbus was introduced. 
17th cent., the nimbus was discon- 
tinued. 

19th cent., it was introduced again. 

A Square Nimbus indicates that the person was 
living, a square being the symbol of the earth. 

A Circular Nimbus indicates that the person 
is gone to heaven, a circle being the symbol of 
eternity. 

A Black Nimbus is given to the traitor Judas. 

Gold Nimbus, awarded to samts of the highest 
order. 

Green Nimbus, assigned to married persons 
(Hope, not Certainty). 

Red Nimbus, awarded to those who were tried 
as by fire, fighting against sin. 

Silver Nimbus, next in honour to the golden 
nimbus. 

Yellow Nimbus, given to sinners who by 
prayers and penance had become saints. 

Nimeguen, in Holland {Treaty 
of), 1678, 1679. This was a great peace 
congress of the European powers, to put 
an end to the wars which had embroiled 
France, Germany, Spain, Holland, and 
Sweden. The treaty was first agreed on 
between France and Holland, 10 Aug. ; 
then between France and Spain, 17 
Sept. ; then between France and Ger- 
many, 5 Feb., 1679. Next, Denmark, 
Sweden, and the Elector of Branden- 
burg agreed to the peace. By this 
treaty Sweden was put into possession 
of all it had at the commencement of the 
war. 

Pronounce Neem-gen, -with g hard. 

Wine Articles of the Evan- 
gelical Alliance {The). To be held 
by those who belcing to the society. 

1. The divine inspiration, authority, and suf- 
ficiency of the Holy Scriptures, 

2. The right ancf duty of private judgment in 
the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. 

.S. The unity of the Godhead and the Trinity of 
persons therein. 



620 



NINE 



NO. 45 



4. The utter depravity of human nature In con- 
sequence of the fall. 

5. The mcarnation of the Son of God, his work 
of atonement for sinners, and his mediatorial 
intercession and reign. 

6. The justification of the sinner by faith alone. 

7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the conver- 
sion and sanctification of the sinner. 

8. The immortality of the soul, the resurrection 
of the body, the judt(ment of the world by Christ, 
the eternal blessedness of the righteous and 
eternal punishment of the wicked. 

9. The divine institution of the Christian minis- 
try, and the obligation and perpetuity of the 
ordinances of Baptism and the Lord's Supper. 

Our creeds are: the Apostles', the Nicene, and 
the Nine Articles of Faith adopted by the Evan- 
gelical Alliance.— M. McLean, Echoes from Japan 
(1889, p. '24). 

See ' Lambeth Articles.' 

ITine Days' Queen {Tlie). Jane 
Dudley, better known as Lady Jane 
Grey ; but she ■was married to Lord 
Guilford Dudley, son of John [Dudley] 
duke of Northumberland (1537-1554), 
Proclaimed queen 10 July, and Mary 
was proclaimed queen by the Earl of 
Arundel 19 July, 1553. 

I^ine European Heroes of 
Delhi {The), 11 May, 1857. Lieu- 
tenants George Willoughby, Forrest, 
andRaynor ; Conductors Buckley, Sha'w, 
and Scully ; Sub-conductor Crow ; and 
Sergeants Edwards and Stewart. These 
nine men defended the magazine against 
a swarm of Sepoy mutineers. * Edwards 
and Crow were killed, then Scully fired 
the mine, and, as the building blew up, 
the surviving seven effected their escape. 
A trooper cut down Scully and a ma- 
rauder slew Willoughby on the road to 
Meerut. Forrest, Raynor, Stewart, and 
Buckley escaped, and lived to receive the 
Victoria Cross. 

We are not told what became of Conductor 
Shaw. 

ITlne Gems [The). The nine wise 
or learned men of Hindostan in the 
reign of Vikramaditya, B.C. 56, &c. 

'Nine Kingdoms of the Latin 
"World {The). (1) England, France, 
and Scotland (more ancient than the 
reign of Charlemagne) ; (2) Castile, Ara- 
gon, and Navarre (created by the sword) ; 
(3) Sweden, Denmark, and Hungary 
(created by their baptism). 

The Nine Kingdoms of the Latin World dis- 
claimed their new associate (Sicily).— GIBBON, 
chap. Ivi. 

ETine Orders of Angels {The). 
Disposed in three circles. Three x 
three = nine, the most sacred number. 

Novem vero angelorum ordines dicimus . . . 
BCimus (1) Angelos, (2) Archangelos, (3) Virtutes, 



(4) Potestates, (5) Principatus, (6) Dominationes, 
(7) Thronos, (8) Cherubim, et (£) Seraphim.— 
GreguRY, Homily 34 (a.d. 381). 

K"ine Worthies {The). Hector 
of Troy, Alexander the Great of Mace- 
don, Julius Caesar emperor of Rome, 
Joshua leader of the Israelites, David 
king of the Jews, Judas Maccabasus, 
Charlemagne, Arthur king of the Britons, 
and Godfrey baron of Jerusalem. 

One naturally looks for the name of Moses. 

ITisi Prius. A trial by jury in 
some civil action. A judge sitting at 
wm^?-M(s means a judge presiding at a 
jury trial in a civil cause. The phrase 
is borrowed from the first two words of 
the old writ for summoning juries. 

By 13 Edw. I. c. 80, juries were sum- 
moned to appear at the courts of West- 
minster 'in Octabis Sancti Michaelis 
Nisi Prius ' the judge on circuit came 
to hold his court in the assize town where 
the jury lived. This 7iisi prius provisio 
has been disused (in England) since 1852, 
and all trials, as a matter of course, take 
place on circuit. 

ITizam'-gedittes' (2 syl.), 1807. 
An army of 10,000 Turks raised by the 
Sultan Selim, clad in European costume, 
and officered by European soldiers, 
chiefly French. The old Turkish janis- 
saries, jealous of these new troops, de- 
posed the sultan and placed his cousin 
Mustapha on the throne. 

No. 1, organiser of the Irish In- 
vincibles, 1881, was a man named P. J. 
Tynan. He was a handsome man, about 
five and a half feet higii, and wore spec- 
tacles. He went about in various dis- 
guises. All Invincibles were Fenians 
of the better class. See ' Lrish Associa- 
tions.' 

No. 45 {of the North Briton), 1763, 
in which Wilkes said the words in the 
king's speech that the peace of Paris ' is 
honourable to the crown and beneficial 
to the nation ' are false. This being 
deemed an iiisult to the king (George 
III.), Wilkes was arrested 30 April, and 
coimnitted to the Tower. When brought 
to trial the bench declared that the 
arrest could not be sustained on account 
of Wilkes's privilege as a member of par- 
liament, for nothing short of treason 
could interfere with that privilege. 
Wilkes was accordingly at once dis- 
charged. His release was celebrated, 



NO. 61 



NOLAN 



621 



especially in the cider counties, with 
processions, in which a jack boot, a 
petticoat, and the king led by the nose 
by Bute, were carried. See ' Jack Boot.' 

In 1772 George prince of Wales, having been 
chid for some boyish fault, stole into the king s 
apartment and shouted, ' Wilkes and No. 45 for 
ever ! George III. only laughed at the boy's 
Imijudence. 

'No. 61. The 'Secret Select' [q.v.) 
of the Glasgow Trades Union, 1837. 

No. 00 [Tract). One of the ' Tracts 
for the Times,' written by John Henry 
Newman, D.D., Fellow of Oriel, Oxford. 
This was the last of these famous religious 
tracts issued 1833-1841. Dr. Newman 
subsequently joined the Church of Rome, 
was made a cardinal, and died in 1890. 

ISo. 290. The ' Alabama ' {q.v.). 

'No Popery' Riots. In Edin- 
burgh and Glasgow, January 1779. 

In London, June 1780, called the 
' Gordon Riots ' [q.v.). 

K"oach.'id.ae. Those proselytes who 
refused to be circumcised. They bound 
themselves to observe the precepts of 
Noah, but not the law of Moses. 

]Sroble Lesson [The), 1100. A 
metrical production consisting of 479 lines 
in the Romance or Vaudois language. It 
is chiefly an abstract of the Old and New 
Testament history. It refers to the 
corruptions introduced into the church 
since the days of the Apostles. It begins 
thus : — 

O brethren, give ear to a noble lesson : (nohla 

leyczun) 
We ought often to watch and pray, 
For we see this world is near its end ; . . . 
Eleven hundred yo.^rs are fully accomplished, 
Hence it was written ' We are in the last times.* 

]^oble Proclamation [The), 980. 
The proclamation of Malachy monarch 
of Ireland after his conquest of the Danes. 
It was ill substance as follows : ' Let all 
the Irish who arts now in servitude 
return to their respective homes, and 
enjoy themselves in peace and gladness.' 
The number released by the Northmen 
was upwards of 2,000. 

]^obles of the Genoese War 

(T/z.e),1381. Wlien Venice was threatened 
with utter destruction by the Genoese, 
the Venetian Grand Council announced 
that, at the termination of the war, The 
Forty [q.v.) would elect thirty of the 
citizens by ballot into their own council. 
These new nobles were to enjoy all the 



rights, privileges, and immunities of 
the original nobles. At the close of the 
war the promise was fulfilled, and among 
those aggrandised was 1 banker, 5 trades- 
men, 6 simple citizens, 1 merchant, 5 of 
the lower order, and 8 operatives. Four 
centuries later only eight of ' I Nobili 
della Guerra di Genoa ' had representa- 
tive survivors. 

K"obody's Club, 1800. A club con- 
sisting of the friends of William Stevens 
(1732-1807), who assumed the pseudonym 
of ' Oudeis ' (nobody). They met at the 
Freemasons' Tavern, London, once a 
year. The original number was fifteen. 

Nobs \In the Glasgow Trades 
Union], 1837, were employers who had 
made themselves obnoxious to the work- 
men, and were appointed to be dealt 
with by the 'Secret Select' [q.v.). Tlie 
names of these ' Nobs ' were enrolled in 
a book, and every sort of annoyance was 
offered to them. 

Noeturns. Same as Matins. One 
of the eight daily services of the Catholic 
Church, and the first of the four great 
ones at break of day. See ' Canonical 
Hours.' 

Noel's Catechism, or 'Nowel's,' 
&c. 1563. Mexander Nowel or Noel, 
dean of St. Paul's, at the recommenda- 
tion of Cecil revised the ' Larger 
Catechism,' but his book was not pub- 
lished till 1570. 

Noetians. Heretics of the 2nd cent., 
also called Patripassians, whose doctrines 
resembled those of the Sabellians. 
Founded by Praxeas, who was succeeded 
by Noetus. If Jesus was verily the 
' Everlasting Father,' then when Jesus 
suffered on the cross God the Father 
was crucified. (Pa ^er-j?assMS, the Father 
suffered.) 

I consider that he had Noetian tendencies.— FFc 
Two, xxiv. 

No-flint General [The). Major- 
General Grey, afterwards Lord Grey of 
Howick, and finally Earl Grey, who in 
the American war, 1778, ordered his men 
to take the flints out of their guns and 
trust wholly to their bayonets; also called 
' No-flint Grey.' 

Nolan [The). Giordano Bruno 
(1550-1600), born at Nola in Naples. Ke 
was burnt to death as a heretic. 



C22 



NOLUMUS 



NON-INTRUSION 



!N"oruinus leges Anglise mut'- 

ari. This celebrated answer was made 
by the Uiy lords in the famous parlia- 
ment held at Merton the day after the 
coronation of Henry III., and was given 
in answer to a motion of the bishops for 
legitimatising natural children provided, 
after the child was born, the father and 
mother married (1216). 

Nominalism and Realism.. 

Terms used in scholastic divinity during 
the Middle Ages to express the nature of 
abstract ideas, such as circle, beauti/, 
god, &c. The question was this : is 
there such a thing as abstract beauty, or 
must not our idea of beauty be allied to 
some object ? Nominalism is the system 
adopted by nominalists, and realism is 
the system adopted by realists. Ari- 
stotle was a nominalist, and Plato a 
realist. See next article. 

Nominalists. Those who believed 
in nominalism. They were the disciples 
of Eoscelin (1040-1120), canon of Com- 
piegne, and denied the existence of 
universals. Take a tree in the abstract ; 
this is a universal, and a nominalist 
would say such has no existence. Take 
an oak tree, an elm tree, a fir tree, &c. ; 
these are particular objects which stimu- 
late in us certain ideas. Well, say the 
nominalists, our idea of a tree must be 
limited to particular trees, and our con- 
cept of tree in the abstract must be 
derived from such particuhu* objects. It 
is unlversalia post rem, tree in the 
abstract formed p^^^i rent, after the 
concrete has been formed. It is al- 
together a posteriori, an inference of a 
universal or abstract idea from particular 
objects cognised beforehand. Of course, 
according to nominalism, the abstract 
idea of God is impossible; all we can 
know of God is from his works, &c. 

In theology there is another sort of 
nominalism. We are taught that Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost are one God. Well, 
as three persons cannot really be one, 
the nominalist contends that these 
' three persons ' are only different names 
{nomina) of the same being, just as 
father, son, and husband may be three 
distinct names of the same individual. 

Abelard, William Occam, Buridan, Hobbes, 
Locke, Bishop Berkeley, Condillac, and Dugald 
Btewart were nominalists. 

St. Anselm of Canterbury, Albertus Magnus, 
Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus were realists 



Eoscelin seems to have raised the question 
whether the personal distinctions of the Deity are 
real or nominal only. 

Nominees {The King's), 1GC2. 
Thirty-six of the Irish nobility and 
gentry specially nominated by Charles 
II., after his restoration, to be restored 
to their Irish estates, from which they 
had been banished by Cromwell. / 

About n.OOO of the rostorablo Irish were never 
restored to their estates. There were four classes, 
viz. Innocents, .Vrlicloinon. Ensignmon (ly.r.), and 
tlie King's Noniinoes. Of the 7,77K,0OO acres for- 
feited in the Comuiou%vo;illh, ds.iJGO statute acres 
were awarded to tlae Noiuiuoes. 

Non-Catholics, i.e. Protestants. 
Sec ' Edict of Toleration.' 

Nonconformists, 15G5. Those 
who refused to conform to the 'Book of 
Advertisements ' drawn up by order of 
Queen Elizabeth by the Court of Eccle- 
siastical Commission for the sake of 
securing uniformity of doctrine and disci- 
pline in the kingdom. 

Now nonconformist is a synonvm of dimtenter, 
one who does not conform to the State Church. 

Non-importation Act {The), 
2(5 March, liSO(i. Passed by Congi-ess to 
prohibit the importation of British 
manufactures into the United States. 
The immediate cause of this prohibition 
was the annoyance caused by the British 
ship ' Leander ' cruising' off New York 
and insisting on searching American 
vessels under pretence of looking for 
deserters. In one of these searches an 
American sailor, named Pearce, was 
killed, and the hostility of the States, 
which had long been smouldering, burst 
into a blaze. 

Non-intercourse Act [The), U.S. 
Passed Congress 27 Feb., 1809, suspend- 
ing all trade between the U.S. and 
either France or England. The offence 
of England was its claim of the right of 
search, which compelled American vessels 
to surrender any British subjects who 
formed part of their crew. The offence of 
France was the Continental system {q.v.). 
Napoleon, having removed all obstruc- 
tions to American trade. Congress re- 
newed intercourse with France 2 Nov., 
1810 ; but the breaking out of the second 
American war with Great Britain in 
May 1812 continued the non-intercourse 
till after the battle of Waterloo, when 
friendly relations were restored. 

Non-intrusion Controver'^y 
{The), 1838-18^3. A controversy in tha 



NON-INTRUSIONISTS 



NON-RESISTANCE 



G23 



Presbyterian Church of Scotlanrl re- 
specting the right of the State to inter- 
fere in ecclesiastical matters. It began 
with the question, Have patrons the right 
of presenting to livings or does the choice 
rest witVi the congregation ? In 1833 Dr. 
Thomas Chalmers suggested that a patron 
should nominate, but the people should 
have the right of veto. This was ar-cepted 
by the Assembly in 1834. In 1838 the 
Veto Act was ruled to be illegal, and tlie 
Assembly declared that the Church is 
wholly free and independent. Several 
appointments by patrons were made and 
disputed, and the result was a split in 
1843, which gave birth to the ' Free 
Church.' 

N'on-Intrusionists(r/ie). Those 
who separated from the Presbyterian 
Church of Scotland at the Non-Intrusion 
controversy. The split consisted of 470 
ministers, with their office-bearers, elders, 
and communicants, and in 1843 the se- 
paratists formed the ' Free Church of 
Scotland.' They did not consider the 
veto proposed by Dr. Chalmers any in- 
trusion or illegal interference with the 
right of a patron. 

The chief leaders were Drs. Chalmers, Chand- 
ler, Candlish, and Gordon, with Messrs. Guthrie, 
Cunninf;hani, and Dunlop. Dr. Thomas Chil mors 
was elected president of the new ' Free Church.' 

*.* The law was that a congregation ha*-; the 
power of rejecting a presentee for ' adequate 
reasons.' 

Non-juring Clergy of France, 
28 Jan., 1791. Those clergymen who re- 
fused to take the ' civil oath ' to accept 
the new constitution concocted by the 
Assemblee Constituante. See ' Pretre 
Insermente.' 

The constitutional members of the late assembly 
. . . . drew up an address to the king [Louis XVI. J, 
urging him to refuse his sanction to the decree 
against the non-juring priests. — HowiTT, HM.of 
Emjlaiid (Geo. III. p. i^>). 

Won-jurors {The), 5 March, 1689. 
Those episcopal clergymen who refused 
to take the oath of allegiance to William 
and Mary, according to a clause in 
the Convention parliament that ' after 
1 March no person shall sit or vote in 
either house till he has taken the new 
oath of allegiance to their majesties 
"William and Mary.' The non-jurors 
comprised the Archbishop Sancroft, seven 
bishops, and about 400 of the inferior 
clergy. As they believed in ' the right 
divine,' and that the king was ' the Lord's 
anointed,' they could not possibly believe 



that James was justly and lawfully set 
aside. 

The six bishops were Ken bishop of Bath ai)ci 
Wells ; Turner bishop of Ely; Framnton bishop of 
Gloucester ; Lloyd bishop of -Nor A-ich : White 
bishop of Peterborough. The IJishop of Worcester 
.and Bishop of Chichester died before the Act took 
effect. 

Dr. Tillotson was made primate of All England 
in place of Dr. Sancroft. 

Won Obstante {The Bull), l^^, 
Innocent IV. sent to Robert Grosted or 
Grosteste commanding him to bestow a 
valuable benefice on an infant and that 
infant an Italian. The honest bishop 
tore up the bull, and wrote back to the 
pope that such practices were ' shaking 
the very foundations of the church.' 

At this time the money paid to Itali^m priests in 
England was m,m) marks per annum, a greater 
revenue than that of the crown. The barons re- 
monstrated, and to that the words of the bull 
refer. Non obstante, i.i>.. notwithstanding [this 
remonstrance I require you to do what is set forth 
in the bull]. 

Won Possumus {A). Something 
not possible to be done, either because 
the person is unwilling to do it or thinks 
it inexpedient. Your prayer or petition 
cannot possibly l>e granted. The words 
used by the pope when he negatives a 
suit or request. 

Thpy opposed a non pogxumus to the Irish d&- 

Tn-dund.— Newspaper paragraph, Jan. 18«J. 

K"on-Regents. Masters of arts and 
doctors in a university no longer bound to 
give lectures. Regents were at one time 
tlie lecturers or professors. The terms 
regent and non-regent were retained in 
the University of Cambridge till 1858, 
though tlie duty of lecturing had long 
before passed to professors. 

Non-Regent's House {The). The 
Lower or Blackhood House of the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, consisting of mas- 
ters of arts of more than five years' 
standing and doctors of more than two. 
Abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' 

Non-resistanee {The Doctrine of ). 
That is, passive obedience to every ordin- 
ance of man and to the king— for those 
' wlio resist the j)Ower shall bring to them- 
selves damnation.' When the divine 
right of kings was maintained in the 
Stuart dynasty, those who took this view, 
of course, insisted on the doctrine of 
non-resistance. It was most clearly set 
forth in 1(583 by Oxford, in what is called 
a ' Judgment and Declaration ' {q-v.). 

Enforced by the Homilies loi/J ; by the Canons 
of Convocation In IGOD : the Oath of Mon-rcBist 



624 



NON-EESISTINa 



NOETH 



ance was imposed in 16G1 (13 Car. II. s. 2, c. 1). The 
act was repealed 1718 (5 Geo. I. c. 6). 

Non-resisting Test (The), 1675. 
To be taken by all members of parlia- 
ment, privy councillors, magistrates, and 
persons holding office under the crown > 
' I [A. B.J do declare that it is not lawful 
on any pretence whatever to take up 
arms against the king ; and I do abhor 
the traitorous position of taking arms 
against his person, or against those that 
are commissioned by him according to 
law, in time of rebellion or war, and 
acting in pursuance of such commission. 
I [A. B.] do swear that I will not en- 
deavour any alteration of the Protes- 
tant religion now established by law 
in the Church of England ; nor will I 
endeavour any alteration in the govern- 
ment in church and state as it is by law 
established.' 

ITones (1 syl.). One of the eight 
daily services of the Catholic Church, 
and one of the four lesser ones. At 3 
o'clock in the afternoon, the ninth hour 
of the day. See ' Canonical Hours.' 

liTorbertines (3 syl.), 1119. An 
order of Canons Regular founded by St. 
Norbert. See ' Premonstratensians.' 

Wore {The Mutiny of the), 22 May, 
1797. A mutiny of the fleet ; suppressed 
in June ; Parker, the ringleader, was exe- 
cuted at Sheerness 30 June, 1797. 

K'orfolk Commotion {The), 1549. 
So Ket's or Kett's Rebellion {q_.v.) is 
called by the old chroniclers. 

ISTormal or Training Schools. 

To train teachers in the principles and 
art of teaching. First organised in 
Prussia. The following dates give the 
order in which they have been esta- 
bhshed : at Stettin, in Prussia, 1735 ; at 
Berlin by Frederick the Great 1748 ; at 
Hanover 1757 ; the Borough Road school 
for teachers founded by Josei^h Lancaster 
1805 ; French training schools for teachers 
1810 ; in Holland 1816 ; Normal Schools 
for England and Wales 1838 ; at Framing- 
ham and Westfield, in Massachusetts, 
North America, 1839 ; Battersea training 
school for teachers, 1840. See ' Ecoles.' 

Norris'ian Prize {The). For an 
essay on some sacred subject. Prize 
given once in five years to any graduate 
of the University of Cambridge of not 



more than thirteen years' standing. 
Value 60Z., a part of which is to be ex- 
pended on a gold medal worth seven 
guineas. Founded, in 1777, by John 
Norris, who also founded the Divinity 
professorship, when 12Z. was given an- 
nually, altered in 1858. See ' Regius 
Professorship of Divinity.' 

Worris'ian Professorship of 

Divinity. Founded 1777 in the University 
of Cambridge, by John Norris, of Witton, 
Norfolk. Original stipend 150Z. a year, 
but now considerably augmented. See 
* Regius Professorship of Divinity.' 

IQ'orroy King-of-arms. English 
herald of the northern provinces, first 
appointed by Edward IV. The herald 
of the southern provinces is called Cla- 
renceux (formerly Surroij) King-of-arms 
{q.v.). 

Norroy, of course, is Norrth]roy. We still speak 
of a Nor' West wind or Nor' AVester. Surroy is 
South roy. 

iN'orth Briton {The), a newspaper 
edited by John Wilkes ; was started in 
1762. The printers and publishers were 
l^rosecuted for No. 45 in 1763 ; Wilkes was 
sent to the Tower in April, but discharged 
in May. The paper (15 Nov., 1763) was 
ordered by the House of Commons to be 
burnt by the hangman. 

19 January, 1764, Wilkes was expelled from the 
House of Commons ; but in March 1768 was elected 
M.P. for Middlesex. He was again arrested in the 
spring of 17(J8, and his imprisonment occasioned a 
riot in St. George s Fields. He was again expelled 
the House in 1769, but was again re-elected for 
Middlesex. He was made Lord Mayor of London 
in 1774, and Chamberlain of the City of London in 
1779. 

]^orth German Confederation 

{The), 1866. After the famous ' Seven 
Weeks' War ' and the ' Peace of Prague,' 
when Austria was entirely excluded from 
Germany. The confederation included 
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and 
Frankfort (all incorporated with Prussia), 
and the states north of the Main united 
to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, 
therefore, the confederation was Prussia 
and the states north of the Main. In 
1870, during the Franco-German war, 
the ' North German Confederation,' being 
joined by Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, 
and Hesse-Darmstadt, became the ' Ger- 
man Confederation,' and two months 
afterwards (18 Jan., 1871) the King of 
Prussia had the title of ' German Em- 
peror ' given him. 

Austria with Bohemia and Hungary form no 
part of the modern German empire. 



NOKTH-WEST 



NOTTINGHAM 



625 



N"orth-"West Company [The), 
1783. The North-West Company of 
Montreal was formed in opposition to a 
French company confirmed in 1697 by 
the treaty of Eyswick, abandoned in 171B 
by the treaty of Utrecht, but still con- 
tinued by adventurers, till the formation 
of the North-West Company. This com- 
pany in 1821 coalesced with the Hudson's 
Bay Company. Its great traffic was furs 
or peltry. 

Worth-West Passage [The). 
That is, a passage from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific by way of the Polar Sea, to the 
north of America. Above 200 voyages 
have been made in search of such a pas- 
sage. Sir John Franklin reached N. Lat. 
77° in 1847. Although much has been 
added to our geographical knowledge 
by these expeditions, tliey have clearly 
proved that such a passage is useless for 
mercantile purposes. 

IsTorthampton {The Treaty of), 
4 May, 1328, between Edward III. and 
Hobert Bruce, whereby the independ- 
ence of Scotland was formally recognised, 
and Bruce was acknowledged to be its 
king. 

A marriage was agreed upon between the 
Princess Joanna (sister of Edward III.) and David 
Bon of Robert Bruce (both infants). Bruce re- 
nounced all intentions of aiding the rebels of 
England, and Edward of abetting the rebels of the 
isles of Scotland. All charters and documents 
carried from Scotlandby Edwardl. tobe restored. 
Scotland to pay 20,000i. to the King of England. 

Northern Tdldmaque {The). 
Alexander I. of Russia, 1777 (1801-1825). 

Northmen (T^e). Came from Scan- 
dinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Denmark). 
Karl III. the Fat bribed them to peace ; 
but his nephew Arnulf attacked them 
boldly and drove them back. 

Norwich Rentys. The London 
house or place of the bishop of Norwich, 
known subsequently as York House. In 
1535 Norwich House Y)assed by a special 
act of parliament into the hands of 
Charles Brandon earl of Suffolk. The 
lands ran westward as far as Hungerford 
Market. 

No'sarites (3 syl.). A people of 
Syria so called from the town of Nosar. 
Their religious creed, like that of the 
Druses, is a mixture of Paganism, 
Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Chris- 
tianity. Their chiefs are entitled ' Me- 
kwddem.' 
27 



Nose-tax {The). A tax of one ounce 
of gold from every householder of Ire- 
land, exacted by the Danes in the 9t]i 
cent., the non-payment of which was 
punished by slitting up the nose. This 
continued for thirteen years, when a 
general massacre of the Danes in Ire- 
land put an end to the tax. 

Probably the nose-tax was merely a poll-tav. 
We still retain the phrase to ' count noses,' and i:i 
Sweden the people paid Odin a 'scot-penny for 
each nose.' 

Nosey. Wellington was so called 
lovingly by his soldiers. 

* Notes and Queries.' A London 
weekly journal chiefly to furnish en- 
quirers with information by corre- 
spondents on literary, biographical, and 
heraldic difficulties. Commenced 8 Nov., 
1849. 

Nothing from Nothing. 'Ex 

nihilo nihil fit.' The axiom of Xeno- 
phanes, founder of the Eleatic school 
(B.C. 619, died after 476). 

Notre Dame. In the * Petits Bol- 
landistes,' by Mgr. Paul Guerin, chamber- 
lain of Leo XIII., there are 2,011 arti- 
cles headed ' Notre Dame,' one headed 
' Jesus,' and one headed ' Christ,' and not 
a single one ' Notre Seigneur.' Notre 
Dame is called the ' Mother of Grod,' and 
Joseph the carpenter is called the ' Hus- 
band of God's Mother ' {epoux de la 
Mere de Dieu). This may be logical, 
but it looks more like Mariolatry than 
Christianity. 

Under the words ' Passion de Notre Seigneur 
Jesus Christ ' will be found the whole of ' Passion 
Week.' 

Nottingham {Peace of), 868. Be- 
tween Alfred and his brother Ethelred 
on one side, and the Danes on the 
other. By this treaty England was 
divided into two parts, one of which re- 
mained to Alfred and the other was 
assigned to the Danes. The Danish 
portion was Northumbria, East Anglia, 
and the bulk of Mercia, called ' Dane- 
lagh,' because this part was subject to 
Danish law. The Danish portion was 
the larger of the two, but Alfred kept 
London. 

Nottingham Captain {The), 

1817. Jeremiah Brandreth, a frame- 
work knitter of Nottingham and fiery 
agitator, who collected some three hun- 
dred people, whom he persuaded to 
S S 



626 



NOUMENON 



NUMBER 



* march from Derby to London and over- 
turn the government.' At Eastwood, 
about three miles from Nottingham, they 
were stopped by a troop of horse from 
Nottingham, and fled in all directions, 
but many were made prisoners, and 
three executed, viz. Brandreth, Ludlam, 
and Turner, 7 Nov., 1817. 

Wou'menon. What Aristotle called 
the hypoklmenon {vwoKeCfievov), an ima- 
ginary something which underlies all 
visible phenomena — the ghost of a thing, 
immutable and unaffected by those 
logical accidents, colour, odour, growth 
and decay, shape, size, &c. We can 
gain some idea of this hypostasis if we 
fix our thought on ' identity.' The 
infant man and decrepit eld have an 
identity, though no part of the man is 
common with that of the child or eld. 
That identity is the noumcnon or hrjpo- 
Tiimenon. Again, no two persons see 
the same tree ; no individual sees the 
same tree twice. It grows and decays, 
shoots out leaves and sheds them — 
is for ever changing, but remains the 
same. It is the phenomenon which 
changes; the noumenon is changeless. 
Kant introduced the word to express the 
real object, or the essence of an object, 
divested of its substance or phenomenon. 

]SroUBhir'"wan[T/ie Magnanimous]. 
So Chosroes the Great was called (a.d. 
531-579). The Arabs called him Al 
Malek. 

NOV9B Tab'ulee (New Tables). 
' Turning over a new leaf ' — that is, 
abolishing old debts and beginning 
afresh. 

Wova'lis. The pseudonym of Fried- 
rich von Hardenberg (1772-1801). 

Wovatians [The), 3rd cent. Fol- 
lowers of Novatus, who insisted that no 
lapsed Christian should be received 
again into communion with the church. 
He denied the power of the church of 
absolving ' mortal sin,' and his followers 
opposed the lawfulness of second mar- 
riages. They called themselves Cathdri, 
or Puritans. 

Novels {The), or 'Novelise.'^ The 
fourth part of the ' Corpus Juris Civllis,' 
compiled a.d. 534, and containing the 
new constitutions made by Justinian 
himself, with the emendations of the 



errors detected in the other three parts. 
Extracts made from these novels were 
called ' Authentics.' See * Corpus Juris 
Civilis.' 

The novels are cited by number and chapter, 
thus: Nov. as, 3, or Nov. //t, c. ■?. If the chapter 
referred to is subdivided into paragraphs, then a 
third figure is added. 

!N"oyades, 1793. A method of whole- 
sale drowning adopted by Carrier to 
purge Nantes of anti-revolutionists. He 
murdered about 30,000 men, women, and 
children in a few months in Nantes 
alone. The boats employed had movable 
bottoms, so constructed as to let the 
victims through without admitting suffi- 
cient water to sink the boats. This 
method of wholesale murder was a 14th 
cent, invention. See ' Purgers.' 

Also called 'Carrier's Vertical Deportation.' 
Noyades, pronounce Nwoi-yahd. 

Woyon {Treaty of), 13 Aug., 1516. 
A treaty of peace between Charles V., 
Pope Leo X., and Francois I., after the 
brilliant victory at Marignano, the 
'combat of the giants.' Charles V. en- 
gaged to marry the daughter of the king, 
whose dowry was to be Naples ; and he 
engaged to restore Navarre to the house 
of Albret. Neither of these stipulations 
was carried out. 

Nullity Bilson (-S»r). A nickname 
given to the son of Thomas Bilson bishop 
of Winchester, knighted by James I. for 
his scandalous sycophancy in the matter 
of Sir Thomas Overbury, or (more strictly 
speaking) the divorce of the Earl and 
Countess of Essex in consequence of a 
liaison with Eobert Carr, the king's 
favourite. 

Kobert Carr was at that time Viscount Boches- 
ter, and subsequently Earl of Essex. The famous 
Rochester was John Wihnot, quite another person. 

Nullum Tempus Act {The) 
1769. An act to abolish the custom of 
Nullum tempus occurrit regi — that is, 
no length of tenancy can bar lands which 
once belonged to the crown. The 
' Nullum Tempus ' Act limited the time 
to sixty years of adverse possession, i.e. 
if a person has been in possession of 
crown land for sixty years, the crown 
cannot reclaim it. 

In 1772 Mr. Henry Seymour introduced a ' Nul- 
lum Tempus ' Bill to apply to church property, 
but it was thrown out. 

Number of Members in the 
House of Commons. The present num- 
ber (1890) is 670 members. Of these 485 



NUMBERS 



OAK 



627 



are for England, 30 for Wales, 72 for 
Scotland, and 103 for Ireland. 

Of the 670 members 86 are ' Nationalists," and 
about 74 or 75 are ' Liberal Unionists.' 

Wumbers. Symbolism of the 
first 13. 

1 the unity of deity ; 2 the hypostatic 
union of Christ ; 3 the Trinity ; 4 the 
Evangelists and great Prophets; 5 books 
of Moses and wounds of Christ ; 6 the 
creative week; 7 times Christ spoke 
on the cross; 8 beatitudes; 9 orders of 
angels; 10 commandments; 11 apostles 
after the apostasy of Judas ; 12 minor 
prophets and the original apostolic col- 
lege ; 13 the complete college including 
Matthias and Paul. 

Numerical Coincidence. I. 

1794 Climax of the French Ke volution. 
1 
7 
9 



1815 Battle of Waterloo. 
1 



1830 Revolution of July. 



1842 Death of the Due dOrleans. 
II. A still more remarkable coinci- 
dence is 1869, the last year of the third 
Napoleon's glory. This is obtained by 
adding either his birth or his marriage 
to the year of his coronation, or the birth 
of Eugenie, or the capitulation of Paris. 
Thus 1852 he was crowned ; he was born 
1808; he was married 1853; Eugenie 
was born 1826; Paris capitulated 1871. 

Then 1852 1852 1852 1852 

1111 



Nuptial Mass. * Missa Nuptialis.' 
The mass celebrated in the marriage 
service. See ' Mass.' 

Wuremberg Nimbus {The). A 
cruciform nimbus with finials resembling 
the fleur-de-lis. See 'Numberg.' 

Numbers {Peace of). See under 
'Peace.' 

Ntirnberg Eggs, i.e. watches. 
* Dans cette ville les montres furent in- 
rente'es vers 1500, ce qui les fit d'abord 



nommer ceufs de Nuremberg ' (Bouillet, 
* Diet. Hist.' &c. p. 1365). They were like 
eggs in shape. 

Nystadt, in Finland {Treaty of), 
13 Sept., 1721. A treaty of peace between 
Russia and Sweden, after the death of 
Charles XII. ' the Brilliant Madman.' 
By this treaty Sweden lost Livonia, 
Esthonia, Ingermania, and Carelia. 

O. Before the time of Brian king of 
Munster (978-1014), every Irishman took 
the name of his father or grandfather as 
a surname. The prefix Mac stood for 
' son of ' and the prefix for ' grandson 
of.' Brian established the arrangement 
that the patronymics thus formed should 
be permanent in families. 

Of course nowadays O means a descendant of 
some chief whose name is appended to the patro- 
nymic, as O'Brien or O Brian, a descendant of 
Brien king of Munster ; O Neills, descendants of 
the king of Ulster ; O'Connors, descendants of the 
kings of Connaught. 

O's {The Great). Thirty-one anti- 
phons for the ' Magnificat ' and ' Bene- 
dictus ' from the ' Proper ' of Advent and 
of St. Thomas, all beginning with ' O,' as 
' O admirabile connnercium ' ; ' O Adonai ' ; 
' O beata Infantia,' &c. See ' Notes and 
Queries,' 31 Dec, 1887, p. 527. 

Oak {The Parliainent). An oak still 
standing in ' Clypston ' (Clipstone) in 
Sherwood Forest, Notts, under which 
Edward I. in 1282 held a parliament. 
He was hunting in the forest, and, being 
told of the revolt of the Welsh, hastily 
convened his nobles under the tree, 
and resolved to march at once against 
Llewellyn, who was defeated and slain 
the same year. 

Oak Boys {The). 1. 1549, the insur- 
gents in Ket's rebellion. See ' Oak of 
the Reformation.' 

n. 1757. Protestants in the North of 
Ireland who rose in insurrection against 
the Road Act, which threw the burden of 
making roads and keeping them in repair 
on the payers of poor-rates, instead of 
on the landed proprietors. Called ' Oak 
Boys ' from a sprig of oak stuck in their 
hats. 

III. In 1760. This association was a 
revival of the preceding, with a small 
difference. In 1757 the grievance was 
that the burden of keeping the roads in 
repair was thrown on the ratepayers ; the 
new grievance was that those who com- 
plained of want of work were set to make 
S s2 



628 



OAK 



OBEDIENCE 



a road through a part of Armagh. It did 
not please them to be miade to work, and 
they vowed that they would not work like 
slaves to please anyone. See ' Irish Asso- 
ciations.' 
Oak of Reformation {The). The 

oak on Household Heath, near Norwich, 
under which Ket, the Norfolk farmer, held 
his court, and administered justice, 1549. 
When the rebellion was crushed out by 
the Earl of Warwick nine of the ring- 
leaders were hanged on this tree. 

One of the Kets was hanged on the top of Warwick 
Castle, and the other on the top of Wymondham 
church, near Norwich. (Wyinondha.m= Wi»'-du7n..) 

Oath of Abjuration (The), 1701 
(13 Will. III. c. 6). Aimed against Papal 
aggression. Abolished 1858 (21, 22 Vict. 
c. 48). 

This oath abjured the pope and the pretender, 
denying the autliority of the former a,nd the claims 
of the latter to the British throne. On the death 
of Cardinal York there remained no descendant of 
James II., and the oath so far as the pretender was 
concerned was a dead letter. 

Oath of Allegiance {The). From 
feudal times. Like the oath of a vassal 
to his lord : ' I (A. B.) do promise to be 
true and faithful to the king and his heirs, 
and truth and faith to bear of life and 
limb and terrene honour, and not to know 
or hear of any ill or damage intended him 
without defending him therefrom.' 

The oath remained in force above 600 
years. The Convention Parliament {q.v.) 
changed the oath to the following 
words : ' I (A. B.) do sincerely promise and 
swear that I will be faithful, and bear 
true allegiance to H. M. * *.' 1 Will. & 
Mary, c. 1 & 8, A.D. 1689. It was again 
altered by 1 Geo. I., stat. 2, c. 13, a.d. 
1714-15, and modified by 1 Vict. c. 24, 
A.D. 1838. 

Oath of Supremacy {The), 1 Eliz. 
c. 1, A.D. 1559 ; abolished in 1858. This 
was not an oath acknowledging the king's 
supremacy, as it was wholly silent on that 
point, but an oath against the non-supre- 
macy of the pope in England. The form 
established by William and Mary 1694 is 
as follows: 'I, * *, do swear that I do 
from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure 
.... that damnable doctrine .... that 
princes excommunicated by the pope may 
be deposed or murdered by their subjects. 
. . . And I declared that no foreign. . . 
potentate hath or ought to have any juris- 
diction .... ecclesiastical or spiritual 
within this reahn.' 



Oath of the Jeu de Paume 

{The), 20 June, 1789. Three days after 
the Tiers Etat formed themselves into the 
National Assembly {q.v.), several mem- 
bers of the two other estates joined them, 
and they all met in the tennis court, at 
Versailles. Having sent an invitation 
to the nobles and clergy to join them 
there, Bailly rose, bade the whole assem- 
bly follow his example, and then, raising 
their right hands, the entire assembly 
joined in the oath never to part till they 
had given France a constitution. 

Jeu de pavime (the hand game) means tennis, and 
the oath of the Jeu de paume [ pome] means ' the 
oath taken in the tennis court.' 

Oath of the Vehmgerichte 

(4 syl.). Every person brought before the 
secret tribunal was sworn to profound 
secresy .... * Not to divulge to wife or 
child, father or mother, friend or con- 
fessor, not to tell in words, or express in 
writing, or signify by symbols, or dress 
in i)arable, or hint at by sign, or commu- 
nicate by look, anything done or heard or 
seen in the tribunal, if he would sleep in 
an unbloody grave.' 

Obedience {An). The instrument 
containing the written precept of the 
superior in any religious order to the 
persons in subjection, to undertake a 
specific office, to proceed on a stated 
mission, to relinquish a certain appoint- 
ment, and so on. 

Obedience in canon law means the 
duty by which the various grades in 
the ecclesiastical system are held subject. 

Avignon Obedience during the great 
schism of the West meant the acknow- 
ledgment of the popes of Avignon. 

lioman Obedience, during the same 
period, meant allegiance to the Eoman 
pontiff. 

Obedience {Pays d'). The territory 
where the pope nominates to vacant bene- 
fices. During the great schism of the 
West, each contemporary pope had his 
own ' pays d'obedience.' Thus, in the 
14th cent, we had ' The Obedience of 
Urban VI. ' (comprehending North Italy, 
Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, 
Prussia., Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and 
England), and the ' Obedience of Cle- 
ment VII.,' comprehending all the rest of 
Europe. 

Obedience of Benedict XIII. 

{The). Means, in the great schism of the 



OBEDIENCE 



0BLATE3 



629 



West, obedience given to Benodict XIII. 
by the supporters of the French pope, in 
opposition to the contemporary Roman 
pope(fir8t Boniface IX. , then Gregory XII. , 
then the double popes Gregory XII. and 
Alexander V.). 

At the death of Gregory XI. the Italians insisted 
that an Italian only could be pope, but as most of 
the cardinals were Frenchmen, they stoutly re- 
sisted this dogma. Neither would give way, so the 
Italians elected Urban VI., who resided at Rome, 
and the French elected Clement VII., who resided 
at Avignon (1878). As death occurred in either 
chair, the respective partisans elected a succes- 
sor ; thus Urban was succeeded in Kome by Boni- 
face IX. and Gregory XII.; while Clement, the 
Avignon pope, was succeeded by Benedict XIII. 
See ' Great Schism of the West." 

Obedience of Gregory XII. 

{The). Means the acknowledgment of 
the authority of Gregory XII., the Roman 
pope, in opposition to Benedict XIII., the 
Avignon pope, in the great schism of the 
West (q.v.). 

Obelisk of Constantius (The), 
i.e. the Egyptian obelisk which Constan- 
tius II. presented to the city of Rome 
when he went to visit that ancient capital. 
It was 115 feet in length and had been 
transported from Heliopolis by Constan- 
tine the Great to adorn his new city of 
Constantinople, a.d. 354. 

Obelisk of Heliop'olis (The), or 
' Matarieh,' erected by Osortesen I. about 
B.C. 1900. The oldest of the large obe- 
lisks. 

An obelisk which Ramgses II. erected at Helio- 
polis was removed to Alexandria. The ' Flaminian 
Obelisk ' begun by Sethos I. and finished by 
Rameses II. was removed to Rome by Constantius. 
In the pontificate of Gregory XIII. this obelisk was 
found buried 16 feet under the surface, and was set 
up by Fontana, the architect. 

Obelisk of Karnac (The), or large 
obelisk erected by Thothmes I. before the 
granite sanctuary of Karnac. 

His daughter Hatasu erected two obelisks before 
the second propylseon of the same sanctuary. 

Obelisk of London {The), or Cleo- 
patra's Needle on the Thames Embank- 
ment. See ' Cleopatra's Needle.' 

The Arabs call obelisks ' Pharaoh's needles ' ; 
the Egyptian priests called them ' Sun fingers,' 
because they acted as gnomons to mark the hour 
on the ground. 

Obelisk of Paris {The). In the 
Place de la Concorde is one of the obe- 
lisks of Rameses II., originally erected at 
Luxor (Thebes). Removed to France in 
1833, and called I'Obelisque de Louqsor. 

Obelisk of St. John Lateran 

{The). The highest in the world. It 



was removed from Thebes, and was 
erected by Thothmes IV., some 35 years 
after the death of Thothmes III. 

Obelisk of the Atmeidan {The), 
or of the Hippodrome of Constanti- 
nople. The oldest of the obelisks of 
Thothmes III., erected to record his con- 
quest of Naharania or Mesopotamia. 

Obelisk of the Upper Alps 

{The). Felix Neff, also called 'The 
Apostle of the Upper Alps ' (1798-1829). 

Ober - Ammergau {Ammergow), 
in Upper Bavaria. Rendered specially 
famous of late for its Passion Play, repre- 
senting in 18 acts the last days of Jesus 
Christ. Act i. Entry of Christ into 
Jerusalem, and his purging of the Temple ; 
Act ii. The Sanhedrim ; Act iii. The Leave- 
taking at Bethany ; Act iv. The Last 
Journey to Jerusalem ; Act v. The Last 
Supper; Act vi. Judas receiving the 
Blood-money; Act vii. Jesus in the Gar- 
den of Gethsemane ; Act viii. Jesus be- 
fore Annas ; Act ix. Jesus before Caiaphas ; 
Act X. The Despair of Judas; Act xi. 
Jesus before Pilate ; Act xii. Jesus before 
Herod; Act xiii. Jesus scourged and 
mocked ; Act xiv. Jesus condemned to 
Death ; Act xv. The Via Dolorosa ; Act 
xvi. The Crucifixion ; Act xvii. The Re- 
surrection ; Act xviii. The Ascension. 

History of the Play. — As far back as 
the 12th cent, there had been a Passion 
Play performed in the little village, but 
in the 16th cent, a plague carried off 80 of 
the inhabitants, and the survivors made 
a vow, if the plague was stayed, to perform 
the Passion Play evei-y ten years. Daisen- 
berger, a priest, converted the 'miracle 
play,' which was a farce, into the present 
drama. In 1890 it attracted great at- 
tention, and throngs from America and 
Europe went to the Tyrolean Alps to 
witness the performance. 

Obi, or Obe (2 syl.). Witchcraft or 
sorcery. An O'beah man is a wizard, an 
O'beah woman a witch, among the negroes 
of the West Indies. 

O'bit. In the Latin church means 
the service for the dead. One de die 
obltus, one on the day of the funeral, and 
a third on the 30tli day. It consists of 
the matins and lauds of the OfficTum 
Defunctorum, and a mass for the dead. 

Oblates, ' Oblati.' I. Those who, on 
entering a monastic order, abandon their 



630 



OBLATE S 



OBSTRUCTIONISTS 



worldly goods for the benefit of the 
society, or who offer themselves for any 
work that may be put upon them. 

II. Those offered to God from birth, 
or consecrated from birth to a ' religious 
life.' 

III. Those laics who pay to live in an 
abbey. 

IV. Invalid soldiers who, before the 
foundation of the Hotel des Invalides, 
were quartered by the kings of France 
on religious houses. 

Oblates of Mary Immaculate 

(O. M. I,), 1815. A congregation of priests 
established by the Abbe Mazenod, whose 
special mission is the supervision of 
schools and prisons ; many are mission- 
ary priests. America, more especially 
Canada, is full of them. 

Oblates of St. Ambrose, 1578. 
A congregation of secular priests estab- 
lished at Milan by Charles Borromeo, 
their special mission being the super- 
vision of schools and coUeges. 

Oblivion {Bill or Act of), 12 Car. II. 
c. 11, 1660. An act of indemnity for 
treason and state offences committed 
between January 1, 1637 and June 24, 
1660. 

Oblivion {The Committee of). 
When the American trouble began, in 
1775, petitions from trading companies 
in the United Kingdoms poured into the 
House of Commons, urging the ministers 
to abstain from coercive measures against 
America. A committee was appointed 
to report on these petitions, but so long 
was the report delayed that the mer- 
chants thought their petitions were for- 
gotten, and the committee appointed to 
consider them was facetiously called 
' The Committee of Oblivion.' 

Obregons. Nurses of hospitals, &c., 
were so called in Spain from Bernardin 
Obregon (1540-1599). Called in France 
* L'ordre des Freres-infirmiers Minimes.' 
See ' Franciscans {Third Order of).' 

Obscurantism, Obscurants. 

The word obscurant was in Germany 
applied to those writers who endeavoured 
to stem the tide of the French Revolu- 
tion. Obscurantism means the doctrine, 
orpolicy, of non-progressive conservatives, 
fossil politicians. It also means opposition 
to popular enlightenment, or the progress 



of knowledge. Matthew Arnold expressed 
this idea by the words ' Philistines ' and 
' Philistinism.' 

Cimmerian obscurantism and this thrice- 
glorious revolution shall wrestle for it then.— 
Carlylk, French Revolution, vol. ii. bk. v. 9. 

Obscure Philosopher {The). 
Heraclltos the Ephesian, who died B.C. 
495, aged 60. Called ' obscure ' because 
he was vir obscurus, a very reserved 
man. Also called the 'weeping philo- 
scpher ' {q.v.). 

Observance {The Beligionists of 
the) . Persons who imposed on themselves 
the obligation to observe rigorously every 
item of the rule of the order to which 
they belonged. They are : 

1. ' Les Peres de I'Observance,' or the 
' Observantins ' {q.v.), Reformed Fran- 
ciscans. 

2. Those who followed the ' Strict 
Observance ' of the Cistercian Order. 

3. Those who foUov/ed the 'Great 
Observance ' of the Order of Mercy. 

4. Preaching Friars of the ' Primitive 
Observance.' They were Reformed Do- 
minicans. The other congregations of 
Observants are Franciscans, Cistercians, 
Carmelites, and Observants of the Order 
of Mercy. 

Observantins {Les), or 'Les Peres 
de I'Observance reguliere,' 1363. Re- 
formed Franciscans, of which St. Ber- 
nardin of Sienne was the author. In 
1517 they were called Reformed Fran- 
ciscans by order of Leo X. The Obser- 
vantins of France were called ' Cordeliers,' 
from the cord which they used for belt. 
The Strict Observantins were barefooted 
Franciscans. 

Observer {The). A London weekly 
journal, commenced 1792. 

Obstructionists, 1879. Obstruc- 
tion to the business of the House of 
Commons began with the Home Rule 
party soon after the death of Mr. Butt in 
May 1879. Their object was to prevent 
legislation by the dog-and-manger pro- 
cess. In October 1882 Mr. Parnell was 
elected president of the National League, 
which arose on the suppression of the 
Land League, and the obstructionists 
were also called ParneUites. A reign of 
terror was then established in Ireland. 

Obstructionists (ParZmwew^ar//), 
1889, 1890. A parliamentary junto, 



OCCAMISTS 



OCTAVIAN 



6S1 



chiefly of the Irish Home Rule party 
(q.v.), who set themselves to block or 
talk down every measure of importance 
introduced by the ministers of the day, 
regardless of the merit thereof. Night 
after night was wasted by the dreary 
drip of dilatory debate, which degene- 
rated into absolute rudeness and unman- 
nerly behaviour. See ' Kentish Petition.' 

In six months, 1890, twenty opponents of the 
Government asked 1,7(B questions, and made 1,326 
speeches. There were 669 members, and just 66t> 
hours available for public business. 

Oecamists. Followers of William 
Occam, who revived Nominalism, which 
was violently opjiosed by the Scotists. 
Roscelin (who died 1106) fofmded the 
sect of the Nominalists, who maintained 
that universals have no real existence 
except in the thought. There is no such 
thing as tree in the abstract, though 
there are such things as special trees, 
as oaks, firs, birches, and so on. The 
Realists denied this. The disciples of 
Duns Scotus were Realists, and Occam 
was a pupil of Scotus, but became a 
Nominalist, and the revived sect were 
called Oecamists. 

Occam was called the ' Invincible Doctor ' and 
the ' Prince of Nominalists.' 

Occasional Conformity Bill 

(The), 1711. A bill to evade or revoke 
the act of toleration granted by William 
III. Three times in Anne's reign was 
the Bill introduced, and though passed 
by the Commons was rejected by the 
Lords, Bishop Burnet resisted it. Dr. 
Sacheverel (1709) created riots in London 
against the Act of Toleration. When 
the Tories succeeded the Whigs, under 
the administration of Harley, they 
passed the Conformity BiU and the 
Schism Bill (q.v.), both of which were 
repealed in 1718 (5 Geo. I. c. 4). 

The Occasional Conformity Bill was an attempt 
to crush opinion instead of influencing under- 
standing ; to convict when they could not prose- 
lytise ; to swell the nominal numbers of church- 
men with slaves and hypocrites.— HOWITT, Hist. 
of Eny. vol. iv. p. SHU. 

Occasionalism, or 'The Doctrine 
of Occasional Causes.' A doctrine which 
sprang from a dogma of Descartes (2 syl.), 
that spirit cannot act on matter without 
the concursus of God. By this theory 
the action of the mind cannot be the 
cause of the action of the body, and 
therefore whenever the action of the 
body follows that of the mind, God must 
interfere to produce the effect. This is 



called the Cartesian system, from 
Descartes, the French philosopher. 

Occupation of Moscow {The), 
September 1812. The occupation by 
Naj)oleon and his army. Moscow was 
set on fire 15 Sept., and was burn- 
ing a whole week. When Napoleon 
quitted the citj% a month afterwards, 
19 Oct., he had the Kremlin under- 
mined and blown up with gunpowder, 
though hundreds of the French sick and 
wounded soldiers had been carried there 
as to an hospital. 

Ocean's Queen {The). England. 
So called for the daring and valour of her 
navy, more than for the number and 
tonnage of her ships. 

Oekhamists. The disciples of 
William of Ockham or Occam, who in 
the 14th cent, revived Nominalism {q.v.), 
i.e. that abstract ideas are obtained only 
by comparing a number of real pheno- 
mena or real facts. Thus the abstract 
idea of tree could not exist at all unless 
we knew real trees. 

O'Connell's Tail. His henchmen 
or parliamentary following. So called 
because they had no opinions of their 
own, but followed O'Connell's dicta as a 
tail follows its o\vner. 

O'Connor of the Bloody Hand. 

Cathal O'Connor was so called from the 
number of battles which he fought (12th 
and 13th cents.). 

Octaeteris. A space of eight years 
added to the cycle of Calippus, making 
that cycle to consist of 84 years, instead 
of 76. When Dionysius of Alexandria 
calculated his Easter he made use of the 
Octaeteris, or cycle of 84 years, which 
continued in use till Gregory XIII. 
reformed the calendar. 

Octavian War {The), or ' Bellum 

Octavianum,' B.C. 87. Part of the social 

war of Rome, so called from Cneius 

Octavius, the consul. It was caused by 

the opposition of Cornelius Cinna liis 

colleague. A battle ensued between the 

partisans of the two consuls, in which 

10,000 men were slain. Cinna was 

driven from the forum, deprived of his 

{ consular office, quitted Rome, put himself 

I at the head of an army of insurgents, and 

i was joined by Caius Marius. 



OCTAVIANS 



ODOUR 



Octavians [The), 12 Jan., 1595 to 
1596. The eight commissioners to whom 
James VI. of Scotland committed the 
care of his finances. They were all 
lawyers, and were responsible for the 
receipts and expenditure of the govern- 
ment. On them devolved the settling of 
accounts, making grants, and, in short, 
every national expense. Five made a 
quorum. 

The Octavians used the trust reposed in them 
with as much moderation, perhaps, as could pos- 
sibly have been expected ; and by their knowledge 
of business, and the exercise of a rigid economy, 
they brought the affairs into much better order 
than they had ever been during James's reign.— Sir 
W. Scott, History of Scotland, xxxviii. 

October 5, 6, 1789. Noted for the 
great insurrection of Paris, when a mob 
of men and women made their way to 
Versailles, massacred the guard, and 
compelled Louis XVI. with his wife and 
family to go to Paris. 

October Diploma (The), 1860. 
Introducing a constitutional form of 
government for Hungary, and vesting 
the power in the provincial Diets of 
Austria and the National Diet of Hun- 
gary. 

Octonary {The). A name given to 
the Calif Motassem. He was the 8th 
of the Abbasside califs; he reigned 8 
years, 8 montlis, and 8 days ; won 8 
battles; left 8 sons, 8 daughters, 8 
thousand slaves, and 8 millions of gold. 
(Gibbon, with notes, ch. 52.) 

Oculi. The third Sunday in Lent. 
So called from the introit which begins 
thus : ' Oculi mei semper.' See ' Sunday.' 

The ' Introit ' is the psalm or passage of Scrip- 
ture chanted in Catholic churches while the priest 
enters the chancel. 

Od Force. -An all-pervading force. 
A term introduced by Baron Reichenbach 
to express that luminosity which is said 
to be manifested at the poles of magnets, 
and wherever chemical action is going on. 
It has negative and positive poles. 

In animal magnetism it is said that od force is 
transmitted from the magnetiser to the mag- 
netised. 

Odal Tenure. In the Orkney and 
Shetland Islands. The right to land 
without any written deed, based solely 
on possession. Absolute possession 
before the introduction of feudalism. 

Odalisks. Female slaves of the 
Turkish harem attached to the service 



of the women. They are ordinarily either 
Circassians or Georgians, and are gene- 
rally selected for their beauty. 

Odcomb'ianL8gstretcher(rAe). 

Thomas Coryat of Odcombe, Somerset- 
shire, traveller, and author of ' Coryat's 
Crudities ' (1577-1617). 

O'Donnell Rebellion {The), in 
Spain, 1841. The object was to restore 
the queen-mother, Maria Louisa, who 
had been compelled by Espartero to 
abdicate, that he himself might be 
regent. The revolt failed in its object, 
and in 1854 Espartero joined O'Donnell, 
who was made minister of war. O'Don- 
nell now effected Espartero's dismissal 
and was named president of the council. 
He resigned in 1866, and died the follow- 
ing year (5 Nov., 1867). 

Odour of Sanctity {The). To 
die in the odour of sanctity. It was 
and perhaps still is a prevalent notion 
among Roman Catholics that when the 
body of a good man dies, God will not 
suffer his holy one to see corruption, 
and that it exhales a sweet odour; 
but that the body of the wicked gives 
forth at death a stench increasing in 
foulness in proportion to the scale of 
crime. Of course, there is a sort of 
truth in this notion, for the bodies of 
holy men were embalmed, and the swing- 
ing censers filled the room with sweet 
odour. Besides, monks and nuns lived 
so in the odour of the censers that their 
clothes and skin got impregnated with 
the perfume. Bad men, on the other 
hand, were neither embalmed nor in- 
censed. Shakespeare speaks of the 
stench exhaled by Antiochus and his 
daughter, who were killed for their wick- 
edness by lightning : 

A fire from heaven came, and shrivelled up 
Their bodies, e'en to loathing: for they so stunk 
That all those eyes adored them ere their fall 
Scorned now the hand which gave them burial. 
Pericles Prince of Tyre. 

Odour of Nations {The). Maxima 
du Camp says : — • 

Chaque pays a une odeur speciale qui le fait 
reconnaitre : I'Egypte sent la fleur des feves, 
I'ltalie sent la cire et I'encens, I'Angleterre sent 
la fumee de houille, la Grece sent I'araki, la 
France sent le pain de munition, la Hollande a 
aussi son parfum a elle et tout a fait distinct— elle 
Bent la tourbe humide. 

Certainly, a French crowd ' a une odeur 
speciale,' unlike any crowd that I ever 
mixed in. 



ODYSSEY 



OIL 



633 



Odyssey [The German). «The 
Kudrun,' in three parts : (1) ' The 
Hagen ' ; (2) * The Hilde ' ; and (3) * The 
HedeL' 

CEIcumenical Councils. Only 
seven are recognised by Russia. 

1. The Council of Nice, ajd. 325, in 
which the Arian heresy was condemned. 

2. The First Council of Constantinople 
in 381. 

3. The Council of Ephesus in 481. 

4. The Council of Chalcedon in 451. 

5. The Second Council of Constanti- 
nople in 553. 

6. The Third Council of Constanti- 
nople, in 680, against the Monoth'elites 
{q.v.), who recognize in Christ but one 
will in his two natures, the human will 
being merged in his divine nature. 

7. The Second Council of Nice in 787. 

An (Ecumenical Covincil should be called by 
the pope, presided over by the pope, and attended 
by bishops from all parts of Christendom. 

CBdipus. ^ Caracalla was so called 
because, like Oedipus, he married his 
own mother. The people of Alexandria 
gave him this sobriquet, and the emperor 
in revenge slaughtered many thousands 
of them. 

(Eil de Boeuf {L% 17th and 18th 
cents. A large reception room [salle] 
in the palace of Versailles, lighted by a 
round window [ceil de hoeuf] from the 
king's bedroom. The ceiling had been 
decorated by Van der Meulen, and on 
the walls were represented the children 
of Louis XIV. 

Three short years ago there was still Versailles 
and an (Eil-de-Boeuf.— CABLYLE,F(<;nc/iKe»oii(<ton, 
vol. iii. bk. i. 1. 

CEillet [Chevaliers de V), or ' Knights 
of the Pink,' 1793. A society organised 
to rescue the queen Marie Antoinette 
and her young son (Louis the Dauphin) 
from the hands of the revolutionists. It 
had its ramifications in Austria and 
Prussia, but its headquarters were in 
Paris. Their attempt to save the queen 
failed, and the failure was announced to 
the Parisian conspirators by one of the 
members pulling a pink to pieces and 
flinging the stalk on the ground. 

OfFa's Dyke. An immense trench 
and rampart extending from the estuary 
of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye. It 
was carried through marshes and over 
mountains and rivers for 100 miles. Its 



remains are still visible. It was used 
for the boundary which determined the 
confines of England and "Wales. Every 
Briton found with a weapon on this side 
of the dyke was to have his hand cut off 
(Sharon Turner, ' Hist, of the Anglo- 
Saxons,' p. 171). 

This dyke was made by Offa king of Mercia 
A.D. 777. 

Offaley, Ireland, was called ' King's 
County,' and its chief town ' Philipstown,' 
in honour of Philip of Spain, the husband 
of Queen Mary. At the same time Leix 
was called ' Queen's County,' and its 
chief town ' Maryborough,' in honour of 
Queen Mary. 

Ogdoad, or Combination of Eight. 
Meaning the Good Principle and his 7 
seons (Mind, the Word, the Understand- 
ing, Power, Excellencies, Princes, and 
Angels), from each of which sprang 
other aeons amounting to 365, the mystic 
number of the Gnostics. The Greek 
expression for the 7 ceons is Abraxas (7 
letters), each aeon being supposed to 
govern a world. See ' Basilides.' 

O'^ham Character [The). A 
species of old Irish writing. It seems to 
have been either a cipher or shorthand, 
consisting of certain lines and marks 
bearing a relative value to a principal 
horizontal line. The word is Irish. 

I shall certainly find you exerting your poetical 
talents in elegiacs upon a prison, or your anti- 
quarian researches in detecting the Ogham 
character. — Sir W. Scott, Waverley, eh. xxviii. 

Ogy'gian Flood [The], b.c. 1759. 
A great flood said to have taken place in 
the reign of Og^ges, a mythical king of 
Attica and Boe5tia. 

Bceotia was called Ogygia. 

Ohio (U.S. America), So called, in 
1802, from its river of the same name 
(Indian) . The inhabitants are nicknamed 
Buck-eyes. 

Oil [The Sacred). For anointing the 
kings of France. Kept in a phial of 
antique form, about an inch and a half 
high. The oil is reddish, not unlike thin 
liquid glue, and the phial is kept in the 
tomb of St. Remi at Reims. When a king 
of France was to be anointed, the tomb 
was opened and the phial taken out. We 
are told that it shrinks visibly in quantity 
when a dying king is to be anointed, but 
assumes its normal volume when a new 
king is to be anointed with it. According 



634 



OLD 



OLD 



to legend it was brought to St. Remi by 
a pigeon when Clovis was baptized. 

Trained pigeons played a very prominent part 
both at the death and baptism of those whom the 
Catholic Church delighted to honour. 

Old and New Irish {The). The 
descendants of the Milesians and the 
Anglo-Irish settled in the Pale {q.v.). 

Old and Ne-w Learning {Men of 
the). So Catholics and the Reformers 
were called in England after Henry VIII. 
broke from the pope. 

The leaders of the Old Learning -were Lee, arch- 
bishop of York ; Stokosley, bishop of London ; 
Tunstall, bishop of Durham : Gardiner, bishop of 
Winchester ; Sherbourne, bishop of Chichester ; 
Nix, bishop of Norwich ; and Kite, bishop of Car- 
lisle. These prelates were countenanced by the 
Duke of Norfolk, and by Wriothesley, the chief 
secretary. 

The leaders of the New Learning were Cranmer, 
archbishop of Canterbury ; Latimer, bishop of 
Worcester ; Shaxton, bishop of Salisbury ; Hilsey, 
bishop of Rochester ; Fox, bishop of Hereford ; and 
Barlow, bishop of St. David s. These prelates 
were supported by Cromwell, the vicar-general. 

Old Bags. I. A nickname given to 
Nicholas Vansittart by William Hone in 
one of his political squibs, called ' The 
Political Showman,' published in 1821. In 
this satire Lord Sidmouth figures as the 
Doctor, his father having been a medical 
man. 

II. John Scott lord Eldon was so called 
because he carried home with him in 
sundry bags the cases pending his judg- 
ment (1751-1838). 

Old Bullion. Colonel Thomas Hart 
Benton, advocate of the gold and silver 
currency in the U.S. of N. America (1783- 
1858). 

Old Catholics, 1870. Those Ro- 
manists who deny the ecumenical 
character of the Vatican Council of ISGD, 
and reject the Vatican decrees, especially 
those concerning the pope's infallibility. 

Old Fox {The). Marshal Soult was 
so called from his strategic abilities and 
never-failing resources (1769-1851). 

Old Glory. Sir Francis Burdett 
(1770-1844). At one time the glory of the 
radicals, but subsequently he became a 
Tory. 

Old Gravity. Lord Chancellor 

Thurlow (1732-1806). 

So much for Old Gravity. 
Petek Pindar, Gmd Cry and Little Wool, epist. 11. 

Old Grog. Edward Vernon the 
admiral (1684-1757). So called by B.itisli 



sailors from his grogram cloak, which he 
wore in foul weather. 

Old Hickory. President Jackson of 
U.S. of America. So called because in his 
contest with the Creek Indians (1813) on 
one occasion he was so destitute of pro- 
visions that he and his men fed on hickorv 
nuts. 

There can be no doubt that ' Old Hickory ' pos- 
sessed animal force and courage in a high degree 
. . . [but] it is not surprising to learn that his 
reign was a period of general lawlessness and 
rowdyism, outrages being committed in the streets 
of the capital of which Jackson refused to take 
notice.— Nineteenth Century , August 1888, pp. 272, 
273. 

Old Ireland Party {The). The 
followers of Daniel O'Connell, as opposed 
to ' Young Ireland ' led by Smith O'Brien. 
Both sought repeal, but the old party was 
Catholic, and the young party wanted to 
unite all Irishmen, irrespective of creed, 
into one union. The two parties hated 
each other. 

Old Learning {The). The Catholic 
faith, in contradistinction to the Re- 
formed faith. 

Old Man Eloquent. President 
John Quincy Adams (1767-1848). Presi- 
dent 1825-1829. 

Isocrates, the Athenian orator, is generally 
meant by ' The Old Man Eloquent ' (B.C. 436-338). 
It is to him that Milton refers 

.... that dishonest victory 

At Cheronaea, fatal to liberty, 

Killed with report that Old Man Eloquent. 
When Isocrates heard of the defeat of the Athe- 
nians at Cheronaea, it had such an effect on hia 
spirits that he drooped and died within four days. 
He was nearly 91) years of age. 

Old Man of the Mountain {The). 
King of the Assassins, whose name was 
Hussun Subah sheik ul Gebel (1090-1258). 
He was a convert to the doctrines of the 
Ismaelians {q.v.). He ruled over a tribe 
called the Aschischi in the northern moun- 
tains of Persia. The word Aschischi is 
from haschish, an intoxicating substance 
that produced delirium, in which the 
imagination had very enthusiastic views 
of eternal happiness. Hussun reared his 
young diaciples into absolute obedience, 
so that they were fearless of man of any 
rank, and the greatest princes trembled 
at his name. Houlagou or Houlaku ex- 
tirpated the order in Persia in 1258, but 
it lingered in Syria till 1280, when the 
Mamelukes stamped it out. 

Old Man of the Worth {The). 
Christian Jacques Drahakemberg, of 



OLD 



OLD 



685 



Aarh-uua, in Jutland. Died 1772, aged 146. 
See ' Macrobiots.' 

Old Noll. Oliver Cromwell (1599- 
1658). 

Old Patch.. A great banknote 
forger. Li 1784, by making his own paper 
and ink, and working off the notes on his 
own private press, he managed to get into 
circulation false notes to the value of 
200,000Z. 

other great forgers of Bank of England notes 
have been ]\rathison, 178H; Vincent Alessi (the 
Italian) ; and the Duke of Rovigoand Desnouettes 
(of Hamburg). Vincent Alessi was betrayed by 
a confederate ; the Duke of Kovigo and Desnou- 
ettes made their notes in Hamburg, and employed 
agents to circulate them in England. 

The name of Old Patch was Charles Price, but 
he had many aliases, as Wigmore, Wilmott, Brank, 
Bond, Parks, Powel, Schutz, &c. 

Old Pretender {The). Francis 
Edward James [Stuart] son of James II, 
He claimed the British throne by right of 
birth, but as his father had abdicated the 
right fell through (1688-1765). 

Old Public Functionary, or 

O. P. F. President James Buchanan 
(1791-1868). So called from the following 
words in his message to Congress in 1859 : 
' This advice proceeds from an old public 
functionary.' 

Old Rowley. Charles II. was so- 
called fiom his favourite racehorse (1630, 
1660-1685). 

A part of Newmarket racecourse is still called 
•the Rowley mile.' 

Old Sarum. Marchioness of Salis- 
bury, grandmother of the prime minister, 
burnt to death in 1835, at the age of 86. 
She used to drive in the park in a low 
phaeton with four black ponies and out- 
riders in splendid liveries ; always went 
to court in a sedan-chair, her footmen 
carrying flambeaux at night ; she hunted 
till she was past 70, wearing a sky-blue 
habit with black velvet collar, and a 
jockey-cap ; was a bold rider, and no fence 
ever stopped her. 

Old Style and New Style {The). 
Old Style, computing according to the 
old calendar. New Style, computing 
according to the reformed calendar. 
Hence we have Lady Day 25 March, 
and Old Lady Day, 6 April. Midsummer 
Day, 24 June, and Old Midsummer Day, 
6 July. Michaelmas Day, 29 Sept., and 
Old Michaelmas Day, 11 Oct. Christmas 
Day, 25 Dec, and Old Christmas Day, 
6 Jan. 



Old Testament {The). The langu- 
age of the Old Testament is a composite 
of Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew. Ezra 
(who died B.C. 459) declared what books 
were to be considered canonical. 

The following portions are in Chaldaic, viz. : — 
Ezra iv. 8, vi. 18, and vii. 12-26. 
Jer. X. 11. 
Dan. ii. 4 and vii. 28. 

The Hebrew Scriiitures 'were translated into 
Greek in the Srd cent. B.C. ; but parts seem to be as 
late as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, who died 
B.C. 161. 

It was first printed in 1488, at Sonclno. In 1526 
the Rabbinical Bible was printed at Venice. 

Esdras, i.e. Ezra, says : ' Behold, Lord, . . . thy 
law is burnt, therefore no man knoweth the things 
that are done of thee .... but if I have found 
favour before thee, send the Holy Ghost to me, 
and I will write all that hath been done in the 
world since the beginning, [all] that was written 
in thy Law. . . . And I took five men, as the Lord 
commanded me, and we went into a field and re- 
mained there. And the next day, behold a voice 
called me, saying. " Esdras, open thy mouth, and 
drink what I give thee." . . . So I opened my mouth, 
and, behold, he reached me a full cup, which was 
full as it were with water, but the colour of it was 
like fire. And I took and drank it. And when I 
had drunk of it, my heart uttered understanding, 
and wisdom grew in my breast, for my spirit 
strengthened my memory. . . . And the Highest 
gave understanding to the five men, and ihey 
wrote the wonderful visions of the night which 
were told [and] which they knew not. And they 
sat forty days, they wrote in the day, and at night 
they ate [their] bread. In the forty days they 
wrote 204 [manjin says 904] books. And it came to 
pass when the forty days were fulfilled, that the 
Highest said to me, "The first [book] which thou 
hast written publish openly, that the worthy and 
the unworthy may read it ; but keep [back] the 70 
last [books], and deliver them only to such as be 
wise among the people, for in them [i.e. the 70 
books] is the spring of understanding, the fountain 
of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge." And 
I did so.'— 2 Esdras xiv. 21, 22, 87-48. 

*,* It is very difficult to understand what is 
meant by ' the first book ' ; still more what is 
meant by the ' 70 books ' ; and why should these 
books, in which were ' the fountain of wisdom and 
the stream of knowledge,' be kept back from the 
public eye ? 

Old Testament. Booka referred 
to, but not in the canon. 

The Book of the Wars of the Lord {Niiynbers xxi, 
14). 

The Book of the Covenant (Exodus xxiv. 7). 

The Book of Jasher (Joshua x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. IB). 

The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kinua xi. 41). 

The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of 
Israel (1 A'(»f(sxiv. 19 ;2 Chron. xx.34, xxxiii.l8; and 
18 other places). 

The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings xiv. 
29 ; and 12 other places). 

The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel 
(2 Chron. xvi. 11 ; and other places). 

The Book of Samuel the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29, 
and2C;t)i)H. ix.2'J). 

The Book of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chron. xxix. 
29). 

The Book of Gad the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29). 

The Chronicles of King David (1 Chron. xxvii.24). 

The Prophecy of Ahijahthe Shilomite (2 Chron. 
ix. 29). 

The Visions of Iddo the Seer against Jeroboam 
(2 Chron. ix.29). 

The Book of Iddo the Seer concerning Genealo- 
gies i^Chron. xii. 15). 

The Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22). 

The Book of Shcmaiah the Prophet (2 Chroti. 
xh. 15). 



OLD 



OLMUTZ 



The Book of Jehu (2 Chrnn. xx. 34). 

The Memoirs of Hircanus (mentioned in 2 Mac- 
cabecs ii.). 

The Books of Jason (mentioned in 2 Maccabees H). 

The Acts of Uriah (2 Chron. xxvi. ii). 

The Three Thousand Proverbs of Solomon 
{\ Kmgs iw.Sii. 

A Thousand and Five Songs of Solomon (1 Kings 
iv. 32). 

The Prophecy of Jeremiah, torn in pieces by 
Jehoiakim (.Jcnnninh Ii.). 

The Prophecy about the city of Babylon (Jere- 
miahli.). 

The Memoirs of Jeremiah (mentioned in 1 Mac- 
cabees ii.). 

The Prophecy of Jonah (Jonah). 

Old Testament. Books supposed 
to be lost. 
The Generation of Adam. 
The Kevelation of Adam. " 
The Genealogy of the Sons and Daughters of 

Adam. 
Cham's Book of Magic. 
A Treatise called ' Seth.' 
The Assumption of Abraham. 
The Jetsira, ascribed to Abraham. 
The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs. 
The Discourses of Jacob and Joseph. 
A Prophecy of Habakkuk, and soinoby Ezekiel. 
The Prophecy of Eldad and Medad. 
The Treatise of Jannes and Jambres. 
The Book of Og. 
Jacob's Ladder, and several others. 

See ' Apocryphal Scriptures ' (New 
Testament). 

Oldenburg {The House of). The 
present reigning house of Denmark, 
founded in 1448 by Christian I. of the 
house of Oldenburg. 

Ol'eron [Laivs of). Maritime laws 
chiefly borrowed from the ' Consolato del 
Mare,' compiled in the middle of the 13th 
cent. The story runs that the Laws of 
Oleron were enacted by Bichard I. while 
his fleet lay at anchor there on his ex- 
pedition to the Holy Land. The Ordi- 
nances of Wisby in Gothland were com- 
piled from the Laws of Oleron before 
1400. 

other traditions ascribe these laws to the Flem- 
ings, to Otto the Saxon, to the Seigneur of 
Oleron in 1196, to Eleonore of Guyenne, and some 
others. 

Olim. The most ancient registers of 
the Parlement de Paris, from 1254 to 
1318, comprehending the reigns of St. 
Louis, Philippe le Hardi, Philippe le 
Bel, Louis le Hutin, and Philippe le 
Long. These valuable registers contain, 
not only reports of the administration 
of justice in that period, but also the 
organisation of the parlement and con- 
temporary events of all sorts. They 
were published in 1840. 

Oliva [Peace of), 3 May, 1G60, 
between Sweden, Poland, the kaiser, and 



the elector of Brandenburg ; signed soon 
after the death of Charles X. of Sweden. 
This treaty, and that of Kardis (with the 
Czar of Russia), put an end to the wars 
in which Charles X.' had involved the 
Swedes. The Peace of Oliva ensured the 
integrity of Poland, but in 1773 the first 
partition of Poland between Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria was effected. 

Olive Branch {The), 8 July, 1775. 
The petition of the American Congress 
to King George III. after the battle of 
Bunker's Hill, expressive of an earnest 
desire for an honourable peace. The 
petitioners vowed that this petition if 
not successful should be the last. 

Oliver Optic. The pen-name of 
William Taylor Adams, an American 
novelist. 

Oliver's Fiddler. Sir Roger 
L'Estrange (1616-1704). So called be- 
cause at one time he was playing a fiddle 
with others, in the house of John 
Kingston, when Oliver Cromwell was 
for a time one of the guests. 

Roger L'Estrange, who used to be called 
'Oliver's Fiddler,' formerly in danger of being 
hanged for a spy, and about this time the admired 
bulioon of High Church.— Calamy. 

Olive'tans (4 syl.), or ' Brethren of 
Our Lady of Mount Olivet,' 1272. A 
religious order in the Catholic Church, 
an offshoot of the Benedictines {q.v.), 
founded by Bernard Tolomei and others 
on Monte Oliveto in Tuscany, whence, 
the name. 

Olmtitz {The CamjJ at), Sept., 1850. 
A military political display for the sake 
of averting the Crimean War. Austria 
assembled at Olmiitz 50,000 men 'for 
field exercise.' The Emperor of Russia, 
the Emj)eror of Austria, the King of 
Prussia, Count Buol chief minister of 
Austria, the British and French minis- 
ters, all met and conferred on the war. 
Russia suggested that the 'Vienna Note' 
{q.v.) drawn up by Count Buol should be 
accepted, and that the Four Powers 
should guarantee the good faith of 
Russia. Austria and Prussia agreed, but 
England scouted such sponsorship after 
the deception of Russia during many 
months, and France stood firm beside 
England. It really was most unsatisfac- 
tory and unbusiness-like, but Prussia and 



OLYMPIAD 



0. P. 



637 



Austria separated from the Western 
Powers. 

Eussia has always adopted that vile maxim of 
Prince Metternich : ' He who knows not how to 
deceive, knows not how to rule.' As if lying was 
the divine right of kings, instead of being the pre- 
rogative of ■ the father of lies.' 

Olympiad. In ancient Greece 
meant the space of four years between 
one celebration of the Olympic games 
and another. As a system of chronology 
it began from B.C. 776. 

The games were held at Olympia, in Elis, dedi- 
cated to Zeus, called by the Romans Jupiter 
Olympus. 

Olympic Games {The). Said to 
have been instituted by Herakles. They 
w«re held on the plains of Olympia every 
fifth year, and constituted the most 
splendid national festival of the ancient 
Greeks. Dates were reckoned from these 
games, and the five intervening years 
made an Olympiad. 

Olyn'thiac Orations {The), b.c. 

350. The three orations of Demosthenes 
against Philip king of Macedon, who had 
captured a town of Chalcidice in the 
sacred war. Olynthus, the head of 32 
Greek towns, trembled for its own safety. 
Demosthenes tried to arouse the Athe- 
nians to take part with the Olynthians 
against Philip ; but the Athenians made 
no great stir, and in 347 Olynthus fell 
into the hands of Philij^. 

Olyn'thian War {The). 1. b.c. 
382-379, between Sparta and the Olyn- 
thians. 

II. B.C. 349-346, between Philip of 
Macedon and the Olynthians. The 
Olynthians were defeated in two battles, 
and their city taken. 

Ommi'ades (3 syl.), 661-750. An 
Arabian dynasty, so called from Ommiah 
grandfather of Abou Sofyan, chief of the 
temple of Mecca before Islamism was 
known. This Ommiah the Koreishite 
was father of Moaviah, who founded the 
dynasty. The seat of empire was 
Damascus. The Ommiades were de- 
throned by the Abbassides in 749 or 750. 

The Ommiade califs were Moaviah I. (6r.l), 
Yezi.l I. (GriO), Moaviah II. (G83>, .Merwan I. (<>!li, 
Abdel Malek (68.5), Walid I. (705), Soliman (715i, 
OniMr II. (717), Yezid II. (720), Hescham (724), 
Walid II. (743), Yezid HI. (744), Ibrahim (744), 
Merwan II. (744). 

Omnibus, 1829. Introduced into 
London by Mr. J. Shillibeer. The first 
omnibus ran from the ' Yorkshire Stingo,' 



in the New Eoad, to the Bank of Eng- 
land, the fare being one shilling. In 
1830 the fare was reduced to sixpence, 
and since then other reductions have 
been made. 

Omnibus Bill {An). A general 
bill in parliament promoted by some 
public body (such as the Ecclesiastical 
or Charity Commissioners, the Board of 
Works, &c.), who for economy sake in- 
clude in one application to the legislature 
several schemes or projects, mostly by 
way of schedule. 

Omnibus Order {An), in law. A 
sinc;le order made by a judge for dealing 
with several applications pending before 
the court. All the applications are put 
in one omnibus or order. 

Omnibus Section of the Eussian 
Penal Code. Revised in 1885. Section 
249 is so called from its wide scope and 
sweeping applicability. It drags into 
its clutches all revolutionists of every 
shade and degree ; even thoughts are not 
free ; and as to words, paragraphs in 
newspapers, advice, hints and expres- 
sions of discontent, they are all trea- 
sonable, and render the offender liable 
to exile for life and the forfeiture of all 
his goods, 

Omri {Statutes of), b.c. 920. King of 
Israel, founder of Samaria. He com- 
pelled by severe laws the worship of the 
Israelitish idols, and these laws are still 
called by the Jews ' The Statutes of 
Omri.' 

One-Sandalled Man (T/ie). Jason 
was so called because on his way back to 
lolcus he lost one of his sandals in cross- 
ing the river Anaurus. 

One Thousand Eight Hun- 
dred and Sixty-seven (18G7). A 

Fenian toast and catchword : as ' Three 
cheers for 1867 ! ' This was the date of 
the Fenian rising. 

Onion Pennies. Certain Roman 
coins found pretty abundantly at Sil- 
chester in Hampshire. So called from 
one ' Onion,' said to be a giant who dwelt 
in this city. 

On'kalos. The supposed author of 
an Aramaic version of the Pentateuch. 

O. P. Riots, 1809. Covent Garden 
having been destroyed by fire during tho 



OPEN 



OKACLE 



management of John Kemble, a new 
house was erected in the course of a 
year, and the prices of admission raised. 
The theatre-going pubHc took this in 
dudgeon, and night after night crowded 
the house with cries of ' O. P.' (old j)rices). 
They danced on the pit-benches and 
sometimes on the cushions of the boxes 
to the harsh music of cat-calls, and to 
tunes written for the occasion. O. P. 
music and dances were to be seen in 
every music shop. When at last the 
benches began to be torn up, the 
cushions demolished, and the decora- 
tions destroyed, the magistracy inter- 
fered. 

Sir Vicary Gibbs, being employed to conduct 
the prosecution, convulsed the court -with a 
happy quotation : 'Opes [O.Ps.] Irritamenta malo- 
rum.' 

Open Sea of Kane {The). A sea 
supposed by Elisha Kane the traveller 
(1822-1857) to surround the North Pole. 

Oph'ites (2 syl,), 2nd cent. A 
Christian sect. So called from the 
Greek word 6<^ts (a serpent). They 
maintained that the serpent (Gen. iii.) 
was the Logos or Christ, who came into 
Eden to deliver man from that ignorance 
to which the Creator or Demiurge had 
doomed him, and to make him ' wise 
unto salvation.' (From 2nd to 6th 
cent.) 

Oppian Law {The). ' Oppia Lex,' 
a law by C. Oppius, the tribune, forbid- 
ding any woman to wear more than half 
an ounce of gold, to have parti- coloured 
garments, or to be carried more than a 
mile except for the purpose of cele- 
brating some religious festival or solem- 
nity. 

Optime (3 syl.). The second class 
of the Mathematical Tripos is called 
' The Senior Optinies,' and the third 
class is called the 'Junior Optimes.' 
These phrases are derived from the 
' Acts ' which used to be held in the 
schools before degrees were conferred. 
The compliment of the moderator paid 
to an opponent who had answered very 
well was Optivie quidem disputasti, or 
Doniine opponens, opthne disputasti, 
and to the respondent who had disputed 
pretty well, Domine respondens, satis 
et optime quidem et in thesi et in dis- 
putatio?iibus tuo officio functus es. 
Set 'Wrangler.' 



Optimism. The doctrine that 
whatever is is in its best possible state, 
for God would not have made anything 
otherwise. What we call evils are need- 
ful for our conservation, and all odds 
will be made even in the life hereafter. 
Malebranche taught optimism, and Leib- 
nitz in his ' Essais de Theodice'e ' ; Boling- 
broke adopted the same theory, and 
Pope in his ' Essay on Man ' says, ' What- 
ever is, is right.' See ' Pessimism.' 

Opus Majus [not' Opus Magnum']. 
The title of the great work of Roger 
Bacon the Franciscan. It contains the 
results of his researches, and he tells us 
that he spent above 2,000^. in twenty 
years on apparatus for his experiments 
[equal to 30,000^. of our money at pre- 
sent]. His discoveries were in geometry, 
astronomy, physics, optics, mechanics, 
and chemistry. 

Opus Operan'tis, in theology, 
means that the effect is due not to the 
ojyus or act itself, but to the disposition 
of the operans or operator. See next 
article. 

There is no virtue jn kissing the crucifix per se, 
but the mind of the devotee may by its fervour 
and devotion bring grace to the person who 
kisses it. Of course the Catholics never apply 
the term to sacraments, but the Anglican Church 
seems to imply it in the words ' feed on Him in 
thy heart by faith," 

Opus Opera'tum, in theology, 
means that the rite or sacrament itself 
conveys grace independently of the mind 
of the recipient. The opus is the effi- 
cient cause of grace. 

Thus when the sacrament is administered in 
articulo viortis, though the recipient is moribund, 
yet it conveys grace. 

Opus Triparti'tum (1514). The 
ancient customs and royal decrees of Hun- 
gary compiled by Verboczi, and divided 
into three parts. A second volume was 
added, and the whole was entitled 'Jus 
Consuetudinarium Regni Hungariae.' 

Or (gold). One of the colours in 
heraldry of the escutcheon, expressed by 
dots. 

There are seven colours employed in Englaiid, 
and nine by foreign heralds. See 'Heralds.' 

Oracle of Delft {The). Hugo 
Grotius was called the ' Oracle of Delft, 
the Phoenix of his Country ' (1583-1645). 

Oracle of Delphi {The). On the 
south slope of Parnassos ; founded in 



OEACLE 



OEANGEMEN 



honour of Apollo, sumamed PythTos, 
because he slew the serpent python. 
The ravings of the priestess were due to a 
n^ephitic gas which issued from a hole in 
the earth over which the tripod was placed. 
Men held the woman down till the gas 
had intoxicated her, and her ravings were 
then taken down by priests and turned 
into verse. The priestess was called the 
Pythia. 

Certainly some of the Delphic responses ■were 
most witty equivokes. Thus : 

1. When Pyrrhos consulted the oracle respect- 
ing his war with the Romans, he received for 
answer : ' Credo te, .?%acide, Romanos vincere 
posse,' i.e. 'The Romans, I believe, you will con- 
quer.' Which may mean either you will conquer 
the Romans, or the Romans will coiiquer you. 

2. Another response was ' Ibis, redibis nunquam 
per bella peribis.' [You shall return never by war 
Bhall you perish.] Whether the comma is placed 
before or after iiecer makes all the difference. 

3. When the allied Greeks demanded of the 
oracle what would be the isaue of the battle of 
Salamis, they received for answer — 

Seed-time and harvest, weeping sires shill Le'.l 
How thousands fought at Sa'amis and fell ; 

but whether the weeping sires were to be Greeks 
or Persians was not stated. 

4. When Croesos demanded what would be the 
issue of the battle against the Persians headed 
by Cyrus, the oracle replied : ' Croesos will bo- 
hold a mighty empire overthrown ' ; but which 
empire is left doubtful. 

5. When Philip of Macedonsent to inquire it his 
Persian expedition would prove successful, he 
received for reply: ' The ready victim crov ned 
for sacrifice stands before the altar.' PhiliiJ took 
it for granted that the ' ready victim ' was the 
King of Persia, but it was he himself. 

When Maxentius was about to encounter Con- 
stantine he consulted the guardians of the Sibyl- 
line Books as to the fate of the battle, and the 
prophetess told him : ' Illo diehostem Romanorum 
esse periturum ' ; but whether Maxentius or Con- 
stantine was ' the enemy of the Roman people ' 
the oracle left undecided. 

In the Bible we have a similar equivoke : When 
Ahab king of Israel was about to wage war on the 
king of Syria, and asked Micaiah if Ramoth Gilead 
would fall into his hands, the prophet replied, 
' Go ! for the Lord will deliver the city into the 
hands of the king ' (1 Kings xxii. 15, 35). Ahab 
thought that he wis the king referred to, but the 
king into whose hands the city fell was the king 
of Syria. See p. 650, n. to ' Orleton's Message." 

Oracle of Dodo'na (The), in 
Epiros. The most ancient oracle of 
Greece, dedicated to Zeus (1 syL). Its 
responses were made by women called 
pigeons [q.v.), who derived their re- 
sponses from four sources : (1) The 
cooing of doves ; (2) the bubbling of a 
spring of water which rose at the foot of 
the sacred oak ; (3) the rustling of the 
leaves of the oak ; and (4) the tinkling of 
a gong hung in the branches of a tree. 
The gong was struck by knotted cords 
hung on the branches of the tree. In 
B.C. 219 the ^toHans destroyed the tem- 
ple and cut down the sacred grove. See 
• Pigeons.' 



Oracle of France {The). St. 
Bernard of Clairvaux. See ' Oracle of 
the Church.' 

Oracle of the Churcli {The). 

St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091- 
1153), also called the ' Melhfluous Doc- 
tor,' the ' Eiver of Paradise,' and the 
'Last of the Fathers.' He was the 
founder of the Order of Bernardines, but 
not of the Hospice. The founder of the 
Hospice was St. Bernard of Menthon, 
who lived about a century earlier (923- 
1008). 

Orange {Prince of). Orange, a cor- 
ruption of Arausio, in the department of 
Vaucluse, some sixteen miles from Avi- 
gnon. The town was the capital of a 
principality from the 11th to the IGth 
century ; its last sovereign being Phili- 
bert de Chalons, whose sister married 
William count of Nassau. This count 
was the father of William I. the stadt- 
holder of the United Provinces, and 
grandfather of William II. stadtholder. 
This William II. married Mary eldest 
daughter of Charles I., whose eldest son 
was our William III., who married Mary 
eldest daughter of James II. while he 
was Duke of York. 

William count of Nassau married Philibert's 
sister, and was the father of William I. stadt- 
holder. 

William I. the stadtholder was the father of 
William II. the stadtholder, who married Mary 
daughter of Charles I. 

William II. was the father of William III. of 
Great Britain, who married Mary daughter of 
James II. 

Or'angeists (3 syl.), 1785. The 
Orange faction of Holland opposed to 
the French faction. The former stood 
by the stadtholder, and accused their 
opponents of democratic principles and 
a tendency to French influence. The 
democrats accused the Orange party of 
aiming at monarchy or oligarchy, and 
trampling on the ancient liberties of the 
people. The French faction prevailed, 
and the country was laid at the feet of 
France. 

Or'angemen (3 syl.). A develop- 
ment of the Peep-of-day Boys in Ire- 
land, consisting of rich and influential 
Irish Protestants in defence of Pro- 
testant ascendency in Ireland. So called 
from William of Orange, whose name 
and reign are associated with the Pro- 
testant ascendency in the island. The 
first Orange lodge was founded in the 



640 



ORATEUR 



ORDEAL 



village of Loughgall, county Armagh, 21 
Sept., 1795. As many as twelve or four- 
teen Roman Catholics would be ejected 
in a single night by these Orangemen. 
By 1798 the Orangemen were a very 
powerful society, having a ' grand lodge,' 
extending over the entire province of 
Ulster, and ramified through all the 
centres of Protestantism in Ireland. In 
1808 a grand lodge of Orangemen was 
opened in Manchester, in 1821 it was 
transferred to London, and in 1827 the 
Duke of Cumberland was elected Grand 
Master. In 1835 the number of members 
was 200,000. See ' Irish Associations.' 

There are Orange lodges in Canada and the 
Colonies also. 

Orateur du Genre Humain. 

See below, ' Orator of the Human Race.' 

Orator Henley (1692-1756). Called 
by Pope ' the Zany of his age ' (' Dunciad'), 
and introduced by Hogarth into two 
of his humorous pieces. In one he is 
christening a child, and in the other he 
is represented on a scaffold with a mon- 
key at his side, and the motto ' Amen.' 
His periodical called the ' Hip Doctor ' 
is a farrago of nonsense. 

Orator of Wature (T/ie). Patrick 
Henry of Studley, Hanover, in Virginia, 
who advocated the cause of the people 
against the claims of the clergy of Vir- 
ginia. He was highly distinguished in 
the war of independence, and contributed 
greatly to the carrying of the Declaration 
of Independence. ' If we would be free,' he 
said over and over again, ' we must fight. 
Yea, I repeat it ; we must fight ! we 
must fight ! ' (1736-1799). 

Orator of the Human Race 

{The). The not very modest title assumed 
by Anacharsis Cloots [Baron Jean 
Baptiste ClootsJ, a Prussian by birth, 
brought up in Paris, where he adopted 
the revolutionary principles (1755-1791). 
So called because he appeared at the bar 
of the National Assembly accompanied 
by deputies from all the nations of the 
civilised world who had chosen him for 
speaker. He was guillotined by the 
French republicans. 

The next day this deputation of all nations was 
found to be a hoax, and the deputies were merely 
vagabonds hired for the nonce at 12 livres apipce. 
One of the rascals went to the Marquis de iJian- 
court tor the money, and said he had been the 
Chaldean. ' Mr. Chaldean,' said the Marquis, 
'you have come to the wrong person.' M. de 



Biancourt made no secret of the visit, and next 
day it was duly reported in the daily papers. 
Hunt was called Orator Hunt (1773-1835). 

Orators {The). Mark Antony and 
Licinius Crassus. Cicero says, ' Crassus 
is the greatest orator Rome had ever 
seen except Antony, and Antony the 
greatest except Crassus.' 

Mark Antony the ' Orator ' was not the triumvir, 
but the grandfather. Thus: Mark Antony the 
'Orator,' whose eldest son was Mark Antony sur- 
namod Creticus, and the triumvir was the son of 
Creticus. 

Oratorians. See helow. 

Oratory [Congregation of the), 
1550. Founded by Philip de Neri, at 
Rome, under the name of the ' Confra- 
ternity of the Trinity.' Introduced into 
Paris in 1611 ; and into England by 
Cardinal Newman in 1817. The fathers 
of the Oratory live in community with- 
out any special vows. Oratorians are 
so called ' parce qu'ils se placaient devant 
I'eglise pour appeler le peuple a la 
priere.' 

Suppressed in France in 1790, but restored in 
1853 by tha Abbe Petetot, under the title of the 
' Oratory of the Immaculate Conception.' 

OrbisSensualiumPietus, 1651. 
The first picture-book or illustrated 
manual for the young by J. Amos Co- 
mentus, and published at Niirnberg. 
Object lessons in infant schools are of a 
similar character. 

Ordainers, 1310, 1311. A council 
of 28 noblemen appointed to reform the 
government and the king's [Edward II.] 
household. These lords were empowered 
to enact ordinances which should have 
the force of laws. The cause of this 
junto was the infatuation of the king for 
Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, on whom he 
lavished lands and honours witli most 
wanton profusion. The ordainers revoked 
all the grants of the king to his favourite, 
demanded the removal of all foreigners 
from high offices, and took from the king 
the power of making war or peace with- 
out the consent of his barons. 

OrdeaL An appeal to the judgment 
of God made known by the success or 
failure of certain acts performed by the 
accused. Hebrew women accused of 
adultery appealed to the ' water of jea- 
lousy.' There are nine different ordeals 
in use among the Hindus. In Africa a 
men who fancies himself bewitched by 
his wife sends for the o'beah woman, who 
administers to her a drink made of 



ORDEAL 



ORDER 



641 



* goho ' ; if she vomits it, she is pro- 
nounced innocent; if not, she is put to 
death. In Europe the ordinary ordeals 
were those of fire, water, and wager of 
battle iq.v.). 

Ordeal by Fire. In this ordeal the 
accused was required to carry a piece of 
red-hot iron in his hand a given distance, 
or to tread blindfold and barefoot 
amongst nine red-hot plouglishares with- 
out setting his foot on any one of them. 
If the accused escaped unhurt he was 
pronounced innocent. This ordeal was 
reserved for the wealthy, and as priests 
were the adjudicators, they could easily 
instruct those they wished to befriend 
how to escape unhurt. 

Ordeal by Water. Chiefly for the 
lower orders. There was the ordeal of 
hot water and the ordeal of cold water. 
Athelstane's law was for the accused to 
pick a stone out of a tub of boiling water, 
the arm being quite bare, and water up 
to the wrist, in some cases up to the 
elbow. The ordeal of cold water was to 
be flung into a pond or river; if the 
accused sank he was pronounced inno- 
cent, if he floated he was pronounced 
guilty. See ' Wager of Battle.' 

Order 14. The Judicature Act 
which provides that when a writ has 
been served and duly appeared to, if the 
creditor makes an affidavit that his claim 
is for a definite sum of money of which 
there is no dispute, and respecting which 
the debtor makes no defence, then the 
creditor may issue a summons calling the 
debtor at two days' notice to appear 
before a Master in Chambers, and, if all 
is satisfactory, the creditor is allowed to 
obtain immediate execution, saving thus 
the delay and expense of going to trial in 
the ordinaiy way. A summary process 
of exacting payment of a debt. 

Order in Council (A^i) is an order 
by the sovereign under the advice of the 
privy council. 

Order in Council (The), 7 Jan. 
1807. Ordained that all neutral vessels 
shall be prohibited from entering any 
port belonging to France, or her allies, 
or under her control. If any vessel 
violates this order, both the vessel and 
its cargo may be confiscated to the Eng- 
lish Government. 
11 Kov. 1807 another order was issued, by -which 



all harbours and places of France, her allies, and 
colonies were placed under the same restrictions 
as if they were strictly blockaded. 

Order of Alcan'tara (The), 115(5. 
Instituted by Don Suarez and Don 
Gomez, entrusted with the defence of 
Alcantara, in Spain. They were first 
called ' Knights of the Pear Tree,' then 
' Knights of St. Julian,' from San Julian 
del Pereyro. 

Order of Argonauts (The), 1382. 
Instituted by Charles III. of Naples. 

Order of Assassins (The). See 
* Assassins.' 

Order of Aviz. An order of knight- 
hood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho 
the first king, in imitation of the order 
of Calatra'va, and having for its object 
the subjugation of the Moors (1146). 

Order of Bernar'dines (3 syl.), 
1115. Reformed Benedictines, founded 
by St. Bernard of Clairvaux. 

Order of Calatra'va (The), 1158. 
Instituted in Spain by Sancho III. of 
Castile. When Sancho took from the 
Moors the strong castle of Calatrava he 
committed its defence to the Knights 
Templars, who declined to undertake 
it. Whereupon Don Raymond of the 
Cistercian order, with several caballeros 
of quality, volunteered to defend it, and 
were created * Knights of Calatrava.' 

Order of Celes'tines (3 syl.), 1274. 
Founded by Celestine V. (Pierre de 
Moron), but suppressed in 1776 by 
Pius VI. 

Order of Christ (The), 1205. In- 
stituted in Livonia by Albert bishop of 
Riga, and incorporated with the Order of 
Teutonic Knights in 1237. Also called 
' The Short Swords of Livonia.' 

Not to be mistaken for ' The Order of the 
Knights of Christ ' (.q.v.). 

Order of Christ (The), 1318. A 
religico-military order instituted by 
Dionysius I. of Portugal to guard the 
frontiers of Algarve from invasions of 
the Moors. It is now only an order of 
honour. See ' Chevaliers Porte-glaive.' 

This order was simply that of the Templars ex- 
pelled from France by Philippe le l!el [IV.], and 
received into Portugal under a new name. A. 
branch of the same was admitted by John XXII. 
into the Papal States. Another branch subsisted 
in Brazil until the revolution of 181)0. 

Order of Christian Charity 
{The), 1578. Instituted by Henri III. of 
TT 



642 



ORDER 



ORDER 



France for the benefit of poor military 
officers and maimed soldiers. It was in- 
stituted at the same time as the Order 
of the Holy Ghost, meant for princes and 
men of distinction. 

Order of Civil Merit {The), 

1815. Founded in Saxony by Frederick I. 
[Augustus] on his being allowed by 
Alexander of Russia (who had taken him 
prisoner at Leipsic) to return to Dresden. 
He died in 1827, at the age of 76. 

He celebrated the fiftieth year of his accession 
in 1818, and the fiftieth year of his marriage in 
1819. 

Order of Fidelity (The). 

I. 1701. A Prussian order instituted 
by Frederick III. elector of Brandenburg, 
and better known as ' The Order of the 
Black Eagle.' 

II. In 1715. Instituted by Charles 
William margraf of Baden Durlach, on 
his founding Carlsruhe. 

Order of Fontevrault (T;<e), 1100. 
A religious order founded by Robert 
d'Arbrissel. The abbey of Fontevrault 
was transformed into a prison in 1804. 

Order of Fools {The). Instituted 
12 Nov., 1381, by Adolphus count of 
Cleves, under the title of De Order 
van't Gelikengezelscluvp, and composed 
of noblemen and gentlemen of rank and 
renown for humane and charitable ob- 
jects. Their insignia was the figure of 
a court fool on the left side of their 
mantles, cap and bells, yellow stockings, 
a cup of fruit in the right hand, and a 
gold key in the left. A grand court was 
held on the first Sunday after Michael- 
mas Day. It is alluded to in Brand's 
•Navis Stultifera,' 1520. See ' Respub- 
lica Binepsis.' 

Order of Grandmontines, or 

•Grammontines' (3 syl.), 1026, founded 
in Limousin by Etienne de Grammont. 
Suppressed in 1769. 

Order of Hieron'ymites (5 syl.), 
1373, approved by Gregory XI. 

Order of Isabella the Catholic 

{The), 24 March, 1815. Founded in 
Spain by Ferdinand VII. as a reward 
for loyalty and for the defence of the 
possessions of Spanish America. 

Order of Jesuits {The), or ' Order 
of the Society of Jesus,' 1534. Founded 
by Ignatius Loyola. Sanctioned in 1540 
by a bull of Paul III. Established in 



France, Spain, Portugal, and Germany in 
1556. Missionaries were sent to England 
by Gregory XIII. in 1580, but banished 
from the kingdom in 1584 (27 Eliz. c. 2). 
Banished from France in 1594 ; from 
Venice in 1606; from Turkey in 1628; 
from Abyssinia in 1632 ; from Spain in 
1767 ; from Naples in 1767 ; from Parma 
in 1768 ; from Malta in 1768 ; from Russia 
in 1817 ; from Genoa in 1848 ; from Aus- 
tria in 1848. 

Order of Jesuates (3 syl.), 1367. 
Founded in Italy by Urban V. Sup- 
pressed in 1668, and their possessions 
given to the Hos'pitallers of Italy. 

This Order must not be confounded with the 
' Order ' or ' Society of Jesuits ' founded by Loyola 
in 1534. Hee p. 409. 

Order of Jesus and Mary {The), 
1615. Instituted in Italy by Paul V. 

Order of Lazarists {The), or 
'Fathers of St. Lazarus,' 1625. Insti- 
tuted by De Gondi, and placed under 
the direction of Vincent de Paul. 

Order of Leopold {The), 1808. 
Created by Francis I, of Austria in 
honour of his father Leopold II., for 
civil or military merit, without regard to 
birth. Tlie decoration is a cross with 
eight points. The motto is ' Integritati 
et merito.' The legend on the reverse is 
' Opes regum, corda subditorum.' 

Order of Louisa {The), 1814. In- 
stituted in Prussia. 

Order of Maria Theresa {The), 
1757. A military order instituted by 
Maria Theresa of Austria in memory of 
her victory over the Prussians at Kollin 
the same year. All the brave, without 
distinction of birth, were eligible. The 
decoration is a cross of gold and the 
motto ' Fortitudini.' The ribbon is 
white and red. 

Order of Mercy {The), or 'The 
Religious Order of Mercy,' 1218. An 
order under the rule of St. Augustine, 
founded for the redemption of captives. 
Confirmed by Gregory IX. in 1235. 

Oi'der of Monte'sa {The), 1317. 
A Spanish order instituted by James II. 
of Aragon. 

Order of !N"ova Scotia. An order 
of baronets created by James I. of Eng- 
land. These baronets wore a ribbon of 
an orange tawny colour. There are still 



OEDER 



ORDER 



643 



a few surviving Nova Scotia baronetcies, 
all or nearly all being Scottish. 

Order of Our Lady of Mercy 

(The), 1218. Founded by Jayme I. of 
Aragon. Women were admitted to this 
order in 1281. 

Order of Our Lady of Montesa 
{The), 1317. Founded by Jayme 11. of 
Aragon. 

Order of Our Lady of Mount 

Carmel {The), 1607. Instituted by 
Henri IV. of France, and consisting of 
100 French gentlemen. 

Quite a different order to the Cnr'melites (3 Byl.) 
or Ordie des Cacnies. Founded in 115G. 

Order of Preachers {The), or 

' Fratres Predicatores,' 1216. Eanctioned 
by Innocent III., who gave instructions 
to the people utterly to extinguish heresy ; 
and by an official bull allowed the Do- 
minican Order to be founded under the 
direction of Dominic de Guzman, a 
Spanish presbyter. 

Called Bl.ick Fnars in England from the colour 
of their dress ; and Jai'ohi>Ti in France from their 
establishment in the Hue de Jaques, Paris. 

Order of Rougemont {The), 1400. 
A military order of Burgundy founded by 
Philibert de Miolans. Extinct. 

Order of St. Alexander 
Newsky {The), 1714. Instituted by 
Peter the Great, the insignia being a 
red cross with golden eagles. In the 
midst of the cross is St. Alexander on 
horseback slaying a dragon at his feet. 

St. Alexander Newskywas grand-duke of Russia 
and son of Jaroslav II. (l'218-121t;), called Newsky 
from a battle which he gained over the Swedes, 
Danes, and Teutonic knights in 1210. Newsky 
is a title derived from the name of the river Neva, 
near which the battle was gained. 

Order of St. Andrew {The), 1698. 
A Russian order founded by Peter the 
Great, and given only for high merit. 
The ribbon is blue, and the legend is 
' Pour la Foi et la Fidelite.' 
For the Scotch order see ' Order of the Thistle.' 

Order of St. Anne {The), 1735. A 
Russian order first instituted in Holstein 
by Duke Frederick in honour of his wife, 
who was daughter of Peter the Great. 
It was established in Russia by Paul I. 
in 1756. The ribbon is red edged with 
yellow, and in the centre of the cross is 
an image of St. Anne. 

Order of St. Basil {The), 358. 
Founded by St. Basil in Pontus ; intro- 
duced into the Western Church in 1057. 



Order of St. Caroline {The), 1816. 
Instituted by Caroline, the separated 
wife of George prince regent, afterwards 
George IV. It was founded for the sake 
of decorating Bartolomeo Bergami, an 
Italian, first her footman and afterwards 
her chief adviser. The Emperor of 
Austria objected to the cross of Malta 
which was the badge of the order. Of 
course the order was never recognised. 

Order of St. Christopher {The), 
1517. Founded in Austria for the pur- 
pose of checking intemperance and pro- 
fane swearing. 

Order of St. Genette (2 syl.), 782. 
Instituted by Charles Martel after his 
victory over the Saracens, where a vast 
number of gennets, like Spanish cats, 
were found in the enemy's camp. The 
most ancient order of knighthood in 
France. Extinct. 

Order of St. George {.The). 

Bavari.\. Instituted during the cru- 
sades, but refounded by Charles VII., 
24 April, 1729. 

England. See tinder ' Garter.' 

Hanover, 1 January, 1840, founded by 
Ernest Augustus. 

Lucca, 1 June, 1833, founded by Duke 
Charles Louis. 

Russia, 26 Nov., 1769, founded by 
Catharine II. Similar to the ' Poor 
Knights of Windsor.' The cordon is 
yellow and black. 

SicUiY, 1 January, 1819, founded by- 
Ferdinand I. 

The following are extinct : The order of St. 
George in Burgundy, Carinthia, Constantinople, 
Germany, Ravenna, and Rome. See these under 
the national name. 

Order of St. Jago {The). A Spanish 

order instituted under Pope Alexander 

III. in 1175, tiie graud-master of which 

is next in rank to the sovereign. 

Santiago or St. James the Greater is the patron 
saint of Spain. 

Order of St. John of Jerusalem, 

1120. Called 'John' from John the 
patriarch of Alexandria, and ' Jerusalem ' 
from the place of their abode. They 
subsequently resided at Rhodes (1310- 
1523), when, being driven out by the 
Turks, they took up their abode in Malta, 
and were called ' Knights of Malta.' 

Order of St. Lazare, or St. 

Lazarus. The knights driven from 
Palestine who followed St. Louis to 
T x 2 



644 



OEDER 



ORDER 



France. Suppressed by Innocent VIII. 
and united with other orders : to the 
order of St. John in 1490, and in France 
to the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel 
in 1608. Abohshed in 1795. 

Order of St. Louis {The), in 
France, 1693. Founded by Louis XIV. 

Order of St. Magdalene (3 syl.). 
A French order instituted by St. Louis 
to suppress duels, 1270. Extinct. 

Order of St. Maria de Mereede 

(3 syl.). A Spanish order for the redemp- 
tion of captives. Extinct. 

Order of St. Maurice {The),UBi. 
Created by Amadeus VIII. of Savoy. 
Having lost his wife, Maria Beatrix of 
Burgundy, he retired to the hermitage 
of Ripaille, on the Lake of Geneva, with 
six of his nobles, whom he created knights 
of St. Maurice. In 1572 the order was 
united to that of St. Lazarus. 

Order of St. Michael the Arch- 
angel {The). 'Ordre de St. Michel,' 
14G9, instituted by Louis XI. of Prance. 
' St. Michel est regarde comme le protec- 
teur et I'ange tutelaire de la France.' — 

BOULLLET. 

Order of St. Patrick {The), 1783. 
Instituted by George III. The ruling 
sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland 
and also the lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
are ex-officio members. 

Order of St. Stephen {The), 1764. 
Instituted by Maria Theresa of Austria 
for civil merit, but only nobles are eli- 
gible. The decoration is the Hungarian 
crown surmounted with a white cross. 
The motto is Fublicum meritorum prce- 
miuyn. 

Order of San Salvador' {The), 
1118. Instituted in Aragon by Alfonso I. 

Order of the Amaranth {The), 
1653. Instituted by Christina of Sweden. 

Order of the Annunciation. 

I. A religious order, 1500, instituted at 
Bourges by Jeanne de Valois, daughter 
of Louis XL, in honour of ' the Ten Joys 
of the Virgin Mary ' ; confirmed by Pope 
Alexander VI. and Pope Leo X. 

II. A religious order, 1604, instituted 
at Genoa by Maria Victoria Fornari, 
called the ' Celestial Annunciades,' or 



Blue Nuns, from the colour of their 
dresses. 

There was an order of knighthood called ' An- 
nunciada ' instituted in 1302 by Amadeus VI. ; 
reformed in 1434 by Amadeus VIII. 

Order of the Augustines. See 

p. 60, ' Augustines.' 

Order of the Bath. See ' Bath.' 

Order of the Bel q:! an Lion {The), 
1815. Pounded by William I. 

Order of the Benedictines 

{The). See p. 67, ' Benedictines.' 

Order of the Black Eagle (T/je), 

1701. A Prussian order instituted by 
Frederick III. elector of Brandenburg. 
Also called * The Order of Fidehty.' 

Order of the Blood of Our 
Saviour {The), 1608. Instituted in 
Mantua by Duke Vincent Goncjaga. The 
name originated in the belief that in St. 
Andrew's Church, Mantua, drops of our 
Saviour's blood are preserved. 

Order of the Burgundian 
Cross {The), 22 July, 1535. Instituted 
by Charles V. 

Order of the Capueins {The). 
See p. 144, ' Capueins.' 

Order of the Carmelites {The). 
See p. 147, ' Carmelites.' 

Order of the Carthusians {The). 
See p. 149, ' Carthusians.' 

Order of the Cincinna'ti {The), 
1783. Established in the United States of 
North America, it was originally designed 
as an order for American officers in the 
War of Independence {q.v.), and for their 
eldest sons, the title to descend by pri- 
mogeniture. Another purpose was the 
relief of the widows and orphans of those 
who fell in the war. The decoration is a 
medal representing the old Roman leav- 
ing his plough to serve the State. The 
order still exists. 

Order of the Cistercians {The). 
See p. 175, ' Cistercians.' 

Order of the Cordeliers {The). 
See p. 207, ' Cordeliers.' 

Order of the Crescent. I. 1448. 
Instituted by Renatus of Anjou, king of 
Sicily. 

The device of Benatvis was a crescent. 



ORDER 



ORDER 



645 



II. Instituted 1799 by the sultan after 
the battle of the Nile. Rear-Admiral 
Nelson was the first knight-companion of 
the order. 

Order of the Dannebrog {The), 
1219. Founded by Waldemar II.; re- 
stored in 1671 by Christian V. ; recon- 
structed 28 June, 1808, by Frederick VI. 

Order of the Day {The). In par- 
liamentary usage is a method of supersed- 
ing a question before the house by 
moving that its attention be directed to 
the questions in the same order as they 
stand. Thus if the order is A, B, C, D, 
and the question before the house is C, 
a member who wants to burke the ques- 
tion moves that A and B be taken before 
C, or that the questions be taken accord- 
ing to ' the order of the day.' Of course, 
obstructionists can debate on A and B 
without committing themselves on C, 
and push C on one side. 

Order of the Dominicans {The). 
See p. 265, ' Dominicans.' 

Order of the Dove {The\ 1379. 
Instituted by John I. of Castile. 

Order of the Dragon {The), 1410. 
Established by Sigismond of Hungary on 
his marriage with Barbara his second 
wife. The insignia was a red cross and 
a gold dragon with its tail twisted round 
its neck. 

Order of the Eagle {The), 1433. 
Founded by Kaiser Albrecht {Albert) II. 
See ' Order of the Black Eagle, Golden 
Eagle, and White Eagle.' 

Order of the Elephant {The), 

12th cent. Instituted in Denmark by 
Knute IV. in honour of a crusader who 
in a battle against the Saracens slew an 
elephant (1189). The order was restored 
in 1478 by Christian I. The decoration 
is an elephant carrying a tower, and the 
ribbon is blue moire, passing from the 
right shoulder to the left side. It is 
reserved for princes and others of regal 
rank. 

Order of the Franciscans {The). 
See p. 343, ' Franciscans.' 

Order of the Garter. See 

p. 496, ' Knights of the Garter.' 

Order of the Golden Angel 
{The), 312. A military order of Con- 



stantinople, instituted by Constantine. 
Extinct. 

Order of the Golden Eagle 

{The), 1702. Instituted by Duke Eber- 
hard Ludwig at Wiirtemberg. United 
with the Order of the Crown of Wiir- 
temberg in 1818. 

Order of the Golden Fleece 

{The). Founded by Philippe III. duke of 
Burgundy, 10 Jan., 1429. The gi-and- 
mastership of the order was disputed for 
twenty-four years (1700-1724) between 
Kaiser Karl VI. and Felipe king of 
Spain; but when Louis XV. of France 
sent back the infanta, to whom he was 
betrothed, the Spaniards were so indig- 
nant that they broke off their French 
alliance and joined Austria, and Felipe 
yielded to Karl the moot point. When 
the house of Burgundy became extinct, 
the grand-mastership of the order pasf^ei 
to the house of Austria — Karl V. trans- 
mitted it to his successors in Spain. 
When the dynasty failed, Philipi)e of 
Bourbon, king of Spain, with a disputed 
title, claimed the mastership, but the 
kaiser refused to renounce his prior right. 
This was the sore point which was healed 
by the alliance of Spain with Austria. 

Order of the Golden Shield 

{The). Instituted by Louis II. of France 
(about 878) in defence of the country. 
Th*^ motto was Allons ! (a call to arms). 
Extinct. 

Order of the Golden Spur {The), 
1534. A Roman order established by 
Paul III. ; or, as some say, restored by 
him, but founded in 312 by Constan- 
tine in honour of his victory over Maxen- 
tius. Gregory XVI. reformed the order 
in 1841 and called it ' The Order of St. 
Sylvester,' or the ' Golden Spur Reformed.' 
The decoration is a cross of eight points, 
suspended on a black and red ribbon, 
and between the arms of the cross is a 
little golden spur. 

Order of the Guelfs {The), or 
' The Guelfic Order,' in Hanover, 1815. 
Instituted by George prince of Wales, the 
prince regent of England. Extinct. 

Order of the Hare {The). Insti- 
tuted by Edward III. The French raised 
a tremendous shout, and Edward thought 
it was the shout of onset, but it was oc- 
casioned by a hare running between the 
two annies. Extinct. 



646 



OEDER 



ORDER 



Order of tlie Holy Faith of 
Jesus Christ {The), 1221. A military 
order for a crusade against the Albi- 
genses. Extinct. 

Order of the Holy Ghost (The). 

I. Neapolitan, 25 May, 1352, instituted 
by Louis of Anjou, king of Naples. 

II. Fbench, 1198, instituted by Count 
Guy at Montpellier. 

Another, 1578, instituted by Henry III. 
Abolished 1789 ; re-established in 1815, 
and again abolished in 1830. 

Order of the Holy Phial (The), 
or ' Sainte Ampoule,' in the province of 
Champagne. The four barons of this 
order were entrusted with the care of the 
holy phial, in which the coronation oil 
of the kings of France was preserved. 
According to legend this phial was 
brought from heaven by the Holy Ghost 
in the form of a dove, and placed in the 
hands of St.- Remy at the coronation of 
Clovis. The phial was smashed to pieces 
by Ruhl in 1793. 

Order of the Holy Sepulchre 

(The). I. In a.d. 328. Instituted by 
St. Helena on her visit to Jerusalem at 
the age of 80, when the three crosses of 
Calvary were said to have been discovered 
in a cave under the temple of Venus. 

II. 17 July, 1099, instituted by Godfrey 
of Bouillon. 

Order of the Iron Crown {The), 
1805. Instituted by Napoleon when 
crowned with the iron crown of Lom- 
bardy, in Milan Cathedral, king of Italy. 
This order in Italy corresponded with 
the Legion of Honour in France, also 
instituted by Naj)oleon. The number of 
members was at first 620, increased after- 
wards to 985. The badge was the iron 
crown {q-v.), in the middle the French 
eagle. The motto was Dio me la diede, 
guai a chi la tocca (God gave it me, woe 
to him who touches it). 

Order of the Jacobins {The). 
See p. 464, * Jacobins.' 

Order of the Jesuits (T/fce). See 

p. 469, 'Jesuits.' 

Order of the Knights of Christ 

{The), 1317. Instituted by Dionysius 
king of Portugal. It acquired the posses- 
sions of the Templars in 1319, and the 
Grand-master was vested with the crown 



by Juhus III. in 1551. See p. 641, ' Order 
of Christ.* 

Order of the Legion of Honour 

{The). See p. 513, ' Legion,' &c. 

Order of the Lily {The), 1048. 
Founded in Navarre by Garcia. 

Order of the Lion and the Sun 

{The), 1808. In Persia, founded by Feth 
Ali Shah. 

Order of the Lion of ZS-hr- 
ingen {The), 1812. Founded in Baden 
by the Grand Duke Karl. 

Order of the Mathurins {The). 
See p. 566, ' Mathurins.' 

Order of the Polar Star {The). 
A Swedish order designed for cabinet 
ministers, ambassadors, magisti'ates, and 
literary celebrities. The decoration is a 
golden cross of eight points, with a blue 
pole star in the centre of a medallion. 
The motto is Nescit occasum. The 
origin of the order is not known, but it 
was reorganised in 1748 by Frederick I. 
of Sweden. 

Order of the Porcupine {The). 
A French order of knighthood. The 
original motto was Co^nimis et eminus, 
which was changed by Louis XII. into 
Ultus avos TrojcB. 

Order of the Premonstraten- 
sians {The). See 'Premonstratensians.' 

Order of the Red Eagle {The), 
1705. Instituted as the ' Ordre de la 
Sincerite ' by the margraf of Baireuth. 
Reconstructed as the ' Brandenburg Red 
Eagle '.in 1734. Made the second Prus- 
sian order in 1791. 

Order of the Red Staff {The), 
1330. Instituted by Alphonso XI. of 
Castile and Leon. 

Order of the Seraphim {The). 

Sweden, 1334. An order of chivalry in- 
stituted by Magnus II., and renewed in 
1748. It is the highest order in Sweden. 
The badge consists of the anagram I.H.S. 
and a cross decorated with the winged 
heads of seraphs. 

Order of the Servites {The). See 
' Servites.' 

Order of the Ship {The). Founded 
by St. Louis (IX.) on his expedition to 
Egypt. 



OEDER 



ORDINANCE 



647 



Order of the Southern Cross 

(The), 1 Dec, 1822. Created by Pedro 
I., first emperor of Brazil, to commemo- 
rate the independence of Brazil and the 
coronation of Pedro. The ribbon is light 
blue, and the legend Benemerentiiim 
pretnium. On the reverse is the por- 
trait of Pedro in a cross, enamelled in 
white, with the southern constellation 
in its centre figured by 19 stars. 

Order of the Star {The), ' Ordre 
de I'Etoile,' 1350. Founded in France 
by Jean II. le Bon for those wounded in 
battle or tournaments. These knights 
made a vow never to retreat more than a 
mile before an enemy, when they were 
to turn at bay and either conquer or die. 
It was well nigh extinct in 1460. 

Order of the Star of India 

{The), 1861. Instituted by Queen Vic- 
toria for conspicuous merit and loyalty. 
The Viceroy of India is ex officio grand- 
master, and several native princes are 
knights of the order. 

Order of the Swan {The), 1443. 
Instituted by the elector Friedrich II. 
of Brandenburg, and restored in 1843 by 
Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia. 

Order of the Sword. I. Created 
in Sweden, 1522, by Gustavus I., and re- 
constructed in 1748 by Frederick I., 
for fidelity to the king and the Lutheran 
faith. The decoration is a St. Andrew's 
cross formed by two swords, and an azure 
globe with three crowns. 

II. An order of chivalry instituted in 
1449 by Alfonso V. of Portugal. 

Order of the Theatins {The). 
See ' Theatins.' 

Order of the Thistle {The), 809. 
Said to have been instituted by Archai- 
cus king of the Scots. It was renewed 
in 1540 by James V. of Scotland ; again 
in 1687 by James II. of Great Britain ; 
and again by Queen Anne. 

The rue mixed with the thistles is a pun on the 
vord Andrew. That is : ' Thistles and Kue." 

Order of the Trappists {The). 

See ' Trappists.' 

Order of the Virgin's Look- 
ing aiass {The), 1419. Instituted by 
Ferdinand of Castile. 

Order of the 'White Eagle 

{The), 1325. Instituted by Ladislaus V. 



in Poland. Suppressed in 1638. Re- 
stored by Augustus II. in 1705. Included 
in the Russian orders 1832. 

Order of the White Falcon, 

1732. Instituted by Ernest Augustus of 
Saxe-Weimar. The idea is expressed in 
the motto Vigilando ascendiynus. 
See under ' Obdbe.' 

Orders {Holy). The profession of a 
clergjonan. Every clergyman, after ordi- 
dation, is said to be in holy orders. In the 
Scotch and other Presbyterian churches 
ministers ' licensed to preach the gospel ' 
are called licentiates or probationers^ till 
they are ordained over some pastorate. 

Orders {Social), or * Castes.' At one 
time it was well nigh impossible to rise 
out of the social order in which one was 
born, and marriages were, of course, re- 
stricted to castes also. 

In ancient Egypt there were four social orders • 
priests, the military, the merchant class, and the 
artisans. 

In France [ancient rigime'itheie -were only three 
recognised orders : the clergy, the noblesse, and 
the tiers etat. 

In India the four great castes are : (1) the 
Brahmans or the sacerdotal order ; (2) the Clmtria 
or the military order ; (3) the Vaisya or the mer- 
cantile class ; and (4) the Stidras or working class. 

In ancient Rome we find only three recognised 
social orders : senators, the equestrian order, and 
the plebeians. 

In Sweden the four social orders are: the 
nobles, the clergy, tradesmen, and peasantry. 

Orders in Council are acts of the 
Privy Council made by the sovereign 
(who is personally present) by advice of 
the privy council. If the sovereign is 
not present, they are called ' Acts of the 
Lords of the Council.' 

Orders of Mendicants {The). 
See p. 571, ' Mendicant.' 

Orders of the Church. See 

under ' Church ' and ' Monastic Orders.' 

Ordinaires {Les). The French 
royal bodyguard which, in the reign of 
Henri III. (1574-1589), supplanted the 
Scottish Archers, and were by Louis XIII. 
(1622) changed into the celebrated Mus- 
keteers {q.v.). 

Of course the word has other meanings, as the 
ecclesiastical superior who has ordinary jurisdic- 
tion ; the book which indicates the church service 
for each day in the year ; the ordinaire de la messe, 
and so on. ' Ordinaires (3 syl.). 

Ordinance for the State of Ire- 
land {The), 1289. Vindicates the right 
of the English Parliament to bind Ireland 
(17 Edw. I.). 



C18 



OKDINANCE 



OEDBE 



Ordinance for the Suppres- 
sion of Blasphemies and Here- 
sies, 1647. A statute passed with 
triumpliaxit majorities after King 
Charles I. was made prisoner by Colonel 
Hamilton, governor of the Isle of Wight. 
It was aimed at Cromwell and his fa- 
vourers, and provided that any one who 
denied the doctrine of the Trinity, the 
divinity of Christ, or that the Bible is 
the word of God, or anyone who denies 
the resurrection of the body, or a future 
day of judgment, shall suffer death. Any- 
one who denies man's free will to turn to 
God, anyone who affirms that there is a 
purgatory, that images are lawful, or that 
infant baptism is unlawful, shall be com- 
mitted to prison. Anyone who denies 
the obligation of observing the Lord's 
Day, or that church government by pres- 
bytery is unlawful, shall be committed to 
prison. 

Ordinance of the 5th Septem- 
ber, 1815. Reducing the number of 
French deputies from 459 to 260, and 
declaring that no article of the ' Charte 
Constitutionelle ' (q.v.) should be revised. 

Ordinanze della Giustizia, 

1282. A law of Florence excluding all 
nobles from the government. 

Ordinary (The), in church matters 
means the bishop of the diocese ; but in 
emergency a rector or vicar of a parish 
may act as ordinary. It means one who 
in ecclesiastical matters has chief autho- 
rity in a parish. 

The word has several other meanings : as the 
soldier who waits on an officer ; a daily meal at a 
fixed price, or the place where it is given; part of 
an escutcheon, &c. 

Ordnance. A name given to what- 
ever concerns artillery. 

Board of Ordnance. In 1683 the board 
consisted of five principal officers, besides 
the master-general, a lieutenant-general, 
the surveyor-general, clerk of the ord- 
nance, storekeeper, and clerk of deliveries. 
It deliberates, regulates, and orders every- 
thing relating to the artillery and garrison. 

Master-General of the Ordnance. 
Commander-in-chief of the artillery corps. 
He used to have the sole command of 
the Royal Regiment of Artillery, but was 
assisted by a lieutenant-general. The 
office was abolished 25 May, 1855, and the 
duties transferred to the secretary of 
Btate for war. 



Ordnance Select Committee 

{The). A committee of officers who advise 
the secretary of state for war on all inven- 
tions submitted to them. Their office is 
at Woolwich, near the headquarters of 
the Royal Artillery. The committee con- 
tains 2 artillery officers, 1 officer of the 
engineers, and 1 officer of the line, with 
secretary and assistant secretary both in 
the artillery. 

Ordnance Survey. The survey of 
the British dominions by the Ordnance 
Department, who also prepare maps and 
plans both of the whole kingdom and also 
of its parts. 

Of Great Britain'. England com- 
menced by Roy in 1784 ; Scotland in 1809 ; 
England and Wales completed January 
1870. 

Of Ireland: commenced 1824, and 
completed in 1840. 

Of India, commenced by Lambton in 
1801. 

Ordonnances. Laws made by the 
French king, beginning with the words, 
Au nom du roi, and ending with the 
clause car tel est notreplaisir. The three 
famous ordinances of Clrarles X. led to the 
revolution of 1830: (1) Abohshed the 
liberty of the i^ress ; no journal might 
be issued before being submitted to 
government inspection ; (2) the chamber 
of deputies was dissolved; and (3) two- 
thirds of the electors were disfranchised; 
and the number of deputies was reduced 
nearly one-half. 

Ordre de Leopold (i')- 1832. A 
Belgian order created by King Leopold 
for patriotic services. The decoration is 
a white cross. The motto is L' union, 
fait la force. The ribbon is red moire. 

Ordre de I'Epic (i'), 1450. In- 
stituted by Francois I. due de Bretagne. 
The collar was of gold braid representing 
ears of corn in saltire, at the end of 
which hung an ermine, with the legend 
A ma vie. The order expired when 
Britanny was annexed to the crown of 
France. See ' Ordre de I'Hermine.' 

' Epic ' here means a spike or ear of corn. Old 
French epic =spica. 

Ordre de la G-eneste (2 syl.), 
1234. Instituted by St. Louis (IX.) on 
his marriage with Marguerite of Provence. 
The collar was decorated with broom 



OKDRE 



ORLEANS 



649 



flowers and fleurs de lis in gold. See 
p. 643, ' Order of St. Genette.' 

Ordre de I'Hermine, 1381. In- 
etituted by Jean V. due de Bretagne, on 
his reconciliation with the French and 
with Clisson. The insignia was a collar 
of gold charged with ermines, and the 
motto A ma vie. 

Ordre de la Toison d'Or. See 

p. 636, ' Order of the Golden Fleece.' 

Ordre de St. Michel (-L'), 1 Aug., 
1469. A military order instituted by 
Louis XI. at Amboise, in honour of St. 
Michael, the patron saint of France. At 
first the chevaliers were limited to 36, biit 
they were subsequently increased to 100, 
the reigning king being the grand-master. 
It ceased to exist in 1830. 

Ordre des Huraili^s, 1134. A 

religious confraternityof Milan, instituted 
by St. John de Me'da, of the rule of St. 
Benedict. Suppressed in 1571. 

Ordre du M^rite Militaire 

(J/), 1759. Instituted by Louis XV. to 
honour Protestants of the Fx'ench army 
disqualified by their religious tenets 
for being ' Chevaliers de St. Louis.' 
Their decoration was a star of eight 
points cantonnee de fieurs de lis. The 
motto was Pro virtute bellica. It was 
abolished in 1830. 

Ordre du St. Esprit (i'), 1578. An 
order of chivalry instituted by Henri III. 
in memory of his being elected King of 
Poland on the day of Pentecost. The 
chevaliers were limited to 100, of which 9 
were ecclesiastics. The cross bore the 
image of the Holy Spirit, and was sus- 
pended on a blue ribbon. Every member 
must be a Catholic, and a Knight of St. 
Michael. Suppressed in 1789. Revived 
at the Restoration, but again sui)j)ressed 
in 1830. 

Orebro, in Sweden {Treaty of), 
6 July, 1812, between Great Britain and 
Sweden. Its object was to circumvent 
Napoleon, who had invaded Russia with 
450,000 men. 

Oregon (U.S. America). So called, 
in 1846, from its river of the same name. 
The inhabitants are nicknamed Webfeet 
and Hard-cases. 

Oriel College {Oxford), 1826. 
Founded by Edward II. The head of the 
college is called the provost 
28 



Oriental France. So Germany 
was called in the time of Charlemagne, 
still preserved in the name Franconia, a 
circle of Germany containing nearly 9,000 
square miles. 

Orientation, in churches, means 
their position more or less correctly due 
east and west. Very few churches stand 
due east and west, but the deviation seems 
owing to the carelessness of the builders 
or to some local cause. 

It cannot be due to the position of the sun on 
the day of the patron and saint, as churches dedi- 
cated to the same saint do not occupy the same 
p sition. 

Similarly it cannot typify the bending head of 
the crucified Saviour, because no uniform rule is 
observed in church orientation. 

Oriflamme {The). The flag of St. 
Denis, made by Philippe I. in 1082 the 
standard of France. A phonetic form 
of the Latin Auri-fiamma, or flame of 
gold. The oriflamme was a large red 
banner mounted on a gilt staff, the loose 
end of the flag being cut into three 
tongues resembling flames, between each 
of which was a green silk tassel. When 
the counts of Vexin became possessed of 
th.e abbey of St. Denis, the oriflamme 
passed into their hands, but in 1082 
Philippe I. united Vexin to the crown, 
and the oriflamme became a royal ban- 
ner. (St. Denis = Sahn Dnee.) 

The first time it was displayed in a battlefield 
was in 1119, when war was declarpd with England ; 
and the last time was at the battle of AgincourL 
in 1415. On both occasions the French were com- 
pelled to sue for peace. It was made of red taffeta, 
and was without device. Called golden from the 
gilt staff. 

Orkney Islands {The). The Or- 
kejar or Orkeyjar, the Northern Islands 
of the Norwegians, as distinguished from 
the Sudrejar or Southern Islands, now 
called Sodor {q.v.), and the Western, or 
Hebrides. 

Orkney, Latin Orcmies, is probably connected 
with the Norwegian orcaii or orken, a hurricane. 

Orkneyinga Saga {The). History 
of the men of Orkney. This saga was 
printed among the Icelandic Sagas for 
the Master of the Rolls in 1887. It is in 
Icelandic and not translated. 

Orleanists {The). See ' Armagnacs.' 

Orleans {House of). A younger 
branch of the Bourbons rei^resented in 
France by Louis-Phihppe (1830-1848). 

The Orleans-Orleans was Louis XII. (1498-151.5\ 
and the Orleans-.\ngouleme consisted of Frani;ois 
I., Henri II., Franijois II., Charles IX., and Hen 
III. (1515-1589). 



650 



ORLEANS 



ORRY 



Orleans. The Plot of Gaston chic 
cV Orleans, 163'2. This was a plot to 
murder Richelieu, the obnoxious minister 
of Louis XIII. The duke induced Henri 
de Montmorency to join it, and they suc- 
ceeded in raising a revolt in Languedoc. 
The cardinal sent troops to quell the 
revolt ; a battle was fought ; the insur- 
gents were defeated ; and Montmorency, 
being taken prisoner, was beheaded. 

Orleton's Message. Adam Orle- 
ton, bishop of Hereford, sent this am- 
biguous message to the keeper of Berke- 
ley Castle, 21 Sept., 1327: 'Edwardxim 
occidere nolite timere bonum est.' This 
may be either a command to murder the 
king, or not to murder hun, according to 
the way the words are pointed. Thus : 
' Edwardum occidere nolite timere, — 
bonum est ' (to kill Edward fear not, it 
is right) ; or, ' Edwardum occidere nolite, 
— timere bonum est' (do not kill Ed- 
ward; it is right to dread doing so). See 
p. 638, ' Oracle of Delphi.' 

Wolsey, in early life, was cautioned to ' beware 
of Kingston." The warning made a great impres- 
Bion on his superstitious mind, and he would 
never enter the town of Kingston (on the Thames). 
When he was confined to his cell by order" of 
Henry VIII. a blare of trumpets announced the 
approach of armed officials, and Sir William 
Kingston entered. Then the warning of his 
younger days flashed across him in a new light, 
and, bowing his head, he uttered those memorable 
words, ' If I had served my God as faithfully as I 
have served my king. He would not have forsaken 
me in my grey hairs.' 

Henry IV. of England was told he should ' die in 
Jerusalem,' which he took for granted meant 
the Holy Land ; but he died in the Jerusalem 
Chamber, London, the chapter-house of West- 
minster Abbey. 

Cambyses. son of Cyrus, was told that he should 
die in Ecbatana, which he supposed meant the 
capital of Media. Being wounded accidentally 
in Syria he asked the name of the place, and being 
told it was called Ecbatana, he replied, ' Here, 
then, I am destined to end my life.' 

When in 1568 the Countess of Egmont implored 
Alva to spare the life of her husband, he replied, 
' Certainly, madam, he shall be released to-morrow 
morning.' The countess thought the duke meant 
her husband would be released from prison, but 
Alva meant that he would be executed and re- 
leased from life. 

Jourdain the wizard told Somerset, if he wished 
to live, to ' avoid where castles mounted stand.' 
The duke died in an alehouse called ' the Castle,' 
•which stood in St. Albans. 

*,* These punning prophecies are very numer- 
ous, and somewhat amusing. 

OrlofF Diamond {The). Weighs 
19-lf carats, and is set on the top of the 
imperial sceptre of Russia. It is of pure 
water, and about the size of a pigeon's 
egg. It is said to have been one of the 
eyes of an idol in a temple in India. Sub- 
sequently it came into the possession of 
Shah Nadir of Persia ; and, when the Shah 



was murdered, it was stolen by a French 
grenadier, who sold it to an English sea- 
captain for 2,000Z. The captain brought 
it to England, and sold it to a Jew mer- 
chant for 12,000?, The Jew sold it to 
Shafras, an Armenian merchant, and in 
1775 Catharine 11. of Russia bought it of 
Shafras for 90,000?., and a pension for life 
of 4,000Z. per annum. See ' Diamonds.' 

Ormond Crown [The). A silver 
5s. piece coined in Dublin 1643 for circu- 
lation in Ireland. Called Ormond from 
the proclamation of the Duke of Ormond, 
then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, establish- 
ing its currency. 

Orphanites (3 syl.). A sect of 
Hussites (2 syl.) who professed unbounded 
admiration of Ziska, their chief, and after 
his death, thinking no one worthy to suc- 
ceed him, wanted to place the government 
of affairs in the hands of a council. They 
were annihilated in 1434 by the Calixtines 
{q.v.). 

Orphica. An enormous mass of 
literature which in the 3rd and 4th cen- 
turies grew out of the old Orphic myths 
and songs, not dissimilar to the Ossian 
of Macpherson, based, it maybe, on some 
threads of older litei-ature. Not only the 
Hellenists but the church fathers referred 
to those forgeries as to primitive and 
authentic sources of Greek religion, from 
which Pythagoras, Heraclltos, and Plato 
had drawn their theological philosophy. 
Wesseling and Lobeck have demonstrated 
that these writings are forgeries of the 
3rd and 4th cents. ; and that, so far from 
being the soip-'ces of the G-reek mytho- 
logy, they are wholly deduced from Hesiod 
and Homer. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Orry King, or 'Ree Gorree,' of 
Manx. There was in the island at one 
time a ' King Orry's Tower,' now the re- 
sidence of the lord bishop. It is sup- 
posed that Orry was a Norwegian who 
fled to Man during the desolating wars 
of Harold Harfaga; that he succeeded 
in establishing his sway over the island, 
and was a wise, vigorous, and politic 
ruler. To him Man is indebted for its 
legislative government. He held his 
court at Tynwald Hill, and his descendants 
continued to rule the island till 1077, 
when Godred IV. routed the islanders, 
and established a new dynasty. 



OKSINI 



OTTAVA 



65f 



Orsini Conspiracy {The), 14 Jan., 

1858. A most infamous attempt was 
made to assassinate Napoleon III., as, 
with the Empress, he was driven to the 
French opera. The carriage (8 •30) had 
just arrived at the door of the Itahan 
Opera, in the Rue Lepelletier, when a 
bomb was thrown at it which exploded 
and killed twenty persons. A second 
was then thrown which killed one of the 
imperial horses. A third burst under 
the carriage ; but, though the carriage 
was shattered, one of the horses was 
killed, and the aide-de-camp in the same 
carriage, ^le Emperor and Empress 
escaped with very slight injuries. Count 
Felix Orsini, Colonel Pierri, Gomez a 
domestic, and Rudio were arrested. The 
first three were executed, and Rudio was 
transported for life. The French ambas- 
sador remonstrated with the British 
Government for harbouring such villains, 
and Lord Palmerston brought in a bill 
for the punishment of conspiracy to 
murder. In the meantime the French 
colonels demanded to be allowed to extir- 
pate the English nation. This, of course, 
roused a strong feeling, and the bill was 
lost by a majority of 19. 

The life of Napoleon III. was attempted six 
times. Ser, ' Napoleon III.' The silly bluster of 
the French colonels was called at the time ' Cock- 
a-doodle-do.' 

Ortliebians (4 syl.), 1212. A branch 
of the ' Brethren of the Free Spirit ' 
iq.v.) in Alsace, whose leader was a fanatic 
named Ortlieb. They spread into Thur- 
gau and the Upper and Lower Rhine. 
They were pantheists, and in France 
were popularly called Turlupins. 

Osmanlee, 1300. A Turk, or fol- 
lower of Othman, founder of the Turkish 
empire. Othman interpreted Islam (the 
Mohammedan creed) in his own way. To 
call an Osmanlee a Turk is considered an 
insult. 

Osman or Othman is a contraction of Al Tliaman 
(the Cone-breaker). That is O'thaman, O th'man, 
Osman. 

Ossorian Wolves. Giraldus Cam- 
brensis tells us of a certain race in Ossory 
who were transformed every seven years 
into wolves. This is not given as history, 
but as the statement of an historian. 

De quodam hominum genere .... Ossyrien- 
Biuni, unde quolibet septennio per imprecationem 
Baucti cujusdam Natalis .... formam .... hu- 
manam prorsus exuentes, induunt lupinam.— 

Gir.ALDOS. 



Osso'rians {The). The inhabitants 
of Ossory, which comprised the present 
county of Kilkenny, with parts of Tip- 
perary and Queen's County. 

Os'suary of Morat, Switzerland 
{The), 1416. Made of the bones of the 
Burgundians slain by the Swiss in the 
battle of Morat, 22 June, 1476. It was 
destroyed by the French in 1798, and in 
1822 a stone obelisk was erected on the 
spot. 

Ostiarius. St. Ignatius in his letter 
to the faithful of Antioch mentions this 
church officer. His duties were to open 
the book for the officiating priest ; to keep 
the keys of the church, and to be respon- 
sible for the cleanliness and good order 
of the church and its furniture ; to open 
and close the doors at the right time ; to 
maintain good order in the congregation ; 
and to prevent the entrance of any Jew 
or heathen. They were always elderly 
men. 

Our beadle has many of the duties of the more 
ancient ostiarius. 

Ostrogoths. Goths of the East, in 
opposition to the Visigoths or Goths of 
the West. They disappear from history 
in 553. 

Oswald's Law, a.d, 962. The law 
of Oswald archbishop of York that all 
collegiate chapters be turned into Bene- 
dictine fraternities, and if any chapter 
refused to make this change, then was an 
opposition church, under the special 
patronage of the Virgin, to be set up. 

OtrepiefF the Pretender. Gre- 
gory Otrepieff, a runaway monk of 
Ischoudoff, in Russia, was the first of the 
impostors who impersonated Dmitri V. 
son of Ivan the Terrible, put to death in 
his infancy by Boris Godounoflf, in 1591. 
Sui)ported by Sigismund II. king of 
Poland, he overthrew Boris and reigned 
at Moscow in 1605. His marriage to a 
Pole and a Catholic led to his massacre 
by the multitude in 1606. See * Pougat- 
cheff.' 

Ottanta {The). See ' Eighty.' 

Otta'va Rima. The stanza of the 
later Italian writers Hke Boccaccio. 
Byron's ' Don Juan ' is an English ex- 
ample. Lines 1, 3, 5 rhyme, and lines 
2, 4, 6 rhyme, while 7, 8. rhyme inde- 



652 



OTTIMATI 



OUTBURGERS 



pendently. Called ottava because it is 
an eight-line stanza. See ' Terza Rima.' 

Ottima'ti {The). The aristocracy 
of Florence, 

Otto I. the Lion, and * the Great 
King ' of Germany. The second of the 
Saxon dynasty (912, king of Germany 
936-973, emperor of the Romans 961- 
973). 

Father, Heiiirlch I. the Fowler ; Mother, Mech- 
tildis ; Wives, (1) Eadgyth daughter of Edward the 
Elder, and granddaughter of Alfred the Great ; (2) 
Adelheid widow of Lothaire king of Lombardy. 
Contemporary with Athelstan, Edmund, Edred, 
Edwy, and Edgar the Peaceful. 

Otto II. of Germany. «The Red,' 
' the Bloody,' ' the Pale Death of the Sara- 
cens ' (955, 973-983). 

Father, Otto I. the Great ; Mother, Eadgyth 
granddaughter of Alfred the Great ; Wife, Theo- 
phania daughter of Bomanus II. emperor of the 
East. Contemporary with Edgar, Edward the 
Martyr, and Ethelred the Unready. 

*,* Called ' the Bloody ' from the Bloody Ban- 
quet. See ' Otto's Bloody Banquet.' 

Otto III. the Wonder of the World. 
Bom 980; king of Germany 983-1002; 
kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire 996- 
1002. 

Father, Otto II. ; Mother, Theophania ; Wife, 
Mary daughter of the king of Aragon, burnt to 
death for adultery. Contemporary with Ethelred. 

Otto's Bloody Banquet, 981. 
The Romans, desirous of freeing them- 
selves from the German yoke, formed a 
conspiracy to make Rome a republic. 
This conspiracy was revealed to Otto II. 
of Germany, and the kaiser, pretending 
to know nothing about it, invited the 
chief of the conspirators to a banquet. 
When the guests were seated, Otto 
stamped with his foot, and the hall was 
filled with armed men. The kaiser then 
deliberately unrolled a paper, and as he 
read aloud the names the victims were 
dragged from table and strangled. 

Ottoman Empire (The). The 
* empire of the Osmanlis,' i.e. all those 
countries under the Turkish sultan. So 
called from Ottoman or Othman (1289- 
1326), who had laid the foundation of the 
independent sovereignty of the Turks. 

Ot'Way the poet, we are told, being 
in a starving condition, had a guinea 
given him. He went immediately and 
bought a loaf of bread, but died swallow- 
ing the first mouthful. Allusion to this 
tale is often made. 



Ouida. The pen-name of Miss 
Louise de la Rame. The name was 
suggested by a little girl who said Weeda 
for Louisa. 

Our Boys. An inner circle of Moon- 
lighters iq.v.), who had their own cap- 
tains, subservient to Captain Moonlight. 
They were armed, some with revolvers, 
and some with other weapons. Their 
objects were to compel men to belong to 
the Land or National League, to terror- 
ise those who took evicted farms or who 
dealt with persons boycotted. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Our Lady of Mercy. Mme. 

TaUien (1774-1831), daughter of Cabar- 
rus, a Spanish banker. Called ' Our Lady 
of Mercy ' because she was always plead- 
ing for the life of some one condemned 
to death by the revolutionary tribunal. 

Our Lady of Walsingham. 

An image of the Virgin Mary in the 
abbey of Little Walsingham, Norfolk. 
This was the most famous image in all 
England. Persons of all degrees paid 
their vows and made offerings to it, 
and the most extravagant miracles were 
ascribed to it. It was burnt at Chelsea 
in 1538. 

In the last age, whoever had not made a visit 
and an offering to the Blessed Virgin of this place 
[Walsingham] was looked upon as impious.— 
Camden. 

Henry VIII., when a boy, walked from Bar ham 
barefoot to the shrine, and presented 'to the 
image a necklace of great value. Its secret 
springs were exposed to the public before it waa 
destroyed. 

Out in the '15, i.e. in the rebel 
army of the Pretender in 1715 (Geo. I.). 

See below. 

Anderson of Whitburgh, a gentleman whoso 
father had been out in the '15.— HowiTT, Hist, of 
Eng. iGeo. I., p. 500). 

Out in the '45, i.e. in the rebel 
army of the Young Pretender in 1745. 
See above. 

Outburgers. Called in German 
* Ausburgers.' Aliens who had been ad- 
mitted to privileges of citizenship, though 
resident at a distance from the city. In 
consequence of this ' privilege ' they 
claimed exemption from all dues to their 
feudal lord ; and if the lord resisted this 
unreasonable claim, he had to do battle 
with the city which threw its shield over 
the Outburger. 



OUTED 



OXFORD 



653 



Outed Prelates {The). The Scotch 
episcopate disestablished in 1689. 

Alexander Rose, the last survivor of the outed 
prelates.— KoBEKT Chambers, The Threiplands of 
Fingask. 

Ovate. A kind of Druidical curate 
or deacon. The heads of the hierarchy- 
were Druids, the next in rank the 
Bards, and the third order was that of 
Ovates. Old English ofydd, a sapling or 
young shoot. 

Overthro-w of the Geraldines 

(8 syl.) in Ireland {The), 1535. The Geral- 
dines were great Norman lords in the south 
of Ii-eland. They had been suffered by 
Henry VII. to govern Ireland in the 
name of the English crown ; but when 
Henry VIII. was king, he resolved to be 
supreme in Ireland, and Lord Thomas 
Fitzgerald revolted. Skeffington, the 
new lord deputy, levelled to the ground 
Maynooth, the stronghold of the Geral- 
dines, and wholly extirpated the family, 
leaving only a single boy to preserve the 
name. 

Ovid {The French). Du BeUay (1524- 
1560). Also called the ' Father of Grace 
and Elegance.' 

Ovid of the English Nation 

{The). Michael Drayton (1563-1631). 
So called by Dr. Heylin in his ' Cosmo- 
graphia,' p. 303 (1637). 

Ovid's Tower. About two leagues 
from Karansebes, upon a steep hill, 
stands a small square tower so called ; 
and tradition asserts that the Roman 
poet was confined there by Augustus for 
having written his ' Art of Love.' This 
is most improbable. No doubt the poet 
was banished from Rome for some 
offence, but not for writing shaky poetry, 
and the place of his banisliment was 
most likely Tomi in Thrace. 

Owen Meredith. A pen-name 
assumed by Lord Lytton, British ambas- 
sador in Paris; under which name he 
published a number of poems. One of 
the windows in Knebworth Church is 
that of Owen Tudor, and the other is 
that of Ann Meredith. These windows 
are memorials of Lord Lytton' s family 
on the paternal side. 

Lord Lytton, i.e. the Kight Hon. Edward Robert 
Buhver-Lytton, created earl in laso ; son of Edward 
L> iton Bulwer '2nd Baron Lytton, the novelist, 
•Who died 1«73. Owen Meredith was born 1831. 



Owlglass the Jester, 1493 ; but the 
earliest copy now known is dated 1540. 
Thyl Owlglass was the son of a poor Bruns- 
wick peasant who lived by his wits, and was 
cramfulof practical jokes — half knavery 
and half fun. He was servant, charla- 
tan, lansquenet, artist, disputant, monk, 
blacksmith, cook, miller, and so on. He 
died 1350. Thyl was a little squat figure, 
with sharp keen eyes, red beard and hair. 
The American Clockmaker is not unlike 
Thyl Owlglass. Called in Germany ' Eu- 
lenspiegel.' 

Ox {The). Domenichi'no (1581-1641). 
When so called by his fellow-students on 
account of his plodding slowness, Anni- 
bal Carracci remarked that the ' Ox will 
plough a fruitful field.' See below. 

Ox {The Dumb). Thomas Aquinas 
the 'Angelic Doctor' (1224-1274), So 
called by his fellow-students at Cologne 
on account of his taciturnity and dulness ; 
but Albertus said, ' We call him the 
Dumb Ox, but he will one day give such 
a bellow as shall be heard from one end 
of the world to the other.' 

Also called ' the Great Sicilian Ox.' The family- 
was allied to the kings of Sicily. He was also of 
unusual size, very tall and stout in proportion. 

Oxford Act of 1665 {The). The 
act of parliament more usually called 
' The Five-mile Act,' which banished non- 
conforming ministers five miles from any 
parliamentary town. 

Oxford Colleges. (Those in itaHcs 
are halls.) 





Head When founded 


Alban-s{St.)Hall ... 




1550 


All Souls 


Warden '.'.'. 


1437 


Balliol 


Masi^;r 


12G3 


Brasenose 


Principal ... 


1509 


Christ Church 


Dean 


1525 


Corpus Christi ... 


President ... 


1516 


Ed7numi (tit.) Hall 




1559 


Exeter 


Rector" '.".! 


1314 


Hertford 


Principal ... 


1282 


Jesus 


Principal ... 


1671 


Johns (St.) 


President ... 


1557 


Keble 


Warden 


1870 


Lincoln 


Rector 


1427 


Magdalen ... 


President ... 


1458 


Magdixlen Hall (dissolved 1874) 


1487 


Mary {St.) Hall ... 


«•• 


1289 


Merton 


Warden 


1261 


New CoUege 
AVif Inn Hall 


Warden ... 


13)r;6 


M. 


1438 


Oriel 


Provost 


1326 


Pembroke ... 


Master 


1624 


Queens 


Provost 


1340 


Trinity 


President ... 


1554 


University „. ... 


Master 


872 




restored l-iio 


Wadham 


Warden ... 


1613 


Worcester 


Provost 


1714 



And two private halls : Charsley and Turrell. 
*,* Magdalen Hall was iucorpcrated with Hal 
ford CoUege in 1874. 



654 



OXFORD'S 



PACIFICATION 



Mansfield College, 1889. The first Nonconformist 
college at Oxford, The chief object of the college 
is the education of young men for the congrega- 
tional ministry ; the first ' Principal ' being Dr. 
Fairbairn. 

To these may be added Lady Margaret Hall and 
Somerville Hall for ladies. 

Oxford's Masterpiece [The Earl 
of). The monopoly of trade to the 
South Seas granted to a company of 
merchants incorporated as the South Sea 
Company. 

Oxford's Miss [Lord). Elizabeth 
Davenport, actress, called by Pepys 
'Roxalana,' from a favourite character in 
' The Siege of Rhodes.' 

Oxford of Belgium [The). The 
University of Louvain founded 1834 at 
Malines for the union of divine and 
secular knowledge. The following year 
it was transferred to Louvain. 

Oxford of Holland (T/ie). Leyden. 

Oxford Tract Movement, 1833- 

1841. A religious revival which originated 
at Oxford by the publication of certain 
pamphlets called ' Tracts for the Times,' 
chiefly by Pusey, Newman, and Keble. 
These tracts taught the dogmas of 
the divine origin of the church, 
the apostolic order of the clergy, and 
the high church doctrines. Church 
architecture, church renovation, clerical 
dresses, and all externals of rehgion were 
more carefully attended to ; but, at the 
same time, it must be confessed that an 
enormous accession to the Roman Catho- 
lic Church was the result, and a long 
disputation about such things as vest- 
ments, candles, genuflexions, and so on. 

Oxford University. The heads 
of the several colleges have the following 
titles . — 

Of 1 he is called the Dean, viz. the 
head of Christ Church. 

Of 3 he is called the Master, viz. of 
Biilliol, Pembroke, and University Col- 
lege. 

Of 4 he is called the President, viz. 
of Corpus, Magdalen, St. John's, and 
Trinity. 

Of 3 he is called the Principal, viz. 
of Brasenose, Jesus, and Hertford ; and 
of the 4 halls (New Inn, St. Alban's, St. 
Edmund, and St. Mary). To these add 
Mansfield. 

Of 3 he is called the Provost, viz. of 
Oriel, Queen's, and Wo'rcester. 



Of 2 he is called the Rector, viz. of 
Exeter and Lincoln. 

Of 5 he is called the Warden, viz. of 
All Souls, Keble, Merton, New College, 
and Wadham. 

In Cambridge University the head of every 
college except two is called the Master, that of 
King s is called the Provost, and that of Queens' is 
called the President. 

Oyer and Terminer, to hear and 

determine. A commission gi-anted by 
the crown to judges of assize, &c., to 
' hear and determine ' all cases of treason, 
felony, and trespass brought before 
them on their respective circuits. 

Pacata, or Pezade (2 syl.). Un 
impot de lapaix, 1040. Levied during the 
' Truce of Ood ' for the establishment of 
a militia to enforce obedience to the truce. 

Paccanarists, followers of Pacca- 
nari. Paccanari was a Tyrolean priest 
who died about 1802. He founded the 
order called ' Les Peres de la Foi ' after 
that of the Jesuits was abohshed by 
Clement XIV. in 1773. 

Pacha of Egypt [The). A diamond 
cut on eight sides. It weighs 40 carats, 
and cost 700,000 francs [28,000^.]. See 
' Diamonds.' 

Pacifferes (3 syl.), 14th cent. Armed 
peasantry of France, associated together 
to resist the Grand Companies which 
plundered and oppressed the people. 

Pacific Parliament [The). A 

triennial parliament dissolved 8 Aug., 
1713. A Tory parliament noted for the 
treaty of peace signed at Utrecht after a 
war of eleven years. Bolingbroke and 
Oxford were its chief members. See ' Par- 
liaments.' 

No assembly but one composed as this -was 
could have sat quiet under such apeace.— BUBNET, 
Own Tivie. 

Paciflcateur de la "Vendee (I^e). 

Lazarus Hoche (1768-1797). So called 
because in 1796 he brought the Vendeaa 
war to an end. 

Pacification {Edict of). The same 
as the ' Edict of Amboise ' {q.v.). Called 
the 'Edict of Pacification' because it 
closed the first religious war of France 
(19 March, 1563). 

Pacification of Dunse {The), 
18 June, 1639. The arran^^ement made 
with the Covenanters who had encamped 
on a hill called Dunse Law, when 



PACIFICATION 



PAINS 



659 



Charles I. tried to enforce episcopacy 
and the English Prayer Book on the 
people. Charles, fearing the result of 
a battle, proposed terms of peace, and 
agreed to leave to a convocation all 
church matters. By this convocation 
presbytery was restored, episcopacy in 
Scotland was abolished, and the existing 
bishops were deprived of their titles and 
sees. 

Dunse Law is an elevated spot some 630 feet 
high, north of the town. 

Pacification of G-hent {The). 
Signed 8 Nov., 1576. An accommodation 
between Holland cuin Zealand and the 
Catholic states of the Netherlands, pro- 
viding that no foreign soldiers should be 
permitted in the states, and that all the 
signatories should help each other against 
all opponents. This treaty was known 
as ' The Perpetual Peace.' 

Pacification of Passau, * in 

Bavaria {The), 7 Aug., 1552. Securing 
freedom of religion to Protestants. This 
* pacification ' led to the ' Religious 
Peace of Augsburg,' 26 Sept., 1555. 
Passau pronounce Pas-sow (ow as in ' now '). 

Pacification of Vienna {The), 
23 June, 1606. Concluded between the 
Archduke Mathias of Austria and the 
ministers of Botskai of Hungary. By 
this treaty Hungary was split into three 
parts, of which Turkey possessed 1,859 
square miles, Botskai in Hungary and 
Transylvania 2,082 square miles, and 
Austria 1,222 square miles. 

Pacificator of Europe {The). 
Benedict XIII. (1721-1700). He pacified 
the angry antagonists of the bull Uni- 
genitus {q.v.) by his bull Pretiosus(5.v.). 
He pacified the Sicilians, who wei'e in 
contention about the ' Tribunal de 
Monarchia.' He settled the controversy 
with the king of Sardinia respecting the 
right of nomination to certain abbacies 
and benefices in Piedmont And he 
brought about the treaty of Seville in 
1729 between England, France, Spain, 
and Holland, thereby settling the succes- 
sion of Tuscany and Parma. 

Pack-Monday Fair. Held the 

first Monday after 10 Oct. at Sherborne. 
It was held in the churchyard, and blow- 
ing cows' horns was a distinguishing 
feature of it. Said to be in commemora- 
tion of the completion of the church. 



Pacta Conv ©nta. Polish covenants 
between the nobles and tl e person 
nominated for the crown. Tl e first was 
in 1355, between the Polish i.ojles and 
Louis I. of Hungary, who was invited to 
accept the crown of Poland. These 
pacts made Poland virtually an oligai'chy, 
and were the real cause of its downfall. 

Of 1573. Passed by Henry of Valois, 
securing freedom of worship and equality 
of rights to all Poles. Formally abolished 
in 1736. These covenants were signed 
by every king of Poland at his corona- 
tion. They not only disavowed all re- 
ligious distinctions, but also strictly 
limited and defined the powers and pre- 
rogatives of the crown. 

Pacte de Famille {La), 15 Aug., 
1761. Signed at the instigation of the 
Due de Ciioiseul by the king of France, 
the king of Spain, and the duke of 
Parma, all of whom were of the Bourbon 
family. Its object was to break down 
the marit'me su):eriority of England, but 
it was an utter failure. The king of the 
Two Sicilies refused to subscribe the 
treaty, and in 1789 other affairs super- 
seded it in interest. 

Pacte de Famine (ia), 1765-1789. 
Monopolists of corn who brought great 
misery on France, especially in the years 
1767-1769, 1775-1778, 1788-1789. The 
events of 1789 put an end to this abomin- 
able traffic. 

Teedsigogy {The). ,See p. 27, ' An- 
drews {University of St.).' 

Paedobaptists. Those Protestant 
dissenters who practise infant baptism, in 
contradistinction to the Baptists, who 
allow adult baptism alone, and that after 
a personal confession of faith. 

The Church of England and the Presbyterians 
are Paedobaptists, but applied to these churclies 
the word only denotes a practical doctrine carried 
out by these Christians. As a distinctive title it 
is opposed to Baptists, and applies chiefly, if not 
entirely, to the Independents or Congregation 
alists (q.v.). 

Pains and Penalties. Acts of 
parliament to attaint particular persons 
of treason or felony, or to inflict pains 
and penalties beyond or contrary to 
common law, to serve a special purpose. 
They are new laws p'7'o re nata. When 
Queen Caroline wife of George IV. was 
tried, she was proceeded against by a 
'Bill of Pains and Penalties,' but was 
acquitted. 



656 



PAINTED 



PAIX 



Painted Chamber (!r/?e). Chconbre 
peinte. Anciently St. Edward's Cham- 
ber. It was destroyed by fire with the 
houses of Parhament in 1834. When, 
at the beginning of this cent., the tapes- 
try and wainscoting were taken down, it 
was discovered that the interior had 
been originally painted with single figures 
and historical subjects, arranged round 
the chamber in six bands, somewhat like 
the Bayeux tapestry. Careful drawings 
were made at the time by J. T. Smith, 
and drawings by Charles Stothard were 
engraved in 1819 for the ' Vetusta Monu- 
menta.' 

Painter of ]S"ature {The). So 
the French called Belleau, one of their 
Pleiad poets (1528-1577). His chief 
poem is entitled ' Loves and Transforma- 
tions of the Precious Stones.' 

VaXlltevs (Father of Modern). John 
Cimabue of Florence (1240-1300). 

Paire de G-ants. Donnez-nous 
notre i^aire de gants. Famous royalist 
song during the ' Hundred Days ' in the 
mouths of all the dames des halles of 
Paris. It was a pun on ' Donnez-nous 
notre pere de Ghent,' referring to Louis 
XVIIL, who was residing at Ghent. 

Pairs de Prance {Les). Philippe 
Auguste fixed the number at twelve, 
half of whom were seculars and half 
ecclesiastics. The secular peers were 
the due de Normandie, the due de Bour- 
gogne, the due de Guyenne, the comte 
de Flandre, the comte de Toulouse, and 
the comte de Champagne ; the eccle- 
siastical peers were the archbishop of 
Eeims, and the bishops of Laon, Langres, 
Beauvais, Chalons, and Noyon. Subse- 
quently, the number was unlimited. All 
princes of the blood were pairs-nes. 
Peers were abolished in 1798, but were 
re-established in 1814 at the Restora- 
tion. In 1831 the heredity of peerage 
was abolished, and all peers were nomi- 
nated by the crown. The Chamber of 
Peers was called the Cour des pairs, and 
at the Restoration formed a corps le'gis- 
latif with the House of Deputies, but in 
1848 the House of Peers was superseded 
by the Senate. 



Paishdadians. 

Dynasty.' 



See ' Pishdadian 



Paix Boiteuse (La), 1570. There 
was signed at St. Germain in 1562 an 
edict which forbade the Calvinists to levy 
troops and preach against the Roman 
Catholic religion, but it authorised their 
holding religious services in country 
places. In 1570 a peace was signed 
between the Catholics and Protestants; 
but it was neither sincere nor durable. 
It was called ' La Paix Boiteuse et Mal- 
assise,' because its terms were drawn 
up by H. Mesmes and signed by Biron. 
Biron was boiteux, and Mesmes was 
seigneur de Malassise, but the insincerity 
of the affair gave point to the puns 
boiteux and mal assise (lame and 
unstable). 

Paix Fourr^e {La), 9 May, 1409. 
Between the children of the Due d'Or- 
le'ans (recently assassinated) and Jean- 
sans-Peur due de Bourgogne. 

Paix Malheureuse {La), 1559, 
which closed the Italian war between 
France and Italy (1483-1559). By this 
treaty Henri II. renounced all claim to 
Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. 

Paix de Dieu {La), 1035. A sus- 
pension of arms brought about by th« 
clergy to put a stop to the depredations 
of the barons. From every pulpit in 
France was read this command and 
malediction : — 

' May they who refuse to obey be accursed, and 
have their portion with Cain the first murderer, 
with Judas the arch-traitor, and with Dathanand 
Abiram wlio went down alive into the pit. May 
they be accursed in the lite which now is ; and 
may their hope of salvation be put out, as the light 
of these candles is extinguished from their sight.' 

At the last words the priests extin- 
guished their tapers, and the people 
responded, ' So may God extinguish the 
joy of those who violate this peace. 
Amen.' See ' Treve de Dieu.' 

Paix de Longjumeau (La), 1568. 
Between the Catholics and the Calvinists, 
prox:)aratory to the Paix de St. Germain. 
This peace is called ' La Paix Fourre'e ' 
{q.: .), and sometimes ' La Petite Paix.' 

Paix de Monsieur {La), 1575. 
Monsieur, the title of the king's eldest 
brother. This peace was signed at Loclies 
in Touraine by Francjois due d'AleuQon, 
the only surviving brother of Henri III. 

By this treaty tlie aijpanage of ' Monsieur ' was 
tripled, and he assumed the title of ' due d'Anjou,' 
heretofore borne by his brother the king. 



PAIX 



PALATINE 



657 



Paix des Dames {La), or * La Paix 
de Cambray,' 1529. The pope, jealous of 
the power of Charles V., formed a league 
with France, England, Venice, and 
Milan ; but Charles at once laid siege to 
Rome ; 8,000 Romans perished, and the 
pope fled for safety to the castle of St. 
Angelo. A capitulation followed which 
was signed at Cambray 5 Aug., 1529, and 
was called ' La Paix des Dames,' because 
it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria 
(aunt of Charles V.) and Louise de 
Savoie (mother of Francois I. of France). 
The hollow peace was broken in 1536. 

Palace of Ice {The), 1739. Built 
by the direction of Anne empress of 
Russia, to honour the nuptials of Prince 
Galitzin with a peasant girl. The bride 
and bridegroom had to j)ass their wed- 
ding night in a room the walls of which, 
all the furniture, and even the bed itself, 
were wholly of ice. 

Palais Bourbon. Now called the 
Palais du Corps Legislatif, hetween the 
Quai d'Orsay and the Rue de Bourgogne, 
and opposite the Pont de la Concorde. 
It was at one time the residence of the 
Bourbon princes, but was confiscated at 
the revolution. Under the Directory it 
was the Chamber of the Conseil des 
Anciens ; under the first empire it was 
the house of the Corps Legislatif ; at the 
restoration it was the Chambre des 
Deputes ; under the republic of 1848 it 
was the seat of the Assemblee Nationale ; 
since 1852 it has been the seat of the 
Corps Legislatif. The Salle das Seances 
was reconstructed by M. de Joly (1828- 
1832). 

Palais Cardinal {Le). Now called 
*Le Palais Royal' of Paris. It was built 
by and for the Cardinal Richelieu in the 
reign of Louis XIIL, and was divided 
into an outer and inner court. The 
gardens extended over several acres and 
were the wonder of Europe. 

Palais Royal {Le). See above, 
* Palais Cardinal.' 

Palais de Justice {Le). In the 
cite de Paris. Here, at one time, dwelt 
the kings of France, up to the reign of 
Charles VII. (1422-1461), who resided at 
the Palais des Tournelles. It has often 
been reconstructed ; the last time was in 
1787. The Salic des Pas-Ferdas, origi- 



nally called the Grande Salle, was con- 
structed by J. de Brosse in 1622. 

Pal'amites (3 syl.). The followers 
of Gregory Palamas, who maintained 
that there were two sorts of light, one 
increate and one create. The former the 
light of Deity, who said, ' I am the Light 
of the world,' the latter the light of 
the Sun. This distinction from 1341- 
1351 caused a schism in the Greek 
Church. The monks of Mount Athos 
insisted that the light seen on the mount 
of Transfiguration was the increate light 
of Deity ; but Barlaam insisted, in that 
case that there must be both a visible 
and an invisible God. The upshot of the 
matter was this — the synod presided over 
by the Greek emperor determined the 
opinion of the monks of Mount Athos to 
be an article of faith, and Barlaam was 
obliged to quit the country. 

Palatinate. ' Pfalz,' Germany. 
The ancient empire had two palatinates, 
the upper and the lower. The Upper 
or Bavarian Palatinate, in the circle of 
Bavaria; and the Lower Palatinate or 
Palatinate of the Rhine. At the Peace 
of Westphalia Karl Ludwig was made 
elector, which increased the number of 
electors from seven to eight. 

Palatinate (TFar of the), 1688-1697. 
It was occasioned by Louis XIV. in favour 
of the Duchess of Orleans, sister of the 
last elector-palatine, against Philipp 
Wilhelm prince palatine of Neuburg. 
The dauphin conquered the palatine in 
less than two months. In 1689 Marshal 
Duras made such brutal ravages in this 
country as called forth the indignation 
of all Europe, and caused a new coali- 
tion to be formed against Louis XIV. In 
1697 the Peace of Ryswick gave posses- 
sion of the palatinate to Johann Wilhelm 
son of Philipp Wilhelm. 

Palatine. So the governor of 
Poland was formerly called, and his 
dominion was a palatinate or vayvody. 
The crown was not hereditary, but elec- 
tive. 

Palatine {Count). 'Comes Pala- 
tlnus,' a high judicial officer, generally 
near a frontier, with jura regalia. The 
district over which he had jurisdiction 
was called & palatinate or county pala- 
tine. 

I. In England there were three such 
•UU 



658 



PALATINE 



PALLIKAES 



counties: Lancaster, Chester, and Dur- 
ham, frontif c-i jf Wales. Lancaster was 
made a palatinate by Edward III., but 
the crown is now ' palatine of Lancaster.' 
Chester was made a palatinate by- 
William the Conqueror, but was annexed 
to the crown in the reign of Henry III., 
and is now vested in the prince of Wales. 
Durham was also made a palatinate by 
William the Conqueror, but in 1836 this 
also was vested in the crown. 

II. In Fra7ice, under the Merovingian 
kings. 

III. In Gertnany the ' Pfalz-graf ' was 
far more powerful than a simple graf. 
He superintended the royal revenue, and 
took part in the government. Originally 
the palatine was named by the kaiser, 
but in time the title ar d office became 
hereditary. The chief palatines were 
the counts of Lotharingia, Saxony, 
Bavaria, Swabia, and later on Burgundy. 
Of these the palatine of Lotharingia was 
the chief, being the first prince of Ger- 
many, and afterwards called the Pala- 
tine of the Bhine. In 1315 this noble- 
man was called the Elector-Palatine. 

Palatine (Princesses). Anna di 
Gonzaga (1616-1684); Elizabeth grand- 
daughter of James I. of England (1618- 
1680) ; and Charlotte Elizabeth of Ba- 
varia (1652-1722), 

Palatine [TJie Great). Foremost of 
the Hungarian magnates ; he was first 
minister of the crown, head of the army, 
lord chief justice, and regent when a 
regency was required. He was elected 
by the National Assembly, who sent up 
four names, from which the king selected 
one. 

Palatine of Heidelberg (The). 
A large library, museum, and botanical 
garden. 

Palatines of the County of 
Limerick (The), 1709. Some 3,000 
Protestants, driven from their homes, 
and sent by the English government to 
Limerick in the reign of Queen Anne. 
They are generally called Methodists, 
and are supposed to have been driven 
from the palatinates by the remorseless 
persecutions of Louis XIV. Many emi- 
grated to America, and were called 
the American Palatines. Many Pala- 
tines and other continental Protestants 



had, before this, joined the army of 
William III. 

The Kev. Matthew Henry in his ' Commen- 
tary ' refers to them (pp. 88, 89). ' When many of 
the poor Palatines, driven from their country by 
persecution, visited Chester in the year 1709, to 
the discontent of tlie High Church party, though 
only going to Ireland, I lent them my stable to 
sleep in.' The editor adds this note: 'The num- 
ber who arrived in Chester within three weeks 
was about 3,140. The women and children and 
goods travelled in 109 waggons, for which Mr. 
Henry was informed by the mayor that the queen 
paid carriage, besides two shillings per week sub- 
sistence for each head.' — Henky, Diary. 

Pale (The). In Irish history means 
that portion of the island over which 
the English rule and English law wtre 
acknowledged. It was an ever-varying 
quantity. In Henry II. 's reign it meant 
Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and the 
chief part of Leinster. John distributed 
the Pale into twelve counties palatine, 
viz. Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth, 
Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, 
Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Limerick. 
In Edward III.'s reign, after the statute 
of Kilkenny, the Pale was limited to four 
counties (Dublin, Carlow, Meath, and 
Louth). Richard II. increased the pala- 
tinate to nine. In Henry VI. 's reign it 
was again contracted. Roughly the 
Pale means Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kil- 
kenny, and Louth. Except in the Pale 
the king's power was only nominal. 

Palestro (TJie Hero of). Victor 
Emmanuel II. king of Sardinia and after- 
wards of Italy (1820-1878). The Sardi- 
nians and French defeated the Austrians 
at Palestro 31 May, 1859. 

Come, one and all, cluster closely round the hero 
of Palestro. — Garibaldi to his soldiers, 18(50. 

Pali. A trans-Gangetic idiom from 
the Sanskrit in Burmah, Siam, and Ceylon. 
In this idiom the sacred writings of the 
Buddhists are written. Like Sanskrit, 
Hebrew, Latin, and several otlier sacred 
languages, Pali is not now spoken. 

Pall Mall Gazette (The). A 
London daily newspaper commenced 7 
Feb., 1865. 

Palles'ehi (The). The Medicean 
party devoted to the ruling house of 
Florence, or desirous of establishing in 
that city an oligarchy or tyranny. 

Pallikars. A national militia of 
Greece organised to stamp out the 
Klephts (1 syl.) or brigands. The Ar- 
matolcs formed a principal part of the 
militia. 



PALM 



PANDECTS 



659 



Palm the Bookseller, shot by 
court-martial 26 Aug., 1806. This was a 
most unjustifiable murder. Napoleon 
wanted to overrun Prussia, and Palm 
published a pamplilet entitled ' L'Alle- 
magne dans son profond abaissement,' for 
which he was tried by court-martial, and, 
as he refused to give up the author, was 
ordered to be shot. England, Russia, 
and other free countries were loudly in- 
dignant ; and in 1813 when the Germans 
rose against Napoleon, many regiments 
emblazoned on their banners the bloody 
figure of Palm the Bookseller. 

Palm Sunday. 'Festum Bron- 
cheriae,' or ' Festum Palmarum,' * Domi- 
nica in Palmis.' The Sunday next before 
Easter Day, in conrmemoration of Christ's 
triumphal entry into Jerusalem, when 
the people strewed palm branches in the 
way. Instituted in 1106. In the Catholic 
Church palms, being blessed and sprinkled 
thrice with holy water,, are distributed 
first to the clergy present and then to the 
laity, who receive them kneeling. A pro- 
cession is then made, and at the mass all 
the communicants hold pahns in their 
hands during the ' Passion ' and the 
Gospel. See ' Sunday.' 

Dies palmarum, sive florum atque ramoram 
appellatur.— Rupert, De Dicin. Ojfic, chap. vii. 

Palm.ers. Pilgrims who brought 
home a branch of palm in proof of their 
having been to Palestine. This palm- 
branch was deposited in the church of 
the pilgrims' town. Sometimes the palm- 
branch was wreathed round the pilgrim's 
staflE. 

Palm.yra's Queen, or 'Queen of 

Palmyra.' So Lady Hester Stanhope was 
called (1770-1839). She took up her re- 
sidence at Djouni, in Syria. The last 
and one of the most noted queens of 
Palmyra was Zenobia. 

Palsgrave [Pfalzgraf J. The reeve or 
president of the pfalz or palace-co irt, the 
highest court of the realm, \\h :h ori- 
ginally moved from place to piace with 
the monarch. In France called ' Le Maire 
du Palais.' When the court became 
stationary, the presidency was given to a 
' judge ' ; but the king could, if he chose, 
confer the judicial honour on a ' man of 
a fief or province, who then became a 
pfalzgraf or vice-roi. 

There were two German reeves pos- 
sessed of this judicial power, and their 



districts or provinces were called ' pala- 
tinates.' There was the Upper Palatinate 
(which was Bavaria), and the Lower Pala- 
tinate on the Rhine ; but the word pfalz- 
graf, unqualified, always means the count- 
palatine of the Rhine. 

The pfalzgraf of the Rhine was one of 
the seven original electors of the German 
kings ; but in the tenth year of the Thirty 
Years' War he was deposed from the 
college of electors, and his place given to 
the duke of Bavaria. 

At the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, it 
was settled that the dignity of elector 
could not be alienated, so the pfalzgraf 
was restored, and the number of electors 
raised to eight. When, in 1692, the elec- 
torate was conferred on Ernest duke of 
Hanover the electoral college contained 
nine members ; but in 1777 the number^ 
was again reduced to eight by the amal- 
gamation of the two palatinates of Ba- 
varia and the Rhine ; the duke of Bavaria 
being also pfalzgraf of the Rhine. The 
title was abolished (except ior Hessen- 
Cassel) by Napoleon in 1806. 

Panard of the 19 th century. 

Armand Gouffe, born at Paris (1775- 
1845), founder of the Caveau Moderne. 

Panare'ton. The book of Ecclesia- 
sticus, by Jesus son of Sirach, an Alex- 
andrian, was so called because it was a 
complete breviary of all the moral vir- 
tues. It lays down rules for the daily re- 
gulation of life. Jesus died b.c. 150. 

Pan'athenaB'a, b.c. 1495. A great 
Athenian fete in honour of Athene 
[Minerva], instituted by Erichthonios. 
Athene was goddess of aU [pan] Attica. 
Tiie Great Pan-Athenoea was celebrated 
every fifth year, and the grand ceremony 
was carrying the peplum or veil of Athene 
to the citadel. The prize in the games 
was a wreath of oUves and cruse of oil. 

PandaVas (The). The descendants 
of Pandil. Five princes whose contest 
for regal supremacy with their cousins, 
the Kurds, forms the subject of the great 
Indian epic poem entitled the ' Maha- 
bharata.' 

Pandu means 'white.' The elder of the two 
princes was excluded from the throne for his 
whiteness, probably some disease, but his five 
sons were the Pandavas. 

Pandects {The). The Greek word 
for the Roman Digest compiled in the 
reign of the Emperor Justinian a.d. 533. 
U2 



660 



PANDOURS 



PAPA 



The entire Corpus Juris Civilis contained 
(1) the Code in twelve tables; (2) the 
Digest or Pandects in fifty books ; (3) 
the Institutes, a summary of the Digest 
to teach the elements of Roman law, in 
four books; and (4) the Novels or new 
laws, containing sixteen edicts and 168 
laws published by Justinian. 

The Pandects or Digest are in fifty books; each 
book is subdivided into Titles ; each title into Laus ; 
and sometimes a law is subdivided into para- 
graphs. Thus D 50. 17. 30 means Digest Book 50, 
Title 17, Law 30. D 12. 2. 5. 3 means Digest Book 12, 
Title 2, Law 5, Paragraph 3. The symbol S for 
Pandects is a corrupt form of the Greek n (i.e. P. 
initial of Pandect). 

Pandours (The). The ferocious 
hordes of irregular troops by which 
Austria for a long time spread terror 
among her neighbours, and which, even 
so late as 1849, played an important part 
in the army of the Ban Jellachich. 

When leagued oppression poured to northern 

wars 
Her whiskered pandours and her fierce hussars, 
Campbell, Pleasures of Hope. 

Panic Sunday, 10 May, 1857. The 
day of the Sepoys' outbreak. It was 
about five o'clock in the evening when a 
rocket gave the signal of uprising. The 
Sepoys seized their arms and set upon 
their officers, released the convicts, and 
killed all the Europeans they chanced to 
meet. The bungalows were set on fire, 
the European dwellings were plundered. 
Ladies and children were brutally treated. 
The mutiny began at Barrackpore, spread 
to Delhi, Oude, Lahore, Lucknow, Jhansi, 
and Cawnpore. See ' Sunday.' 

Pan-ionia, B.C. 777. Fetes in honour 
of the patron god of the Ionian cities, 
the object being to bind together the 
twelve confederate cities. See below. 

Pan-ionium. A confederation of 
twelve Ionian cities : — Ejphesus, Meletos, 
Smyrna, Phocsea, Colophon, Teos, Ery- 
thrse, Clazomense, Priene, Lebedos, 
Samos, and Chios. The place of muster 
was a building on Mount Mykale. 

Panno'nia. Latin name for Hun- 
gary, the country of the Pannonii. 

Ancient Panonnia included, besides Hungary, 
the eastern part of Austria, a part of Croatia and 
Bosnia, with Styria, Carinthia, Caruiola, and 
Slavonia. 

P annus ITebula'tus. The veil 
used to cover the pyx containing the 
consecrated host. 

Panontism. The deification of 
instinct. It teaches that instinct is the 



force of nature, and that creation was 
the work of irresistible instinct and not 
of all-wisdom and all-iDower. All wisdom, 
power, and love would have provided 
against the evils which abound, but 
instinct is blind, and shnply follows a 
masterless impulse. 

Panslav'ism, 1831. The confedera- 
tion or union of all the Slavic branches 
into one gi'eat nation, including Russia, 
Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, &c. This 
scheme was advocated by the Hungarian 
poet Kollar (1793-1852). 

Eastern Slavs : The Eussi i ns, the Serbs and 
Hungarian Serbs, Bosnians, Herz-^govinians, 
Montenegrins, Slavonians, Dalmatians, Croats, 
Winds, and Bulgarians. 

Weaterii Stairs: Poles, Silesians, Boher, i .ns, 
Moravians, Slovaks (of Hungary), and the Wends 
or Slavs of N. Germany. 

Pantheism. Either the ultimate 
absorption of all things in deity, when 
' God will be all in all ' ; or else the 
identification of deity with the pheno- 
menal world, in which case God is 
simply the force behind everything, that 
which glows in the sun and blossoms on 
the trees. In India the Brahmins and 
Buddhists are Pantheists — the latter 
teach the ultimate absorption of every- 
thing in God. In Greece the Stoics 
and Eleatics, and in Italy the Pytha- 
goreans, were Pantheists. In Alexandria 
the Neo-Platonists and Gnostics. In the 
7th cent. John Scotus Erigena taught 
that ' God is everything and everything is 
God.' In the 12th cent. Amalric de Bena 
and David de Dinante taught the same 
system. Giordano Bruno was burnt to 
death in 1600 for Pantheistic notions; 
Spinoza of Holland followed in his foot- 
steps. In modern Germany Fichte, 
Hegel, and Schelling were Pantheists. 

If God is everything, and everything is God, then 
all-worship is simply God worshipping himself. 

Pantisoc'racy. A visionary scheme 
of Coleridge of a society where all the 
virtues were to thrive, and all the vices 
to be rooted out. 

Papa Angel'ico. An ideal pope, 
emblem and impersonation of all virtues. 
Dante not only advocated a Papa An- 
gelico, but also a Universal Overlord, 
who was to reign over the whole world, 
to redress grievances, punish offenders, 
administer justice, defend the weak, 
redeem all wrongs, be the father of the 
fatherless, and an ideal God on earth. 



PAPAL 



PAKADISE 



661 



Papal Aggression, Sept. 1850. 
The establishment by Pope Pius IX. in 
England of a papal hierarchy. Dr. Vv^ise- 
man was appointed vicar apostolic of 
the London district and lord archbishop 
of Westminster, with the title of cardinal. 
Dr. Ullathorne was appointed Roman 
Catholic bishop of Birmingham. In 1851 
Dr. Briggs was enthroned bishop of 
Beverley, Dr. Brown of Clifton, and Dr. 
Burgess of Shrewsbury. Lord John 
Russell fumed furiously, and brought in 
a bill to prohibit the aggression. His 
bill was pared down to a line of lOOl. to 
any one who assumed such titles in 
England, but the fine was never en- 
forced. 

Pap'alins. Those of a papistic bias, 
little papists. Strype calls the two parties 
in England at the accession of Queen 
Elizabeth ' Evangelics and Papalins,' 
those who would drive i^ost speed to 
Protestant doctrines and discipline, and 
those who would retain a spice of Ro- 
manism. 

Paper Duty. The paper duty re- 
pealed in 181)1 was the tax imposed in 
the reign of Queen Anne (1711) to meet 
the expenses of Marlborough's wars. 
There was, however, a duty on paper so 
far back as 1691. 

Paper King {The). John Law 
(1671-1729), the projector of the Mis- 
sissippi Bubble (1716^1720). 

Papy'ri. RoUs made of the papy'rus 
plant. The Egyptian papyri are of very 
great antiquity, some of them running 
back to B.C. 2000 or more. Some have 
been found deposited with mummies ; 
others, of a civil nature, have been found 
in jars or boxes. 

1. The Hi' ero glyph' ical papyri, ac- 
companied with pictures, are solar 
litanies, books ' of the empyreal gate,' or 
rituals. 

2. The Hieratic papj'ri, written in 
the cursive Egyptian hand, are mixed 
civil and religious writings. 

3. The Demotic papyri, in enchorial 
character, consist of rituals, contracts, 
and miscellaneous documents. 

The papyri of Pompeii and Herculaneum are 
nuuiorous. They are rolled on a stick and placed 
in a cj'linder. 

Papy'rus Prisse. The most an- 
cient MS. in existence, said to be before 



Abraham's time. It is occupied with a 
plaint on the degeneracy of the manners 
and rueful decadence of man since thg 
good old times. The MS. derives its 
name from M. Prisse d'Avennes, by 
whom it was procured at Thebes and 
given to the Bibliotheque Nationale, 
Paris. It consists of eighteen pages, was 
published in 18'47, and is the most per- 
fect specimen extant of the Hieratic 
writing. (' Notes and Queries,' 12 Feb., 
1887, p. 127.) 

Paques Veronaises {Les), 17 

April, 1797. For political ends compared 
by Bonaparte to the ' Sicilian Vespers,' 
{q.v.). A considerable number of Italian 
and Slavonian troops, and mere armed 
peasants, made an attack on the French 
under the charge of Junot, sent by Bona- 
parte into Verona. As many as 500 
French, scattered in different forts or 
lying in hospitals, were put to death, 
while the citadel fired red-hot balls upon 
the town. A powerful reinforcement 
from the French head-quarters in Italy 
put an end to tb.e fray, and Verona sub- 
mitted with humility to the French. 
Pronounce Lay Park Ver'ro-iMze'. 

Parabola'ni {The), 5th cent. A 
charitable corporation of Alexandria 
instituted during the j)lague of Gallienus. 
Their duty was to visit the sick and bury 
the dead, but they were so mercenary 
under St. Cyril the patriarch that the 
emperor restricted the number to five or 
six hundred; even then they were a 
canker in the empire. 

Paracelsus. The knob of his staff 
was said to inclose the four elemental 
spirits — Kobold {earth), Salamander 
{fire), Undine {water), and Sylph {air). 
See p. 607, ' Names Classicised.' 

Paraclete. The oratory erected at 
Troyes by Abelard after his condemna- 
tion by the Council of Sens. He made 
his paramour He'loise (3 syl.) head of the 
oratory, and there, at death, his ashes 
were deposited. 

In 1817 the remains of both Abelard and HeloTse 
■were removed to Perela-Chaise, in Paris, and 
interred in one sepulchre. 

Paradise of Bohemia (T/ie). The 

district round Leitmeritz. 

Paradise of Central Africa 

(The), Fatiko. (Sir S. Baker, 'Explo- 
ration of the Nile Sources,' 1866.) 



662 



PAEADISE 



PARIS 



Paradise of Europe (The). The 
valley of the Arno in Tuscany. 

Paradise of Holland {The), or 
* The Dutch Paradise.' The province of 
Gelderland. 

Paradise of Portugal (The), or 
' The Portuguese Paradise.' Cintra, 
north-west of Lisbon. 

Paradise of the Indies (The). 
Ceylon. 

Paradise of the Jews. Poland 
was so called before its partitions. 

Paraschistes. One of a low class 
employed in embalming, and, singularly 
enough, held in abhorrence by the 
Egyptians. They lived in the cemeteries 
or their neighbourhood. A scribe marked 
a line with a reed pen on the left side of 
the body of the corpse, beneath the ribs, 
down which line the paraschistes made a 
deep incision with a rude knife or Ethi- 
opian stone, probably flint. He was then 
pelted by those around with stones, and 
pursued with curses. The taricheiites or 
preparer removed the entrails and lungs, 
with the exception of the heart and 
kidneys. The cholchytce were the custo- 
dians of the mummies. As all classes were 
embalmed, including malefactors, the 
paraschistes, in spite of the disgust he 
inspired, was probably in as good case 
as the public executioners in Europe. 
Embalming cost from about 750Z. to a 
mere trifle. See ' Chambers's Encyclo- 
paedia,' and Rawlinson's ' Herodotus.' 

Paravail, or ' Tenants' Paravail.' 
The lowest tenant. The tenants of the 
king were the highest tenants. If these 
tenants let out their tenements they were 
overlords ; and if these overlords let out 
their tenements their tenants were mesne 
lords ; and the tenants of mesne lords 
were par avails (French per, avayler). 

The tenants of kings were overlords to their own 
tenants ; and these tenants were mesne lords to 
the tenants under them ; and the tenants of 
mesne lords were ' tenants paravail.' 

Parian Chronicle {The), e.g. 264. 

Certain pieces of marble containing in- 
scriptions in Greek capitals. These in- 
scriptions are chronological lists of 
Grecian events from Cecrops down to 
the archonship of Diognetos (e.g. 155(5- 
26 i), and supposed to have been exe- 
cuted about the year e.g. 264. They are 
the principal part of the Arundelian 



marbles {q.v.), and are preserved in Ox- 
ford University. Called Parian because 
they were made in the Isle of Paros about 
A.D. 250. 

Paris {Francois de). A celebrated 
deacon born at Chatillon in France 
(1690-1727), and celebratsd for the num- 
berless ' miracles ' sam to have occurred 
at his tomb at St. Me'dard, Paris. This 
cemetery was so crowded day after day, 
and the scenes of the convulsionists there 
were so scandalous, that in 1732 the 
government closed the cemetery, and 
this epigram was by some wag attached 
to the gates : — 

De par le roi defense a Dieu 
De faire miracle en ce lieu. 
It is forbidden to God's Grace 
To work more wonders in this place. 

Paris {Little). Brussels. So called 
from its brilliant shops, its numerous 
cafe's, and its general gaiety. 

Paris {Patron Saint of). Ste. Gene- 
vieve (423-512). Born at Nanterre. 

Paris {Treaties of). 

1. 12 April, 1229. Between Raymond VII. count 
of Toulouse, St. Louis, and the Pope, for the ces- 
sion of Provence. 

2. 10 May, 1303. Between France and England, 
for the restoration of Aquitaine to Edward I. 

3. 24 May, 1515. Between Karl of Austria (sove- 
reign of the Netherlands) and Francois I. of 
France. 

4. 15 Aug., 1761. (Called the FAMILY Compact.) 
Between the diflerent branches of the House of 
Bourbon. 

5. 10 Feb., 1763. Peace between Franca, Spain, 
Portugal, and Great Britain. By this treaty 
Canada was ceded to England. 

6. 6 Feb., 1778. Between France and the United 
States of North America, recognising their inde- 
pendence after the British overthrow at Sara- 
toga. 

7. 20 June, 1784. Between Great Britain and 
Holland. 

8. 15 May, 1796. Between the French Republic 
and the King of Savoy, for the cession of Savoy 
and Nice to France. 

9. 10 Oct., 17)6. Between Ferdinand IV. king of 
Naples and France. 

10. 8 Oct., 1801. Between France and Russia. 

11. 99 July, 1HU6. Between France and Russia ; 
signed but not ratified. 

12. 10 Nov., 1807. Between France and Holland, 
by which Flushing was ceded to France. 

13. 6 Jan., 1810. Between France and Sweden. 

14. 14 March, 1812. Alliance between Franca 
and Austria, 

15. 11 April, 1814, Between Napoleon I. and the 
allies. Napoleon was deposed and banished to 
Elba. 

16. 23 April, 1814. Convention between the Comta 
d'Artois and the allies for the cessation of hos- 
tilities and evacuation of French territory. 

17. 30 May, 1814. Between France and the 
allies, whereby it was stipulated that Franca 
should return to its ancient boundaries with the 
exception of Avignon, the Conitat Venaissin, Mul- 
house, and a small part of Savoy. Malta was con- 
firmed to England, and the three French colonies 
(viz. the Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago) were 
ceded to our dominion. The French troops were 



PAKIS 



PARLEMENT 



663 



recalled from fifty-three garrisons, and all for- 
tresses were restored to their respective claim- 
ants. 

IS. 20 July, 1814. Between France and Spain, 
confirming previous treaties. 

19. 2 Aug., 1815. Convention between Great 
Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, charging 
the British government with the safeguard of 
Napoleon. 

20. 26 Sept., 1815. The Holy Alliance. Between 
Kussia, Austria, and Prussia. 

21. 20 Nov., 1815. Between Great Britain, Rus- 
Bia, Austria, and Prussia, defining the boun- 
daries of France, &c. 

22. 10 June, 1817. Between Great Britain, 
France, Spain, Russia, and Prussia, to fulfil the 
articles of the Congress of Vienna. 

23. 28 Aug., 1817. Between France and Portugal, 
for the cession of Guiana to France. 

24. 25 Aug., 1818. Convention between France and 
the allies. 

25. 25 April, 1818. Convention between Great 
Britain and France respecting debts to British 
subjects. 

26. 1 Feb., 1856. Peace, after the Crimean -war, 
between Russia on one part, and Great Britain, 
France, Austria, and Turkey on the other. It 
stipulated for the independence of the Ottoman 
empire ; the neutralisation of the Black Sea, 
that no arsenal was to be maintained on the 
Black Sea coast, and that neither Russia nor 
Turkey should maintain more than six steam- 
ships of 800 tons. 

27. 3 March, 1857. Peace between Great Britain 
and Persia. 

28. 26 May, 1857. Between the Great Powers of 
Europe, respecting Neuchatel. 

29. 19 Aug., 18.J8. Convention between the Great 
Powers of Europe, to constitute the Danubian 
principalities. 

30. 25 March to 16 April, 1865. Congress to ar- 
range terms of peace between Russia and the 
allies. 

31. Jan., 1868. Conferences between the Great 
Powers respecting the Turkish difficulty. 

Paris Club {The). Called the 
sociele mere or mother society of the 
Jacobin clubs. The Jacobin clubs con- 
tained 400,000 members, and their plat- 
form was ' anarchy and revolution.' As 
Michelet (' Hist. Fr. Rev.' pp. 476, 485) 
says, the Jacobin clubs ' soon became a 
vast committee of revolutionary police.' 

Paris Garden. A bear-garden on 
the bank of the Thames. Blount in his 
* Glossographia ' says that Richard de 
Paris had a house and garden there in 
the time of Richard II., and he quotes as 
his authority the Close Roll 16 Rich. II. ; 
but the words of the Roll are ' domum 
Roberti de Parys.' 

It was originally a copyhold manor which fell 
to Robert Marmion, after the Conquest, and was 
given by his son to the monks of Bermondsey 
Priory. 

Paris of Japan {The). Osaka. 

Parishes. In England and Wales 
14,610, of which 550 are in two counties. 
Benefices 11,728 ; of these 9,669 are in 
the province of Canterbury, and 2,059 in 
the province of York. 

In Ireland 2,500. 



is merely an 



In Scotland a parish 
ecclesiastical division. 

By the Poor-law Amendment Act, 13,964 of the 
parishes were amalgamated into 585 unions, but 
besides these there are 21 unions by Local Acts 12 
by Gilbert's Act (<;.i;.), and the 89 parishes of the 
Scilly Isles- united. 

Parisian Wedding {The). The 
massacre in Paris begun on St. Bartho- 
lomew's Eve during the wedding festivi- 
ties of Henri of Navarre and Marguerite 
of France. 

Charles IX., although it was not possible for 
him to recall to life the countless victims of the 
' Parisian Wedding,' was ready to explain those 
murders to the unprejudiced mind.— Motley, 
Dutch Bepublic, iii. 9. 

Parker {Admiral). Richard Parker, 
an able seaman, was called by his com- 
rades ' Admiral ' because he was the ring- 
leader of the mutiny of the fleet in the 
Nore. He was hanged at the yard-arm 
of a man-of-war off Sheerness in June 
1797. 

Parker Society {TJie), Cambridge. 
Established in 1840 for reprinting the 
works of the early English Reformers. 
Dissolved 1853 or 1854. Fifty-three 
works were published under its auspices, 
equal to four every year. 

Parker's Bible {The), 1572. The 
second folio edition of the ' Great Bible ' 
{q.v.), with corrections and several pro- 
legomena, under the supervision of Arch- 
bishop Parker. See ' Bibles.' 

Parks, Commons, and Open 
Spaces Committee {The Metropo- 
litan) has under its charge about 3,000 
acres or 4 square miles of the metropoli- 
tan area. Some 300 bailiffs, gardeners, 
and labourers are constantly employed. 

Parlamento is a meeting of the 
Florentine people on the piazza of the 

Signory. 

Parlement de St. Louis {Le), 
18th cent. A law court where causes 
were tried by evidence. It had no fixed 
locality, but followed the king wherever 
he went. The staff consisted of 3 high 
barons, 3 prelates, 19 knights, and 18 
councillors. Its chief business was to 
register the royal decrees; it had no 
legislative power of its own. 

These parlements had no point of resemblanca 
to our parliament, but though they did not make 
laws, they had to register the royal edicts and 
ordinances before they became law. The Paris 
parlement was formally abolithod in 1790. See 
' Oliin.' 



664 



PARLEMENT 



PARLIAMENTS 



Parlement of France. Origin- 
ally an ambulatory court of justice 
which followed the king and administered 
justice in his name. Philippe le Bel 
in 1302 was the first to fix a ' parlement ' 
in Paris. It held sessions, at first, 
only twice a year; but in 1380 it was 
made permanent. There were 13 other 
parlements in France. That of Toulouse 
was established in 1302 ; of Grenoble in 
1451 ; of Bordeaux in 14G2 ; of Dijon in 
1477 ; of Rouen in 1499; of Aix in 1501; 
of Rennes in 1553 ; of Pau in 1620 ; of 
Metz in 1633 ; of Besan^on in 1676 ; of 
Trevoux in 1696 ; of Douay in 1713 ; and 
of Nancy in 1775. 

Parlement of Paris (The), 28 
Jan., 1226. Was called to excommuni- 
cate Raymond VII. count of Toulouse. 
Another was called on 29 March, 1226, 
to arrange a crusade against the Albi- 
genses. 



Parliament. See 



Addle parliament 

Barebone ,, 
(of) Bats 

Black parliament 

Club 

Convention „ 

Devils 

Drunken „ 
(of) Dunces 

Good parliament 

Grattan's „ 

Illiterate 

Imperial ,, 

Irish „ 

Jews' ,, 

Lack-learning par- 
liament 

Leicester's parlia- 
ment 

Little parliament 

Long 

Longest „(p.664) 

Mad 

Merciless „ 

Mongrel „ 



Obstructive 
Pacific parliament 
Parliament (longest) 
,, (shortest) 
Parliament oak 
Pensionary parlia- 
ment 
Pride s purge 
Rowdy parliament 
Bump ,, 

Running „ 
Septennial „ 
Session of 41 hours, 

st'i' p. (i65 
Shortest parlia- 

ment, sec p. f;t>4 
Triennial parliamt 
Unlearned ,, 
Unmerciful ,, 
Useless „ 

Wonderful or Won- 
der-making par- 
liament 
(of) 16.)4 
See ' Parliamentary, '&C. 



Parliament. Edward the Confessor 
called his witenagemots j^arZemewi^s. 

1164. Henry II. called together at Claren- 
don, in Wiltshire, the prelates 
and nobles to pass the famous 16 
ordinances to limit the power of 
the church. 

1265. Simon de Montfort, summoned, in 
the king's [Hen. III.'s] name, two 
knights for each county, two 
citizens for each city, and two 
burgesses for each borough, to a 
national council. 

1274. The national council was first 
called a parlianieut (Edw. L). 



1330. (4 Edw. III. 0. 14 ) Parliaments 
were ordered to be held annually. 

1377. (Rich. II.) The first Speaker 
elected. It was Peter Delamere. 

1694. The Triennial Act was passed (6, 7 
Will. & Mary). Similar acts had 
been passed by Charles I. & II. 

1716. The Sej)tennial Act was passed 
(1 Geo. I. c. 38). 

Bills in the form of acts were first introduced in 
the reign of Henry VI. In the reign of Edward V. 
there was no parliament. 

Parliament (Irish). The first regu- 
lar parliament of Ireland was held 1295, 
and the great officials of the Pale [q.v.) 
were summoned to England to consult 
on the crisis. In 1459 the Irish parha- 
ment insisted on complete legislative 
independence and sovereignty. In 1780 
Henry Grattan moved that 'the king, 
lords, and conunons of Ireland are alone 
competent to enact laws to bind Ireland.' 
In 1782 Poyning's Act [q.v.) was repealed 
in the Irish parliament and Ireland was 
declared free. In 1800 the Irish parlia- 
ments were united with those of Great 
Britain. See ' Parliaments.' 

Mr. Gladstone and his party have pleaded for 
an ' Irish parliament for purely Irish affairs,' but 
Grattan honestly confessed that the Irish alone 
should make laws for Ireland, and that the Irish 
ought not to be subject to tiie laws of England. 
This is the true Irish doctrine for better or for 
■worse. 

Parliaments [The Four Longest 

1575-1586 (Q. Eliz.) ; by 18 proroga- 
tions it lasted 11 years. 

The ' Long parliament,' including the 
' Rump,' 19 years 132 days, from 3 Nov., 
1640 to 16 March, 1660. The Rump 
began 1653, so that the original long par- 
liament was 12 years 168 days, from 
3 Nov., 1640 to 20 April, 1653 (Charles I. 
and Cromwell). 

The ' Pensionary parliament,' 16 years 
260 days, from 8 May, 1661 to 24 Jan., 
1678 (Charles II.). 

The fourth Long parliament lasted 13 
years 252 days, from 14 Nov., 1816 to 24 
July, 1830 (George IV.). 

The Pension or Pensionary parliament was fol- 
lowed by the Ten-week parliament, from 6 March 
to 24 May, 1(379. 

The longest parliament up to the reign of Ed- 
ward IV. was convened in 1472 and lasted 2 years. 

Parliaments {The Eight Shortest). 

Days A.D. King From 

7 1681 Chas. IL 21to28Mar.* (Oxfd.) 

12 1625 Chas. I. 1 to 13 Aug. (Oxfd.) 

14 1658 Cromwell 21 Jan. to 4 Feb.f 

20 1640 Chas. I. 13 Apr, to 3 May.J 



PAKLIAMENT 



PARLIAMENTAEY 



665 



30 1536 Hen. VIII. 8 June to 18 July. 

30 1553 Edw. VI. 1 to 31 Mar. 

33 1510 Hen.VIIL21 Jan. to 23 Feb. 

33 1554 Mary 2 Apr. to 5 May. 

* The fifth and last convened by Charles II. 

t The last convened by Cromwell. 

t Called the ' Short Parliament.' It •was the 
last dissolved by Charles I. and was followed by 
the ' Long Parliament.' 

*^* The following may be added : — 
1806. 4 months 5 days. From 25 Dec, 

1806 to 29 April, 1807 (Geo. III.). 
1830. 5 months 27 days. From 26 Oct. 

1830 to 20 April, 1831 (Will. IV.). 
1886. 5 months 14 days. From 12 Jan., 

1886 to 26 June, 1886 (Victoria). 

This was the Gladstone ministry, 

broken up by his Home Rule 

Bill (Ireland). 

Parliament of Bats [The], 1426. 
During the regency in the reign of Henry 
VI. In consequence of the litigious 
character of the Duke of Gloucester the 
citizens were forbidden to carry arms; 
so when parliament assembled the mem- 
bers of the House of Commons came 
armed with bats or clubs. See ' Parlia- 
ments.' 

Parliament of Dunces {The), 
1404. Convened by Henry IV. at Coven- 
try. So called because all lawyers were 
excluded from it. See ' Parliaments.' 

Parliament of 1654. One of the 

most memorable pai'liaments in English 
history. It was the first in which Scotch 
and Irish members took part. There 
were no members for rotten and pocket 
boroughs. It was the freest of all elec- 
tions hitherto known. The ' Instrument * 
{q.v.) or New Constitution was carried 
through, and Cromwell was acknowledged 
Lord Protector. It was dissolved by 
Cromwell in Jan. 1655. See 'Parlia- 
ments.' 

Parliament Oak. Within the 
ancient park of Clipstone Palace. As 
Edward I. with his retinue, in 1294, was 
chasing the deer in Sherwood Forest, a 
messenger arrived in breathless haste to 
announce that the Welsh were in revolt. 
The king instantly summoned his knights 
around him under this oak, and the 
unanimous voice was for war. The oak 
ia still standing (1890). 

Parliamentary Candidate So- 
ciety {The), 1831. To supply informa- 



tion to electors of the political opinions 
of candidates, by extracts from their 
speeches, their votes, and their public 
conduct. If new candidates, their charac- 
ters and connections were given. 

Parliamentary Reform. The 
Bill passed 7 June, 1832, for the adjust- 
ment of the inequalities of the representa- 
tive system and an extended franchise. 
Fifty-six boroughs in England and Wales 
were entirely disfranchised; 30 which 
had previously returned two members 
were restricted to 1 ; 42 new boroughs 
were created, of which 22 boroughs re- 
turned 2 each, and 20 boroughs returned 
1 each. Four members were assigned to 
the city of London, 2 to each of the Uni- 
versities of Oxford and Cambridge, and 
1 to each of 133 cities or boroughs. Lan- 
cashire was allotted 5 members ; the West 
Riding of Yorkshire 4 members ; 25 coun- 
ties 4 members each ; 7 counties 3 mem- 
bers each ; 9 counties and the East and 
North Ridings of Yorkshire 2 members 
each ; and 10 counties 1 member each. 
Total 658 for the United Parliament. 

The numbers for Scotland were Increased from 
45 to 53, and for Ireland from 100 to 105. The 
qualifications of electors were made to be 40s. 
freeholders, 10?. general leases, and 50/. annual 
rent. The old freemen were wholly set aside. 

Parliamentary Reform Agita- 
tion. 

1776. (20 March.) The motion of John Wilkes for 
parliamentary reform negatived without 
division. 

1782. (7 May.) 7 May, 1783, and 18 April, 1785, 
motions by W. Pitt negatived. 

1784. Home Tooke and Mr. Hardy tried for high 
treason and acquitted. 

1810. (21 May.) Brand s motion for parliamentary 
reform negatived. The same year Cobbett 
was fined 1,000/. and sent to Newgate. 

1817. As many as 600 petitions were presented to 

the house in favour of reform. 20 May Sir 
Francis Burdett's motion in favour of re- 
form was negatived. 

1818. (3 June.) Sir Francis Burdett was sent to 

the Tower for exciting to agitation. 

1819. Hunt, a Wiltshire farmer, was sentenced to 

imprisonment for haranguing multitudes 

at Birmingham. 
1822. (29 April.) Lord John Russell's motion for 

parliamentary reform was negatived. 
1826. Major Cartwright was fined for inciting to 

agitation. 
1829. (3 June.) The Marquis of Blandford's motion 

for reform was negatived. 

Parliamentary Session of 41 

Hours. The longest session was in 
1881, when on one occasion the house 
sat continuously for 41 hours. The ses- 
sion began on JM[onday afternoon, 31 Jan., 
at four o'clock, and went on without a 
break till Wednesday morning, 2 Feb., 



PAELIAMENTARY 



PARNELLITES 



after the clock had struck nine. Mr. 
Gladstone was prime minister. 

The subject was leave to bring In a bill for the 
' Protection to Person and Property ' in Ireland, 
against the Land League (q.v.), and Mr. Forster, 
the secretary for Ireland, moved for the petition. 
It was the Irish members who cried to weary out 
the house by obstructing business. The obstruc- 
tion was closed by the Speaker forbidding any 
more speaking on the subject, and the Bill was 
carried by 164 against 19. 

Parliamentary Trains. Trains 

established by Act of Parliament for the 
benefit of third-class passengers, at the 
rate of one penny a mile. In France the 
traine parlementaire means a train re- 
served for the use of members of both 
the houses of legislature (1840). 

Parliamentary Undertakers. 

The little group of nobles who, till 
"William Pitt's administration, returned 
fully half the members of the House of 
Commons. More than sixty seats were 
in the hands of Lord Downshirc, the Pon- 
sonbys, and the Beresfords alone. ' They 
undertook to manage parliament in their 
own way and on their own terms.' 

Parnassus of G-ermany. Blocks- 
berg. 

On Blocksberg we'll find room enough ; 
The wide Parnassus 'tis of Germany. 

Goethe, Faust (Dr. Anster). 

Parnassus of Japan. Fusiyama. 
(Gibson, ' Gallery of Geography,' p. 921 ; 

1872.) 

Parnell Commission (T/ie). Sat 

for 200 days in 1889, and its report was 
issued 13 Feb., 1890, consisting of 121 
closely printed pages of the Blue Book. 
The Commissioners were Sir- James 
Hannen and Justices Day and Smith, 
and the object of inquiry was whether 
and how far Charles Stewart Parnell 
and his Irish party were connected with 
the crimes of the Irish Land League, 
which Mr. Gladstone asserted ' dogged 
it throughout.' The report was divided 
into nine charges, and the general tenour 
was that Mr. Parnell and his ' lieutenants ' 
were at least morally responsible for 
much of the mischief, inasmuch as they 
did nothing to repress it, much to foment 
it, but adroitly avoided mixing up them- 
selves with the misdemeanants. 

Lord Selborne says the Irish members as indi- 
viduals and politicians are cleared of charges 
against them, but as a political body they are 
proved beyond a doubt of being agents of disturb- 
ance and centres of disaffection. 

The ' Standard ' acknowledges that the de- 
fendants are exonerated from direct complicity 
with crime, but ' the report sliows Mr. Parnell to 



have been the leader of men devoted to the trea- 
sonable design of separating Ireland from Eng- 
land ; to have been implicated in the whole 
system of crime, outrage, and lawlessness which 
has so long prevailed in Ireland ; and to have 
been closely connected with foreign mercenaries 
who made no secret of their being the enemies of 
the Queen [Victoria].'— 14 Feb.. 1890. 

Parnellism and Crime, 1888. A 
pamphlet published by the editor of the 
' Times ' newpaper to show that the 
Home Rule and Land League Irish party, 
of which Charles S. Parnell was the 
head, was, as Mr. Gladstone stated, 
'dogged by crime in all its steps.' It 
appeared anonymously, but was written 
by Woulfe Flanagan, son of the Right 
Hon. Judge Flanagan, who had been 
judge of the Irish Land Estates Court. 
This pamphlet was made the basis of a 
trial before three commissioners in 1889. 

Mr. Gladstone, 11 July, 1882, says of 
tlie Parnellite policy, ' It means the 
destruction of the peace of life ; it means 
the placing in abeyance of the most 
sacred duties, of tire most cherished 
duties; it means the servitude of good 
men, and the supremacy of bad men ' ; 
and on 28 Jan., 1882, he said, ' With fatal 
and painful precision the steps of crime 
have dogged the steps of the Land 
League.' 

Sir William Harcourt said of the Land 
League, ' The doctrine so expounded is 
the doctrine of treason and assassination. 
To-morrow the civilised world will pro- 
nounce its judgment on this vile con- 
spiracy.' 

Those who read the Report of the Commissioners 
will see clearly that the extreme party— the party 
ruled by the Clan-na-Gael — has been the real 
motive power, in the hands of which the Irish 
Land League and Mr. Parnell and his friends 
have been nothing but tools and puppets. 
Wherever the Land League has been most active 
in its operations, whenever what is called coercion 
has fallen into abeyance, the increase of crime in 
Ireland has been something fearful. This has 
been proved to demonstration by the report of the 
Commissioners. While, therefore, it must be 
deplored that, in the matter of the forged letters, 
the authorities of the ' Times ' did not exercise 
more care and greater vigilance, and therefore 
are open to grave censure : yet, in unearthing 
this great conspiracy which has prevailed so long 
in Ireland, they deserve the sincere thanks of 
all good and all honest men in the United 
Kingdom. — Newspaper leach'r, 14 Feb., 1890. 

Parnellites. The followers of 
Charles Stewart Pa.rnell, M.P., who in 
the election of 1885 contrived to bring to 
the English House of Commons eighty- 
five Irisli members, who agreed to vote 
solidly with Mr. Parnell, member for 
Cork. This large contingent, thrown 
into either the Tory or Liberal side, was 



PAROCHIAL 



PARTIS 



667 



sufficient to secure a majo'rity, conse- 
quently the Irish party ruled the British 
parliament. The object of Mr. Parnell 
was to secure to Ireland ' Home Rule,' or 
the right of controlling the legislature 
of Ireland. The weak point was this : 
they wanted to establish a Dublin i^ar- 
liament, and yet to sit in the British 
house at Westminster. 

Parochial Charities [The City), 
i.e. of London. In 1887 an act, passed 
in 1883, came into operation, which in- 
vested the money of these charities in 
the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 
behoof of the more populous districts of 
' Greater London ' for the following pur- 
poses : — 

The education of the poorer inhabitants of the 
metropolis. 

The establishment of libraries, museums, and 
art collections. 

The preservation, &c., of open spaces for recrea- 
tion, &.C. 

Provident institutions and convalescent 
hospitals. 

*,* A permanent Board of 21 Trustees was added 
to the Charity Coniniisfcioners. The charities 
•were, in 1887, worth 118,000/. a year, of which sum 
S5,459i. was applicable to ecclesiastical purposes. 

Parsee. A disciple of Zoroaster. A 
fire-worshipper is so called in the West 
Indies ; in Persia the Mohammedans call 
fire- worshippers gnebres (Persian ghebr, 
infidel). In Bombay they are wealthy and 
influential. In 1852 an association was 
formed for the restoration of the creed 
of Zoroaster, which had been much cor- 
rupted. The Zend Avesta is the book 
containing the sacred writing of Zoroas- 
ter. The original, ' received from heaven,' 
is lost ; but copies exist. 

Parson Garlic. Joseph Tucker, 
D.D., dean of Gloucester (1711-1799), so 
called in the eftigy burnt near his own 
door by a mob enraged against him for 
his essay in support of the Hessians 
who had come to settle in England. 

Par'tholan Race (The). A fabulous 
race of people said by the bards to have 
taken possession of Ireland at the be- 
ginning of the 4th century after the flood. 
Fartholan was of the race of Japhet. He 
landed on Wednesday, 14 May, at Imber- 
sceine, in Kerry, and fixed his residence 
in the province of Ulster, on the island 
of Inis-Samer, in the river Erne. After 
holding possession of the island for 300 
years his race was extirpated by a plague. 

Parthola'nians (T/ie). The second 
colony of Ireland, who came to the 



island some 2,200 years before Christ, 
and found it inhabited by the Fomorians. 
The chroniclers inform us that the Fomo- 
rians were a Basque or Iberian colony, 
and the Partholanians an Aryan colony, 
so named from Partholan, who came to 
Ireland with his four sons and a number 
of followers. The tradition is of small 
historic value, but the Irish boast of 
their Iberian descent, and scorn the 
notion of being Scotic. 

No doubt the dark complexion, the short 
stature, and gracefulness of manners give colour 
to their Iberian descent. 

Particular Baptists. Those Bap- 
tist Dissenters who hold the Calvinistic 
views of election, predestination, and re- 
probation, in contradistinction to the 
General Baptists, who maintain the doc- 
trine of universal redemption. See ' Free 
Communionists,' ' Close Communionists.' 

Partidas (Las). A code of laws 
established by Alfonso X. ' The Wise,' 
of Leon (1203, 1252-1285). 

Partis en France, between 1793- 
1795. 

Alannhtes. 

Apitoyeurs, those who sympathised with the royal 

family. 
Brissotin^ (q.v.). 
Buveurs de Sang, those who revelled in blood and 

slaughter. 
Chevaliers du Poigvard (q.v.). 
Chouans (q.v.). 
Compagnons de Jehu (q.v.). 
Contre-Kevolutionnaiies, the anti-revolutionary 

party. 
Crapauds du Marais. See ' Marais.' 
Egorgi'urs, those who were for death and slaughter 

without end. 
Emissains df Ccboiirg, the ' Suspects ' supposed to 
be influenced by emissaries of i'riedrich 
prince of SaxeCohurg. 
de Pitt, those who attributed the anti-revo- 
lutionary movement to bribes given by 
■\Villiam Pitt. This silly notion was very 
general. 
Endorvi' ui:<:, poisoners. In ancient jurisprudence 

an Eiidornieur was one ' qui pour depouiller 

see victiraes, mele dans leurs aliments une 

diogue somnifere.' 
Federalistes. See 'Federalism.' 
Gironditis (q.v). 
Habitants de la Crete. 
Hebertistes, partisans of Hebert surnamed 'La 

Pere Duchene ' (q.v.). 
Homnw.s d'Etat. 

de la Plaine, the Yea-nay party or Trimmers. 

du 10 A oUt. See ' August 10.' 

d« 81 Mai, those who took an active part in 

' the Reign of Terror. 
Jeunesse doiee de Freron (q.v.). 
Maratistes, partisans of Marat. 
Ministeriels. 
Mnderes. 

Montagnards (q.v.). 
Mtiscadins (q.v.). 
Partisans de la vie civile. 
Patriotes de 1789, those who had taken part in tha 

storming of the Bastille. 
Sans-ailottes (q.v.). 
Septembriseurs (q.v.). 
S'Hspecte {q.v.). 



668 



PARTITION 



PASCHITES 






Terroristes(q.v.). 
Tfiermidoriens (q.v.). 

*,* Veut on savoir, pendant ces denx ans, c'est- 
a-dire de '93 k '96, combien 11 y a eu de partis en 
France? II y en a eu trente-trois.— Dumas, Les 
Blancs et les Bleus. 

Partition {Treaty of). I. Signed at 
the Hague by France, England, and 
Holland, 11 Oct., 1698. It stipulated 
three things: (a.) That at the death of 
Carlos II. the kingdom of Spain should 
not be absorbed by Germany, but should 
be given to the electoral prince of Ba- 
varia, son of the elector ; (6) that Naples, 
Sicily, Sardinia, the province of Guipuz- 
coa, Fontarabia, St. Sebastian, Ferrol, 
and certain towns on the Tuscan coast 
owned by Spain, should be settled on the 
Dauphin ; (c) that Milan should be settled 
on Karl the second son of the kaiser. 
Frustrated by the death of the electoral 
prince of Bavaria in 1699, aged eight 
years. 

II. The same contracting parties agreed 
to confer the crown of Spain, when 
vacant, on the Archduke Karl, son of the 
kaiser ; the Italian States were to be 
the dauphin's portion. Signed 13 March, 
1700. Set aside by the will of Carlos 
II. of Spain in 1701, in which the whole 
Spanish monarchy was bequeathed to 
the duke of Anjou, second son of the 
dauphin. 

Partition of Poland {The). First 
Partition, 1772, planned by Frederick 
II., was between Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia. Russia took 42,000 square miles, 
Austria took 27,000, and Prussia 13,000. 

The Second Partition, 1790, was be- 
tween Russia and Prussia ; Russia took 
96,000 square miles and gave Prussia 
22,000 as a sop, but left Austria in the 
cold. 

The Third Partition, 1795. Austria 
thought the Second Partition unfair, and 
a third spoliation was agreed upon, in 
which Russia took 43,000 square miles, 
Prussia 21,000, and Austria 18,000. 

In 1847 Austria occupied Cracow, and thus seized 
the last remainder of Independent Poland. 

Altogether, Russia took 181,000 square 
miles, Prussia 56,000, and Austria 45,000. 
The nominal cause of this spoliation was 
a religious difference, the reigning powers 
being Protestants and the ' patriots ' 
being Cathohcs. 

Party Volant {The). Those who, 
in the reign of Charles I., fluctuated in 
political principles from parliament to 



king. Nominally parliamentarians, they 
hankered after the court. The heads of 
the Party Volant were the Earl of 
Northumberland, the Earl of Holland, 
the Earl of Clare, the Earl of Portland, 
Waller the poet, and the widowed 
Countess of Carlisle (daughter of North- 
umberland). 

Parvula Evangel'ia. Extracts 
from the Gospels worn as an amulet. 

Quo loco [Jerome] comparat pharisseos certis 
superstitiosismullerculis, qufeinaniflde inductee, 
circumferebant turn temporis Parvula Evangelia, 
hoc est, excerptas ex evangelio sententias. . . . 
Eadem superstitio apud multos ultimls sseculis 
invaluit, qui cello appendebant Initium Evangelii 
Johannis. — Scaligeb. 

Pascal of Germany (T/ie). No- 
valis, i.e. Friedrich von Hardenberg of 
Saxony, a lyric poet, and chief of the 
Romantic school {q.v.). He is so called 
by Carlyle, but ' the Keats of Germany ' 
would have been more appropriate 
(1772-1801). 

Paschal Canon {The). A table of 
the movable feasts, showing the day of 
Easter, and all other feasts depending 
on Easter, for a cycle of nineteen years. 

Paschal Controversy {The), or 
* Easter Controversy ' (162-673). A con- 
troversy about the time of keeping 
Easter — whether the right time is the 
fourteenth day of the moon, or the Sun- 
day following the fourteenth day. The 
former is the practice of the Eastern 
Church, the latter of the Western 
Church. Victor bishop of Rome ex- 
communicated the churche's of Asia in 
190 for keeping Easter as they did. The 
two churches, however, continued to 
disagree upon the question. 

The Council of Nice (325) determined that 
Easter day should be the Sunday following the 
Jewish feast of the Passover, which was kept the 
fourteenth day (or full moon) of the month 
Nisan ; that is the full moon on or next after 
21 March. In 532 Dionysius Exiguus proposed a 
new method of reckoning the least. The British 
Church did not conform till 673, at the Council of 
Hertford. lona later still. 

Paschal Mass. ' Missa Paschalis.* 
The Mass 'qu83 in singulis septimanse 
Paschalis feriis agitur.' See ' Mass.' 

Pas'chites (2 syl.),2nd cent. Those 
Christians who celebrate Easter on 
Jewish paschal day, which was the 14th 
of the moon. In 196 Pope Victor ex- 
communicated those who kept Easter 
on any day but Sunday. The contro- 
versy was not finally settled till the 
Council of Nice, a.d. 325. 



PASHA 



PASTEUKIENNE 



669 



Pasha is a ruler of a province in the 
Turkish empire. A three-tailed pasha 
is of the highest rank; his standard is 
decorated with three tails, which are its 
pennons. 

Pass of Brander (The). The 
famous dark gorge which narrows into 
the Pass of Awe, the scene of the deside- 
rate engagements between Wallace and 
the caterans of Macfarlane, and Bruce 
and the Macdougalls of Lorn. 

Pass of Plumes {The), 1599. A 
pass in Leinster, where the Earl of Essex 
was attacked by the O'Moores ; so called 
from the number of plumes of which the 
soldiers of Essex were despoiled. 

Pass under the Yoke (To). The 
yoke under which the Eomans made a 
vanquished army pass, in sign of subju- 
gation, consisted of two upright spears 
stuck in the ground, with a third spear 
fastened transversely atop, thus n (Livy, 
iii. 28 ; Floras, i. 11, 13.) 

The custom was adopted by other nations with 
■whom the llomans made war. Thus Pontius the 
Samnite, the Numantians, and Jugurtha the 
African, made the Roman army pass under a 
yoke. Of course the men laid down their arms 
before they passed sub jiiga. 

Passagins. So the Waldenses (q.v.) 
were sometimes nicknamed, meaning 
men of passage, or missionary vagrants. 

Passar'owitz, in Servia {Peace of), 
21 July, 1718. Between the kaiser, the 
Porte, and Venice. By this treaty the 
Morea was confirmed to Turkey. 

Passau, in Bavaria {Treaty of), 22 
May to 7 Aug., 1552. Moritz, the new 
elector of Saxony, rebelled against 
Charles V., drove him from place to 
place, till at length he signed the treaty 
of Passau, granting full liberty to all 
Protestants to worsliip in any way they 
chose, free of all interference and 
restraint. This is called ' The Religious 
Peace.' 

Passau, pronounce Pas-sow (ow as in now). 

Passion Sunday. The 5th Sun- 
day of Lent, ' Dominica in Passione 
Domini.' This Sunday began ' Passion 
Week ' {q.v.). See ' Sunday.' 

Passion "Week, or the Great 

Week, was originally a parson's week — 
that is, as many days as can be mussed 
together with only one Sunday ; of course, 
this may be thirteen days. It began the 



Monday following the 5th of Lent, and 
ended on Holy Saturday (the day pre- 
ceding Easter Sunday). The last seven 
days of this period constitute Holy 
Week. The first day of Holy Week is 
Palm Sunday, the fourth day is Spy 
Wednesday, the fifth Maundy Thurs- 
day, the sixth Good Friday, and the last 
Holy Saturday or the Great Sabbath. 
When the Great Week is reduced to 
seven days, as it usually is by Protes- 
tants, then Passion Week and Holy 
Week are commensurate terms ; but 
those who seek to restore the ancient 
ritual call Passion Week the period 
between the 5th of Lent and Palm Sun- 
day (not included), and Holy Week from 
Palm Sunday to Holy Saturday. Strictly 
speaking. Passion .Week covers thirteen 
days, the last seven of which constitute 
Holy Week. 

Passionists, 1741. A religious 
order founded by Paul de la Croix. 
They dress in black and go about bare- 
headed and barefooted, but wear sandals. 

Passive Obedience, or 'Non- 
resistance,' is the political doctrine that 
subjects are bound to obey those in au- 
thority, whether right or wrong, good or 
bad. Applied to kings it includes also 
the dogma that the king, being the 
Lord's anointed, must not only be 
obeyed, but that he cannot be deposed. 
The doctrine is based on Romans xiii. 
1,2:' Let every soul be subject unto the 
higher powers. For there is no power 
but of God ; the powers that be are or- 
dained of God. Whosoever therefore 
resisteth the power, resisteth the ordi- 
nance of God. And they that resist shall 
receive to themselves damnation.' 

It is hard to see how those who allow the 
authority of these words can resist the dogma of 
' passive obedience.' Of course those who seb 
aside the autliority of St. Paul assert that ' the 
powers,' being civil rulers, are the servants of 
the state, and like other servants can be dis- 
missed if they neglect their duty or are incompe- 
tent to perform it. This, however, is setting 
aside the dictum of St. Paul for the doctrine of 
expediency. 

Pasteurienne Inoculation, 

1885. Inoculation first suggested by M. 
Pasteur of Paris, to cure persons bitten 
by mad dogs or wolves, or to prevent their 
becoming rabid. In 1887, out of 3,020 
patients treated by M. Pasteur, only 34 
died, and out of 3,852 treated by M. Pas- 
teur and nine others, 54 died ; a littlo 
over 4 per cent. 



670 



PASTEUEISE 



PATKES 



Pas'teurise (3 syl.). A verb de- 
rived from the name of M. Pasteur, the 
Parisian chemist, who introduced the 
process of and art of sealing up wines and 
beers in air-tight casks, to prevent the 
entrance of ferment or germs to deterio- 
rate the liquors. See ' Listerise.' 

Somewhere between 1880 and 1886. 

Paston Letters {The). A series 
of letters and other documents collected 
by members of the Paston family, to 
whom most of them are addressed (1564- 
1700). The Pastons hved in Norfolk 
during the time of the Wars of the 
Koses, and these letters throw mnch 
light on the customs and incidents of the 
period. Four vols, were published be- 
tween 1787 and 1789 by Mr. [Sir John] 
Fenn of Norfolk, but the originals have 
not been discovered. A fifth vol. was 
published in 1823 by Mr. Serjeant Frere, 
the originals of which were presented to 
the Antiquarian Society, and 95 were 
discovered in Eoydon Hall in 1875. 

These letters reveal to U6 various modes by 
•which the strong man was enabled to turn the 
Bcale against the weak one at law , but the most 
extraordinary relation concerning the family it- 
self is one which occupies more than a volume, 
and details the actual war made upon them by 
the Duke of Norfolk. The celebrated general Sir 
John Fastolf left Sir John Paston the estate of 
Caistor in 1459 ; but the duke declared that Sir 
John had given it to him . . . and he laid siege to it 
. . . and took it.— Howitt, Hist, of England (vol ii. 
p. 44). 

Pastoral Poets of Greece {The). 
Theocritos of Syracuse, the father of 
pastoral poetry. Thirty of his idyls and 
several of his epigrams are still extant 
(B.C. 300-230). Bion of Smyrna (b.c. 
295-238), author of a poem on the ' Death 
of Adonis,' and Moschos of Syracuse 
(B.C. 289-200), the friend of Bicn. 

Pastoral Romance {Father of). 
Honore d'Urfe (1567-1025), author of 
' Astrea.' 

Pastoreaux {Les), 1250. Politico- 
religious insurgents in Flanders during 
the captivity of St. Louis in Egypt. 
From Flanders the insurrection spread 
through France, and soon swelled to a 
mass of 100,000 men, divided into com- 
panies, with banners bearing a cross and 
a lamb. Their leader was a Cistercian 
monk named Job or Jacob, from Hun- 
gary, who gave out that he was commis- 
sioned by the Virgin Mary to preach a 
crusade to the poor against their oppres- 
sors. This Job was received at .Amiens, 



Bourges, Orleans, and Paris as a prophet. 
His wrath was mainly directed against 
the idleness and corruption of the clergy, 
some monasteries were plundered by him 
and their inmates put to the sword. In 
1251 government interfered, and the 
rabble was dispersed or cut to pieces at 
Berry and Beaucaire. See ' French 
Brigands.' 

Seventy years afterwards another insurrection 
broke out, and these insurgents called themselves 
by the same name. The object of this second 
' crusade ' was the general massacre of the Jews. 
They were called Shepherds because they as- 
sumed to be the Shepherds of the Lord who pro- 
tected the ' lambs ' from the ' wolves,' 

Du Cange says :— ' Pastoureaux, quod pastorem 
infimseque plebis hominem significat, cujusmodi 
erant plerique ex Pastorellis, ut testatur con- 
tinuator Nangii vernaculus sub 1251.' 

Pastoreaux, pronounce Pastor-o. 

Patans {The). So the Afghans were 
called in the middle ages. A dynasty of 
Patans reigned in India from 1205 to 
1398, and succeeded the Gaurides (2 syl.). 
Delhi was their capital. Tamerlane over- 
threw the Patans, and established the 
dynasty of the Timorides (3 syl.). 

Pat'erins, or Patarins {The). A 
branch of Paulicians who said that crea- 
tion was the work of the Spirit of Evil. 
They were pretty abundant in lUyria 
and Bosnia in the 12th cent. Called 
Paterins because they taught that prayer 
should be addressed to the Father only. 
The Waldenses were sometimes called 
Paterins or Paterini, as well as Cathari 
and Gazari (in Italy). In France they 
were called Albigenses and Vaudois. 
Condemned by the Council of Lateran in 
1179. 

Du Cange says: 'A loco urbis Mediolani, qui 
Patarca vel Pataria vocabatur.' 

Apollo was called ' Paterlnus,' from Patara, 
now Patera, a town of Lycia, which had an 
oracle of Apollo. 

Patre de Montalte {Le). The 
swineherd of Montalte, Sixtus V., the 
' second founder of Eome.' Born at 
Montalte (1521, 1585-1590). 

Patres Conseripti [Fathers and 
Conscripts]. The Patres of Borne were 
the patrician senators ; but when some 
of these were slain at the expulsion of 
Tarquin, Junius Brutus selected others 
to fill the vacant seats; and as these 
names were enrolled in the senate with 
the patres or previous senators, they 
were called the Cotiscripts, and the 
house was addressed as 'Patres [et] 
Conseripti.' 



PATKES 



PATKON 



671 



Pat'res Pat'riae, 1774. The dele- 
gates to the first American Congress wlaich 
met at Pliiladelphia on 14 Sept. repre- 
senting twelve different states : The four 
New England states, with those of Vir- 
ginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New 
York, New Jersey, Delaware, and the two 
Carolinas. They assembled for business 
in Carpenters' Hall. The congress sat till 
26 Oct., and then adjourned till 10 May, 
1775. 

Patrician of Rome. A title con- 
feired by Pope Adrian I. on Pepin le 
Bref, vvhich made him the representative 
of the imperial power in the West. 
Charlemagne continued the title. 

Patrimony of St. Peter {The), 
'Estates of the Church,' 1077. The 
dotation of the Countess Matilda of Tus- 
cany to the Holy See of Modena, Parma, 
and Mantua. It was united to the new 
kingdom of Italy in 1870. 

Between Orvieto in the north, Umbria in the 
east, the champaign of Rome and the Tyrrhenian 
Sea. 

This dotation was only a part of the Papal 
States. The Exarchate of Ravenna was given to 
the Holy Church by Pepin king of the Franks; 
Benevento was given to it by Heinrich III. ; Forli 
and the Romagna were added in 1297 ; Bologna in 
1364 ; Ferrara in 1598 ; Urbino in 1626 ; Orvieto [Or- 
vee-a'-to] in 1649. 

Patriot King (The). George III. 
was so styled by Bolingbroke. 

Patriot Party {The\ 1692. The 
* Ins ' or ' Let-alones,' formerly called the 
Court party. They were in opposition to 
the Country party or ' Outs,' called the 
' Grumbletonians,' in Walpole's ministry. 
See next article. 

Patriots (The), 1724. A political 
party organised by Bolingbroke and Pul- 
teney against Sir Robert Walpole, chief 
minister of state in the reigns of George 
1. and George II. Their organ was ' The 
Craftsman,' a journal which they started 
to air their opinions in. 

George II. hated ' the rogue ' (Walpole), but being 
henpecked he was a nonentity; and Walpole, who 
had gained the queen, remained in office for ten 
years after the accession of George 11. 

Patriots of '89 {The). Those 
Frenchmen who assisted in storming the 
Bastille. 

Patriotic Brotherhood {The), 

1881. A ' gang of murderous conspira- 
tors ' in Ireland, some of whom were 
brought to trial at the Antrim assizes in 
March. P. J. Sheridan was the chief 



organiser in Mayo, and took a leading 
part in forming the association. 

Patripassionists, or 'Patripas- 
sians.' Certain Monoph'ysites (4 syl.) 
who admit the divinity of Christ, but 
maintain that He was the indivisible God 
the Father, and that it was this God, the 
one and only God, who was crucified on 
Calvary, St. Augustine refers to them. 
They were also called Deipassionists. 

Patrius Sermo. The language of 
the fathers and of fatherland. 



Patron Saints of— 

Aberdeen, St. Nicholas fdied 342) 
Abyssinia, St. Frumentius (died 360) 
Alexandria, St. Mark, who founded 

a church there (died 52) 
Ai,PS(r;(('). Felix Neff (1798-1829). 
Antioch, St. Margaret (died 275) 
Ardennes (The). St. Hubert (died 730) 
Armenia, St. Gregory of Armenia 

(died;i32) 
Bath, St. David, fronj whose bene- 
diction the waters of Bath received 
their warmth and medicinal quali- 
ties (died 544) 

Beauvais, St. Lucian (died 290) 
Belgium, St. Boniface (died 755) 
Bohemia, St. ,Iohn von Pomuk (d. 1393) 
Brussels, St. Gudule (died 712) 
Cagliari, in Sardinia, St. Eflcio (died 

286) ... 

Cappadocia. St. Matthias (died 62) ... 
Carthage, St. Perpetua (died 203) ... 

Cologne. St Ursula (died 452) 

Corfu, St. Spiridion (4th cent.) 
Cremo'na, St. Margaret (died 275) 
Denmark, St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 

And St. Canute (died 1086) 

Edinburgh, St. Giles (died 550) 
England, St. George (died 290) 
Ethiopia, St. Frumentius (died 360) ... 

Flanders, St. Peter (died 66) 

Florence, St. Jonn the Baptist (d. 32) 

France, St. Denis (died 272) 
Franconia, St. Kilian (died 689) 
Friesland, St. Wilbrod (died 738) 
Gaul, St. Irenaeus (died 200) 

And St. Martin (died ;397) 
Genoa, St. George of Cappadocia (died 

361) 

Georgia, St. Ninian (4th cent.) 
Germany, St. Martin (died 397) 

And St. Boniface (died 755) 
Glasgow, St. Kentigern (died 601) ... 
Highlanders ( Tlir), St. Columb (d. 597) 
Holland, the Virgin Mary :— For 

The Nativity 

,, Visitation 

„ Conception 

,, Purification 

,, Assumption 

Hungary, St. Anastasius (died 628) ... 
India, Francis Xavier (died 1552) 
Ireland, St. Patrick (died 493) . 
Italy, St. Antony (died 356) 
Lapland, St. Nicholas (died 342) 
Lichfield, St. Chad (died 672) 

LiKGK, St. Albert (died 1195) 

Lisbon, St. Vincent (died 304) 

London, St. Paul (died 04) 

Milan, St. Ambrose (died 397) 

Moscow, St. Nicholas (died .342) 
Naples, St. Januarius (died 291) 
Netherlands, St. Amand (died 679) .. 



Fete day 
6 Dec. 
27 Oct. 

25 April 

20 July 
'30 May 
.and 3 Nov. 

30 Sept. 



1 March 
8 Jan. 
5 June 
16 May 

8 Jan. 

15 Jan. 

24 Feb. 

7 March 
21 Oct. 

14 Dec. 
20 July 
3 Feb. 
19 Jan. 

1 Sept. 
23AprU 

27 Oct. 
29 June. 

f24 June 
land 29 Aug. 

9 Oct. 

8 July 

7 Nov. 

28 June 
11 Nov. 

23 April 

16 Sept. 
11 Nov. 

5 June 
13 Jan. 

9 June 

21 Nov. 

2 July 

8 Dec. 

2 Feb. 

15 Aug. 

22 Jan. 

3 Dec. 

17 March 
17 Jan. 

6 Dec. 

2 March 
21 Nov. 
15 Sept. 

25 Jan. 

7 Dec. 
6 Dec. 
19 Sept. 
6 Feb. 



672 



PAUL 



PAULINISTS 



Fete day 

Norway, St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 3 Feb. 

Oxford, St. Frideswide (died 760) ... 16 Oct. 

Padua, St. Justina (died 304) 7 Oct. 

Paris, St. Genevieve (died 512) ... 8 Jan. 

Peak (The), Derbyshire. W. Bagshaw 

(died 1702) 

PiCTS (The), St. Ninian (4th cent.) ... 16 Sept. 
Pisa, San llanieri. 

Poitiers, St. Hilary (died. ^67) 14 Jan. 

Poland, St. Hedviga (died 1243) ... 15 Oct. 

Portugal, St. Sebastian (died 288 ^. 20 Jan. 

Prussia, St. Andrew (1st cent.) ... SO Nov. 

KOCHESTER, St. Pauhnus (died 431) 22 June 

Rome, St. Peter and St. Paul (1st cent.) 29 June 

Russia, St. Nicholas (died 342) ... 6 Dec. 

Saragossa, St. Vincent (died 304) ... 22 Jan. 
Sardinia, the Virgin Mary. See 

' Holland.' 

Scotland, St. Andrew (1st cent.) 80 Nov. 
Sebastia, in Armenia, St. Blaise (died 

316) .. .. . 3 Feb. 

Sicily, St. Agatha (died 261) 6 Feb. 

Silesia, St. Hedviga (died 1243) ... 15 Oct. 

Slavi (The), St. Cyril (died 868) ... 14 Feb. 

Spain, St. James the Greater (died 44) 24 July 

Sweden, St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 8 Feb. 

Switzerland, St. Gall (died 646) ... 16 Oct. 
United States, the Virgin Mary. 

Venice, St. Mark (died 52) 25 April 

Vienna, St. Stephen (died 34) 26 Dec. 

Wales, St. David (died 544) 1 March 

(He teas the inick of King Arthur) 

Yorkshire, St. Paulinus (died 431) ... 22 June 

Paul {The German). Martin Luther 
(1483-1546). 

Paul {The Second St.). St. Eemi or 
Bemigius, ' the Great Apostle of the 
French ' (439-535). 

Paul Lorrain's Saints. Convicts 
said to have died penitent. Paul Lorrain 
was ordinary of Newgate, and died in 
1719. He always represented his convicts 
as dying penitent. ' The Tatler,' No. 63. 
See also Note to ' Spectator,' No. 338 
(Morley's edit.). 

Paul Veronese of France {The), 
Delacroix (1799-1863). Sometimes called 
the Btibens of France from his rich 
colouring. 

Paul's School {St.), 1509. Founded 
by Dean Colet for the gratuitous instruc- 
tion of 158 boys in humane letters. This 
number was selected in accordance with 
that of the miraculous draught of fishes 
mentioned in the Gospel of St. John. 
This was the first public school in Eng- 
land in which Greek was taught. William 
Lilly was master of St. Paul's. 

Paul's "Walkers. Loungers in St. 
Paul's Cathedral in the Commonwealth 
and afterwards. 

The young gallants .... used to meet at the 
centri 1 point, St. Paul's; and from this circum- 
stance obtained the appellation of ' Paul's 
AValkers,' as we now say 'Bond Street Loungers." 
—European Magazine (July 1807). 



Paulette, 1604. A tax imposed by 
Henri IV. of France to supply him with 
ready money. It granted to members of 
parlement the right of transmitting their 
office to their heirs on payment of an 
annual fee ' au 60'"*" de la valeur presumde 
de la charge.' It received its name from 
Henri's secretary the Chevalier Paulet, 
who suggested the impost. 

Paulianists {The). 260 disciples of 
Paul bishop of Samisat, and afterwards 
patriarch of Antioch. He denied the 
doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of 
Jesus Christ. Condemned by the Council 
of Antioch in 270. 

Paulicians. The 'Waldenses' of 
the Greek Church (660-845), so called 
because they formed their religious views 
from the Pauline epistles. They rejected 
the worship of the Virgin, disbelieved 
the intercession of saints, the sanctity of 
relics, and the material presence in the 
Eucharist. 

One Constantino of Mananalis, near Samosata, 
had a Greek New Testament given him by one who 
had been a captive among the Mahometans. He 
studied it, and formed his own religious views 
therefrom. The sect was almost stamped out by 
the persecutions of Theodora, who massacred 
100,000 of them, if Porphyry is to be believed. 

Paulicians {The). 'Heretics' of 
the 10th and 11th cents. A branch of 
the Manicheans, who believed in two 
principles, a good one and an evil one. 
So called from Paul of Armenia (bom 
844). 

Petrus Siculus says the Paulicians believed in 
an evil and a good (jod ; the former they say was 
the Creator of the world, the latter is the author 

of that which is to come, -rra-rrjp inovpavtOi, 

Pauli'na Potio (Pauhnus's 
draught). A deadly poison concocted by 
Paulinus, a Dominican monk, by which 
Kaiser Heinrich VII. was poisoned. 

In grandi stat tristitia 
Exercitus militia, 

De principis ruina, 
Quam feritas damnabilis 
Manusque dctestabilis 

Coagulat Paulina. 

Rythmi in obitum Henrici VII. 

Paulinists, or * Universalists.' 
Those who believe that the gos]iel sys- 
tem is meant for all, both Jew and Gen- 
tile. Those who insisted that it was 
meant for the Jews and Jewish prose- 
lytes only are called by Dr. Baur 
' Judaites ' or * Apostolites.' By the latter 
word he means that the ajiostles were 
Judaites. The theory of the universality 
of the Gospel system is called *Pau- 



PAUPERES 



PEACE 



673 



linism' by the Tubingen school of theo- 
logians. ' I am of Paul [a universalist], 
and I of Apollos[a Judaist],' a distinction 
which lasted till the close of the 2nd 
cent. 

When Christ told his Apostles to go into all the 
■world and preach the gospel to every creature, the 
Tilbingenists tell us he meant the Jews and the 
Jewisli proselytes scattered abroad. 

Pau'peres Com'milito'nes. 

Pauper soldiers of the Holy City, i.e. the 
'Knights Templars' (q.v.), or Red Cross 
Knights. 

Pauvres de la M^re de Dieu 

(Les). See ' Piaristes.' 

Pawnees. A nation of North 
American warriors (Nebraska; now re- 
moved to the Indian territory). Their 
divinity is the planet Venus, which they 
call the Great Star ; but they are rapidly 
dying out. 

Pays de Franc-sal^ (ies). Pro- 
vinces exempt from the salt tax in 
France. See ' Gabelle.' Some were re- 
deemed provinces, having given Henri II. 
a large sum of money for the redemp- 
tion; others were maritime, in which it 
was not possible to prevent the smuggling 
of salt. The redeemed provinces were 
Angoumois, parts of Poitou, Aunis, and 
Saintonge, Limousin, parts of Auvergne, 
Quercy, Pe'rigord, Guyenne, and the 
counties of Foix, BigoiTe, and Corainges. 
The free provinces were Flanders, 
Artois, Hainaut, Calaisis, Boulonnaise, 
principalities of Sedan, Aries, Ranijon, 
and Brittany, and the isles of Oleron 
and Re, with parts of Poitou, Saintonge, 
and Aunis. In the redeemed provinces 
salt was sold from 6s. to 12s the cwt. In 
the free provinces it was sold from 2s. to 
9s. per. cwt. 

Pronounce Pay'e d' Frahnk sah'-ley. 

Pays de Grande Gabelle {Les). 
Gabelle {q.v.) was the salt tax in France 
before the revolution. There were the 
provinces of Grande Gabelle, the pro- 
vinces of Petite Gabelle, the provinces of 
Quart-bouillon, and the free provinces or 
Pays de Franc-sale. The Pays de Grande 
Gabelle paid the maximum impost. The 
capitation was 9 lbs. per head yearly, and 
the price was 62 francs the cwi. or quintal. 
These were the He de France, Orleans, 
Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Berri, Bourbon- 
nai^ Burgundy, Picardy, Champagne, 
29 



Perche, and part of Normandy. See 
* Pays de Petite Gabelle.' 

Pronounce Lay pay' -e d' grahnd' GahbeW. 

Pays de Petite Gabelle {Les). 
Gabelle {q.v.) was the salt tax in France 
before the revolution. All France was 
sub-divided into four parts, those called 
the provinces of the Grand Gabelle, the 
provinces of the Petite Gabelle, the pro- 
vinces of Quart-bouillon, and the free 
provinces. The Pays de Petite Gabelle 
paid the minimum impost. The capita- 
tion was 11 or 12 lbs. per head yearly, 
and the price was 33s. the cwt. or quintal. 
These pays were Lyonnais, Maconnais, 
Forez, Beaujolais, Bugey, Bresse, Dau- 
phine, Gevaudan, Languedoc, Provence, 
Roussillon, Rouergue, and parts of 
Auvergne. 

Les pays de Grande Gabelle qui payaient le ma- 
ximum de I'impot ; les families etaient dans ces 
pays taxees a 9 livres de sel par tete, et le prix du 
quintal s'elevait a 62 liv. (or francs). 

Les pays de Petite Gabelle, qui payaient le mini- 
mum : le prix du quintal y etait de as livres 10 
sous (about 33 shillings), mais la consommation 
etait reglee a 11 ou 12 livres par tete. 

Pronounce Lay pay'-e duh teet Gah-beW. 

Pays de Quart-bouillon {Les). 
Lower Normanday was so called in refer- 
ence to the gabeUe or salt tax. There 
were salt-works here, 'oil Ton faisait 
bouillir un sable mouille d'eaux salines, 
et versaient le quart du produit de leur 
fabrication [in return for this privilege] 
dans les greniers du roi.' The capitation 
was 2,5 lbs. of salt per head yearly, and 
the price was 16s. a cwt. or quintal. See 
' Pays de Grande Gabelle,' and ' Pays de 
Petite Gabelle.' 

Pronounce Lay pay'-e d'kar' boo'-yone'. 

Peace {The Perpetual), 24 Jan., 
1502. Concluded between England and 
Scotland, a few years after the battle of 
Flodden Field {q.v.). 

Peace of Antal'cidas {The), b.c. 
387. Concluded by Antalcidas the Spar- 
tan and Artaxerxes. 

Peace of Clement IX. {The), 
1669. An attempt to reconcile the Jan- 
senists and Jesuits by virtually abolishing 
the formulary {q.v.). 

Peace of Durham {The), 1139. 
After the battle of Caton Moor or North- 
allerton, in which the Scots imder Prince 
Henry were routed by Stephen. In this 
peace Stephen surrendered to Prince 
Henry the whole ea 'Idom of Northum- 
XX 



674 



PEACE 



PEARLS 



berland, with the exception of the two 
castles of Newcastle and Bamborough, 
as a bribe that he might use his influence 
with his niece Maude, who was in arms 
against Stephen. 

Peace of God {The), 1035. A com- 
mand by papal bull for aU men to lay 
down their arms, under the expectation 
of the second advent of Christ, ' the 
Prince of Peace.' Five years later, 1040, 
the prohibition was modified by the ' Truce 
of God,' which did not forbid all military 
contentions, but commanded all men to 
cease from hostilities on Thursday, Friday, 
Saturday, and Sunday. 

After the Gospel of the day the officiating priest 
read from the pulpit these words : ' May they who 
refuse to obey be accursed, and have their portion 
•with Cain the first murderer, with Judas the arch- 
traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram, who went 
down alive into the pit. May they be accursed in 
the life which now is ; and may their hope of 
salvation be put out, as the light of these candles 
is extinguished from their sight.' At which words 
the priests extinguished their tapers. 

Peace of Monsieur {The), 6 May, 
1576. So-called because it was signed at 
Chastenoy by Monsieur, i.e. the brother 
of Henri III. It granted to the Hugue- 
nots the free exercise of their religion 
throughout the kingdom of France, Paris 
only excepted ; admission to all public 
offices ; equal numbers with the Catholics 
in the various parlements ; eight places 
of surety ; the right to open schools and 
to convoke synods ; and restoration of 
their estates, appanages, and govern- 
ments. The terms of this treaty were 
never carried out. 

Peace of Nicias {The), b.c. 421. 
The fifty years' truce in which the Lace- 
daemonians engaged to give up Amphi- 
polis. 

Peace of Niirnberg {The), 1532. 
By the Diet of Augsburg, held in 1530, the 
Emperor Charles V. pronounced the Pro- 
testants contumacious heretics, and 
commanded them to return to mother 
church on pain of his great displeasure. 
At the time Solyman II., at the head of a 
large army, was in Hungary, and threat- 
ened Vienna. The princes of Germany 
were asked to assist in driving back the 
Turkish invaders, but the Protestant 
princes united in a league (called the 
Smalkaidic league) not to stir unless the 
decree of Augsburg was revoked. In this 
dilemma there was no choice left, so the 
decree was withdrawn, and the Protes- 
tants were allowed full liberty of worship 



till the next imperial diet. This ad interim 
concession was called the 'Peace of 
Niirnberg,' because it was signed in that 
city. 

Peace of Religion {The), 1555. 
The treaty of Passau confirmed by the 
Diet of Augsburg the foundation of re- 
ligious freedom in Germany. Protestants 
were allowed the free exercise of their 
religion in their respective dominions 
(Karl v.). 

Passau, pronounce Pas-sow (ow as in now). 
For others see under the special name, because 
most of these treaties are differently called by 
dififerent writers. Sometimes they are called 
Trrnties, sometimes Treaties of Peace, sometimes 
only Tru<;es, &c. 

Peacock of the Worth {The). 
Robert Neville,who beautified Middleham 
Castle in ' a very peacocky style.' 

Peacock's Feather. The badge 
of the Chinese general. 

Let the peacock s feather be plucked from the 
cap of Yihshan for his imbecility and tardiness in 
bringing up his forces . . . and let every officer in 
the province of Canton ... be deprived of his 
official button.— r/se Emperor's despaUhes in the first 
Chinese war. 

Pearl of Brittany {The). The 
Princess Eleanor, daughter of Geoffrey 
duke of Brittany, granddaughter of 
Henry II. and niece of King John ; con- 
fined in Bristol Castle because she was 
next heir to Arthur to the crown of Eng- 
land (1184-1241). She was starved to 
death. 

Pearl of Irelan d {The). St. Bridget, 
born in Ulster, lived in a cell in an oak 
called Kill-dara, or the ' cell of the oak,' 
6th cent. 

Pearl of Normandy (TAe). Emma, 
sister of Richard II. duke of Normandy, 
and wife of Ethelred the Unready (died 
1046). 

Pearls are next in value to diamonds. 
The following are historic : — 

' La Peregrina ' weighed 126 carats, and 
was pear-shaped. Gongibus of Calais 
brought it from India in 1620. When 
laid before Felipe II. of Spain, he said : 
* How could you concentrate all your for- 
tune on so small a thing ? ' To which the 
merchant replied : ' Because I knew the 
world contained a king who would buy it 
of me.' This gem came into the posses- 
sion of Princess Youssopoff, and is valued 
at 37,000Z. 

Felipe II. had another pearl, about the 



PEASANT 



PECULIUM 



675 



size of a pigeon's egg, and weighing 184 
grains. It came from Panama, and was 
valued at 28,000Z. 

The Kaiser Rudolf II. possessed a pearl 
of 180 grains ; and Napoleon I. had one 
about the same size. 

The pearl which Louis XIV. gave to Ma- 
dame de Maintenon, and which was offered 
for sale in 1819, weighed 27^ carats. 

The Shah of Persia has a pearl an inch 
in diameter. In 1633 it was valued at 
64,000Z. 

The pearl in the possession of the 
Arabian imam of Muscat is valued at 
32,000Z. 

The Crown Prince of Prussia gave to 
the Princess Royal of England a necklace 
of thirty-two pearls valued at 20,000Z. 

The pearl which Cleopatra melted and drank in 
health to Antony was valued at 80,000t. 

The Romans called the large bell-shaped pearls 
Vniones.the pear-shaped pearls they called Elenchi, 
the half-ball-shaped Tympania, and the whitest 
ExaluminaUc Margarike. 

i:'easantBard(T^e). Robert Burns 
(1759-1796). 

Peasant Painter of Sweden 

(The). Peter Horberg, who died in 1814. 

Peasant Poet of Northampton 

{The). John Clare (1793-1864). 

Peasant Poet of Suffolk (The). 
Robert Bloomfield, author of ' The 
Farmer's Boy ' (1766-1823). 

Peasant Revolt (T/te), 1381. Under 
Wat Tyler, who had been a soldier in the 
French wars. A spirit of discontent had 
long been seething ; it was aggravated by 
the Statute of Labour, which most un- 
justly fixed the price of labour to what it 
was two years before the Black Death, 
although the price of food had risen 
greatly. The discontent came to a head 
by a poll-tax for the prosecution of the 
French war, and this poll-tax was the 
same to the poor as to the rich. All the 
eastern counties rose in revolt, but Kent 
took the lead. Wat Tyler being stabbed 
to death by William Walworth the lord 
mayor, the young King Richard 11. by a 
happy address promised to be the new 
leader, and the revolt was easily put 
down 

Peasant of Cotignola (The). 
Sforza, whose name was Giacomuzo 
d'Attendolo, born at Cotignola, a village 
of Romagna. He was an agricultural 
labourer, but at the age of 12 entered the 



army as groom to Count Alberic, who gave 
him the pseudonym of Sforza, because he 
' gained his own way by force.' His grand- 
son, Francesco Sforza, married the only 
child of Francesco Maria Visconti duke of 
Milan, and succeeded to that dukedom, 
thus transferring its crown to the line of 
' The Peasant of Cotignola ' ICo-tin'-yo- 
lah]. 

Peasant of the Danube (The). 
' Le Paysan du Danube,' Louis Legendre, 
a member of the French National Con- 
vention, famous for his 'eloquence 
sauvage ' (1755-1797). 

Peasants* War {The),m Germany, 
or 'War of the Rustauds,' 1524-1525. 
The grievances were these; (1) The 
people demanded the free election of their 
parish clergy ; (2) the appropriation of the 
tithes of grain, after deducting therefrom 
the suitable maintenance of the parish 
clergy — this ' appropriation ' was to be set 
aside for the support of the poor ; (3) the 
total abolition of serfdom, hunting and 
fishing rights, and game laws ; (4) throw- 
ing open of forests and other lands tied 
up to secular and ecclesiastical nobles ; 

(5) equal administration of justice ; and 

(6) the abolition of certain odious exac- 
tions made by the clergy. In 1525 the 
rising was stamped out with terrible 
cruelty, and more than 150,000 of the in- 
surgents perished. 

Pecquigny (Treaty of), 1475. Louis 
by bribes induced Edward IV. to sign this 
treaty, and withdraw his army from 
France. 

Pronounce Pe-keen'-ye. 

Peculiar Church, or Parish (A). 

Church or parish having special jurisdic- 
tion of its own, and exempt from the 
ordinary. There are royal peculiars, 
archbishops' peculiars, bishops' peculiars, 
and the peculiars of deans and chapters. 

Peculiar People (The). A Protes- 
tant religious sect who trust in Providence 
to cure their sick of all diseases. They 
anoint the sick with oil and pray over 
them, but give no medicine and call in no 
medical adviser. 

Pecu'lium. The plot of land given 
in feudal times to a slave, the produce 
of which helped to supply him and his 
family with food. When the peculium 
was more than the man could manage, 
xx2 



676 



PEDOBAPTISTS 



PELOPONNESIAN 



he might employ a drudge, who was 
called Servus servi. 

Pedobaptists. See ' Paedobaptists.' 

Pedro the Cruel, King of Cas- 
tile (1319, 1350-1369). He began his 
reign by murdering his father's mistress, 
Leonora de Gusman ; daily his nobles 
fell his victims; he put to death his 
cousin and one of his natural brothers ; 
he caused his queen (Blanche de Bour- 
bon) to be cast into prison and there 
poisoned. A second queen suffered in 
the same way. 

Pedro, pronounce Pay-dro. 

Peel's Hundred Days. Sir 

Robert Peel held the seals of office from 
Nov. 1834 to May 1835, between the first 
and second administrations of Lord Mel- 
bourne. 

Peel's Velveteens, 1842. Vel- 
veteens containing as design wheat-ears 
on a scroll on which was the word ' Free.' 
A specimen was sent to Sir Robert Peel 
and accepted by him, but afterwards 
returned. See ' Velveteen Plot.' 

Peep-o'-day Boys. An L:ish 
Presbyterian party, organised in 1790. 
In 1688 the whole Catholic property of 
Ireland was confiscated; and when in 
the 18th cent. William Pitt made some 
attempts to mitigate this injustice, the 
Irish Protestants took alarm, regarding 
' Protestant ascendency ' endangered. 
Acts of violence against the Roman 
Catholics were organised, and as they 
were perpetrated at the peep of day, the 
party was called ' The Peep-o'-day Boys.' 
See ' Defenders ' and ' Irish Associations.' 

The Peep-o'-day Boys in 1795 became the 
Orangemen, and the Boman Catholics the ' De> 
fenders.' 

Peers of Prance {The Twelve). 
There were six lay and six ecclesiastical 
peers. The lay peers were the duke of 
Normandy, the duke of Burgundy, the 
duke of Aquitaine, and the three counts 
of Flanders, Toulouse, and Champagne ; 
the ecclesiastics were the archbishop of 
Reims, the archbishop of Sens, and the 
four bishops of Noyon, Langres, Beauvais, 
and Chalons. 

All Brittany, for a time, did homage to the 
Duke of Normandy. 

Aquitaine included Poitou, Limousin, most of 
Guienne, and the feudal superiority of Angou- 
mois. 

The feof of Flanders stretched from the Scheldt 
to the Somme. 



The Count of Flanders possessed Languedoc, 
with Quercy and Rouergue, and feudal superi- 
ority over Auvergne. 

Peg Nicholson's Knights. See 

* Margaret's Knights.' 

Pegas'ians. In Latin Pegasiani. 
A law school so called from Pegasus, a 
jurist, and follower of the Procu'lians {q.v.) 
of the republican or popular party. 

Pehle'vi Dynasty. See *Pish- 
dadian dynasty.' 

Peine Porte et Dure. Being 
pressed to death. Remanded to a low, 
dark chamber in a prison, the victim 
was laid on his back on the bare floor, 
naked ; then on his body was placed 
a great weight of iron. On the first day 
he received three morsels of the coarsest 
bread : on the second day three draughts 
of stagnant water ; and so on alternately 
till he died. Abolished. 

Pronounce Pain fort a dure. 

Pela'gian Heresy (The), or ' Pela- 
gianism,' 5th cent. The doctrines of 
Pelagius, whose religious views were op- 
posed to those of St. Augustine. He 
denied the dogma of original sin, and de- 
clared man to be a free agent capable of 
himself, without the aid of the Holy 
Ghost, of receiving or rejecting the prof- 
fered salvation, and of performing good 
works. His doctrines were condemned 
by the two councils of Carthage and 
Milevium or Milevia, in Numidia, a.d. 
416. Pelagius was anathematised by 
Innocentius in 417, and expelled from 
Jerusalem in 424. 

It is said that Pelagius is a Greek translation of 
the Welsh name Morgan (sea-born). He was a 
man of rank, and his life was most exemplary. 
It is generally supposed that he was a monk of 
Bangor in Wales, but it is far more likely the 
monastery was Bangor or Banchor, in Carrick* 
fergus, Ireland. 

Pells {Clerk of the). From the 
Jj&tin pellis, a skin [i.e. of parchment]. 
An officer of the exchequer whose duty it 
is to enter on the pells or parchment rolls 
every bill sent in for payment, with the 
receipt thereof when discharged, and all 
disbursements. Hence there are pells 
or rolls of receipts, and pells or rolls of 
disbursements. 

Peloponnesian War {The), b.c. 
431-404. A war for supremacy between 
Athens and Sparta, which lasted 27 
years. It may be divided into three 
parts: (1) From the commencement of 
the Nician truce ; (2) from the truce to 



PEMBEOKE 



PENINSULAE 



677 



the Sicilian expedition ; and (3) from 
that catastrophe to the surrender of 
Athens. The proximate cause of the 
war was this : The repubUcan party of 
Epidaninus rose in rebellion against 
the rulers, drove them from the town, 
and then applied to Corinth for protec- 
tion. The exiled rulers applied to Cor- 
cyra. Whereupon the Corcyraeans laid 
siege to Corinth, and obtained aid from 
Athens. The Corinthians applied to 
Sparta for assistance, and thus Athena 
and Sparta were drawn into the quarrel, 
which ended in the ruin of Athens. 

Pembroke College. I. Cam- 
bridge, 1347. Founded by Mary de St. 
Paul, widow of Aymer de Valence earl 
of Pembroke, in honour of her husband, 
who was killed, in a tournament soon 
after his marriage. It was originally 
called the ' Hall of Valence and Mary.' 
Subsequently Pembroke Hall ; and now 
Pembroke College. 

II. Oxford, 1624. Founded by James 
I. It was originally called Broadgates 
Hall, but was renamed after the Earl of 
Pembroke, chancellor of the university. 
The head of the college is called the 
master. 

Penal LaAVS (against Catholics). 
These existed before the Treaty of 
Limerick, 1691. 

An act subjecting all who maintain 
the supremacy of the Church of Rome 
to the penalties of prcsTnunire, and re- 
quiring the oath of supremacy as a 
qualification for office of any kind. 

An act imposing fines on absence 
from the parish church on Sundays. 

An act authorising the chancellor to 
appoint a guardian to the child of a 
Catholic. 

An act to prevent Catholics from 
being private tutors without a bishop's 
licence. 

These were added in 1695 (Will. III.):— 

An act to disarm Catholics ; to banish 
Catholic priests and prelates ; to prevent 
the intermarriages of Protestants and 
Catholics ; to prevent Catholics from 
being either solicitors or gamekeepers. 

These were added in Queen Anne's 
reign, 1703 : — 

The father of a papist who conformed 
to the established religion was incapaci- 
tated from disposing of his property by 
Bale, mortgage, or bequest. 



A papist was prohibited from being 
guardian even to his own child. The 
child on conforming was to be given in 
charge to a Protestant. 

Papists were incapacitated for holding 
land for more than 31 years ; and if at 
any time the profit of the land exceeded 
one-third of the rent, the lease was to be 
transferred to the Protestant who made 
the discovery. 

Papists were not allowed to inherit 
the lands of Protestant relatives, nor to 
keep any horses above the value of hi. 
each. 

In 1709 an Act was passed prohibiting 
Catholics from holding life annuities ; to 
assist in schools ; to act as sheriffs ; to 
sit on grand juries. 

Repealed 1861 (24, 25 Vict. cc. 95, 101). 
Some mitigation had been made in 1778 
(18 Geo. III. c. 60). 

Peninsular War {The\ 1809- 
1813. Against the French in the pen- 
insula of Portugal and Spain. Art'.iur 
Wellesley [duke of Wellington] was the 
British commander-in-chief who landed 
in Portugal 12 July, 1808, and by April 
1814 had expelled the French from the 
peninsula. The following year he won 
the great battle of Waterloo. 

The battle of Vime'iba (Portugal), 21 
Aug., 1808. Marshal Junot was defeated. 
For this victory Wellington was highly 
censured by Sir Hew Dalrymple, the 
commander-in-chief, for fighting without 
orders. 

The battle of DouRO, 12 May, 1809, 
in which Wellington defeated Marshal 
Soult. 

The battle of Talave'ra (Spain), 27, 
28 July, 1809. Joseph Bonaparte and 
Marshal Victor were defeated by Wel- 
lington, who was made in April com- 
mander-in-chief of the British forces in 
the Peninsula. 

Battle of BusA'co (Portugal), 27 Sept., 

1810. Marshal Massena was repulsed 
by Wellington, and on 3 and 5 May, 

1811. the French marshal was utterly 
foiled at Fuentes de Onobo (Spain). 

1812. Wellington invested Ciudad 
Rodri'go (Spain), and on 19 Jan. took 
it from the French by storm, and 6 April 
he took Ba'dajoz by storm. 

Battle of Salamanca (Spain), 22 July, 

1812. Marshal Marmont was defeated 
by Wellington. 

The battle of Vittobia (Spain), 21 



678 



PENITENT 



PENSIONERS 



June, 1813. Joseph Bonaparte and Mar- 
shal Jourdan were defeated by Welhngton. 

Battles of thePYBENEES, 27 to 31 July, 
1813. Marshal Soult was defeated by 
Wellington; and San Sebastian was 
stormed 31 Aug., 1813. 

The battle of Obthez (Pyrenees), 27 
Feb., 1814. Marshal Soult again defeated 
by Wellington ; and again, 10 April, at 
Toulouse. 

General Graham defeated Marshal Victor (5 
March, 1811) at Barossa in Spain ; and Marshal 
Beresford defeated Soult at Albuera 16 May, 1811. 
And 11 Jan., 1809, Sir John Moore fell at Corunna. 
In Nov. 1813 Sir John Murray defeated Soult's 
army on the Nivelle. 

*»* Between 21 Aug., 1808, and 10 April, 1814 
(less than five and a-half years), Wellington had 
defeated six French marshals : Jourdan, Junot, 
Marmont, Massena, Soult, and Victor, together 
with Joseph Bonaparte. He had won the battles 
of Vimeira, Douro, TalavSra, Busaco, Fuentes de 
Onoro, Salamanca, Vittoria, the battles of the 
Pyrenees, Orthez, and Toulouse, besides the 
sieges of Ciudad Bodrigo, Badajoz, and Sau 
Sebastian. 

*,* After the victory at the Douro, Sir Arthur 
Wellesley was created ' Baron Douro ' ; after the 
battle of Talavera, he was made ' Viscount Wel- 
lington ' ; after the siege of Ciudad Rodrlyo, he was 
made ' Earl of Wellington ' ; after the battle of 
Salamanca, he was made ' Marquis of Wellington' ; 
and for his victory at Vittoria he was created 
' Duke of Wellington." We had no honour left for 
his victory at Waterloo. 

Penitent (J.). A man whose duty 
it was (before the introduction of safety 
lamps) to descend into a coal mine, 
early every morning, to explode the fire- 
damp which had accumulated during the 
night. So called because he was dressed 
like a religious * penitent,' in a woollen 
dress, which covered his face and body. 

Penitents of Love {The), 13th 
cent. A fraternity established in Lan- 
guedoc consisting of knights and esquires, 
dames and damsels, whose object was to 
prove their love by bearing the extremes 
of heat and cold. Many perished, but 
what matter ? ' They received the crown 
of martyrdom.' 

Penitentes. Fanatics of New 
Mexico, who, during Lent, not only fast, 
but subject their bodies to the most hor- 
rible tortures. On Good Friday they go 
in procession from their lodge to a cross, 
with their skin cut into furrows, and as 
they march scourge themselves or each 
other over the shoulders till their bodies 
are completely covered with blood. 
Sometimes one or more wiU then volun- 
teer to be crucified. They may be seen 
even in the streets on Good Friday with 
a huge wooden cross strapped on their 
back, their arms drawn up and fastened 



to the cross-bar, and a spear fastened to 
their body, so that the point touches the 
arm, and if in walking over the road 
strewed with potsherds, sharp stones, 
and thorny plants the foot flinches or 
stumbles, the spear point wounds the 
flesh of the arms. 

Penitential Week. Hehdomada 
Poenitentialis. The same as * Hebdo- 
mada Poenalis ' {q.v.). 

Penitentiary of England. A 

lucrative of&ce for granting papal dis- 
pensations. 

Pennsylvania (U.S. America). 
The 'Penn Forest.' So called from 
William Penn, who in 1681 founded the 
colony. The inhabitants are sometimes 
called Penna.mUes, and were once locally 
nicknamed Leather-heads. 

Pennsylvanian Bonds. Kites, 
or waste-paper bonds. In 1843 Pennsyl- 
vania, the richest state in America, repu- 
diated its debt, having borrowed money 
for the construction of roads and canals. 
No transaction in history is more dis- 
graceful than this, as the state was well 
able to pay, but would not. 

Pennyless {The). Kaiser Maxi- 
milian I. (1459, 1493-1519). Called in 
Italian ' Massimiliano Pochidanario.' 

Pensionary Parliament {The). 
From 8 May, 1661 to 24 Jan., 1678, i.e. 
16 years and 260 days. It was convened 
by Charles II., and was so called because 
it had so many pensions to grant to 
Koyalists impoverished by the late 
troubles. See ' ParUaments.' 

Pensioners {The). All the or- 
dinary students of the University of 
Cambridge who are *w statu pupillari. 
There are a few fellow commoners, 
either sons of the nobility, sons of men 
of fortune, or married men, who dine at 
the fellows' table (whence their name). 
These students wear a special costume, 
and have certain exemptions ; and there 
are a few sizars, sons of men of small 
means, most of them clergymen's sons. 
The sizars have their commons free, and 
have other emoluments which vary in 
different colleges. Like the fellow 
commoners, they are not called 'pen- 
sioners.' In Oxford the ordinary students 
are called * commoners.' 

Pensioners are those who pay a pension. Com- 
moners are those who 'common' or dine at a 
general table. 



PENTAPOLIS 



PERFECTISTS 



679 



Pentap'olis. 

1. The Five Cities of Cyrenaica, near 
Egypt: Apollonia, Arsinoe, Berenice, 
Cyrene, and Ptolemais. 

2. The Dorian Pentapolis : Camlros, 
Cnidos, Cos, lal^sos, and Lindos. 

8. The Five "Cities of Italy in the 
exarchate of Ravenna : Ancona, Fano, 
Pesaro, Rimini, and Sinigaglia. 

4. The Five Cities of the Phihstines : 
Ascalon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. 

5. The Five Cities of the Plain : Admah, 
Gomorrah, Sodom, Zoar, and Zeboim. 

Pentarchs {The). The French 
Directory, composed of five members. 

The astonishing man whom the ISth Brumaire 
had placed alone on the tottering throne of the 
Pentarchs, conceived the idea of detaching the 
emperor of Russia from the cause of his allies. — 
Duncan, History of Russia, vol.i. p. 263. 

People of the Book {The)— i.e. 
the Koran. The four ' people ' are Chris- 
tians, Jews, Magians, and Sabians, who 
are more tolerantly treated by Mahome- 
tans than idolaters. 

The People of the Book were permitted to re- 
deem their adherence to their ancient law by the 
payment of tribute.— Hallam, Middle Ages, yol. ii. 
p. 167. 

People's Charter {The), 1838. 
Consisting of these six demands : (!)• 
Universal suffrage ; (2) annual parlia- 
ments ; (3) stipendiary members ; (4) 
vote by ballot ; (5) equal electoral dis- 
tricts ; and (6) abolition of monetary 
qualification. 

The Ballot Bill passed in 1872. 

People's Friend {The). Marat. So 
called from his journal ' L'Ami du Peuple.' 

The People's Friend is evidently rising in im- 
portance as his befriended people rises. — CaR- 
LYLE, French Revolution , vol. iii. bk. ill. 8. 

People's 'William (T/ie). William 
Ewart Gladstone (1809- ). He began 
his political career as a Tory, but turned 
Whig, and became a Radical towards the 
close of his life. 

Between 1885 and 1886, being nearly 80 years old 
at the time, his political views, especially in regard 
to the Irish Land League, the Plan of Campaign, 
Boycotting, and other revolutionary subjects, 
underwent a complete change. In 1^85 he said 
that ' Crime do^'ged the Irish Land League in all 
its steps,' and Sir William Harcourt spoke still 
more strongly against the League; but in 1886 
both Mr. Gladstone and Sir William Harcourt 
defended the Parnellltes through thick and thin, 
and found excuses for boycotting, the refusal to 
pay rent, and even for open resistance of the law. 
Thev blamed the Irish Constabulary, which a few 
months before they most highly praised, and 
seemed politically to have made a volte face. 

Peppercorn Rent {A). A mere 
nominal rent, like the delivery of a grain 



of wheat or com of pepper, in acknow- 
ledgment of the rights of the landlord. 

Perceval (Mr.) Assassinated. 
Spencer Perceval, second son of Lord 
Egmont, prime minister of England, was 
shot in the lobby of the House of Com- 
mons 11 May, 1812, by Bellingham, who 
mistook him for Lord Leveson Gower, 
late ambassador to the court of St. 
Petersburg, who (he said) had refused 
him redress after acting in a diplomatic 
matter. He was executed for murder. 
Mr. Perceval was fifty years of age. 

P^re Duchene [Dtt-shane]. 

I. James Rene Hebert, the French 
revolutionist, was so called from his 
obscene journal of that name (1755-1794). 

n. A journal during the French Revo- 
lution conducted by HeTiert. This scan- 
dalous red republican newspaper con- 
tained the most exaggerated democratic 
sentiments, and circulated the most hor- 
rible innuendos against the queen. 

Pere des Lettres {Le). Francois I. 
of France (1494, 1515-1547). 

Peres de la Foi {Les). The French 
Jesuits, readmitted at the Restoration, 
so called themselves. They had flourish- 
ing colleges at Montrouge and St. Acheul ; 
but these were closed in 1828, and de- 
clared to be in violation of the law. 
Since 1848 there has been a slight revival 
of Jesuitism in France. See 'Paccan- 
arists.' 

Peregrine Mass. ' Missa Pere- 
gi-inorum.' After the chaj)ter the bell 
announces the Matutinal Mass for the 
approach of paupers, and the priest, who 
had celebrated high mass for the last 
seven days, says the 'Missa Pere- 
grinorum.' See ' Mass.' 

Perfect! (The Perfect Men). So the 
Waldenses {q.v.) were sometimes nick- 
named, from their professed puritanism. 

Perfectibilists {The), 1776. An 
order created by Adam Weishaupt, after- 
wards called the ' Order of the Illuminati.' 
A secret society, organised on the plan of 
the Order of the Jesuits. Persons of any 
religious creed were admitted members, 
but passive obedience was a sine qua non. 
It greatly flourished, but became political, 
and was interdicted in Bavaria in 1784. 

Perfeetists {The). A sect of tho 
Independents which rose up during the 



680 



PERFIDIOUS 



PERSECUTION 



civil war between Charles I. and his par- 
liament. The Franciscans, Jesuits, and 
Molinists believed in the perfectibility of 
man ; and the "Wesleyan Methodists teach 
that Christian perfection is attainable, 
according to the exhortation contained in 
Heb. vi. 1. : ' Let us go on to perfection ' ; 
and our Lord himself says : ' Be ye per- 
fect, as your Father in heaven is perfect.' 

Under the head of Independents . . . were the 
Arminians. Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers, Perfectists, Socin- 
ians, Arians, and others.— HowiTT, History of 
England (Charles I., ch. vi. p. 278). 

Perfidious Albion. A favourite 
expression of Xai^oleon I., but not of his 
invention. Probably it referred originally 
to the homage paid by Edward III. to 
Philippe VI. of France in 1829 {see | 
Rj-mer, 'Foedera,' i. p. 260). Edward ! 
paid the homage exacted of him, but re- j 
solved upon vengeance, and executed it 
to the bitter end. Napoleon talking of 
' perfidy ' is like the pot calling the kettle 
' black-face.' 

' L'Angleterre, ah ! la perfide Angleterre, que 
le rempart de ses naers rendoit inaccessible 
aux Roniains, la foi du Sauveur y est abordee.' — 

BossCET, A Seniwn preached at ilet:. 

Peripatetics (^7^e). A sect of philo- 
sophers of ancient Greece, founded by 
Aristotle of Stagira in Macedonia, a pupil 
of Plato (B.C. 384-322). He used to lec- 
ture in a covered walk of the Lycean 
gjTnnasium in Athens, and hence his 
disciples were called the ' Walking Sect,' 
or ' Sect of the Walk.' His favourite 
pupil was Theoi^hrastus (b.c. 394-287). 

Aristotle was called the Staglrite (3 syl.) from 
Stagira, his native place. 

The proper name of Theophrastns (the dirine 
speaker) was Tyrtamos, but Aristotle called him 
' the divine speaker ' from his grace and fluency of 
speech. 

Peronne (Treaf?/o/), 1468. Between 
Louis XI. and Charles le Te'me'raire of 
Burgundy. Louis agreed by this treaty 
to abandon his suzerainty over the fief of 
Burgundy. 

Perpetual Council of the 
Gallic Nation {The). The Sorbonne 

{q.V.). 

Perpetual Edict {The). I. Edic- 
tum Perpetuu7}i, a.d. 132. The various 
edicts of Roman prtetors, compiled and 
arranged by Salvius Julian, a lawyer, by 
order of the Emperor Hadrian. Previous 
to this C. Cornelius got a law passed to pre- 
vent praetors from altering their edicts. 
' Ut Prsetores in Edictis suis Perpetuis 
jus dicerent.' A.u. G86 (b.c. 69). 



This was the first general code of Roman law 
published by authority. 

II. The ' Pacification of Ghent ' (g-.v.), 
12 Feb., 1577. By which William prince 
of Orange gained nearly all he asked for. 
See above. 

Perpetual Peace (Ti^). I. 31 May, 
1419. Between the French and Henry V. 
of England. It was signed at Troyes, and 
ratified by Isabella (wife of Charles VI.) 
and Philip the Good of Burgundy. It 
made Henry the successor of Charles VI. 
at death, and regent of France till then. 
It also gave him the Princess Catherine 
for his wife. 

II. ' La Paix Perpetuelle,' Sept. 1515, 
after the battle of Marignano, or ' Combat 
of the Giants.' Between Francois and 
the Swiss, signed at Freyburg. It formed 
the basis of all subsequent relations be- 
tween Fi-ance and Switzerland till 1789. 

Perse Free G-rammar School. 

For 100 scholars, now enlarged to admit 
190 boys. Founded by Stephen Perse, M.D. 
Fellow of Caius College, 1615, reorganised 
in 1873 (Trumpington Road, Cambridge). 
Fees for the junior department 51. a year, and 141. 
a year for the senior department. 

Persecution in Lyons {The)^ 
A.D. 177. Under Marcus Aurelius the 
Christians were hunted from their houses, 
expelled from the public baths and 
markets, insulted, stoned, and plundered. 
No distinction of nationality, sex, or age 
was made. Marcus Aurelius being applied 
to, gave instruction that all ' who con- 
fessed themselves to be Christians should 
be put to death.' 

Persecution of the Jews, in 

1348-1349. I. During the prevalence of 
the Black Death {q.v.) the tfews were the 
scapegoats in Germany, and their treat- 
ment was revolting. The notion got 
abroad that the wells were poisoned, and 
that the Jews had poisoned them to extir- 
pate the Christians. Men bound them- 
selves by oaths to stamp out the cursed 
race which had crucified Jesus Christ. 
Some were torn to pieces ; some were burnt 
alive. At Speyer the Jews in despair set 
fire to their own houses rather than fall 
into the hands of the mob. In Mainz 
10,000 Jews were massacred. At Eslingen 
the whole Jewish population burnt them- 
selves in their synagogue. At Strasburg 
2,000 were burnt in their cemetery. Any- 
one who protected a Jew was put to the 



PERSECUTIONS 



PERSIAN 



681 



rack and executed without mercy. See 
also under ' Milan, Edict of.' 

The report was that the Jews obtained the 
poison from some remote parts of the earth and 
mixed it with the venom of spiders, owls, adders, 
and toads. No doubt the Flagellants ((/.f.) were the 
chief instigators of this horrible persecution. 

II. By banishment. 

From ALEXANDRIA, by Cyril, in 415. 

From England, by Edward I., in 1290. 

From France, by Philippe Auguste, 1183 ; by 
Philippe le Bel in 1301, 1306 ; by Charles VU. In 1894 ; 
by Louis XIII. in 1615. 

From Medi'na, by Mohammed, 623. 

From Naples and SICILY in 1504. 

From the Papal States, by Pius V., In 1.569. 

From Portugal, by Emmanuel the Fortunate, 
1496. 

From Prague in 1.520. 

From Rome, B.C. 16. 

From Russia, by the Czarina Elizabeth, 1795, and 
often since. 

From Spain, by Ferdinand and Isabella, 1492. 

III. By massacre. 

In England, pillaged and massacred in 1264. 

In FULDA in 1236. 

In Germany, pillaged and massacred by the 
Crusaders in 1096 : as authors of the Black Death 
in 1348, 1349. 

In Jerusalem, by Florus, B.C. 16. 

In London in 1189. 

In Spain, at the instigation of the Archbishop of 
Seville, in 1391. 

In York and other places 1190. 

Persecutions by Christians 

{The). 

I. Against the Albigenses, 1179-1235; 
most bitter, bloody, and relentless. 

n. Against the Moslems, in eight cru- 
sades, 1095-1274. These wars cost the 
lives of 5 millions of human beings. 

III. Against the Huguenots, in the 
Dragonnades, under Louis XIV., in 1685. 

IV. Against the Protestants of Ger- 
many, in the Thirty Years' War, 1618- 
1648. 

V. Against the Waldenses, or Vaudois, 
1179-1848. See Fe'lice, 'History of 
Protestants,' &c. 

VI. Against the Jews by Christians 
generally. 

VII. The Inquisition, 1203-1814, was a 
series of persecutions against ' unorthodox 
Christians.' 

VIII. The Reformation introduced a 
series of persecutions by Protestants 
against Catholics, and Catholics against 
Protestants. 

IX. St. Bartholomew massacre of the 
French Huguenots, in 1572, was a frightful 
affair. 

X. The Smithfield fires. Speed says, 
' More bloud was spilt in that short time 
of [Mary's] raigne, than had been shed for 
case of Christianity in any kings time 
Bince Lucius the first establisher of the 



Gospel! in this realme.' ' Hist, of Great 
Britaine,' p. 1151 (1623). 

To these may be added the general persecutions 
of different sects, whether that between the 
Eastern and Western Churches, that between 
Catholic sects, or that between Protestant sects. 
All who think differently to the established or 
' orthodox ' system being held ' heretics.' Buckle 
estimates the loss of life by these Christian perse- 
cutions at 140 millions of human beings. That 
would be about a tenth part of the entire present 
inhabitants of the earth, and most frightful to 
think of. See p. 5><5, ' Milan, Edict of: 

Orthodoxy means simply the doxy of might. In 
one country it is Brahmanism, in another Buddh- 
ism, in a third Zoroasterianism, in a fourth Druid- 
ism, in another Paganism ; in the Eastern Church 
it differs from the Western; in England it is Protes- 
tantism, with the Jews Mosaicism, and so on. It 
is then divided into sects, and only that sect sanc- 
tioned by the state is orthodox. Hence the mutual 
persecutions of Arians and Trinitarians, the 
Jesuits against the Jansenists, the Church of 
England and Church of Scotland, the Sadducees 
and Pharisees, and so on throughout. There is no 
such thing as absolute orthodoxy, it is simply 
the power to enforce certain religious views. 

Persecutions of Christians 

( The), by Roman emperors. Called ' The 
Ten Persecutions.' 

(I.) under Nero, 64-68; (11.) under 
Domitian, 95 ; (III.) under Trajan, 106 ; 
(IV.) under Marcus Aurelius, 166-177; 
(V.) under Septimus Severus, 199-204; 
(VI.) under Maximinus, 235-238; (VII.) 
under Decius, 250-252; (VIII.) under 
Valerian, 258-260 ; (IX.) under Aurelian, 
275 ; and (X.) under Dioclesian, 303-318. 
The last is called 'The Era of the 
Martyrs.' 

Christians were not persecuted by the Roman 
emperors for their faith in Christ, but for their 
' laiclessness ' or infidelity to the state religion and 
national law. Of the religious creed, as Paley said, 
the Roman emperors and Roman senate were 
supremely indifferent, but the religion of the 
country was an integral part of the law of the 
land, which it is not in Protestant England, Prus- 
sia, or America. 

Persia {Goldeyi Age of), 1253-1335. 
From Hulaku to Abu Seyd, distinguished 
for those celebrated names Naser-ud-din, 
Jelal-ud-din, Sadi, and Hafiz. 

Persian Punishment {The), 
Flaying alive. See Rawlinson's note to 
' Herodotus,' v. c. 25 (vol. iii. p. 191). 

Persian War {The). L a.d. 837- 
360. In the reign of Constantius II., son 
of Constantine the Great. In this war the 
armies of Rome and Persia encountered 
each other in nine bloody fields, in two of 
which Constantius commanded in person. 
In all these battles the Persians were the 
superiors. 

II. A.D. 502-505, between Cabades or 
K )bad the Persian and Anastasius 
emperor of the East. The Huns and 
Arabs marched under the Persian stan- 



682 



PERSIC 



PETER-PENCE 



dard. Amida stood a siege of three 
months, in which the Persian general lost 
50,000 men ; but Persia expiated her loss 
with the slaughter of 80,000 of the adver- 
sary, and peace was concluded in 505 
(Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' chap. xl.). 

Persic Version {The) of the Scrip- 
tures. A version of the Pentateuch by 
Jacob ben Joseph, 9th cent. See ' Scrip- 
tures.' 

Perspicuous Doctor {The). 
Walter Burley, born 1275, died 1338. 
Flourished 1320. He was preceptor to 
Edward III. Burley attacked the dogmas 
of Duns Scotus. 

Perth {Convention or Treaty of), 
18 Aug., 1305. Between Edward I. and 
the regents of Scotland. This con- 
vention, which apparently settled the 
affairs of Scotland, was scarcely signed 
when Robert Bruce threw the two 
countries into war again by the murder 
of Comyn lord of Badenoch. 

Peschit'o {The), or ' Peshitto,' mean- 
ing literal or simple. An old Syriac ver- 
sion of the Bible, supposed to have been 
made in the 2nd and 3rd cents, a.d. by 
Jewish Christians. It omits the Book of 
Revelation and four of the Epistles. 

Ephrem Syrus (who died 378), is sup- 
posed to refer to this book when he 
speaks of ' Our Version.' See ' Bible.' 

Pessimism. The doctrine that 
nothing can be worse than things now 
are. The chiefs of this school are 
Schopenhauer, Lucretius in his poem 
'DeNatura,' and^Voltaire in his ' Can- 
dide.* See ' Optimism.' 

Pet'alism. Writing the name of a 
person on an olive-leaf. If 600 signa- 
tures were thus obtained in Athens the 
person was banished. Ostracism was 
exile by writing the name on a tile or 
oyster-shell. 

Peter {Letter of St.) to Pepin. Forged 
by Pope Stephen III., rendered desperate 
by the siege of Rome by Astolph the 
Lombard king. See Milman, 'Latin 
Christianity,' vol. iii. book iv. chap xi. 
pp. 21-23. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Peter ad Vincula {Saint), or 
' Festum S. Betri ad Vincula,' 1 Aug. 
(liammas), the day when, it is said, St. 
Balbina found St. Peter's Neronian 
chains. 



Peter Porcupine, 1784. A pen- 
name adopted by William Cobbett after 
his flight from England to avoid ap- 
pearing before a court-martial for 
charging four of his officers with pecula- 
tion. He died 1835 at the age of seventy. 

Peter the Thaumatur'gus. 

Bishop of Argos (date unknown). 

Peter the "Wild Boy. Discovered 
in the fields near Hameln in July, 1724, 
and supposed to be eleven or twelve 
years of age. He was placed by George 
III. under the charge of Dr. Arbuthnot. 
All the words he could utter were Ke 
Sho {King George), Que Kaa {Queen 
Caroline), and Hom Hen {Thomas Fen), 
the name of the farmer, at Northchurch, 
Hertfordshire, under whose charge he 
was placed. He went about with a collar 
on his neck, bearing his name and ad- 
dress. Government allowed Mr. Fen 
35 Z. a year for his maintenance. Peter 
died 1785, being, it is supposed, about 
seventy-two years old. 

Peter's College {St.). Cambridge 
University, founded by Hugh de Bal- 
sham bishop of Ely, 1257. 

This Is the oldest foundation in the University. 
It used to be called Peter House. 

Peterloo, 16 Aug., 1819. The area 
before St. Peter's Church (called St. 
Peter's Field), Manchester, was so called 
from the monster meeting held there on 
that day, and presided over by * Orator ' 
Hunt, against the strict prohibition of 
the magistrates. The ostensible reason 
of the meeting was to favour parlia- 
mentary reform. Hunt had scarcely 
begun his speech when several troops of 
soldiers, with 400 special constables, 
and the Cheshire and Manchester 
Yeomanry, appeared. The crowd fled 
in disorder, many were thrown down, 
100 were more or less injured, and six 
persons were accidentally killed. Hunt 
and nine others were brought to trial, 
and charged with treasonable conspiracy. 
Called ' Peterloo ' from the words of 
Hunt, who said, ' The magistrates desired 
nothing so much as an opportunity of 
letting loose the bloody butchers of Water- 
loo upon them.' 

Peter-pence, or 'Rome-scot,' 720. 
First paid by Ina king of Wessex, dis- 
continued by Edward III. in 1365, and 
prohibited by act of parliament in 1534 



PETIT 



PETITIONERS 



683 



(25 Henry VIII. c. 21). It was one 
penny per family collected for the pope 
of Rome. An enormous tax, if we con- 
sider the value of money at the time, and 
to the poor almost crushing. Half-a- 
crown would have bought a horse or 
cow, and about Is. would have bought a 
sheep. Wages for a labourer Id. a day. 

At present Peter-pence is a voluntary contribu- 
tion to the pope. 

Petit Fils de la France. Son of 

Philippe due d'Orleans, brother of Louis 
XIV. Philippe himself was entitled 
Monsieur, his wife Madatne, and their 
daughter Mademoiselle (all without a 
proper name). 

Petit Manteau Bleu (Le). Edme 
Champion (1764-1853). A man of un- 
bounded benevolence, called Le Petit 
Manteau Bleu by the poor, from his 
habit of wearing a short cloak of blue 
cloth, fastened at the neck by a clasp, 
and reaching to the loins. 

Petit Roi de Bourges (Le). 
Charles VII. of France (1403, 1422-1461). 
Called afterwards ' The Victorious,' be- 
cause he reconquered Franqe from the 
English. When he succeeded to the 
crown Bourges was about all that acknow- 
ledged his sovereignty. 

Petite Paix (La), also called ' La 
paix fourree,' and sometimes ' La paix de 
Longjumeau,' 1568, between the Roman 
Catholics and the Calvinists. This peace 
was preparatory to the ' Paix de St. 
Germain ' {q.v.). 

Petits Maitres, 1649. The party 
of Conde was so called 'parce qu'ils 
voulaient etre maitres de I'e'tat ' (' Siecle 
de Louis XIV.'). 

Petition {The Monster), 10 April, 
1848. Said to have been signed by six 
million Chartists. Some 50,000 Char- 
tists, led by Feargus O'Connor and 
Ernest Jones, intended to march to the 
House of Commons to present it. About 
170,000 special constables were sworn in 
to prevent a disturbance. When the 
petition was examined it was found that 
it did not contain two million names. 
Many of these names were palpably for- 
geries, many were mere nicknames, and 
thousands were copied in the same hand 
from a directory. The petition altogether 
was a monster swindle. 



Petition and Advice {The), or 

* The Humble Petition and Advice,' 1657. 
Presented by the parliament to Cromwell, 
praying him to assume a higher title 
than that of Lord Protector, to govern, 
as had been done in times past, with 
the advice of two houses of parliament, 
and to abolish the odious existing insti- 
tution of majors-general. Cromwell re- 
fused to take the title of king, but 
consented to establish a second estate, 
the members of which he addressed as 
' My lords,* although only two real peers 
attended the summons. The petition was 
first entitled *A Humble Address and 
Remonstrance.* 

On former occasions he [Cromwell] had relieved 
himself from [money] embarrassments by the 
imposition of taxes by his own authority, but 
this practice was strongly reprobated in ' The 
Petition and Advice.'— Dr. Lingard, Hist. ofEng., 
viii. 7. 

Petition de Droit. One of the 

common law methods of obtaining pos- 
session or restitution from the crown of 
either real or personal property. It owes 
its origin to Edward I. 

Petition of Right {The), 28 May, 
1628, made law by 3 Car. I. c. 1, 7 June, 
1628. It prayed that no man hereafter 
be compelled to give any gift, benevo- 
lence, or tax without consent of parlia- 
ment. That the commissions for pro- 
ceeding by martial law be annulled. 
That the king will in future declare his 
will and pleasure to be that all his officers 
and ministers obey the laws and statutes 
of the realm. That no freeman be im- 
prisoned by the king's arbitrary will, but 
only according to established law. That 
no householder be compelled to receive 
any soldier or mariner into his house. 
See ' BiU of Rights.* 

Petitioners. By 13 Charles II. it 
was enacted that not more than ten per- 
sons should be allowed to approach the 
sovereign or either House of Parliament 
for delivering a petition, making a com- 
plaint, or suing for redress of grievances. 

Petitioners and Abhorrers, 

1679-1680. Two political parties in the 
reign of Charles 11., the germs of the 
Whigs and Tories. Lord Shaftesburj-, 
by intrigue, procured from the counties 
a host of petitions to set aside not only 
James the brother of Charles II., but 
also his daughter Mary, who was a Pro- 
testant, married to William prince of 



684 



PETKOBEUSIANS 



PHAKAOHS 



Orange ; and to fix the succession on the 
Duke of Monmouth, a bastard son of the 
king (?) A strong party revolted at this 
injustice, and obtained a host of counter 
petitions declaring their ' abhorrence ' of 
Shaftesbury's scheme. So that the ' Peti- 
tioners ' were for setting aside the Prince 
of Orange, and the ' Abhorrers ' were in 
favour of the prince. 

Petrobrusians. The disciples of 
Pierre de Bruys (2 syl.), who was burnt 
alive as a heretic at St. Gilles in 1147. 
They denied the doctrine of transubstan- 
tiation, rejected crucifixes, baptized 
adults who had been already baptized in 
infancy, and forbade prayers for the dead. 
The Henricians {q.v.) joined this sect in 
1127. 

Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby. 
A pen-name of D. R. Locke. ' Nasby ' 
refers to the battle of that name ; ' Petro- 
leum ' to the rock-oil fever raging in 
Pennsylvania at the time when the 
* Nasby Letters ' were begun ; and ' Vesu- 
vius ' to the outburst of the petroleum 
fever. 

Pe-tse Dynasty (The). The 2nd 
dynasty of the Goli Tartars in Eastern 
China. It gave five kings, and lasted 28 
years (550-578), when both the Eastern 
and Western kingdoms were again united 
in the imperial line. 

Petticoat (A). Carried in the cider 
riots, 1763. See ' Jack Boot.' 

Petty Bag Office {The). In the 
common law jurisdiction of the Court 
of Chancery. So called because all ori- 
ginal writs relating to the business of the 
crown were, at one time, kept in a little 
sack {inparva haga). 

Peu'tinger'ian Table {The). 

' Tabula Peutingeriana.' A map of the 
Roman world constructed about a.d. 226, 
some say as early as 161. It was dis- 
covered at Spii'es (1500) in an old library 
by Conrad Celtes, who sent it to Conrad 
Peutinger the antiquary to publish ; but 
his death occurred before this was done. 
It was ultimately published in 1598 at 
Venice under the care of Marcus Welsen. 
The original is in the Imperial Library of 
Vienna. See ' Antonine's Itinerary,' 

Pezade (2 syl.). See ' Pacata.' 

Phalansterians. Disciples of 
Charles Fourier (1768-1837), who 



grouped all men in phalanxes. Each 
phalanstery was to consist of 400 families 
or 1800 persons, to live under one roof in 
the centre of workshops, studios, places 
of amusement, and so on. The whole 
earth being grouped in phalansteries, the 
phalansteries themselves are to be united 
in larger groups under a unitary govern- 
ment. There is to be only one language 
and one government, and the only army 
is to be a great industrial army. 

Bellamy's 'Looking Backward,' or state of 
society in 2000, is a slight modification of Fourier- 
ism. See ' Communism.' 

Phal'aris. The famous controversy 
between Richard Bentley and Robert 
Boyle began thus: Mr. Boyle borrowed 
a MS. from St. James's Library, where 
Bentley was librarian. It was borrowed 
that Mr. Boyle might complete his 
' Epistles of Phalaris.' Bentley was 
angry because it was kept so long, and 
Boyle taking offence, a paper war arose, 
noted for wit and satire. In 1699 Bentley 
published a book to prove that Phalaris 
was not the author of these epistles, to 
which Boyle replied ; but all scholars side 
with Bentley, who was appointed Master 
of Trinity for his admirable criticisms. 
See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Phantastic System (T/ie). Taught 
by the Docetes (3 syl.). It was this : that 
Christ was only a phantom, and not a real 
human being. Like the God which ap- 
peared to Adam and Eve, like the Moses 
and Elijah on the mount, the man 
Christ was palpable to the eyes, but not 
to the touch, and his words, like those of 
the beings referred to, were only ' airy 
words.' 

Pharaoh. Another spelling of 
Phra, Egyptian for the sun. 

Pharaohs of the Bible {The). 
Josephus ('Jewish Antiquities,' viii. 
chap. 6) says : * The title of Pharaoh was 
applied to the kings of Egypt from 
Menes to Solomon, but not afterwards.' 
This does not correspond with the Bible ; 
for Jeremiah, xliv. 30, speaks of Pharaoh 
Hophra, and Pharaoh Necho invaded 
Judea in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 
xxiii.). 

According to the tablets discovered 
in different parts of Egypt, the following 
seem to illustrate the Bible narratives : 

1. The Good Pharaoh seems to be 



PHARAOHS 



PHILACTERIANS 



685 



SutapeperNubti, one of the Hyksos, or 
shepherd kings ; but some Egyptologists 
think it was Osirtesen II., and say there 
is a tablet in the sixth year of his reign 
which records the advent of several Se- 
mitics resembling J ews both in dress and 
physiognomy. Supposed to be Jacob and 
his household. 

2. The Bad Pharaoh seems to be 
Amen'ophis III. of the nineteenth dy- 
nasty, who introduced the heretical 
worship of Typhor; but after Rameses 
II. the Great came a period of confusion, 
and the Exodus is supposed by many to 
have occurred in the reign of Arisu, a 
usurper and a Syrian, about B.C. 1314. 
No hint of the Exodus, however, can be 
traced by Egyptologists. 

tJ. Solomon married Abra, the daughter 
of Pfusenes [Pisham] last of the twenty- 
first dynasty (1 Kings iii. 1). 

4. Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 25), who came 
against Jerusalem in the reign of Re- 
hoboam, was obviously Shashank I., or 
Sheshouk, who with 12,000 chariots and 
60,000 horse-soldiers invaded Judea. The 
record may still be seen on the portico of 
the Bubastis at Kai'nak. 

5. 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15 and xvi. 8, &c., it 
is supposed, refer to Zerah, fourth of the 
twenty-second dynasty. 

6. Hosea paid tribute to Shabak, 
founder of the twenty-fifth dynasty, B.C. 
716. 

7. Shabakok, called ' So ' in 2 Kings 
xvii. 4, was the successor of Shabak. 
With this king Hezekiah formed a con- 
federacy against Sennacherib, king of 
Assyria, 2 Kings xviii. xix. ' So ' was 
succeeded by Tarach or Tirshatha. 

8. Pharaoh Necho who invaded Judea 
in the reign of Josiah was Nechos II. 
He defeated Josiah, but was himself 
defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (617-601), 
2 Kings xxiii. 29, &c. 

9. Pharaoh Hophra is supposed to be 
Apries, which without the vowel points 
is PR or PhR (Jer. xliv. 30). 

The Sphinx was carved in the third dynasty, 
foynded by Necherophes. The great pyramid was 
built by Khufu {Huphis or Cheopx] who founded the 
fourth dynasty ; his successor Khafra or Khafren 
[Cephren] built tho second pyramid ; and his suc- 
cessor Menkara [Mycerinux] built the third great 
pyramid. 

Ramses 11. the Great was the Sesostris of 
Egjrt whose reign is fixed by the calendars repre- 
senting the heliacal rising of the dog-stars, B.C. 
1322. 

*,* Goshen was in Lower Egypt, nearer Pales- 
tine than Upper Egypt. There was much marsh- 
land there, and both grass and corn would 
grow. 



Pharisees (The), b.c. 160. An 
ancient Jewish sect who by their verbal 
criticisms, mystical interpretations and 
traditions, engrafted on the Mosaic law 
a host of precepts and observances. 
They believed in a resurrection, in 
angels, and spirits ; placed great reliance 
on fastings, ablutions, and long prayers ; 
and paid great attention to their gar- 
ments, especially affecting very large 
borders, fringes, or hems. Their chief 
was Hillel. 

' Pharisee ' from pharash, to separate. 

Phenicians {The), about 1863. An 
Irish secret society, a branch of the 
Ribbon Societies (q.v.), their platform 
being similar to that of the Fenians. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

Phenomenon, Noumenon (plu. 

Phenomena, Noumena). Kant used the 
two words to express object and subject. 
The Greek word ifiaivofiai means to 
appear, and phenomenon is what our 
senses cognise. Noumenon is from the 
Greek word I'ou?, ' pure intelligence ' ; 
and a noumenon is an object pure and 
unbodied, that is divested of everything 
cognisable by the senses. 

Fichte used the words ego and non-ego for sub- 
ject and object. What the senses cognise as part 
of ourselves is, of course, part of ourselves ; but 
what exists uidependent of our senses is no part 
of ourselves, and this he called non-ego. 

Phe'si, <|>Tj<»'i (It says). An ecclesiastical 
school. Hippolytus speaks of Basilides, 
and Isidore, with jtoLs 6 tovtioc x^po?, as 
' Phesi ' ; and again he speaks in the 
same manner of Valentlnus, Heracleon, 
Ptolemy, and nava ■}) tovhou crxoAij. The 
term is used as significant of the scrip- 
ture interpretation of a certain school. 
The Phesi say so and so = the Ipse-dixit 
school. 

Phid'ias {The French). Pigalle, 
died 1796. His best pieces are ' Venus,' 
' Mercury,' and the tomb of Marshal 
Saxe. 

Phid'ias {The Northern). Albert 
Thorvaldsen the Danish sculptor (1770- 

1844). 

Philacte'rians or Phylae- 

terians. Necromancers, condemned 
by the Church a.d. 692. The phylac- 
teria were ancient amulets for keeping 
off or curing diseases. 'Philacteria, id 
est, X verba legis, aut scriptura vana, 
quod ligat homo super caballum aut 



PHILADELPHES 



PHILIPPE 



super caput suum ' (Du Cange ; article 
'Phylacteria'). 

Phiradelphes (3 syL). An associa- 
tion of old republicans to which Talley- 
rand and Fouche belonged, even while 
they were in the service of the Emperor 
Napoleon. 

Philadelphia Convention {The) 

1883, consisting of dynamitards, Fenians, 
murderers, and all sorts of disturbers of 
the public peace. Paid agents were con- 
tinually sent to England to terrorise the 
British Parliament into granting * Home 
Rule ' iq.v.) to Ireland for peace sake. 
See ' Irish Associations.' 

Philadel'phians {The), 1821. A 
branch of the Carbonari in Calabria, also 
called the ' Reformed European Patriots.' 

Philadel'phic Society {The). A 
literary and philosophic association at 
Besan^on at the close of the 18th cent. 
One of its members. General Mallet, 
made this society a political instrument 
for the restoration of the Bourbons. 
Lieut.-Colonel Oudet, another member, 
classified the Philadelphians into three 
ranks, each of which was profoundly 
ignorant of the functions of the other 
two ; then introduced the scheme into the 
army, and established affiliated societies 
called ' Les Freres Bleus.' The first move- 
ment was the conspiracy of Adjutant- 
General Arena. This was crushed, but 
without Bonaparte being able to trace 
out the instigators of it. Now Moreau, 
Lahorie, Cadoudal, and Pichegru joined, 
and the last two concocted a plan to assas- 
sinate the first consul. Several persons 
were arrested, and Cadoudal, with some 
few subordinates, was executed. In 1813 
the Philadelphians were no longer 
wanted, and the society lost its political 
power. 

Philadel'phos (Brother-lover). 

Ptolemy II. of Egypt, so called, murdered 
all his brothers in order to secure the 
throne (b.c. 284-246). See ' Philopater.' 

Phil'anthrop'ic Society {The), 
1788. For the reformation of young 
criminals. It originated with Robert 
Young and was incorporated in 1806. 
Reformatory schools were established at 
Redhill, in Surrey, in 1849. 

Philipp king of Germany (1178, 
1197-1208). Brother of Heinrich VI.; 



succeeded by Otto IV. (son of Heinrich 
the Lion) who abdicated. 

Father, Friedrich I. Barbarossa; Mother, Bea- 
trice daughter of Benaut III. of Burgundy ; Wife, 
Irene Angela, widow of Roger of Sicily. No son. 
Co7itemporary with John. 

Philippe I. I'Amoureux, of 

France (1052, 1060-1108). Fourth king 
of the Capetian dynasty. 

Father, Henri I. ; Mother, Anne of 
Muscovy; Wives, Bertha daughter of 
the count of Holland (mother of Louis 
VI.), and Bertrade of Montford. Con- 
temporary with Edward the Confessor, 
Harold, and William the Conqueror. 

Hugues Capet was the father of Robert lo 
Pieux ; Robert was the father of Henri I. ; and 
Henri I. was the father of Philippe I. 

Philippe II. Auguste, of France 
(1165, 1180-1223). So called because he 
was the real founder of the French 
monarchy, as Augustus Caesar was the 
real founder of the Roman empire. When 
Philippe ascended the throne, his whole 
kingdom was not larger than the county 
of Yorkshire ; but ere he died he had 
extended its frontiers from the Scheldt to 
the Mediterranean and from the Rhine 
to the Atlantic. 

Father, Louis VI. ; Mother, Alice 
daughter of Thibaud comte de Cham- 
pagne ; Wives, Isabelle daughter of the 
Duke of Hainault (mother of Louis IX.), 
Ingelburge, who was divorced, and Agnes 
de Meranie. Contemporary with Henry 
II., Richard, John, and Henry III. 

*,* When Philippe Auguste began to reign all the 
West of France belonged to England or to Prince 
Arthur; the Sonth belonged to Aragon ; and the 
Ea^t to Germany. All that pertained to France 
was the Ile-de-France, with portions of Picardy 
and Orleannois. 

Philippe Auguste was the 7th king of the Capetian 
dynasty : 1. Hugues Capet ; 2. Robert le Pieux 
his son ; 3. Henri I. his son ; 4. Philippe I. I'Aniour. 
eux his son ; 5, Louis VI. le Gros his son ; 6. 
Louis Vll. le Jeune his son; 7. Philippe II. Au- 
guste his son. 

Philippe III. le Hardi, ol 

France (1245, 1270-1285). See ' PhiMppe 
le Bel.' 

Le flls de S. Louis que, par un caprice inexplic- 
able, ses contemporains surnommerent le Hardi 
[the bold], n avait des qualites de son pere que*la 
douceur et la piete. II pratiquait le jeune et I'ab- 
stinence, et vivait en moine plutot qu'en cheva- 
lier.— Bordier ET Oharton, Histoire de France, 
vol. i. p. 879. 

Father, St. Louis (Louis IX.); 
Mother, Marguerite daughter of the comte 
de Provence ; Wives, Isabel daughter of 
the king of Navarre, who bore him four 
sons, and Marie daughter of the Comte 



PHILIPPE 



PHILOSOPHER 



687 



de Brabant, who bore him two daughters. 
Contemporary with Edward I. 

Philippe IV. le Bel, of France 
(1268, 1286-1314). Eleventh king of the 
Capetian dynasty, in direct descent. 

Father, Phihppe III. ; Mother, Isa- 
bel daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
Wife, Jeanne countess of Champagne 
and queen of Navarre. Contemporary 
with Edward I., Edward 11. 

1. Hugues Capet ; 2. Robert le Pieux ; 3. Henri I. ; 
4. Philippe I. I'Amoureux ; 6. Louis VI. le Gros ; 6. 
Louis VII. le Jeune; 7. Philippe II. .\uguste; 8. 
Louis VIII. le Lion; 9. Louis IX. (St. Louis); 10. 
Philippe III. le Hardi ; 11. Philippe IV. le J3el. 

All the three sons of Philippe IV. reigned in 
succession, as Louis X., Philippe V., and Charles 
IV., when the elder branch died out. See ' Three 
Fatal to France.' 

Philippe V.leLong (1294, 1316- 
1322). Brother of his predecessor Louis 
X. and of his successor Charles IV. 

He -was the last Capetian king of the direct line, 
and his reign -was a wretched failure. 

Father, Philippe IV. ; Mother, Jeanne 
countess of Champagne ; Wife, Jeanne 
de Bourgogne. No son. Contemporary 
with Edward II. 

Philippe VI. de Valois, of 

France (1293, 1328-1350). Succeeded his 
cousin Charles IV. le Bel. 

Father, Charles comte de Valois, 
second son of Philippe IV. le Bel ; 
Mother, Jeanne countess of Navarre ; 
Wives, Jeanne of Burgundy (mother of 
Jean), Blanche. Contemporary with 
Edward III. 

*,* Phillipe III. le Hardi had three sons, viz. 
Phillipe IV. le Bel who succeeded him, Charles 
comte de Valois, and Louis. Philippe VI. de Valois 
was the son of Charles de Valois, the second son 
of Philippe III. 

Philippe :6galite (1747-1793), due 
d'Orleans, guillotined by the Committee 
of Public Safety. Though a royal duke, 
he had sided with the Jacobins ; though 
a relative of Louis XVL, he had voted 
for his execution ; and though professing 
republican principles, he aimed at the 



PhilippsBan Era (The). This era 
began in June B.C. 323. 

Philip'pics. Three orations of De- 
mosthenes the Athenian against Philip 
king of Macedonia. The first was spoken 
during the sacred war, when Philip took 
on himself to be the champion of the 
Delphic god. Demosthenes wanted the 
Athenians to side with the Locrians 



against Philip, but he produced no prac- 
tical effect. 

The second Philippic was soon after 
the Sacred War, when Philip had become 
the head of Greece. Demosthenes charged 
him with perfidy. Philip sent an em- 
bassy to complain of this insult, and then 
it was that Demosthenes delivered his 
second Philippic directed against the 
supporters of the Macedonian king (b.c. 
344). 

The third Philippic was delivered B.C. 
341, and was to show the best means of 
resisting the encroachments of Philip. 

Philistines. The inhabitants of the 
sea-coast of Palestine from Phoenicia to 
Egypt are always meant when this word 
is used in Scripture. 

Philop'ator (Father-lover). Pto- 
lemy IV. of Egypt, so called, assassinated 
his father ; just as Ptolemy II., called 
Philadelphos, or Brother- lover, murdered 
his brothers in order to secure the throne. 
Philopator reigned B.C. 221-204. 

This madman not only assassinated his father, 
he also murdered his mother, sister-wife (Arsinoe), 
and brother. 

Philosopher {The). I. Marcus 
Aurelius Antoninus the Roman is so 
called by Justin Martyr (121, 161- 180). 

n. Porphyry the neoplatonist (223- 
304). 

III. Leo VI. emperor of the East (866, 
886-911). 

IV. Alured Anglicanus (died 1270). 

Philosopher of Chelsea [The). 
Thomas Carlyle, who lived at Chelsea 
(1795-1881). 

Philosopher of China {The). 
Confucius (B.C. 551-479). 

Philosopher of Ferney {The). 

Voltaire, who lived at Ferney, near 
Geneva, for the last twenty years of his 
life (1694-1778). 

Philosopher of Malmesbury 

{The). Thomas Hobbes, author of 'Le- 
viathan,' who was born at Malmesbury 

(1588-1679). 

Philosopher of Persia {The). 
Abii-ebn-Sina of Shiraz (died 1037). 

Philosopher of Sans Souci 

{The). Frederick the Great of Prussia 
(1712, 1740-1786). 

Voltaire calls him over and over again the 
philosopher prince. 



638 



PHILOSOPHER 



PHILOXENIAN 



Philosopher of Wimbledon 

{The). John Home Tooke, author of 
the ' Diversions of Parley,' who lived at 
Wimbledon, near London (1736-1812). 

Philosophers {The Five English). 

(1) Eoger Bacon, author of ' Opus 
Majus ' (1214-1292). 

(2) Sir Francis Bacon, author of * No- 
vum Organum ' (1561-1626). 

(3) The Hon. Robert Boyle (1627- 
1691). 

(4) John Locke, author of a treatise 
on the ' Human Understanding and In- 
nate Ideas ' (1632-1704). 

(5) Sir Isaac Newton, author of ' Prin- 
eipia ' (1642-1727). 

Philosophers {The French). ' At 
the close of the 18th cent, were mere ex- 
ponents of public opinion, which they 
popularised and vitalised. They were 
preceded by Descartes (2 syl.) the French- 
man, and Leibnitz the German, who 
taught that all which is real is spirit, 
soul, or self, and that matter (or the 
external world) is either a succession 
of notions impressed on the mind by 
deity, or unsubstantial images due to 
the five senses. Locke taught the latter. 
Early in the 18th cent, the French taught 
the doctrine of materialism, making the 
soul a mere function of matter, as light is 
an effect of fuel in combustion. Helvetius 
showed the moral tendency and practical 
bearing of materialism. Still later the 
existence of the soul was discarded, with 
the notion of a future state ; and the 
pleasure arising from the practice ., of 
virtue was looked on as the great end of 
man. The name of God was changed 
into Nature, and the equality of man 
was made ' an immortal principle.' 

The chief ' Philosophers ' were Malebranche 
(1638—1715), whose great work is ' The Search after 
Truth.' He denied that matter could produce 
i(U;as, and taught that intelligence is the function 
of deity uithUi us. 

Condlllac (1715—1780) abbe de Mureaux, chief of 
the Sensational School of philosophy ; that is, that 
intelligence is admitted through the five doors 
of knowledge called the senses. His chief works 
are an ' Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge,' 
a treatise on ' Sensations,' and another on 
'Animals.' 

Helvetius (1715—1771) maintained that 'self- 
Interest is the spring of all our actions.' D'Alem- 
bert, Diderot, &c., were Encyclopcedists. 

Philosophic Schools of Greece 

{The). The Academic, the Cynic, the 
Cyrenaic, the Eleatic, and the ISlew Elea- 
tic, the Epicurean, the Ionic, the Hera- 
clitian, the Megaric, the Peripatetic, the 



Pythagorean, the Sceptic, the Socratic, 
the Stoic, and the New Stoic. The Old 
Eleatic school consisted of speculative 
philosophers, the New of natural philo- 
soj)hers ; the New Stoic school consisted 
of Christian philosophers. See each in 
loco. 

Philosophical College {The). 
Wadham, Oxford, was so called when 
John Wilkins was warden, not only be- 
cause he himself was a philosopher, but 
because he invited to it men of a similar 
turn of mind as Wallis, Wren, Boyle, 
&c., who met together in his rooms. 

Philosophical Radicals {The). 
The political economists who advocated 
free trade. Jeremy Bentham was at the 
head of this school, which was supported 
by Adam Smith, General Perronet 
Thompson, C. P. Villiers, John Stuart 
Mill, Richard Cobden, Sir William Moles- 
worth, the Rev. T. R. Malthus, Dr. Chal- 
mers, John Bright, [Lord] Brougham, &c. 

Adam Smith, author of ' The Wealth of Nations ' ; 
General Thompson, author of the ' Catechism of 
the Corn Laws ' ; Malthus, a writer on ' Popula- 
tion.' 

Philosophical Transactions 

{The). Published by the Royal Society 
of London. First started Monday, 9 
March, 16G5, and ordered to be continued 
the first Monday of every month. The 
volumes contain memoirs of scientific 
men, reports of the ' progress of science,' 
and of ' new discoveries,' &c. The first 
number was by Oldenburg, and, up to the 
47th volume, the publications were left 
to the secretaries of the society, but since 
then they have been under the super- 
intendence of a committee of the council. 
The society's rooms were first in Crane's 
Court ; in 1780 they were removed to 
Somerset House; and in 1857 to Bur- 
lington House. 

Philosophy {The Father of). 

I. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). 

II. Albrecht von Haller of Berne 
(1708-1777). 

The Father of Boman Philosophy, 
Cicero the orator (b.c. 106-43). 

Philoxen'ian Version {The). A 
Syriac version of the Old and New Testa- 
ments by Philoxenus bishop of Hierapolis, 
A.D. 508. About a century afterwards 
the New Testament portion was revised 
by Thomas of Harkel [Heraclea], and is 
called the Harklen'sian version. 



PHCEBUS 



PHYSIOGNOMY 



Phoebus. Gaston III. comte de 
Foix (1331-1391). So called for his 
beautiful face and profusion of golden 
hair. 

Phoenician Stone {The). A hoax. 
In 1824 the learned Raoul Rochette, pro- 
fessor of archaeology and keeper of the 
Cabinet of Antiquities in Paris, received 
from Malta, ' for the Academy of France,' 
a stone with a bilingual inscription in 
Greek, and in what purported to be 
Phoenician. The stone was dated in ' the 
85th Olympiad' {i.e. b.c. 436). Professor 
Rochette gave the inscription credit for 
the antiquity it pretended to, and sent a 
copy thereof to every savant in Europe 
for decipherment and translation. The 
giant scholar Gesenius of Halle, and the 
hardly less learned Hamaker of Leyden, 
agreed with Rochette, and published 
comments upon the stone. Yet it turned 
out to be an impudent hoax and modern 
forgery. See ' Literary Forgeries,' &c. 

Phoenix of Spain {TJie). Lope 
de Vega, ' whom no one could pass or 
equal in verse or rhyme ' (1562-1635). 

Phoenix Park Murder {The), 
6 May, 1882. Lord Frederick Cavendish, 
the newly-appointed Secretary for Ii-eland, 
and Mr. Thomas A. Burke, the Under- 
Secretary, were stabbed to death while 
walking in Phoenix Park, Dublin, by 
assassins in the employ of the Irish Land 
League. Carey, one of the gang, gave 
queen's evidence, and it was found that 
there were twenty-one persons implicated 
in the cowardly murder. 10,000Z. was 
offered for the arrest of the assassins. 

C. S. Parnell, Dillon, and O'Kelly were released 
from Kilmainham Gaol only four days before this 
murder. They had been imprisoned by order of 
Mr. Gladstone for seditious speeches and con- 
spiracy. 

Phoenix Society {The), or ' The 
Phoenix National and Literary Society,' 
1858, established in Skibbereen by 
O'Donovan Rossa to insure the separa- 
tion of Ireland from the crown of 
England. See ' Irish Associations.' 

The oath was : ' I do solemnly declare in the 
presence of God that I renounce all allegiance to 
the Queen of England, and will do my utmost, at 
every risk, to make Ireland an independent demo- 
cratic republic. . . .' 

Photin'ians. Heretics of the 4th 
cent. So denominated from Photlnus 
bishop of Sirmich, who taught that Jesus 
was born a mere human being, but began 
to be the Messiah or Christ when the 




Holy Ghost descended on Him irw the 
Jordan. 

Phrenology {Founder of). Gall 
(1758-1828); with whom Spurzheim 
(1766-1833) is inseparably 
connected. 

Phrygian Cap {The). 
See ' Cap of Liberty in 
France.' 

Physcon (Big-belly), 
Ptolemy VII. king of Egypt (b.c. 145- 
116). Aged 74. 

Physical Club {The). An associa- 
tion in Moscow organised in the reign of 
Catherine II. (1762-1796). Physical ex- 
cellence was essential for membership. 
The club consisted of men and women 
in the prime of life. * Husbands intro- 
duced their wives, brothers their sisters. 
The requisites of men were health and 
vigour, of women youth and beauty.' 
The members belonged to the best 
families of Russia. This club was dis- 
solved in the French Revolution, when 
the police had orders to ferret out all 
secret societies. 

Physical Geography {Father of). 
Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859). 

Physicians {College of). London, 
1510, founded by Dr. Thomas Linacre of 
Canterbury. 

Physico-Historical Society 

{The), 1745. Afterwards merged into the 
Royal Dublin Society for the improve- 
ment of agriculture, husbandry, and the 
useful arts. 

Phys'iocrates (4 syl.), 18th cent. 
French political economists who advo- 
cated perfect freedom of trade, and 
insisted that land ought to bear all the 
taxes of a nation, as land only is natu- 
rally productive. The head of this school 
was Quesnay, but it was supported by 
Beaudeau, Lariviere, Mercier, Mirabeau, 
Turgot, &c. See ' Economists.' 

The term ' real property ' applied to land is a 
phase of the same delusion. All other property 
may take to itself wings and fly away, not so 
land; but 1887 and some preceding years have 
taught us that land does not always pay the ex- 
penses of the landlord. Sahara is land, but cer- 
tainly it would not pay for cultivation. 

Physiognomy {Founder of). 
Lavater (1741-1801) of Zurich, who 
taught the art of reading character by 
the expression and marks of the face. 

y Y 



PHYSIOLOGY 



PICPUS 



Physiology {Father of). Albert 
von Haller (1708-1777). 

Piagno'ni {The), or 'The Weepers.' 
The party of Savonarola were so called 
from the penitential character which they 
professed. The party of the Medici was 
called the Arrahhiati or the Enraged. 

Piagno'ni Painters {The). 
Painters of Florence, friends of Savona- 
rola. They were Botticelli, Lorenzo di 
Credi, Fra Bartolommeo (Baccio della 
Porta), and his friend Mariotto. 

Piano Regolatore {The), 1889. A 
system introduced by the Italian Govern- 
ment by which the seven hills of old 
Kome are to be levelled and the valleys 
between them filled up, to facilitate the 
construction of squares and rectangular 
streets. 

Piano'ri {Giovanni), 28 April, 1855. 
Shot at the Emperor Napoleon III. in 
the Champs Ely sees. See 'Napoleon 
III.' 

Piaristes. Called by the French 
' Pauvres de la mere' de Dieu.' A con- 
gregation devoted to the gratuitous edu- 
cation of poor children. Their houses 
were called * Ecoles Pieuses.' Joseph 
Calasanzio started the idea in 1621, by 
assembling at his own house street arabs. 
The order of Piaristes was sanctioned by 
the Pope in 1624. Austria and Hun- 
gary are the chief countries where they 
exist. 

Dr. Barnardo with his homes is a familiar ex- 
ample of the same benevolent zeal in our own 
land. In Dr.Barnardo's homes the waifs and strays 
are not only educated, but taught to earn their 
living, and placed out. 

Piasts {Dynasty of the), 842-1370. 
The first dynasty of Poland ; so called 
from Piast, a wheelwright of Cruswitz, 
chosen duke of Poland, its founder. It 
gave eight sovereigns, the first five of 
which were styled dukes ; Boleslaus I. 
assumed the title of king in 1000, and 
his predecessor Miecislaus I. introduced 
Christianity into Poland. In 1037 a 
period of anarchy succeeded, and Silesia 
was severed from Poland. The descen- 
dants of Piast continued to reign in 
Poland thus mutilated till 1370, giving 
seventeen more monarchs : and a branch 
subsisted in Silesia till 1675. 

The house of Piast was succeeded by the dynasty 
Of Anjou. 



Pica {A), or ' Pie.' A directory of the 
order to be observed in reciting the daily 
service. 

Incipit ordo Brevlarii seu portiforli secundum 
morem et consuetudlnem ecclesiae Sarum Angli- 
canae una cumordinali, seu quod usitato vocabulo 
dicitur Pica, sive directorium sacerdotum : Pica 
de dominica prima Adventus.— Du Cange, voL V. 
p. 288, col. 1. 

Picards {The), 15th cent. A Chris- 
tian sect founded by Picard, who called 
himself the Son of God and the New 
Adam. He taught like the Adamites that 
men and women ought to go about naked, 
and that God had sent him to restore the 
' law of nature.' He also taught the rule 
of the community of women as wives. 

Picares'co Romance. The ro- 
mance of knavery, like ' The Adventures 
of Gil Bias.' Begun in Germany in the 
17th cent. The romance called ' Simpli- 
cius Simplicissimus,' by Christopher von 
Grimmelshausen, is the best. It gives us 
a grajphic picture of society in the Thirty 
Years' War. 

Pichegru's Conspiracy, 1804. 
This was a Chouan or royalist conspiracy 
headed byPichegru and George Cadoudal. 
It was discovered. Pichegru strangled 
himself in prison ; Cadoudal and twelve 
others were guillotined. 

Pici'nists, 1774-1780. A French 
musico-political faction, who contended 
that pure Italian music is higher art than 
the mixed German school. In other 
words, that music is the alpha and omega 
of opera, and the dramatic part of very 
minor account. This is the most cele- 
brated of all the contests in musical 
annals. Niccolo Piccini was the great ex- 
ponent of the Italian school, and Christo- 
pher Gluck of the German school, his 
adherents being called Gluckists. 

Niccolo Piccini of Naples, 1728-1801 ; Christopher 
Gluck of Bohemia, 1712 1787. In this paper contest 
of the two parties at Paris, the ordinary question 
asked of everyone was ' Etes-vous Picciniste ou 
Gluckiste ? ' Arnaud and Suard were Gluckists, but 
Marmontel and Laharpe were Piccinists. The con- 
test extended to England and raged with undimin- 
ished fury. Marie Antoinette, being a German by 
birth, patronised Gluck, and this was quite suffi- 
cient to raise up a host of opponents. Wagner 
renewed the contention of Gluck, insisting that the 
dramatic part of opera is quite as important as the 
musical part. 

Picpus {The), or ' Order of Picpus,' 
1601. A religious society of the Third 
order of St. Francis ; so called from Picpus, 
anciently a part of • the Faubourg St. An- 
toine. The order was suppressed in 1790, 
but was re-established at the restoratiou 



PICTS 



PILLAR 



691 



in 1814. The members are largely mis- 
sionaries in heathen lands. 

Picts. Ancient inhabitants of the 
north-east of Scotland. They were a 
Celtic race. Probably the word means 
much the same as Caledonians (dwellers 
in woods). The Scots were a Celtic 
colony from Ulster, in Ireland, which 
(about B.C. 400) settled in the south- 
western parts of Scotland, then called 
Caledonia. If so, the Picts were the more 
ancient inhabitants. 

As the people were called Picts before the Ro- 
mans called them Picti (painted people), the Latin 
■word is merely a coincidence of sound, and is 
wholly without etymological value. The language 
of the Scoti was Earish (Erse), i.e. Irish or Western, 
still preserved in the Wescern Islands and High- 
lands. These Highlanders bear the same relation 
to Scotlajid generally as the Welsh do to the Eng- 
lish. 

Pietists {The), or * Separatists,' 1689. 
A Lutheran sect who preferred private to 
public worship. Spener of Leipsic was 
the founder, whose house was Collegia 
Pietatis, because his disciples met there. 
Ordained clergymen had no marked pre- 
cedence, but anyone was allowed to ad- 
dress the assembly, as among the Quakers. 
Among the Jews the Chasidim {.q.v.) were called 
' Pietists.' 

Pigeons. The priestesses of the 
oracle of Dodona {q.v.), so called by a play 
on the words peleiai (Tre'Aeiai), ' pigeons,' 
and palaiai (TraAaiai) old, aged [women]. 

It is said that Zeus (1 syl.) presented to his 
daughter Th6be two black pigeons endowed with 
the gift of human speech ; that one of them flew 
into Libya, in Africa, and the other to Dodona in 
Epirus; and that he commanded the inhabitants 
of both places to raise a temple to his honour. 
Hence the temple of ' Jupiter Ammon ' in Libya, 
and that of Dodona in Epiros. The two black 
pigeons may have been two gipsies or Egyptian 
fortune-tellers. 

Pigeon's Blood. The poor nobility 
of Venice were called IBarna hoti from the 
quarter San Barnabo, where they dwelt. 
The wealthy nobles were called Blue 
Blood {Sangue Colombin and Sangue 
Bid). 

Pigott Diamond {The). Brought 
from India by Lord Pigott, weighs 82^ 
carats. In 1801 it was sold in a lottery 
for 750,000 francs (30,000Z.) ; and in 1818 
it passed into the possession of Messrs. 
Rundell and Bridge. See ' Diamonds.' 

Pilate {Mount), in Switzerland, has no 
connection whatever with Pontius Pilate. 
It is a corruption of ' Mons Pileatus,' the 
hatted mountain^ or mountain with a cap 
of snow. 



Pilati {Acta). I. Said to be Pilate's 
despatch sent to the Emperor Tiberiup 
of the crucifixion of Jesus. It is a mere 
forgery. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

II. Eusebius (book ix. 5) speaks of 
another Acta Pilati ' full of blasphemy 
against Christ,' and sent by the emperor 
to every part of his dominion. Certain 
women who had once been Christians de- 
clared they had themselves been privy 
to criminal acts. These declarations 
(says Eusebius) were appended by order 
of the emperor to the ' Acts ' of the pro- 
curator. 

No doubt Pilate sent a despatch to Rome, but 
whether either of these ' Acts ' is genuine is quite 
another matter. 

Pilgrim Fathers {The). 102 

Puritans who went, in 1620, to North 
America, in a ship called the ' Mayflower,' 
and colonised what are now the North- 
Eastern States, called New England, and 
consisting of (1) Maine, (2) New Hamp- 
shire, (3) Vermont, (4) Massachusetts, 
(5) Rhode Island, and (6) Connecticut. 
This was the second English settlement 
in the New World, and was planted at New 
Plymouth near Boston. The tyranny of 
the Ecclesiastical Commission raised up 
a host of dissenters, and in 1580 they 
chose John Robinson for their leader. 
Their independence soon drew upon them 
the heavy hand of the law, and they left 
the kingdom. The larger part settled at 
Leyden, whence 102 of them went to 
America, and many others followed later. 

Pilgrimage of G-raee {The). The 
insurrection of 1537 against the ' King's 
Supremacy,' headed by Lord Darcy and 
' Captain ' Aske. Some 30,000 men, ' tall 
and well horsed,' demanded the redress of 
wrongs, reunion with Rome, the restora- 
tion of the Princess Mary to her rights as 
heiress of the crown, dismissal of Thomas 
Cromwell the lord chancellor, and restora- 
tion of all confiscated church property. 
The leaders of this rebellion wore for a 
badge ' the Five Wounds.' The king, 
Henry VIII., sent an army of 10,000 men 
against the rebels, and quelled the insur- 
rection. Aske, Darcy, and a large number 
of others, both priests, nobles, and gentle- 
men, were executed as traitors. 

This rising was supported by the Archbishop ot 
York, and hundreds of priests who marched in the 
van with crosses.bajiners, and other ecclesiastical 
insignia. 

Pillar of Northern History 

{The). ' Rei historicaa columen.' Snorr© 
Y y 2 



PILLAR 



PIPE 



son of Sturla, or Snorre-Sturleson (1178- 
1241). His history begins with Odin and 
continues to his own times. 

Pillar of the Doctors (The). 'La 
Colonne des docteurs,' William de Cham- 
peaux (died 1121). 

Pillars of Hercules {The). Calp^ 
(now Gibraltar rock), and Abyla, opposite 
to it in Africa, which Greek story says 
were torn asunder and separated by 
Hercules about B.C. 1220 (while Gideon 
was Judge of Israel). Before Hercules 
tore these rocks or mountains asunder the 
Mediterranean was an inland sea, like the 
Caspian [hence the name Mediterraneum 
Mare]. 

Pilnitz {The Convention of), 27 Aug., 
1791. To put down the French revolution 
by force of arms, restore the king, and 
dissolve the Constituent Assembly. The 
Kaiser-King of Germany, the King of 
Prussia, the Comte d'Artois, the Marquis 
de Bouille, and the ex-minister Calonne 
signed the convention, and threatened 
France with invasion, unless the demands 
were at once conceded. Of course the 
convention was mere waste paper. 

Pilot -who "weathered the 
Storm {The), 1801. William Pitt was 
so called on his retirement from office. 
The nation in 1797 was almost reduced to 
bankruptcy by war, when Pitt introduced 
paper payment for the nonce, whereby 
the nation soon righted itself again. 

Pindar {Peter). The pen-name of 
Dr. John Wolcot (1738-1819). 



Pindar {The 
Gray (1716-1771). 



British). Thomas 



No more the Grecian muse unrivalled reigns ; 

To Britain let the nations homage pay : 
She felt a Homer's fire in Milton s strains, 

A Pindar's raptxire in the lyre of Gray. 

Westminster Abbey (on the monument of Gray). 

Pindar {The Italian). Gabriello 
Chiabrera (1552-1637). 

Pindar of England (TTie). Abra- 
ham Cowley (1618-1667). 

The Duke of Buckingham preposterously called 
him ' The Pindar, Horace, and Virgil of England.' 

Pindar of France {The). 

I. Jean Dorat (1507-1588). 

n. Ponce Denis Lebrun (1719-1807). 
This title bestowed on Lebrun is simply 
absurd, but the French are not happy in 
tlieir eponyms, of which they are especi- 



ally fond. Also called 'The Poet of 
Liberty.' 

Pindari War {The), 1817-18. The 
Pindaris attacked Madras 1817, the 
Marquis of Hastings marched against 
them, and a treaty of peace was concluded 
5 Nov., 1818. 

Pinda'ris (T^e) of India were exactly 
like the Grand Companies of Europe. 
They were bodies of mercenary horse 
who served any prince for hire, and in 
times of peace lived by plunder. In the 
early part of the 19th cent, the Pindaris 
aided Holkar, the Mahratta prince, 
against the British, but wholly without 
success. See * Great Company,' 1353. 

Pinerolo, or Pignerolo {The 
Charter or Treaty of), Aug. 1656. A 
charter granted by Charles Emmanuel II. 
the duke of Savoy to his Vaudois subjects 
after the savage attack of the Marquis 
of Pianezza. The treaty defined where 
the Vaudois might exercise their worship 
without being molested, but reserved to 
the duke himself the right of celebrating 
mass where he chose. It also confirmed 
the prerogatives and privileges pre- 
viously granted, but in 1685 the Duke 
Victor Ainadeus was made by Louis XIV. 
of France to extirpate, as far as possible, 
the ' heretics ' in his dominions. 

Pink {Knights of the), or ' Chevaliers 
de rCEillet,' 1793. A society organised 
to save the queen and the young dauphin 
son of Louis XVI. It had its ramifica- 
tions in Germany and Prussia, but its 
headquarters, of course, were Paris. The 
attempt to save the queen failed, and 
the failure was communicated to the 
conspirators by one of them pulling a pink 
to pieces and casting the stalk on the 
ground. See ' Louis XVIL' 

Piombi ( The) . The terrific dungeons 
of Venice under the leaden roofs. Those 
under the canals were called I Pozzi 

{q.v.). 

If he relapsed he was to be imprisoned for at 
least three years in the Piombi.— if ist. of Venice, 
vol. ii. p. 107 (Murray, 1838). 

Pipe Office {The). An EngUsh law 
office in which a person called the ' Clerk 
of the Pipe ' makes out leases of crown- 
lands and enters all debts to the crown 
in the * Great Boll ' made of parchment 
and kept in the exchequer. Abolished 
by 8, 4 Will. IV. c. 99. 



PIPHLES 



PLACE 



Piphles (2 syl.). So the Waldenses 
iq.v.) of Flanders were called. Ety- 
mology unknown, but probably connected 
with the Greek nLvriKoi and the Latin 
pistis, meaning ' the faithful ' or ' true 
believers.' Sometimes called ' Pisti.' 

Pisa, G-enoa. Those who want to 
see Pisa must go to Genoa. (An Italian 
saying.) In 1282 began the fourth war 
between Pisa and Genoa. The Pisans 
were almost extirpated. 3 000 were slain 
or drowned, and 13,000 were carried pri- 
soners to Genoa, so that there were 
more Pisan captives in Genoa than 
there were left in the city itself. 

Piscine Baptism. 'La piscine 
baptismale.' A term derived from piscis, 
the Latin word for ix^v^, a fish, an ana- 
gram of ' lesous Christos Theou Uios, 
Soter ' [I-Ch-Th- U-SJ. A notarica used 
by the early Christians under persecu- 
tion. It is a secret way of saying ' Chris- 
tian baptism.' 

Pishdad'ian Dynasty [The), or 
*Paishdadians.' The first dynasty of the 
Parsees. Firdusi tells us it lasted 2,450 
years, and was founded by Kayomurz, 
who was succeeded by his son Hoshung ; 
Hoshung was succeeded by Tahmuras, 
who was succeeded by his son Djemshid, 
who reigned 500 years. After Djemshid 
came his son Feridoun. Those who seek 
to reduce mythical history within Bible 
limits place these kings thus : Kayomurz 
B.C. 1990; Hoshung B.C. 1960; Tahmuras 
B.C. 1920; and Djemshid B.C. 1890. 
Djemshid was dethroned by Zohak, an 
Arabian described as a most merciless 
tyrant, who was slain in a rebellion led 
by Kawan the blacksmith, who raised 
Feridoun to the throne. The Pishdadian 
kings were succeeded B.C. by the Kaianian 
dynasty, called by the Greeks the Achi- 
menides. It was preceded by the Maha- 
badian dynasty {q.v.). The Pishdads 
were mythical kings. Capital : first 
Balk, then Istakar, and then Segestan. 

Pisis'tratos of Rome {The). 
JuHus Caesar (b.c. 100-44). 

Pitt Diamond {The\ or 'The 
Eegent Diamond,' found in Golconda, 
the most perfect brilliant in existence, 
about the size of a pigeon's egg. It was 
bought in 1702 by Thomas Pitt (grand- 
father of the great Earl of Chatham) for 
20,400Z., and sold by him in 1717 to the 



Duke of Orleans regent of France for 
135,000Z. It weighed originally 410 carats, 
but was reduced by cutting to lS6g 
carats. This diamond decorated the hilt 
of Napoleon's sword of state, but now 
belongs to the king of Prussia. It was 
stolen by * an honest factor,' and pawned 
to Thomas Pitt, who refused to give it 
back again, and the thief did not dare to 
vindicate his claim. It came from the 
mines of Parteal, near Golconda. 

Asleep and naked as an Indian lay, 
An honest factor stole a gem away ; 
He pledged it to the knight, the knight had wit 
So kept the diamond, and the rogue was bit. 
Pope, Sir Balaam. 

Pitt Scholarship for Classics, in 
the University of Cambridge. Founded 
out of a fund raised by subscribers to 
the statue of William Pitt, 1813. See 
' Regius Professor of Greek.' 

Pitt's Bridge. Blackfriars Bridge, 
the foundation of which was laid in 1770, 
was so called originally, in honour of 
Pitt earl of Chatham. 

Pittsburg, when taken from the 
French by Brigadier Forbes in 1758, was 
called by him Fort Pitt, in honour of 
William Pitt (Earl of Chatham), but when 
it grew populous it was called Pittsburg, 
and is now the Birmingham of the 
United States. 

Placards, 1534. So the protestations 
of the reformers against the mass were 
called. They were disseminated by 
thousands by one Fe'ret from Switzerland, 
and on 18 Oct. the inhabitants of Paris 
found them attached to every public 
place, in all crossways, on the doors of 
churches, and even on the palace walls. 
Francois I. was furious, and many re- 
formers were put to death. 

Place de Gr^ve [La). The place 
formerly used in Paris for executions, 
like our Tyburn ; it is in the vicinity of 
the Hotel de Ville. Greve means the 
bank of a river or shore of the sea where 

* les eaux sont converts de gravier et de 
cailloux roules.' 

Place de Louis Quinze. See 

* Place de la Concorde.' 

Place de la Concorde. The spot 
where Louis XVI. was executed, then 
called the ' Place de la Revolution,' and 
prior to the revolution called the ' Place 
de Louis Quinze.' 



PLACE 



PLAN 



Place du Carrousel (ia). Apart 
of Paris where carrousels or mock tourna- 
ments were held, between the reign of 
Henri IV. and the 18th cent. 

Place of Oak-trees [The), in 
Preussen {i.e. ancient Prussia). The 
Holy of Holies of the Druids, into which 
none might enter but the Druid priests. 
When Adalbert of Prague, a zealous 
Christian missionary, forced his way into 
this sanctuary he was instantly put to 
death. 

Placemakers' Bilale, or 'The 
Whig Bible,' so called because Matt. v. 9 
is printed ' Blessed are the placemakers 
[peacemakers], for they shall be called 
the children of God.' See ' Bibles.' 

Placita, A.D. 598. The first French 
parlements, convened by Clotaire III., 
were so called. They were ambulatory ; 
that is, held sometimes in one town and 
sometimes in another. 

From ' Placita ' come our words plead, plead- 
ings, &c. 

Plague of Florence [The). See 
'Black Vomit.' 

Plague of London {The), 1665. 
Introduced by some Dutch merchants. It 
had been off and on in Holland ever since 
1654 ; in Leyden 13,000 died ; in 1655, in 
Amsterdam, 13,287 died of it. It was 
carried to London in bales of cotton, and 
100,000 died in one year. Its symptoms 
were sudden delirium, when those attacked 
rolled about as if intoxicated, then fol- 
lowed profuse perspiration. In 1666 it 
spread to France, but died out in the 
winter. 

The Plague was followed in 1666 fey the Great 
Fire, and when London was rebuilt the streets 
were made wider, the drainage improved, and 
thatch for the roofs of houses was forbidden. 
Before then the Plague was constantly cropping 
tip in London every few years. 

Plague of Marseilles {The\ 1720- 
1726. Brought from Syria in a merchant 
vessel. It spread to Aries, Aix, and 
Toulon, and above 80,000 fell victims to 
it. Henri Francois Xavier de Belsunce, 
bishop of Marseilles, exerted himself 
day and night to comfort the afflicted and 
take them spiritual consolation. By his 
devotion he gained the appellation of 
the Good Bishop. After the plague pro- 
motion was offered to him, but he re- 
solved to remain bishop of Marseilles. 
He died in 1755, but it was not till 1853 



that the inhabitants of Marseilles erected 
a statue to his memory. 

Plagues, Epidemics, &c. See under 



Antony's Fire (St.) 
Belsunce 
Black Death 

„ Vomit 
Borromeo 
Burning Fever (FeZ- 

low Fever) 
Coccoluccio {see 

' Coqueluche ') 
Coqueluche 
Cholera Morbus 
Convulsion! sts 
Dance of St. Guy 
Dancing Mania 
English Sweat 
Febris Flamma 

{Yellow Fever) 



Feu Ardent 
Great Plague 
Influenza {Russian) 
Loup-garou 
Mazzuolo 
Plague of London 
Plique 
Poitou Colio 
Scurvy 
Small-pox 
Sweating Sickness 
Tabardillo 
Tac 

Trousse-galant 
Vomito Prieto 
( Yellow Fever) 
YeUow Fever 



There have been thirty-three different pests 
in Europe since the founding of Home, but a pest 
of some kind has visited Europe ninety-seven 
times since the birth of Christ. There were four- 
teen visitations in the 17th cent., and only eight 
in the 18th cent. Since then the visitations have 
greatly declined. 

Plaine {La), 1791. The floor of the 
hall occupied by the National Convention 
of France. From the floor benches were 
raised on grades. These grades were 
called the Mountain. The red-hot Jaco- 
bins seated themselves on the raised 
benches and were called the Montagnards 
or Mountaineers, and the Girondists 
occupied the seat below them, called the 
Plaine. Both these parties formed the 
cote gauche ; the cote droit was appro- 
priated by the Constitutionalists. In 
1794 the ' Plaine ' was called the Marais 
{q.v.), or the Marsh. 

Plaine des Vertus {The). This 
plain, which is in France," not far from 
Chalons-sur-Marne, is notorious for the 
review held there 10 Sept., 1814, of 
160,000 Russian soldiers, before the diplo- 
matic corps of Europe. ' Vertus ' is the 
name of a town. It was taken by the 
English in 1422. 

Plan of Campaign {The), Oct., 
1886-1889. A device adopted by the 
Irish ' National party ' for compelling 
Irish landlords to reduce their rents. 
The tenants were to offer what they 
thought proper for the rent of their 
holdings, and if the agents refused to 
accept their offer, the tenants were to 
lodge the money in the hands of trustees 



PLANETS 



PLATONISTS 



695 



of the Land League. If evicted, they were, 
by boycotting, to prevent any other tenant 
from taking the farm. The plan was 
devised by Messrs. Dillon and W. O'Brien. 
It gave place in July, 1889, to the 
•Temmts' Defence League' {q-v.). 

The Solicitor-General said, ' One of the principal 
objects of the Plan was to get wealthy tenants, 
who could pay their rents, to lodge their money 
under the Plan, and once having done so they 
would not afterwards expose themselves to the 
risk which would follow its withdrawal. The 
meaning was this : The tehants were to fix their 
own rents, having first agreed among themselves 
the amount of reduction they intended to de- 
mand. If the landlord refused to grant the 
reduction, the tenants were to lodge the money 
as the Plan advised. If evicted, they were by 
boycotting to prevent anyone taking the farm.' 
16 Feb., 1887. Forbidden by the Pope April, 1888. 

No greater swindle was ever openly propounded, 
and, strange as it may seem, there were gentlemen 
and landlords of England who coquetted with it 
to gain the Irish vote. 

Planets. See ' Bode's Law.' 

Plantagenet. Geoffrey son of Fulk 
earl of Anjou was so surnamed, it is said, 
because he bore in his helmet a sprig of 
yellow broom instead of a feather (Lat. 
planta-genistce) ; and this we are told was 
from penitential humility. Some say he 
was scourged with a rod of broom for his 
sins, as Henry II. is represented being 
scourged with birch-broom for the murder 
of Thomas Becket. 

This Geoffrey married Maud daughter of 
Henry I., and their son was Henry Plantagenet, 
who succeeded the Norman dynasty in England. 
The Plantagenet race was succeeded by the Tudor 
dynasty. Fulk was son-in-law of Baldwin 11. king 
Of Jerusalem, whom he succeeded in 1131. 

Plantation ofUlster {The), 1610. 
The colonising of the six counties of 
Ulster with Englishmen and Scotchmen. 
At the death of Queen Elizabeth, Sir 
Cahir O'Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, 
broke out into rebellion, but the rebellion 
was crushed in June 1608, when O'Do- 
gherty fell in battle. Almost all Ulster 
now lay at the disposal of the crown. The 
lands of O'Dogherty were given to the 
deputy, and all the rest was divided into 3 
lots. Lot 1 contained 2,000 acres; lot 2 
contained 1,500 acres ; and lot 3 contained 
1000 acres. The parcels of lot 1 were sold 
to Englishmen and Scotchmen only ; the 
parcels of lot 2 were distributed among 
servants of the crown. Neither of these 
could be alienated to the Irish. The 
parcels of lot 3 were held by Irishmen. 
The lands of Tyrone and O'Donnell were 
given by the crown to the corporation of 
London to be sold to Englishmen and 
Scotchmen. Husbandry and the arts being 



introduced, Ulster, from being the most 
wild and disorderly province of Ireland, 
became the most civilised, the best culti- 
vated, and the most prosperous. 

The chief seat of this enforced colonisation was 
Londonderry, from the lands given to the Corpora- 
tion of London. This land is still managed by 
twenty-six of the Common Council. The charter 
dates from 1619. 

Tyrone [i.e. O'Neill], the largest chieftain of Ire- 
land, wanted to be made king of the whole island, 
and promised to give all Ireland to Philip II. of 
Spain, and hold under him as a tributary prince, 
if Philip would help him to drive out the'English. 
Philip sent money, arms, and men, under Don 
Juan d'Aguila, but the allied Spanish and Irish 
array was completely routed. Tyrone and Tyr- 
connell (O'Donell) soon quitted Ireland. Tyrone 
(O Neill) settled in Rome, where the Pope and King 
of Spain allowed him a pension. O Neill died there, 
and his son being assassinated, the race became 
extinct. Sir Cahir O Dogherty the young chief of 
Inishowen now rose in insurrection, and was slain 
in battle. Thus the lands of O Neill, O'DoneU, and 
O'Dogherty all lapsed to the crown. 

Planters {The). The colonists sent 
in the reign of James for ' the plantation 
of Ulster ' {q.v.). 

Plantin Polyglot Bible {The), 
1569-1572. So called because it was 
printed by Christopher Plantin of Ant- 
werp. It was edited by Arius Montanus. 
See ' Polyglot.' 

Plato {The English). The Rev. John 
Norris (1657-1711). 

Plato {The German). Friedrich 
Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819). 

Plato {The Jewish). Philo-Judaeus 
(flo. 20-40). 

Plato (T^e Scottish). Dugald Stewart, 
born at Edinburgh 1753, died 1828. 

Plato of the 18th cent. Voltaire 

(1694-1778). 

The sage Plato of the 18th cent.— Cakltlk, 
Friednch II. of Prussia (vol. ii. p. 597). 

Platonic Puritan {The). John 
Howe (1630-1706). Author of ' The Good 
Man the Living Temple of God,' which 
occupies one of the highest places in 
Puritan Uterature. 

Platonists. Dr. Joseph Priestley, in 
his ' Corruptions of Christianity,' main- 
tains that the doctrine of the Trinity is 
due to Platonism, and it is certain that 
the Platonists taught a sort of Trinity. 
There was first the Unity, that abstract 
existence without form or personality of 
any kind. From this ens proceeded what 
St. John calls Logos, and the author of 
' Proverbs ' calls Wisdom, * By Wisdom 
God established the heavens and founded 



PLATONISTS 



PLUG-DRAWERS 



the earth ' (iii. 19) ; and from these two 
proceeded the Word- Soul, which consti- 
tute the Triad. So in Gen. i. we have first 
God in Unity, then the Word ' God said 
Let there be ' so and so, and then the Spirit 
which moved on the face of chaos to 
reduce matter into order. Certainly the 
Christians of Alexandria were correct in 
tracing a striking resemblance between 
the language of Moses, the Christian 
Trinity, and the Platonic Triad. 

Platonists and Cartesians. The 
new departure in the Church of England 
in 1666, led by Henry More, and supported 
by Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson, Stilling- 
fieet, Patrick, and others, who extended 
the principles of philosophy and divinity, 
and were the fathers of the Latitudinarian 
school of theology. 

Cartesians were followers of the French philo- 
sopher Descartes. 

Platonop'olis. The city of Plotin 
the neoplatonic philosopher, in Cam- 
pania, where he intended to carry out his 
socialistic ideas and philosophical system. 
It does not appear that he was able to 
complete his project, for we hear nothing 
more about it except that the Emperor 
Galen granted him permission to build 
the city. 

Plautus {The Portuguese). Gil 
Vicente (1480-1557). 

Plea {The Army^s), 1659, was a paper 
drawn up by the officers of the army 
left by Cromwell to vindicate their con- 
duct in driving the Rump Parliament 
from power for a time, and endeavouring 
to place England under a military go- 
vernment. 

Pleas of the Crown {The Four). 
Murder, fire, rape, and robbery. 

Pleasant Willy. William Shake- 
speare (1564-1616). 

Pleiades, sing. Pleiad. Seven con- 
temporaneous poets. The Alexandrine 
Pleiades consisted of Lycophron, Theo- 
crites, Aratos, Nicander, Apollonios, Cal- 
limachos, and Philiscos (called Homer 
the Younger). 

The first French Pleiade in the reign 
of Henri III. was composed of Ronsard, 
Dubellay, Remi Belleau, Jodelle, Baif, 
Pontus de Thiard, and Amadis Jamyn 
(or else Dorat). 

The second French Pleiade, in the 



reign of Louis XIIL, was composed of 
Rapin, Commire, Larue, Santeuil, 
Menage, Duperier, and Petit. 

The Pleiades of Greek mythology were the seven 
sisters named Electra, Maia, TaygSte (4 syl.), 
Alcyone, Celseno, Sterope, and Merope, who died 
of grief, and were afterwards placed as stars in 
the back of Taurus. 

Pliny {The German). Konrad von 
Gesner, styled by Boerhaave that ' Mon- 
strum Eruditionis.' He wrote the ' His- 
toria Animalium,' &c. (1516-1565). 

Pliny of the East. Zakarija-ibn- 
Muhammed, called Kazwini, from Kaz- 
win, the place of his birth (1200-1283). 

Plique (Z/e), or Plica Polonica, 1599. 
An endemic very common in Poland. ' Les 
medecins pretendent que le siege du mal 
est dans les cheveux, qui se melent d'abord 
sans causer beaucoup de douleur; mais 
ensuite la suppuration s'etablit, et fait 
sortir une innombrable vermine qui 
cause des tii-aillements et de picotements 
insupportables. La chevelure ne forme 
plus alors qu'une masse compacte.' It 
was called by the Poles Gozdziec, and it 
is said to have been caused by drinking 
the water of the Borysthenes. This dis- 
ease is common in India. See ' Plagues,' 
&c. 

Plogpenning, * Plough-penny.' So 
Eric VI. of Denmark was called because 
he laid a tax on ploughs (1274, 1286- 
1319). 

Plon-Plon. The sobriquet of 
Prince Napoleon Joseph Charles Bona- 
parte, son of Jerome Bonaparte. It is a 
euphonic corruption of Craint-plomb 
(Fear-bullet), given to the prince in the 
Crimean war (1854-1856). 

Plots {The Three). In the reign of 
Charles II. called Oates'sPlot {q-v^, the 
Meal-tub Plot {q.v.), and the Rye-house 
Plot {q-v.), or Gates, Meal, and Rye. 
Gates's Plot 1678, Meal-tub Plot 1679, the 
Rye-house Plot 1683. 

Ploughgates in demesne. 
Lands reserved in the lord's own hand, 
in contradistinction to lands held by 
homagers, villeins, oottars, and serfs in 
the manor. 

Plug-dra"wers. A term invented 
by Peel, applied to stump-orators who 
drew the plug of their declamation, and 
let loose the waters of ' radical humanity,' 
ad captandum vulgus. There are plenty 



PLUMEAN 



POETS' 



697 



of such plug-drawers still, who let loose 
their ' humanity ' in sympathy witli 
rebels, like the French jury who acquitted 
the murderer of his father and mother, 
poor man, ' because he was an orphan.' 
The Luddite orators, 1811, the Chartist 
orators, 1848, &c., and the Home Rule 
orators, 1890, &c., are your plug-drawers 
who waste their sympathy * in one weak, 
washy, everlasting flood.' 

Plu'mean Professor of Astronomy 
and Experimental Philosophy. Stipend 
8001. a year. Founded in the University 
of Cambridge by Dr. Plume, archdeacon 
of Rochester, 1704. 

Plymouth Adventurers (The). 

A company chartered by James I. author- 
ising them to plant all North America 
from 41° to 45° N.- lat., which includes 
what we now call Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, New York, and New England. 

Plymouth Brethren (The), 1828. 
• Brethrenism ' began in Dublin, where 
certain Christians met together to partake 
of the Lord's Supper without a minister. 
In 1832 John H. Darby, a curate of the 
Anglican Church, joined the society, and 
afterwards became its head, but in time 
removed to Switzerland. The members 
call themselves merely ' Brethren,' but 
they are sometimes called Darbyites. 
They have no written creed, but believe 
Christianity is on its decline. 

The religious system of the society is called 
'Brethrenism.' They reject clericalism, insist on 
the equal standing and privilege of every member 
of Christ's Church, believe in the doctrine of elec- 
tion, and deem church-membership necessary for 
salvation. Called Plymouth because at Plymouth 
the society was first developed. 

Plymouth Sound. James Wliite, 
member for Plymouth, who spoke with a 
very loud voice. 

Pneumatics, or ' Macedonians,' 4th 
cent. Those who denied the divinity of 
the Holy Ghost. Ilj/eC/xo, the spirit. 

Pocket Borough {A). A borough 
in which the freemen were all controlled 
by the pocket of the candidate. This 
was in the ' good old days ' before par- 
liamentary reform abolished the free- 
men's absurd privilege of election. 

Pocket Judgment. Statute- 
merchant is so called. It was a bond of 
record under the hand and seal of a 
debtor, authenticated by the king's seal. 
30 



On failure of payment, execution was at 
once awarded without further charge or 
trouble. This process is no longer in 
use. 

Po'codena'rio, or Lack Penny. 
Maximilian L (1493-1519); he failed 
well nigh in all his projects for want 
of money. 

Poet-laureate. Petrarch appears 
to have been the first of modern poets 
crowned with laurels, 1341. Warton 
shows there were royal poets about our 
English kings before the time of Richard 
I., whose court poet Blondel is said to 
have discovered the place of the king's 
captivity and to have been the means of 
his release. Chaucer as royal poet was 
allowed a gallon of wine a day, and before 
that time a harper to Henry III. had an 
allowance of wine. Charles I. in 1630 
made the office patent and settled both a 
stipend and wine on the laureate. Till 
Tennyson was made poet the stipend was 
1271. plus 271. for the purchase of a cask 
of canary. 

The term arose thus : the king chose a laureated 
student of Oxford or Cambridge, that is a student 
to whom a laurel crown had been presented for 
the best Latin ode in praise of Alma Mater. In 
France crowning with laurels is continued still. 

Poets' Corner (The), in Westmin- 
ster Abbey, the South Corner. This is 
merely a popular name. As a Valhalla 
of British poets, one would be ashamed 
of the list. The poets represented are : 
Addison, Beaumont, S. Butler, Campbell, 
Cowley, Davenant, Drayton, Dryden, 
Gay, Goldsmith, Gray, Dr. Johnson, Ben 
Jonson, Longfellow of America, Macaulay, 
Mason, Milton, Philips, Prior, Rowe, 
Shakespeare, Shadwell, Sheridan, Spen- 
ser, and Thomson. 

But there is no memorial to such poets 
as the following : Akenside, Mrs. Brown- 
ing, Byron, Burns, Carew, Cartwright, 
Chaucer, Churchill, Coleridge, Collins, 
Cotton, CowpER,Crabbe, Denham, Donne, 
Fletcher, Mrs. Hemans, Herbert, Herrick, 
Hogg, Hood, Keats, Miss Landon, Lee, 
Lovelace, Marlowe, Marston, Massinger, 
MooRE, Parnell, Pollok, Pope, Raleigh, 
Ramsay, Rossetti, Scott, Shelley, 
Shenstone, Southern, Southey, Waller, 
Wither, Wolfe, Wordsworth, Young, 
and several others. 

*^* Why not place the name in a car- 
touch with date of birth and death ? Let 
first-class men, like Chaucer, Shake- 



698 



POETICAL 



POLICE 



speare, and Milton have a statue ; second- 
class poets, like Dryden, Byron, Words- 
worth, &c., have a cameo profile; the 
rest a simple cartouch with name. And 
no name inscribed till twenty-five years 
after death. The cloisters might be 
utilised for the purpose. 

Poetical Milkmaid (The), or ' The 

Poetical Milkmaid of Bristol,' Ann 
Yearsley (1756-1806). 

Pogon'atUS, t.e. the bearded. The 
agnomen of Constantine IV. emperor of 
the East (648-685). Greek Trcoycauaros. 

Poinding. Taking an inventory of 
the effects of a debtor ; taking goods by 
way of distress ; the act of transferring 
a debtor's goods to his creditors in default 
or in payment of debt. The same was 
' pounding ' or putting stray cattle into 
the parish pound. Ang.-Sax. pynd-an, 
to confine, to pound, our word ' impound- 
ing.' 

The retainers of the law went from place to 
place, making an inventory of the goods and 
chattels falling under their warrant of distress, 
or poinding, as it is called in the law of Scotland. 
—Sir W. Scott, The Antiquary, chap. xlii. 

'Pointed Arro'W.' So General 
Jackson was called by the Indians against 
whom he fought in 1813 (1767-1845). 

Toissy {The Colloqmj of), 1561 (Sept. 
9 to Oct. 9). A disputation between 
Catholics and reformers held at Poissy, 
under the expectation of proving which 
was right — Catholic faith or that of the 
reformers. Theodore de Beze was the 
chief of the reform representatives, which 
consisted of twelve pastors and twenty- 
two laymen. The Catholic disputants 
were the cardinals of Tournon, Lorraine, 
Chatillon, Bourbon, Guise, and Arma- 
gnac, with about forty bishops and 
doctors. On the first day Beze stated 
the reformers' creed of the eucharist, 
whereupon Cardinal de Tournon prayed 
that the blasphemer might be silenced, 
but no notice was taken of the cardinal's 
request. On the IGth Sept. Cardinal de 
Lorraine answered that the church could 
not err, and the church had decided that 
the real presence was the right faith. 
Beze craved leave to reply, but the pre- 
lates rose and the conference was ad- 
journed. Other meetings were held, but 
on 9 Oct. the conference was broken off, 
each party being more embittered against 



the other and more self-opinionated than 
before. 

Generally called ' Beza ' In English. 

Poitiers {The Edict of), 8 Oct., 1577, 
granting to the Huguenots of France the 
exercise of the reformed religion, but 
only in the places where it was professed 
at the time of signing this treaty. Henri 
in. used to boast of this edict as ' My 
edict, my treaty.' It never was observed, 
and never would have been granted ex- 
cept out of spite to the Guises. 

Poitou Colic {The), 1572-1606, 
appeared in France. It is said to have 
been caused by ergot (a sort of fungus) 
in the wheat ; but some regard it as lead- 
poisoning. See ' Plagues,' &c. 

Poland {Father of). Boleslas I. 
(960,992-1025) called the Great, certainly 
the greatest sovereign of the age. 

Poland {The Golden Age of). The 
reign of Casimir IV. (1444-1492). 

Others call the reign of Sigismund I. 
(1506-1548) the ' golden age of Poland.' 
Perhaps it would be more correct to join 
the two and say 1444 to 1548 was the 
golden age. Lithuania, Smolensk, and 
the vast territories beyond the Euxine 
and the Baltic obeyed Sigismund ; while 
his nephew Louis possessed Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Silesia. 

Pole Star {Knights of the), 1741. A 
military order of Sweden instituted by 
King Frederick. The decoration is a 
Latin cross with four crowns ; the le- 
gend being ' Nescit Occasum,' in allusion 
to the pole star, which never sets. 

Police Strike {The London), 5 
July, 1890. The constables at Bow Street 
and the Metropolitan Police refused to 
go on duty. They complained of insuffi- 
cient pay (22s. a week), and demanded 
two-thirds of their pay as a superannua- 
tion pension after 25 years' service. The 
chief commissioner, Sir Edward Brad- 
ford, dismissed or removed above 400 of 
the force, and the strike collapsed. 

At the same time the 2nd Grenadier Guards, 
some of the London postmen, and telegraph clerks 
struck for less work and more wages. Probably 
the insubordination of the Irish Home Rule party 
was responsible for these disturbances. The 
Grenadier Guards were relieved of the extra duty 
which they complained of, but were sent off im- 
mediately on colonial service to the islands of 
Bermuda for ' change of air ' ; and the telegraph 
clerks were told that they were free to go wfth 
proper notice. 



POLICE 



POOR 



Police System [The), 1814. Ori- 
ginated by Sir Eobert Peel, chief secre- 
tary for Ireland ; perfected in 1836. Pro- 
viding a complete and efficient consta- 
bulary force both day and night for the 
United Kingdom. 

Poliorce'tes (5 syl.), * Besieger of 
cities.' Demetrius the Phalerean, his- 
torian, philosopher, poet, and king of 
Macedonia (b.c. 337, 294-287, died 283). 

Political Handkerchief {Bert- 
hold's), 1831, price 'id. Printed and 
published by H. Berthold, No. 1 Bouverie 
Street, Fleet Street, and 14 Duke Street, 
Lincoln's Inn Fields. ' It was a pocket- 
handkerchief or book printed on cotton 
to avoid the paper tax. It contained 
various political articles, as the prophecy 
of Napoleon on various European States, 
&c.' 

In 1832 an untaxed almanac, price Id., 
was printed on linen by John Smith, No. 
1 Bouverie Street, &c. 

Politiques {Les). ' The Politicans,' 
the ' malcontents in the religious wars in 
the reign of Charles IX. and Henri III. 
The leaders were Francois d' Aleu^on (the 
king's brother), Henri king of Navarre, 
the Prince de Conde, and the Mont- 
morencys. They were part Catholics, 
part Huguenots, recommended mutual 
tolerance, and proposed tenns of peace 
between the Catholics and Protestants. 
In 1574 some of the Politiques conspired 
against Charles IX., and two of the con- 
pirators (La Mole and Coconas) were be- 
headed. At the death of Charles IX. 
they took up arms, but were defeated by 
Henri de Guise at Dormans in 1575. 
The party melted away after the treaty 
of Beaulieu in 1576. 

Called Politicians, because they advocated new 
maxims of politics and political liberty, such as 
the lawfulness of deposing bad kings. And called 
Malcontents, because they were not content with 
either the Catholic or Protestant party of France. 

Polyglot Bibles. 1. The Hexapla, 
attempted by Origen (220-250) ; and pro- 
jected by Aldus 1501. 

2. The Complutensian (q.v.), under 
the patronage and at the expense of 
Cardinal Ximenes (1502-1517). 

S. The Plantin, or Antwerp, printed 
by Christopher Plantin, and edited by 
Arius Montanus (15G9-1572). 

4. The Pans, by Le Jay (1628-1645). 

5. The London, edited by Walton 



(1654-1657), in nine languages — Hebrew, 
Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Ethiopic, 
Arabic, Persian, Greek, and Latin. 

6. Hutter's, published at Niirnberg 
(1599). 

7. -Baxter's, London, 1831. See 'Bible.' 

Complutum is Alcaic de Henares (3 syl.), a town 
near Madrid in New Castile. 

Pomfret Marbles {The). A part 
of the Arundel collection, given to Oxford 
University in 1755. 

Pons Subli'cius. The first Roman 
bridge. It was built over the Tiber by 
Ancus Martins on wooden piles {suhlicce), 
whence its name. 

Pontifical {The). The service-book 
of the Romish bishops, embracing all 
that pertains to their several functions, 
as the ' Ceremonial ' describes the 
various functions of the pope. It is 
attributed to Pope Gelasius (492-496) 
and Gregory the Great (590-604). See 
' Ceremonial ' and ' Ritual.' 

Pontifical Indiction {The). 
Begins 25 Dec, B.C. 8. 

Poor Brothers of St. John 

{The), 1048. Some Italian merchants 
obtained permission of the Kalif to 
build a hospital at Jerusalem for the 
protection of pilgrims. The hospital 
was dedicated to St. John the Ahnoner. 
During the first crusade many of the 
wounded were taken to this hospital, and 
after restoration to health dedicated 
themselves to a life of charity, under the 
designation of the Poor Brothers of St. 
John, consisting of knights, clergy, and 
serving brothers. Their dress was a 
black robe, on which was embroidered a 
white cross with eight points. These 
Poor Brothers were called 'Knighta 
Hospitallers,' from the ' Hospital of St. 
John the Almoner.' They are also called 
'White Cross Knights,' in contradistinc- 
tion to the Knights Templars, who were 
Red Cross Knights. 

Poor Clares, or Clarisses, 1224. 
Founded by St. Francis of Assisi, and 
placed under the charge of Clare or 
Clarisse of Assisi, his favourite nun. 

Poor Knights {The), 1348. Insti- 
tuted by Edward III. Twenty- four in 
number, maintained in St. George's 
chapel. The charity was instituted to 
provide a comfortable home for valiant 



700 



POOE 



POPE 



soldiers fallen into poverty and decay. 
The number was increased by James I. 
to twenty-six, and each knight had a 
pension of 181. 5s., paid quarterly. 

Now called 'Military Knights,' and no longer 
limited to soldiers who have fallen into poverty 
and decay, but, like college sizars, often awarded 
to poor gentlemen still in the service. There are 
two foundations, the Koyal and the Lower. The 
Lower Foundation consists of five knights, added 
by Sir Peter Lemaire and Sir Francis Crane. 

Poor "Larw Amendment Act 

{The), 1834 (4, 5 Will. IV. c. 76). Com- 
missioners appointed for the better ad- 
ministration of the ' Poor Laws.' It re- 
pealed the law of settlement, united 
parishes into unions, each union being 
placed under a Board of Guardians 
elected annvially by the ratepayers. It 
created 585 unions, including 13,964 
parishes, in England and Wales. Be- 
sides these there are 21 unions by 
Local Acts, 12 by Gilbert's Act (q.v.), 
and the 89 parishes of the Scilly Isles 
included in a union. These, with 37 
single parishes, make up the whole 
number of 14,610 parishes. Each union 
has a clerk, an auditor, a chaplain, a 
medical officer, relieving officers, a master 
and matron, schoolmaster and school- 
mistress. 

The principle embodied in the Act was to make 
the parish the hardest taskmaster, so as to drive 
able-bodied men to seek honest work elsewhere, 
and not hang in laziness on parish relief. The 
effects have been to reduce parochial expenditure, 
to diminish crime, and to encourage thrift. 

Poor Men of Lyons (The), 12th 
cent. Religious reformers of the Ceven- 
nes, or Mont de Lyonnais, who probably 
were organised by Peter Waldo, a rich 
merchant of Lyons. Though they held 
similar religious views to those of the 
Waldenses, they must not be confounded 
with them, seeing the Waldenses existed 
350 years before the Lyonists. The Poor 
Men of Lyons dressed in mean attire, 
made a vow of voluntary poverty, and 
during the persecutions of the Waldenses 
and Albigenses also were involved in 
the same massacres. Those who escaped 
the fire and the sword hid themselves in 
the mountains of Provence and Pied- 
mont, where they lived in concealment 
till 1545, when those of Provence were 
extirpated. In 1686-7 the survivors lurk- 
ing about Piedmont were driven into 
Switzerland, and there still exist from 
sixteen to twenty thousand of these re- 
formers. 



Poor Priests {The). The preach- 
ing disciples of Wyclif, who went about 
barefoot, in plain frieze gowns. 

Pope {The Huguenot). Philippe de 
Mornay, sieur du Plessis, so called from 
his ' Treatise on the Sacrament of the 
Eucharist,' published in 1598. He died 
in 1623, at the age of 74. 

Pope {The Worst). Alexander VI., 
father of Cesare Borgia, his sister 
Lucrezia, and several other sons and 
daughters of inferior notoriety. Simony, 
treason, murder, poisoning, are amongst 
the crimes attributed to him (1431, 1492- 
1503). 

Pope Joan {Papissa Joanna). ' John 
VIII.,' said to have held the chair of St. 
Peter from 853 to 855, between Leo IV. 
and Benedict III. To make this state- 
ment good the death of Leo IV. is 
placed in the year 853 (not 855). The 
tale is that she was an English girl, edu- 
cated at Cologne, who assumed man's 
clothes in order to elope with a monk of 
Fulda. While at Rome she earned such 
high reputation for her learning that she 
was chosen to succeed Pope Leo IV., 
and assumed the name of John VIII. 
Her sex was discovered by the birth 
of a child as she was going from the 
Coliseum to the church of St. Clement. 
Being strangled, the time of her pontifi- 
cate was added to that of her predecessor. 



Anastatius (886), in his ' Liber Pontificalis," men- 
tions the story, and as this was only thirty years 
after the death of Leo, if the passage is genuine, 
it is proof positive of the fact. 

Marianus Scotus (1083), in his ' Universal Chro« 
nicle,' repeats the story. 

Sigebert of Gemblours (1030-1113), in his ' Chro- 
nicles,' does the same. 

In the ' Augustan Annals ' (11.S5) we are told that 
this papissa in 855 consecrated Louis II. of France. 

Etienne de Bourbon (1225) states the tale as an 
historic fact. 

Otto of Freisingen, and Godefroid of Viterbo, 
both mention her in their histories. 

Martinus Polonus (1278), in his 'Chronicles of 
the Popes and Emperors,' tells us that John, an 
Englishman, succeeded Leo IV., and that this 
pope was said to be a woman, whose sex was 
discovered by the birth of a child on her way 
from the Coliseum to St. Clement's Church. 

Thomas de Elmham repeats the story in 1422. 

Platina (1479), in his ' Lives of the Popes,' repeats 
the story. 

WiUiam Occam alludes to the story. 

John Huss tells us her baptismal name was not 
Joan, but Agnes. Others say her baptismal name 
was (jilberta. 

Spanheim (1600-1649) tells the same tale in his 
' Exercit. de Papa Fsemina.' ii. 577. 

Lenfant (1661-1728) wiote a 'History of the 
Female Pope.' He was the author of a ' History 
of the Council of Constance,' a ' History of Pisa/ 
a ' History of the Hussite Wars,' &o. 



POPE 



POPES 



701 



Prof. Kist of Leyden believed the tale to be true. 

Mosheim (1G94-1755), in his ' Ecclesiastical His- 
tory,' seems inclined to credit the story, though 
he aclcnowledges that it is doubtful. 

Indubitably a statue of Pope Joan occupied 
a place among the accredited popes in the 
cathedral church of Sienna. See Pagi, * Critica,' 
vol. iii. p. r.24. 

At least 150 authors, on every variety of subject, 
in the 13th, 14th, loth, 16th cents, repeat the tale 
as an accredited fact. 

Till the time of the Reformation it was un- 
doubtedly considered to be a gentiine historic 
fact. 

CON. 

Allatins, or Allatus, contradicts the story in his 
'Confutatio Fabulse de Johanna Papissa ' (17th 
cent.). 

Lequien does the same in his 'Oriens Chris- 
tianus,' iii. 777 (18th cent.). 

Blondel, a Calvinist divine (1649), wrote a book 
in confutation of the story. 

Gibbon (1737-17ii4), in his ' Decline,' &c., chap, 
xlix., calls the story a ' fable,' and thinks that the 
appointment of popes by such prostitutes as 
Marozia and Theodora may have suggested the 
tale. 

Bayle (1760-1815), In his 'Dictionnaire Critique,' 
article 'Papisse,' gives arguments pro and con, 
but decides against the story. 

It is said that the clause in Anastatius ( ' Liber 
Pontificalis ') is a forgery. 

Pagi, Muratori, and Leibnitz fix the date of the 
death of Leo IV. in the year 857. 

Photius (9th cent.) and Luitprand, or Liutprand, 
omit all mention of Papissa Joanna (10th cent.). 

*,* Arguments on both sides of the question are 
given in Cunningham's translation of ' Geiseler 
Lehrbuch,' ii. 21, 22. 

The last person who critically examined the 
question was Dollinger in ltM>3. 

It is strange that no Catholic of note has written 
to confute the story, but that the contra has been 
left to a Calvinist minister, an atheist, and a line 
or two of Gibbon, an infidel. 

After all, it would be well indeed if the worst 
thing that could be said against the popes of 
Eome is that once a woman in male attire was 
mistaken for a man. Undoubtedly for a century, 
about the same period, there was a succession of 
popes of most infamous reputation (see ' Popes of 
the Tenth Cent.'). There was more than one boy 
pope, and a host of antipopes. 

N.B.— I cannot think that Blondel's book has 
settled this vexed question, or anything like it. 
Of course the supposed date of Leo's death is 
wholly worthless unless it can be proved by in- 
dependent testimony. 

Pope of Rome {The). In 597 John 
rV., the Jejunator, patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, assumed the title of (Ecu- 
menical Patriarch, or Universal Bishop. 
This excited the indignation of the 
bishop of Eome against both the patriarch 
and the emperor. Soon after this, Mauri- 
cius the emperor ■was murdered and his 
successor (Phocas), in 602, ■was induced 
by Boniface III. to confer on the pope of 
Rome the title of the ' Universal Bishop,' 
which occurred in 666. 

There seems something ominous in the strange 
date 660, connecting it with the 6C(i of Revelation 
xiii. 18. ' Here is wisdom. Let him that hath un- 
derstanding count the number of the beast, for it 
is the number of a man, and the number is six 
hundred three score and six ' (i.e. 6661. 

*,* Before this the episcopal titles of Papa, 
Apostolicus, Vicaritta Christi, Hummus Pontifex, and 



Patriarcha were very loosely applied to all sorts of 
bishops, &c. 

Popes. Presuming that Peter ■was 
in Rome, and that he was the first of the 
popes, there have been 297 popes, 24 of 
whom were anti-popes and one female (if 
indeed ' Pope Joan ' was not wholly a 
myth). Of the rest, 19 quitted Rome, 
and 35 reigned elsewhere. 

Eight of the reigns did not exceed a 
month in duration, 40 extended over one 
year, 22 over two years, 54 over five 
years, 51 over fifteen years, 18 over 
twenty years, and 9 have exceeded that 
duration. 

Of the 297 popes, 31 were declared 
usurpers and heretics, 2 were young boys, 
64 met with violent deaths (18 being 
poisoned and 4 strangled). 

Independently of the Avignon popes, 
26 of the Roman popes were deposed, 
expelled from Rome, or banished ; and 28 
maintained their power only by foreign aid. 

Very sad indeed is the history of the Popes as 
Vicars of Christ on earth. 

Popes and Kings. The 10th cent, 
was the era of impious popes and pious 
kings. 

Good Kmgs, the last quarter of the 
10th to the last quarter of the 11th 
cent. : — 
963-969. Nicephorus II., emperor of the 
east, who united the hero 
with the saint. 
996-1031. Robert the Pious of France. 
997-1038. St. Stephen of Hungary. 
1000-1030. St. Olaus II. of Norway. 
1002-1024. Heinrich II., called the Saint 
and the Lame of Germany. 
1012-1052, St. Boniface II. duke of 

Tuscany. 
1016-1035. Canute the Great of England, 

a deeply religious man. 
1024-1039. Konrad U. the Sage of Ger- 
many. 
1039-1056. Heinrich III. the Black King 
of Germany. A model 
prince. 
1041-1066. Edward the Confessor. 
1080-1086. St. Knut IV. the Great of 
Denmark. 

Popes of the 10th cent., the darkest 
period of the papacy. There were twentj'- 
five popes in the century, which gives the 
average of four years to a pope. 

Benedict IV. (900-903). II ne put eorrlger la de- 
pravation des moeurs. 

Leo V. i9(/3, 40 days), imprisoned by his chaplaii) 



702 



POPES 



POPISH 



Christophorus, who usurped the office for nine 
months, and was then deposed. 

Sergius III. (904-yil), the 'pioteqi of Marozia, a 
Jicentious woman of Borne. He lived criminally 
with Theodora. 

Anastasius 111.(911-913). Kome was BtiU under 
the influence of infamous women. 

Lando (913-914), appointed by the intrigues of 
Theodora. He died in six months. 

John X. (914-928), appointed by the intrigues of 
Theodora, his courtesan, and cast into prison by 
the harlot Marozia, daughter of Theodora. John 
X. died in prison, probably by poison. 

Leo VI. (928 929, seven months), probably 
poisoned by Marozia. 

Stephen VII. (929-931). A nonentity. ^ , ^ 

John XI. (931-936), son of Marozia the harlot. 
Cast into prison by another son of Marozia, and 
left to die there. 

Leo VII. (93G-939). Not a bad pope. 

Stephen VIII. (989 942), father of Otho. 

Martin HI. (942-94G). A nonentity. 

Agapetus (946-956). Not a bad pope. 

John XII. (956-963), grandson of the infamous 
Marozia, was only eighteen when made pope. His 
life was so licentious that he was deposed, and 
probably assassinated. Leo was anti-pope 963-964. 

Benedict V. (964-905) was elected pope 964, but 
was detained at Hambvirg by the emperor, and 
died there. 

John XIII. (965-972). He was imprisoned in an 
insurrection. 

Benedict VI. (972-974), strangled in the Castle of 
Angelo by Boniface VII., who usurped the pcm- 
tifical office, but was driven from Kome in two 
months. 

Domnus or Donus II. (974-975), died suddenly, 
probably by foul means. 

Benedict VII. (975-983). His dead body was 
dragged by the heels about the streets, and then 
flung into the Tiber. 

John XIV. (983-985), murdered in prison. 

Boniface VII. (984-985), called anti-pope, mur- 
dered his rivals Benedict VI. and John XIV. 

John XV. (985), died before he was inaugurated. 

John XVI. (985-996). A nonentity. 

Gregory V. (996-999), driven from Rome by the 
soldiers of hla uncle, John XVII., who usurped the 
office. 

Sylvester (999-l(X)3). A Frenchman of consider- 
able mechanical genius, and accused of magic. 

John XVII. (1003), anti-pope, the mere tool of 
Crescentius the Roman demagogue. 

A blaclier century cannot be shown than this 
tenth century of the Roman popes. Of three or 
four of the names nothing whatever is known. 
These popes were names and nothing else. See 
'Vopea (The Boy).' 

*^* Yet was the doctrine of apostolic 
succession first maintained in this bad 



Popes {The Boy). John XII. (956- 
963) was only 18 when he was made pope. 
Benedict IX. was made pope in 1033 at 
the age of 10. Both were profligate, ex- 
travagant, and licentious. Jolm XII. 
was probably assassinated ; and Benedict 
IX. was deposed in 1044. 

In the Greek Church Theophylactos, a son of 
Eomanus (Emperor of the East), was made patri- 
arch when a mere lad, but it would be hard to 
find a more infamous character (933-956). 

Giovanni de' Medici, son of Lorenzo (afterwards 
Leo X.), was made a cardinal at the age of 14. 

Popes {The Two). "Wliile there were 
two popes, France, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, 
and Cyprus supported the French pope, 



who resided at Avignon ; but the Italians, 
with England, Flanders, and the rest of 
Europe, supported the Italian pope, who 
resided at Rome. The former were called 
Clementines and the latter Urbanists, 
from Clement VII. and Urban VI., the 
first of the two contemporaneous popes. 

Pope's Cap. See under * Tiara.' 

Pope's Kaiser {The), 'Pfaffen 
Kaiser.' Karl IV. {q-v.), nominated to 
the crown by Pope Clement VI. without 
consulting the electors (1347-1378). 

Popelitans, ' Populicans,' or*Pop- 
licans ' {q.v.). 

Popish Tlot {The). 1. 1678. A plot 
which Titus Oates affirmed the Roman 
Catholics had devised to murder the king 
(Charles II.), to restore the United King- 
dom to the pope, and to massacre the 
Protestants as they were massacred in 
France in the St. Bartholomew slaughter. 
Oates said 20,000 Catholics were in the 
league. The king believed the whole story 
to be a hoax, but many strange discoveries 
were brought to light which gave some 
colour to a secret plot, and the whole 
nation was in a panic. 

There was a scandalous rumour which charged 
the king himself, the Duke of York, and Louis XIV. 
of France with being the secret conspirators. 
They were quite capable of being so. 

II. May 1798. An Irish insurrection in 
which Wolfe Tone induced the French 
to lend a hand under golden promises to 
the Directory, Some 14,000 Irish under 
the lead of Father Murphy attacked 
Wexford, and put to death a number of 
prisoners. They then took Enniscorthy, 
but being attacked by General Lake, both 
Wexford and Enniscorthy were retaken. 
At Scullabogue the insurgents massacred 
100 Protestants in cold blood. The mas- 
sacre of Protestants by the insurgents 
obtained for the rebellion the name of 
the Popish Plot, but the leading Catholics 
protested against the name, and offered 
their aid to government to put it down. 
When all seemed over, General Humbert 
landed from France with 900 men in three 
French frigates, but was defeated by Lord 
Cornwallis and surrendered. A few days 
afterwards Sir John Warren fell in with a 
French line-of-battle ship and 8 frigates. 
He captured the ship and 3 of the frigates. 
Wolfe Tone was executed, and so ended 
this absurd revolt. 

Wolfe Tone was a mere unprincipled adven- 
tui-cr, who oHered his services, as a buccaneer, 



POPISH 



PORTE 



703 



both to Pitt and to the Duke of Richmond. 
Pitt did not condescend even to answer him, 
and Tone, out of spite, turned ' patriot ' (or 
rebel). Incredible as it may seem, Mr. Gladstone, 
in 18t?9, w-rote a letter, published in tiie Scotch 
newspapers, containing this sentence : ' I am 
glad an effort has been made to do justice (!) to 
Wolfe Tone. It is one of the most grievous facts 
of Irish history that, at the close of the last cen- 
tury, her reb.^ls were in many cases the very 
flower of her children ' (!!). Only read the ' Me- 
moirs ' of Wolfe Tone, written by himself, and see 
if there is one single redeeming feature in his 
whole life. He was an idle scamp, who deserted 
his wife, and turned rebel, as he would have 
turned buccaneer, from the grossest motives. 
Bead ' Nineteenth Century," May 1890, pp. 733-756. 

Popish. Wind {A). A west wind. 
See * Protestant,' &c. 

31 Oct. I was present when James received 
letters from Newport, informing him, with extra- 
vagant exaggeration, of the dispersion of the 
Prince of Oranges fleet. At dinner he said to the 
French ambassador, ' At last the wind has declared 
itself popish. You must know ' (he added ' for these 
three days I have caused the Holy Sacrament to 
be carried in procession.'— Misson. 

Pop'licans, 1160. So the Waldenses 
(q.v.) who passed over to England from 
Aquitaine were called. The word is a 
contraction of Populicani, a corrupt form 
of Publicaui, so called because they 
imitated the publican more than the 
pharisee who went to the temple to pray, 

Popola'ri ( The) . The Venetian ple- 
beians, exercising small industries. 

Porch (The). Zeno's school was so 
called because the disciples of this Greek 
philosopher met in the porch Poecile. 
The Stoics were meant {a-rod^ a porch). 

Similarly we have the Garden sect, and so on. 

Por'cian Law {The). That no Ro- 
man citizen shall be scourged (Acts xvi. 
22, 25-30, 37). 

Por'phyrogen'itus. So Constan- 
tine VII. was called. Gibbon (chap, 
xlviii.) says the word means ' born to the 
purple ' ; but this etymology is by no 
means certain. 

There was an island called Porphyria between 
Crete and Peloponnesus ; if he was born there the 
word would mean 'born in Porphyris,' but is it 
certain he was born there ? 

Porphyry's ' Oracles of Philosophy ' 
proved by Dr. Lardner to be a literary 
imposition. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Porson Prize (T/ie). For the best 
translation into Greek verse of a given 
passage from Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, 
Massinger, or Beaumont and Fletcher. 
Given in Greek books to an undergraduate 
of the University of Cambridge. Value 
about 121. Founded by the trustees of 



a fund raised for the benefit of Richard 
Porson, professor of Greek, 1816. See 
' Regius Professor of Greek.' 

Porson Scholarship for Classics. 
Value 65Z. a year, and tenable for 4 years. 
Founded in the University of Cambridge 
out of a fund raised for the benefit of 
Richard Porson, professor of Greek, 1855. 

Porson died in 1808, but the fund was left to 
accumulate. 



Port Act (The), mi. 
Boston Port Bill.' 



See p. 115, 



Port Royal. An abbey founded in 
1204 of the rule of St. Benedict ; it had 
for its object the education of youths. In 
1625, the abbey being too small, the semi- 
nary was transferred to Paris, and on the 
publication of Jansen's ' Augustlnus ' (g.v.) 
became fervent supporters of Jansenism 
iq.v.) against the Sorbonne (q.v.). From 
1636 the monastery of Port Royal was the 
retreat of scholars who worked with their 
hands and taught youths. In 1790 the 
monastery was suppressed with most 
others, and was converted into the prison 
called Port Libre. 

The most illustrious members were Arnauld, 
Andilly (two brothers), Lemaistre de Sacy, Nicole, 
Lancelot, Fontaine, and Lenain de Tillemont! 
Pascal visited it often, and was a Jansenist. It 
produced some first-class educational books, and 
the Bible de Sacy. 

Port Royal (Doctrines of the). 
These doctrines were in accordance with 
those of the Jansenists. The chief 
authors of Port Royal in defence of the 
' Augustlnus ' of Cornelius Jansen were 
the brothers Arnauld, Lemaistre de Sacy 
and his two brothers, Nicole, Lancelot, 
Fontaine, Lenain de Tillemont, and 
Pascal. 

Portcullis. One of the four pursui- 
vants of England. See ' Heralds.' 

Porte (The). Originally meant Bag- 
dad or its caliphate. Mostasem, last of the 
Abbasside califs, set in the threshold of 
the principal gate of his palace at Bagdad 
a small piece of the famous Black Stone, 

* given to Ishmael by the angel Gabriel,' 
and built into the shrine of Mecca, called 
the 'Caaba.' This gate was called La 
Porte by excellence. Mostasem was calif 
1243-1258. See next article. 

Porte (The), or 'The Sublime Porte,' 
1324. The court of the sultan of the 
Ottoman empire. Orchan, called the 

* Padishah ' {i.e. the ' Shah defender). 



704 



POETE 



POST 



succeeded his father Othman in 1824, and 
built offices for the transaction of public 
business at the great gate of the palace. In 
the language of diplomacy ambassadors 
are distinguished by the court or locality 
where they perform their functions, and 
those in Turkey are ambassadors to * La 
Porte,' for French was for many years 
the language of diplomacy. The ' Sub- 
lime Porte ' means the ' lofty gate.' 
Bagdad had been called 'The Porte' 
nearly a hundred years before the reign 
of Orchan. 

Porte Libre, 1790. A prison in 
Paris, formerly the famous Port Koyal 
monastery. 

Porteous Kiot {The), 1736. Two 
smugglers from Fife (Wilson and Robert- 
son) were condemned to death, and con- 
fined in the Tolbooth of Edinburgh, 
popularly styled ' The Heart of Mid- 
lothian.' They tried to escape, but 
"Wilson, a strong stout man, got wedged 
in the gap they had made, and the two 
prisoners were secured. When they 
attended service in the Tolbooth church 
they were guarded by four soldiers. 
Wilson seized two in his hands and one 
with his teeth, calling to Robertson to 
escape. Robertson shook ofE the remain- 
ing soldier, escaped, and was never 
again captured. When Wilson was exe- 
cuted Captain Porteous was ordered with 
his city guard to attend, and being 
assailed by stones he fired on the mob. 
His men also fired, killing four and 
wounding eleven of the mob. Porteous 
was tried for his life and found guilty, 
but received a reprieve On 7 Sept.. 
the day on which the reprieve expired, 
the mob broke into the Tolbooth, seized 
Porteous, and hanged him in the Grass 
Market, the place where Wilson was 
executed, on a dyer's pole, to which a 
new rope was suspended. This being 
done, the mob quietly dispersed, and did 
no mischief to any other person nor 
injury to any property. {See Sir Walter 
Scott, 'Heart of Midlothian.') 

Portiforium {A). ' Liber vocatus 
Portiforium antiquiim, secundum usum 
Sarum,' &c. That is, a breviary with 
running annotations ; a portable manual. 

Portland Vase (T/ie). The famous 
Barberi'ni vase purchased from Sir 
William Hamilton by the Duchess of 



Portland for 1,000 guineas, and presented 
in 1810 to the British Museum by the 
Duke of Portland. 

This Greek vase was for more than two centuries 
the principal ornament of the Barberini palace. 
The material is glass. It was a cinerary urn, but 
neither the maiier nor date is known. 

In 184.5 it was wantonly smashed by William 
Lloyd, but has been very carefully repaired. It 
is ton inches high, and six in diameter at the 
broadest part. 

Portugal {The Golden Age of). 
The reign of Emanuel (1495-1521). 
Vasco da Gama lived in this reign. 

Portuguese Livy {The). Joao 
da Barros (1496-1570), author of 'Asia 
Portugueza.' 

Positivism. The system of Au- 
guste Comte (1799-1857). Discarding 
the possibility of knowing the beginning 
and the end of anytlring, it concerns 
itself only with what lies between. It 
accepts neither atheism, theism, nor 
pantheism. It may be divided into two 
parts : the historic conception and the 
co-ordination of the sciences. The 
former is this: that the human mind 
passes through three states, viz. the 
theological, the metaphysical, and the 
positive. In all subjects capable of 
experiment it passes from metaphysics 
to experimental verification or exact 
science. In regard to the co-ordination 
of the sciences the basis is mathematics ; 
then follow astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
biology, and sociology. Take the last : 
The science of society is impossible 
without the science of life. The science 
of life is impossible without chemistry. 
Chemistry presupposes physics, physics 
astronomy, and astronomy mathematics. 

Posse Comita'tus, i.e. the power 
of the county, meaning the persons 
whom a sheriff is empowered to raise in 
his county in case of rebellion, riot, or 
invasion. They are all the able-bodied 
men between fifteen and seventy years 
of age. Any peace officer can raise a 
posse to assist in quieting a rebellion or 
opposing an invasion. 

It used to be customary lor the high sheriff to 
meet the judge or judges a mile from the assize 
town, accompanied by a train of servants, 
yeomen, or others on horseback, called his 
' posse-men.' After the assize the judges were 
similarly escorted out of the town ; but since the 
introduction of railways these pageants have 
been discontinued 

Post Office. (TM, London. Esta- 
blished by ordinance of parliament 1656. 



POST 



POUCH 



705 



Remodelled in Queen Anne's reign 1710 
by the Act of Settlement. Cross- 
posts projected by Ralph Allen, post- 
master of Bath, who obtained a licence 
to establish them, for which he paid the 
government 6,000Z, a year, and made a 
profit of 10,000/. annually. At his death 
the government added the cross-posts to 
the general post. Rowland Hill's reform 
was carried into effect in 1839, and the 
' penny post ' system was introduced. 

This Kalph AUen is the ' AUworthy ' of Fielding's 
•Tom Jones.' A most benevolent man, of whom 
Pope says : 

Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame, 
Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame. 

Post Office Orders for the trans- 
mission of money were introduced in 
1840. These orders require the names of 
sender and recipient, so a departure has 
been permitted in Postal Orders, which 
circulate like small notes. 

Post Office Savings Bank, 1861. 

For investing small sums of money, from 
Is. to 30Z., for which Government pays 
6^. in the pound interest. Not more than 
sol. can be deposited in any one year, 
and interest is not allowed for more than 
1501. 

Postage Stamp (The), 6 May, 1840. 
Invented by James Chalmers of Dundee 
[1782-1853]. His tablet records the event : 
' To the memory of Ja>ees Chalmers, 
Bookseller, Dundee. Bom 1782. Died 
1853. Originator of the Adhesive Postage 
Stamp, which saved the Penny Postage 
Scheme of 1840 from collapse, rendering 
it an unqualified success, and which has 
since been adopted throughojit the 
postal systems of the world. This me- 
morial was erected by his son Patrick 
Chalmers, Wimbledon, 1888.' 

Adopted in America in 1847. 

Postmaster. A 'scholar' is so 
called at Merton College, Oxford. 

Postmastership, 1370. The tenure 
of the rights and privileges of a post- 
master ; a kind of scholarship in Merton 
College, Oxford, founded by Dr. Wyllyott 
for poor students called ' portionistfe,' 
but called ' postmasters ' since 1380. The 
institution is peculiar to Merton. 

Potato Disease (The), 1845. First 
a brown spot was observable on the 
skin of the potato ; then the spot became 
darker, the leaves and flowers of the 



ptlant shrivelled up, and then in a short 
time the potato and stalk became putrid. 

Potato Famine (The), 1846. The 

Irish famine produced by the almost 
utter failure of the potato crop from what 
was called ' potato-rot.' It is generally 
admitted that 200,000 persons died of 
famine in Ireland in the year of the 
potato-rot. 

This fearful calamity has proved one of the 
greatest blessings to Ireland. ' It hurried on the 
introduction of free-trade. It indirectly brought 
about the arterial drainage of many of the main 
rivers of Ireland. It created the Land Improve- 
ment Act. It brought into existence the Incum- 
bered Estates Court, one of the most important 
acts ever passed in Ireland. It drove some mil- 
lions of Irish to the other side of the Atlantic. It 
broke up to a great extent the very small farms 
of Ireland. It relieved the plethora of the labour 
market. It removed the needy country gentle- 
men, and forced them to sell their estates to 
capitalists. It brought over hundreds of Scotch- 
men and Englishmen, who have introduced 
more scientific farming than had been hitherto 
practised in Ireland. And, in short, it has pro- 
duced a revolution in the country which has 
continued to the present day.— W. S. Tkench, 
EeaUties of Irish Lije, p. 105. 

Potato SnuflP-boxeS. Snuff-boxes 
made of mashed potatoes ; the material 
resembled papier tndche. They were 
adorned with paintings and designs. 
Such snuff-boxes were common enough 
in the first half of the 19th cent. 

Pothi (The). The Bible of the Sikhs 
(q.v.). 

Potsdam, in Prussia (Treaty of), 
Oct. 1805. A treaty of alliance solemn- 
ised by Czar Alexander I. and Frederick 
WilUam III. of Prussia by an oath 
sworn on the tomb of Frederick the 
Great. The object of this alliance was 
directed against Napoleon. The result 
was the battle of Austerlitz on 2 Dec. 
Russia lost 30,000 warriors, buried under 
the ice of a lake which broke beneath 
their feet, and 15 of her generals were 
taken prisoners, or slain on the field of 
battle. 

Potteries (The). North Stafford- 
shire is so called from the numerous 
pottery manufactories established there. 

Potteries (The Father of the) 
Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795). 

Pouch (Captain). The assumed 
name of John Reynolds, head of the 
Levellers in the Midland counties in the 
May of 1607. Being captured, he was 
executed the same year. 

ZZ 



706 



POUGATCHEFF 



PK^TOE 



Pougatcheif the Pretender. 

Emilian Pougatclieff, a Cossack of the 
Don, who had served during the Seven 
Years' war in the armies of Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria. On his return to 
his own country he incited a rebelhon in 
1773, and assumed to be Peter III., who 
had been assassinated in 1762. Defeated 
in 1774 on the banks of the Volga, he 
was captured, and beheaded at Moscow 
in 1775. See ' Otrepieff .' 

PoAATis Medal. See under * Cam- 
den and Powis Medals.' 

Po^wys Land. One of the three 
divisions of Wales made by Roderick 
Mawr among his sons. Powys Land 
fell to the lot of Mawr's youngest son, 
Mervyn. (Powys, in Welsh, means ' the 
state of being at rest or peace.') 

Poyning's Act, or 'Poyning's 
Law,' or ' Statute of Drogheda,' 10 Hen. 
VII. c. 22, A.D. 1495, which declared that 
all general statutes before then made in 
England shall be of force in Ireland 
also; and that no Irish act shall be 
valid unless first submitted to the king 
and council of England. The Irish par- 
liament might reject a bill so approved, 
but could not alter it. Repealed 1782. 

(Sir Edward Poyning was lord deputy ol Ireland 
at the time.) , , . 

He [Charles I.] therefore authorised him to 
grant the suspension of Poyning's act, and to 
remove all the penal acts against the Catholics.— 
HowiTT, History of England, Charles I., p. 253. 

Pozzi {The). Venetian dungeons 
beneath the level of the canals, in the 
hollow walls of the doge's palace. See 
' Piombi.' 

Praefectus Praeto'rio. In the 

old Roman Empire. Augustus created 
two ; but Tiberius reduced them to one : 
Commodus re-established the original 
number; but Diocletian created four, 
one for each quarter of his empire. The 
praetorian prefect was the commanding 
officer of the praetorian guard. In the 
second and third centuries they gradually 
usurped all authority and became virtu- 
ally the masters even of the emperors. 
Constantine reduced their civil power, 
but gave each prsefect authority in his 
own quarter, called his preefecture. The 
four were then called ' Praefectus praetorio 
per Gallias,' 'Praefectus praetorio per 
Illyricum,' 'Praefectus praetorio per 



Italiam,' and 'Praefectus praetorio per 
Orientem.' 
There were many other officers called praefects : 

as preefectws annomc, pjcefcctus classi, pya-feclus 
legionibus, pnefectus csrarto, &c. 

Praemunire {Statute of), 27 Edw. 
III. s. 1, c. 1, A.D. 1353. An act of 
Parliament specifying what things are to 
be denounced as marks of contempt of 
the king's kingship, such as the pope 
presuming to appoint church dignitaries 
instead of the sovereign; holding a royal 
court in the realm — it was for holding 
such a court as the pope's legate that 
Cardinal Wolsey was prosecuted — main- 
taining that the sovereign has no right to 
the crown, or that someone else has a 
better claim to it ; to assist at the mar- 
riage of a royal prince or princess, con- 
tracted in violation of the established 
laws. The offences are short of treason, 
but show directly or indirectly a con- 
tempt for the king or queen. Martin V. 
called this statute ' execrabile illud 
statutum.' 

' Praemunire ' is dog Latin for pramoneri. The 
■writ begins thus : Praemunire facias M or N ... 
(i.e. you shall cause "^r or N to be forewarned that 
. . . &c.) The sta ut^4 are 35 Edw. I. 1306; -25 
Edw. III. 13G4; IG lUch. II. 1393; 2 Hen. IV. 1401; 
26 Hen. VIII. 1532; 5 Kliz. 1563, and many others. 
Some were repealed in 1846. 

The most important points of these 
statutes besides those stated above are 
these prohibitions : 

1. To prohibit the introduction into 
England of papal provisions. 

2. To prohibit the intervention of the 
pope in ecclesiastical elections. 

3. To prohibit English subjects being 
called to Rome on points which may be 
settled in the royal courts of our own 
land. 

4. To prohibit foreigners being pre- 
sented to English livings. 

Gregory XI. convened a conference at 
Bruges in 1375 to discuss these statutes. 

Praetor. A Roman magistrate with 
the function of a supreme judge in one 
of the provinces. He was the chief 
military, civil, legislative, and financial 
functionary. His legislative manifesto 
was called edictuni prcetoris. There 
were always at Rome two praetors, the 
prcBtor urhanus and the prcetor pere- 
grmus, elected by the centuries. They 
were seated on a curule chair and arrayed 
with the toga prcetexta. 

The ' sella curulis ' was like a camp stool, used 
by kings, consuls, praetors, and curule eediles, who 



PEiETORIAN 



PRAGUE 



707 



carried their chair about with them. Originally 
tney were made of ivory, but latterly tliey were 
inlaid with gold. 

The ' toga prsetexta ' was a bordered robe worn 
by aristocratic children, chief magistrates, dicta- 
tors, consuls, preetors, and eediles. 

PrSBtorian G-uard (The). Ori- 
ginally the cohorts of the praetor, then 
the imperial guard. They received 
higher pay than other soldiers, and en- 
joyed several important privileges. There 
were originally nine praetorian cohorts; 
Vitellius increased the number to sixteen ; 
Septimus Severus still further increased 
the number. For many years they acted 
as dictators, and their insolence, want of 
discipline, avidity, and insubordination 
became proverbial. 

Pragmatic Sanction. 'Sanc+io 

Pragniatica.' An ordinance relating to 
the State or to the Church. The Latin 
word sanctio means a decree or ordi- 
nance with a penalty attached, in other 
words ' a penal statute.' The word j;ra.^- 
maticus means relating to the state. 
Hence a pragmatic sanction is a ' penal 
statute relating to the state.' 

In civil law a 'pragmatic sanction' 
means the response of the king to his 
council ; the response to an individual 
was called a ' rescript.' 

Historically a pragmatic sanction 
means a statute limiting or defining the 
power of the pope in foreign countries ; 
or a statute fixing the succession of the 
crown in a certain line. What is gene- 
rally meant by the term is the arrange- 
ment made by Karl VI. in 1713, whereby 
the crown of Germany was made heredi- 
tary in the house of Austria. 

The most important pragmatic sanc- 
tions are the following : — 

I. That of St. Louis in 1268, forbid- 
ding the pope to levy taxes in France, 
or to interfere in the appointment of the 
clergy. 

This important ordinance did for 
France what the ' Constitutions of Cla- 
rendon ' did for England. 

The authenticity of this ordinance is doubtful^ 
and certainly it is wholly out of harmony with the 
sainted king, who was canonised by Boniface III. 
only twenty seven years after his decease. It is 
mentioned for the first time in the fifteenth cen- 
tury in the ' Bibliotheque des Conciles, and is gene- 
rally supposed to be a forgery. 

II. Of Bense, in 1338, by which instru- 
ment an elected king of Germany was 
made ex officio kaiser or emperor of the 
holy Roman empire, independent of the 
pope's sanction, and without the neces- 



sity of going to Rome to be crowned by 
him. 

Kens or Rense will not be found in ordinary 
maps. It is on the Uhine, five miles from Cob- 
lentz, and close by is tlie very famous Thronus 
Regaiis iq.v.). 

III. Of Bourges, called the ' Palladium 
of France,' 7 July, 1438, published by 
Charles VII. of France. This also had 
for its scope the limitation of the power 
of the i^apal authority in France. It 
forbade the pope to present to any dig- 
nity or any church living in the kingdom. 
It is called the Magna Charta of the 
Galilean Church. 

It declares the authority of councils to be supe- 
rior to that of the popes. Insists on the free elec- 
tion of abbots and bishops by the chapters and 
monks. It suppresses annates or first fruits and 
o uher taxes claimed by Kome. It greatly restricted 
the ellects of excommunication and interdicts. 
Francois 1. in ir)16 suppressed this pragmatic 
sanction, and substituted ' The Concordat of 
Bologna ' instead (q.v.), 1516. 

IV. Of the Emjjeror Earl VI. (17 
Apr. 1713), to secure the hereditary suc- 
cession of the states of Austria in the 
female line. This was in order to trans- 
mit the crown to his eldest daughter, 
Maria Theresa. It was guaranteed by 
most of the great powers of Europe, but 
not by Spain till 1731. Karl VI. died in 
1740. 

This is the pr vgraatic sanction of historic emi- 
nence, and is meant unless some qualifying date 
or word is added to restrict it to some other in- 
striunent. 

V. 1723, whereby Hungary and the 
Austrian provinces were declared insepa- 
rable, and the ruler of both was always to 
be one and the same person and of the 
Habsburg dynasty, in the regular order 
of succession in the male and female 
lines; but, otherwise, Hungary was to 
remain perfectly independent, and was to 
be governed by its own laws. 

VI. Of Carlos III. of Spain (1759), to 
regulate the succession to the throne of 
the Two Sicilies. 

Vn. Of Don Ferdinand, 2 April, 1767, 
declaring all papal bulls and briefs to be 
null and void in the duchy of Parma 
and Piacenza, unless sanctioned by a 
ducal exequatur. Declared void by papal 
brief 1 Feb., 1768. 

Our Constitutions of Clarendon, 1164, compellin(» 
the clergy to submit to the civil laws, were virtu- 
ally a. proijnuitic sanction. 

Prague {Peace of). 

I. 1635, between Kaiser Ferdinand 11. 
and the electors of Saxony and Branden- 
burg. 

z z 2 



703 



PKAGUERIE 



PREACHING 



II, 23 Aug., 1866. At the close of the 
Seven Weeks' "War, Austria was entirely 
excluded from Germany, and in 1870 the 
King of Prussia was declared German 
Emperor in addition to his other titles. 

Praguerie {La), 1440. A revolt and 
conspiracy in France to dethrone Charles 
VII. and place Louis the Dauphin 
(Louis XL) on the throne. The con- 
spirators were Alexander, the natural 
son of Bourbon, Charles and Louis de 
Bourbon, Jean d'AleuQon, La Tre'moille, 
Dunois, La Hire, and Xaintrailles. 
Their head-quarters were Prague in 
Bohemia, whence the name; but the 
enterprise was badly conducted, and 
Charles, marching to Prague, crushed 
out the revolt before the end of six 
months. The conspirators tendered 
their submission, and were graciously 
pardoned. 

Prairial 1, 2, 3, An. III. i.e. 20, 
21, 22 May, 1795. Noted for the insur- 
rection against the Convention, the last 
effort of the Jacobins against the Ther- 
midorian reaction. The populace of 
the faubourg seized the Salle de la 
Convention, presided over by Boissy 
d'Anglas, and assassinated the deputy 
Feraud. The troops being called out 
dispersed the mob. The convention 
ordered the arrest of, thirteen deputies 
who had taken part in the plot, six of 
whom were executed. 

Prairial 30 An. VII. «.e. 18 June 
1799. When the directors La Reveilliere- 
Lepeaux and Merlin were turned out of 
office in favour of Roger Ducos and 
Moulins. 

Pras'inaPactio. The Green Coats, 
a faction of Byzantium ; so called from 
the green-coated charioteers in the circus. 
They were opposed to the Emperor Jus- 
tinian, who was a Blue Coat, or favourer 
of the Veneta Factio [q.v.]. 

Prason is the Greek for a ' leek,' and Prasmus 
means green as a leek. 

Prayer Book of Edward VI. 

{The First), published 1549. Compiled 
by Cranmer and Ridley, assisted by other 
divines. The Communion Service was 
drawn uj) for administration to the laity 
in both kinds ; offices for holidays as well 
as for Sundays, for baptism and confirma- 
tion, were included ; and the marriage and 



burial services were considerably altered. 
See ' King's Primer.' 

It began with the Lord's Prayer; it retained 
prayers for the dead ; it enjoined anointing of the 
sick. In 1550 the Ordination Service w^s added. 

The Second, 1552. The First Prayer 
Book, revised by Cranmer, Martin Bucer, 
and Peter Martyr. The opening sentences, 
exhortation, confession, and absolution 
were added. The use of oil in baptism 
was discontinued, so was anointing the 
sick, and the prayers for the dead were 
struck out. In 1559 the book was revised, 
and the Elizabethan version is sometimes 
called ' The Third Common Prayer Book.' 
After the Hampton Court Conference 
{q.v.) in the reign of James I. the book 
was again revised, and some pvayera for 
special occasions were introduced. In 
1662, after the Restoration, when the 
new authorised version of the Scriptures 
was adopted, except in the Psalms, where 
Coverdale's version was followed, the 
sentences in the Communion Service, 
the General Thanksgiving, the Form of 
Prayer to be Used at Sea, the State 
Services (viz. for Gunpowder Treason, 
5 Nov. ; King Charles's Martyrdom, 
30 Jan.; for the Restoration, 29 May; 
and the King's Accession) were annexed. 
The first three of these State Services 
were omitted by an order in council given 
by Queen Victoria in 1859. 

Preacher {The). Juan Grande of 
Andalusia (1546-1600). 

Preaching Crosses. Generally 

either quadrangular or hexagonal, open 
on one or more sides, and raised on steps. 
They were used for the delivery of sermons 
in the open air. St. Paul's Cross was 
very celebrated, and the collection of 
sermons preached there is still known 
and highly appreciated. 

Queen Elizabeth, we are told, once went in state 
to St. Mary's Cross to hear one of the Reformers 
preach. Besides a vast train of lords and ladies, 
she was ' accompanied by 1,000 soldiers, ten great 
cannons, hundreds of drums and trumpets, a 
party of morris-dancers, and two white bears.' 
She delighted in loud music, for even when she 
A'ent to dinner twelve trumpets, two kettle- 
drums, and various other noisy instruments 
amused her with thundering uproar. 

Preaching Friars, 1215. The idea 
of this order was suggested by Dominic 
at the Council of Lateran, with a view of 
stamping out the Vaudois and other 
enemies of ' the Church.' At a later 
period these preaching friars were called 
Dominicans, from Dominic their founder. 



PRE-ADAMITE 



PREGADI 



709 



St, Francis of Assisi about the same 
time founded the order of Franciscans or 
Minor Friars, worthy rivals of the Domi- 
nicans. 

Pre-Adamite Sovereign {The). 
So the bankers of England nicknamed 
the Georgian sovereigns called in by Mr. 
Goschen in April 1890. 

The pre Adamite sovereign is nowvery much In 
evidence, for everywhere there are notices posted 
up to the effect that they cannot be received. Tlie 
Georgian gold is, in fact, as carefully avoided as 
•were French coppers a couple of years ago.— 
newspaper paruiirapk in April I8y0. 

Prebend, Prebendary. A prebend 
is a provision in land or money given to 
a church iyiprcebeyidani, i.e. for the sup- 
port of a clergyman whose title is either 
prebendary or canon. There are nume- 
rous honorary prebendaries and canons 
without any stipend at all, but they are 
provided with a prebendal stall in the 
cathedral church of the diocese, and are 
expected to preach in the cathedral occa- 
sionally, or to supply a substitute. 

Preceptor. The master of a pre- 
ceptory, that is, a manor of the Knights 
Templars. His duty was to take care of 
the lands and collect the rents. Some- 
times the word preceptor is applied to 
the ' Magni Priores cujusque provincise, 
penes quos erat summa potestas.' Du 
Cange makes the word equivalent to 
• Dominus Princeps, Supremus Magistra- 
tus,' and in a.d. 950 to ' Abbas.' 

Praeceptories were benefices . . . possessed by 
the more eminent sort of the Templers [sicl whom 
the Chief Master by his authority created and 
called ' PrsBceptores Templi.' — Stephen, Jje 
Jwisdictio)ie, bk. iv. chap. x. No. 27. 

Precious Blood {The Feast of 
the). The 1st Sunday in July. There are 
other days dedicated to the Precious 
Blood — for example, the fourth Friday in 
Lent. Sometimes Corpus Christi (the 
Thursday after Trinity Sunday) is so 
called. Hence the hymn of St. Thomas 
Aquinas. See ' Sunday.' 
Pange lingua gloriosi Corporis mysterium 
Sanguinisque pretiosi, quem in mundi protium 
Fructus ventris generosi Rex effudit gentium. 

Precis'ian {A), 1572. One of that 
section of the Puritan party who con- 
sidered obedience to the civil government 
a matter of indifEerence. Or one who 
professes a precise or thorough puritan 
code of faith and conduct. 

Since that [the burning of Latimer and Ridley] 
Tony married a pure Precisian, and is as good a 
Protestant as the best.— Sir W. ScoTT, Kenilicortli, 
eh. ii. 

Here is what neither Papist nor Puritan, Latitu- 



dinarian nor Precisian, ever . . . makes mouths 
SLt.—Ibid. chap. vi. 

Precursor Association {O'Con- 
nelVs), or ' Precursor Society,' 1838. So 
called because it was designed to be the 
precursor of the Repeal of the Unicn. 
O'Connell said he had 2,000,000 ' Pre- 
cursors ' to second his efforts. 

Predestinarian Controversy 

{The), 1594-lGOO. The question was, which 
was correct, Calvin or Arminius. Calvin 
asserted that God from all eternity pre- 
destinated certain men unto eternal life, 
wholly iri'espective of the works or faith 
of those individuals. Arminius asserted 
that God predestinated certain persons to 
eternal life because by His foreknowledge 
He foresaw they would be meet for salva- 
tion. The matter was debated at Lambeth 
Palace, and the result was the nine Lam- 
beth Articles {q.v.), which are doubtlessly 
Calvinistic, 

Those who wish to know what view the Church 
of England takes on this question, must consult 
Article XVII. of the Thirty-nine Articles. 

Predestinarians. A religious sect, 
headed by John Calvin. They held that 
the elect are predestined to be saved, 
and cannot sin away grace. 

The Predestinarians preached that the elect 
could not sin, nor the regenerate fall from grace. 
—Blunt, Reformation in England, p. 158. 

Pre-established Harmony. A 

term used by Leibnitz (164:6-1716) to ex- 
plain the dual n;Jture of man. He sup- 
posed there are in man two sorts of 
monads or protoplasms, one spiritual and 
the other material, and that they act 
together by ' pre-established harmony.' 
He compared man to two clocks, one the 
mind clock and the other the body clock. 
The mind clock determines, and the body 
clock by simultaneous action does the 
very thing that the mind determined on. 
Not because soul and body are one, but 
only because they work together in per- 
fect harmony. Locke denied the fact of 
' innate ideas ' ; Leibnitz maintained that 
the seeds of ideas are in the mind, as 
the seeds of plants are in the plants. 

Prefet. A French administrator of 
a department called his ^^re/ec^i^re. Each 
prefet has his sous-prefets with authority 
in an arrondissement. 

Prega'di {The). The Venetian se- 
nate, between the Forty and the Grand 
Council. To this senate was assigned all 
deliberations upon peace and war, the 



10 



PRELATISTS 



PRESERVER 



voting of supplies, and the confirmation 
of laws. Both the Forty and the Pregadi 
were elected by the Grand Council {Con- 
siglio Grande). 

Pre'latists. So the Scotch, in 1643, 
&c., called the royalists in contempt, be- 
cause they tried to force Episcopacj^ on 
the people. In 1647 'Presbyte. ianism 
was declared to be the established religion 
of Scotland.' 

Premonstratensian Order 

(The), or ' Norbertiues,' 1119. Instituted 
by St, Norberfc in the diocese of Laon, 
during the reign of Louis le Gros. The 
spot, which was a meadow, was pointed 
out to him in a vision, and was therefore 
called Pratuin Monsirdtum, in French 
Pre Montre. They are White Canons of 
the rule of St. Augustine, wear a white 
soutane and scapular, and wholly abstain 
from animal food. 

Pre-Raphaelitism, 1849. A school 

of painting which originated in England 
with W. Holman Hunt, D. G. Rossetti, 
Ahna Tadema, and J. E. Millais. So 
called because it was supposed to be the 
style of painting anterior to Raphael. 
Raphael painted as he thought persons 
and things ought to be. The pre-Raphael- 
ites are supposed to copy nature exactly. 

Prerogative Court (The). A 
court in which wills were proved and 
administrations taken out. So called be- 
cause it belonged to the prerogative of 
the archbishop to take charge of these 
matters. There was one in the province 
of Canterbury, and another in the pro- 
vince of York. This jurisdiction was 
transferred to the Probate Court in 1858. 

Presburg {Diet of), 1687. Declared 
the crown of Hungary no longer elective, 
but hereditary in the Austrian male line. 

Presburg, in Hungary {Treaty of), 
26 Dec, 1805. A treaty of peace between 
France and Austria, soon after the battle 
of Austerlitz, and breaking up the third 
coalition against Napoleon. By this treaty 
Austria ceded Venice to France, and the 
Tyrol to Bavaria, the ally of France. 

Presbyterian Synod of Mun- 
Ster {The). Formed about 1600. See 
' Synod of Munster.' 

Presbyterians. Christians who 
disavow the office of bishop and acknow- 



ledge instead certain delegated elders or 
presbyters, of whom the * minister ' of 
each of the Presbyterian congregations 
is one. The affairs of each of their con- 
gregations are administered by a court, 
styled in Scotland the ' kirk session,' and 
consisting of the minister or ministers, 
and the other elders. The appeal from 
this coui't is to the presbytery, which is 
constituted of the ministers of a certain 
number of congregations and one ' ruling 
elder ' from each congregation. Further 
appeal may be made to the General 
Assembly. Presbyterianism prevails 
chiefly in Scotland. 

The Presbyterian Church of England Vf&s 
founded by the Puritans. There are also Presby- 
terian Baptists, Reformed Presbyterians or Cove- 
nanters, the United Presbyterians, the Welsh 
Presbyterians, Free Church Presbyterians, and 
Unitarian Presbyterians. 

Presbytery {A). A synod in the 
Presbyterian Church of Scotland, com- 
posed of all the ministers in a given dis- 
trict, the professors of divinity, and an 
elder from each ' kirk session ' {q.v,). The 
chairman is called the 'moderator.' See 
' Provincial Synod.' 

Presbytery (T/ie), 1689. The second 
of the four ecclesiastical governing bodies 
of the Kirk of Scotland. It is composed 
of the ministers of several contiguous 
parishes, who sit in it ex officio, and of an 
elder from each of the kirk sessions {q.v.) 
in the district, who is chosen for six 
months. It licenses and inducts ministers, 
and has a veto on those presented by 
patrons. Manses and churches are under 
their supervision, and an appeal may be 
made to this body from the judgment of 
the kirk session. See also ' Synod,' and 
* General Assembly,' 

Presbytery of Antrim {The). A 
body of Presbyterians who separated 
from the ' Synod of Ulster ' in 1727, and 
from the * Remonstrant Synod ' {q.v.) in 
1827. 

Presentment of Englishry 

{The). In the case of murder the hun- 
dred was fined by the Danes and Normans 
unless it could be proved that the mur- 
dered person was an Englishman. 

A presentment is a presumption from observa- 
tion, as the presentment of a nuisance, the pre- 
sentment of a libel, upon which the officer of the 
court frames an indictment. Englishry means 
the law respecting the English, or the state of being 
English-born. 

Preserver of his Country (T/i-e). 
The Due de Guise, called ' Le Balafre,' had 



PRESIDENT 



PRIESTS 



711 



this title conferred upon him by the Par- 
lement of Paris in 1540. 

President. In Oxford University 
the title of the head of four of the col- 
leges : Corpus, Magdalen, St. John's, and 
Trinity. In Cambridge University the 
head of Queens' College is called the 
president, of King's College the provost, 
and of all the other colleges the master. 

President and Council of the 
North {Court of). 31 Henry VIII. 
To try rioters against the suppression of 
the lesser monasteries. It also included 
all the powers vested in the king's own 
council, and had power to arraign all 
offenders against the king's prerogatives. 

Prestation. Road rate. Nominally 
every ratepayer in France is bound to 
give three days' labour to keep the parish 
roads in repair ; these are called ' jom-ne'es 
de prestation,' and for the most part 
are compounded for by a money payment. 
The ' agents voyers cantonaux,' or road 
surveyors, in each parish determine what 
must be done. 

In Saxon times one of the three exactions of 
Trinoda Neres.iitas was ' Bryge-bot,' for keeping 
roads as well as bridges in repair. 

Prester John. Togrul Wang Khan, 
chief of the Mongol tribe of the Keraites, 
who held his court at Karakorum and 
established a sovereignty over those pas- 
toral regions. He was slain in battle by 
his son-in-law Ghengis Khan (12th cent.). 

Called Prester because he tolerated and perhaps 
favoured the Nestorian Christians. Ghengis Khan 
■was called at the time Timurghen, but after the 
death of Togrul Wang his father-in-law he called 
himself the 'Great Kha.n.'— History of Ghengis 
Kluui, chap. i. p. 24-26. 

Preston Affair {The). The sur- 
render of Preston, in Lancashire, 13 Nov., 
1715, when 1,700 Jacobite insm-gents 
yielded to General Carpenter. Amongst 
them were Thomas Forster (the com- 
mander). Brigadier Mackintosh of Bore- 
land, Lord Derwentwater, Lord Kenmure, 
and Lord Widdrington with his two 
brothers (Charles and Peregrine). 

The Hon. Peregrin[e] Widdrington, died 4 Feb., 
1748-9. ... he was with his brother in the Preston 
affair. 

A mural monument in the Slierhurne Chapel. 

Pretender {The), in English history. 
The Old Pretender was the Chevalier de 
St. George, son of James II., who ' pre- 
tended ' that he had a right to be king of 
Great Britain after the death of his father. 



The Young Pretender was Charles Ed- 
ward son of the Chevalier de St. George. 

Of course these two princes were rightful heirs 
to the crown if the crown went by inheritance, 
but in England it is the people or parliament 
who appoint the king or queen, and the lino from 
William I. has been broken over and over again • 
for example, John ; Henry IV., V., VI. ; Henry VII.! 
and aU the Tudors : Richard III. ; WilUam III., 
and all the Hanoverians. 

Pretio'sus {The Bull), by Bene- 
dict XIII., to explain that of Unigenitus 
{q.v.), and the doctrine of grace. So called 
from the first word in the bull. Benedict 
was pope 1724-1730. 

Pretre Insermente(U'?i). A priest 
during the French Revolution who re- 
fused to take the oath ' a la constitution 
civile du clerge ' decreed in 1790. Hun- 
dreds of these priests were put to death, 
and their names have been duly canon- 
ised. 

Those who agreed to take the oath were called 

pretres assermeiites. 

Pride's Purge, 2 Dec, 1648. Purg- 
ing the House of Commons of all mem- 
bers favourable to the king and willing to 
abet his return to power. This was done 
by Colonel Pride, who blockaded the 
house with Rich's regiment of cavalry, 
and his own regiment of foot. He impri- 
soned 41 (some say 47) of the leading 
Presbyterian members in a sort of cellar 
belonging to the house and called ' Hell ' ; 
and next day other members were re- 
moved, leaving only 60 to form the 
house. These 60, being the fag-end of 
the Long Parliament, went by the name 
of the ' Rump.' The emasculated parlia- 
ment complied with the Remonstrance 
{q.v.), removed the king (Charles I.) to 
Windsor, resolved on his immediate trial 
for 'treason against his people,' and 
nominated a court of 150 commissioners 
with Bradshaw at their head to conduct 
the trial. See ' Parliaments.' 

Priest of Nature {The). Sir Isaac 
Newton (1642-1727). 

Priests. ' Primi ordinis sacerdotes,' 
bishops. ' Secundi ordinis sacerdotes,' 
ordinary priests ('Pontificale Ro- 
manum *). 

Priests 

Of the Buddhists are called Bonzes. 
Of the Gauls, Bbitons, &c., were 

called Druids. 
Of the Jews, Cohenim (singular 

cohen). All of the tribe of Levi. 



712 



PRIESTS 



PRIMITIVE 



Pbiests 

Of the HiNDf^s, Brahmans. 

Of the Moslems, Imams, Dervishes, 
&c. In Taetaky, Mullas. N.B. 
Mollahs are not priests, but Turk- 
ish, jit dges. 

In Japan there is a spiritual emperor, called the 
Mikado, who is also at present (1890) the temporal 
one. 

Priests (Ch-eeh). Neokoroi. The 
Eumolpides of Athens were hereditary- 
priests. Each separate divinity had its 
special priests, as the Idean Daktuloi, 
the Korybantos, the Bacchantes (priest- 
esses of Bacchus or Dionysos), the priests 
of Zeus, &c. &c. 

The pontiff who presided over the 
priests of Herakles was called Da- 
douchos. 

The pontiff who presided over the 
priests of Pallas was called Stejjhan- 
oph'oros. 

' Parasites ' were priests who gathered 
in the com and wine for the temple ser- 
vices. 

The Korybantes were priests of Rhea. Called 
at Rome Galli. or priests of Cybele. 

The Daktuloi of Ida were so called because they 
were ten in number. 
The Technlies were sorcerers. 

Priests {Roman) were chosen only 
from the most distinguished citizens, 
and were divided into three classes : — 

{a) The four great colleges, called 
Pontiffs, Augurs, Epulones (4 syl.), and 
Quindecemviri. 

{h) The three inferior colleges, called 
Arvales Fratres, Curiones (4 syl.), Feci- 
ales (4 syl.). 

(c) The priests of special deities, as 
the Flamens, the Salii, the Luperci, the 
Galli, the Pinarii, the Politians, and 
some few others. 

I. The four great colleges : 

The Pontiffs, originally four, but subsequently 
nine. They had the supreme supervision of all 
the priests, and of all religious rites. The head 
of the college was entitled ' Pontifex Maximus. 

Auqurs included Auspices and Haruspices. 
' Augurs • were those who foretold future events 
from any sort of prodigj' or omen. 'Auspices' 
■were those who foretold future events from the 
Inspection of birds. ' Haruspices ' were those 
who foretold future events by inspecting the en- 
trails of beasts sacrificed, or from the smoke and 
flame of sacrifices, as in the sacrifices of Cam and 
Abel. 

Epulort£s (4 syl.), a college of seven priests, whose 
duty it was to superintend the sacred feasts 
iepiilct), and more especially the ' epulum .Jovis.' 

Quindecemvhi, a college of fifteen priests, who 
had charge of the Sibylline books (q.v.). 

II. The three inferior colleges ; 

Amlhs Fnttirs, a college of twelve priests, who 
offered sacrifice to secure the fertility of the 



Curiones (4 syl.), a college of thirty priests, one 
for each curia or district of Rome. Each curio 
was expected to perform the sacred rites of hia 
own special curia or district. 

Fecidles (4 syl.), a college of twenty priests, 
whose duty it was to see to the honour of Rome 
in all dealings with foreign states. They declared 
war, and dictated terms of peace. 

III. Special priests : 

Flamens, priests devoted to the ser- 
vice of some particular deity. 

Salii, priests of Mars, who had charge 
of the twelve sacred shields. They were 
always patricians of high rank, and on 
the 1st March every year carried the 
sacred shields through the city in grand 
procession. 

The Luperci were priests of Pan. 
The great festival was called the Lu'per- 
cal. Shakespeare makes Antony say : 

You all do know that on the Lu'percal 

1 thrice presented him [Caesar] a kingly crown, 

Which he did thrice refuse. Was that ambition ? 

Julius Ccesar. 
The Galli, or priests of Cybele (3 syl.). 
The Pinarii, or priests of Hercules, and some 
few others. 

Priest's Hole {The). A secret 
contrivance in old Catholic mansions 
for the concealment of the priest in times 
of persecution. Several stiU exist as 
curiosities. 

Priests of -the Mission. Same 
as Lazarists, Instituted 1625 by Vin- 
cent de Paul; organised for training 
young missionaries. See ' Lazarus.' 

Priests of the Saviours {The), 
B.C. 307-287, and nominally till a.d. 264. 
Officers of Athens who superseded the 
archons eponymic. 

Primate of All England {The), 
The Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Primate of England {The). Tho 
Archbishop of York. 

Prime. One of the eight daily ser- 
vices of the Catholic Church, and second 
of the four lesser ones, at six in the 
morning. The first hour of the day. 
See ' Canonical Hours.' 

Primer Seizin. A whole year's 
profits of an estate paid by a king's 
tenant on first coming to his new tene- 
ment. Introduced by William the Con- 
queror, and abolished by 12 Car. II. c. 24. 

Primitive Fathers of the Chris- 
tian Church. Those who succeeded 
the Apostolic Fathers. The latter were 
born in the first cent., and were more or 



PRIMITIVE 



PRINCE 



713 



less contemporary with the apostles. 
The Primitive Fathers were not born till 
after the 1st cent., and were not contem- 
porary with the apostles. These nine are 
the Primitive Fathers, and with Clemens, 
Hennas, Ignatius, Polycarp (and Bar- 
nabas) make up the Fathers of the first 
two cents. : — 



Died 

167. Justin Martyr. 

190. Theophiliis of An- 
tioch. 

200. Irenteus. 

220. Clement of Alex- 
andria. 

240. Tertullian. 



Died 

253. Origen. 

258. Cyprian bishop of 
Carthage. 

265. Dionysius of Alex- 
andria. 

270. Gregory Thauma- 
turgus. 



Primitive Methodists, 1810. 

Reformed Methodists originated in Staf- 
fordshire and led by Hugh and J. Bourne, 
W. Clowes, and others, who thought the 
Connection too rigid in not allowing 
camp-meetings and women to preach. 
They advocate field preaching and street 
preaching of an emotional character. 
Sometimes called ' Ranters ' by way of 
disrespect. 

Primitive Wesleyans of Ire- 
land (The), 1816. They seceded because 
they did not approve of the administra- 
tion of the Lord's Supper by their 
preachers, but considered that they should 
receive the holy communion from the 
hands of a clergyman of the Church of 
England. 

Trimrose (The). The flower-emblem 
of the political adherents of Benjamin 
Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), 1805-1881. 
The tale is that when young he made a 
bet of a x^air of gloves respecting a wreath 
of primroses. The point in doubt was 
whether the primroses were real or arti- 
ficial. Mr. Disraeli staked that they 
were real, and won the bet. The lady 
competitor presented the successful 
guesser with one of the primroses, and 
Disraeli, with the gallantry of a young 
man, vowed he would preserve the flower 
faithfully and adopt it as his badge. For 
another derivation see note to ' Primrose 
League.' 

Primrose Day, 19 April. The 
anniversary of the death of the Earl of 
Beaconsfield, founded by Sir George 
Birdwood in memory of the great Con- 
servative leader, who died 19 April, 1881. 
He suggested to the St. Stephen's Club 
that the dining-tables of the club should 
be decorated with primroses on 19 April. 
Ne-\t year it was suggested that an 



annual festival should be adopted, and 
Sir George Birdwood made arrangements 
with a large firm of Covent Garden florists 
to advertise largely at his expense the 
supply of primroses to any extent for 
19 April. It was a complete success, 
and was soon followed by the establish- 
ment of Primrose Leagues throughout 
the United Kingdom. 

Primrose League (The), 1883. 
An association of men and women to 
carry out the policy of Benjamin Dis- 
raeli, Lord Beaconsfield : ' The mainten- 
ance of true religion, of the three estates 
of the realm, and of the imperial ascend- 
ency of Great Britain.' The lodges are 
called 'habitations,' and a habitation 
consists of thirteen or more knights com- 
panions, knights harbingers, or knights 
almoners, and each knight has his squire. 
The chief ladies are called ' dames ' (lady 
patronesses). A certain number of dis- 
trict habitations form a central habita- 
tion, by which the ruling council is 
elected. The Marquis of Abergavenny 
was the first 'grand councillor of the 
league.' See ' Primrose Day.' 

The league was first organised in 1884, and in- 
augurated with a banquet 19 April, under the 
expectation of a general election, which took 
place between Nov. and Dec, 1885. The primrose 
is Beaconsfleld's flower, as the violet is the Napo- 
leonic flower. 

*,* A Primrose Order of Knights existed in Spain 
at the beginning of the 18th cent, (before 1717). 

A rumour was very current for two or three 
years that the Queen, on the day of Lord Beacons- 
fields funeral, sent a primrose wreath on which 
was written 'His favourite flower,' meaning the 
favourite flower of the late Prince Consort. 
Happily this error has been stamped out by the 
following letter :_ 

' Windsor Castle, 1 May, 1888. 

' Sir,— The Queen did not send a wreath of 
primroses to Lord Beaconsfleld's funeral, and 
consequently there could have been no inscription 
of the nature you describe. — I have the honour to 
be, sir, your obedient servant. 

' Henry Ponsonby. 

' To John Churchill Sikes (50 Agate Road, The 
Grove, Hammersmith, W.).' 

Primrose Pilgrimage [The), 19 
April. A visit to the statue of Lord 
Beaconsfield in Parliament Square in 
order to decorate it with primrose wreaths. 
Of course it is a Conservative demonstra- 
tion. 

Prince [The). ' Del Principe.' The 
great work of Niccolb Machiavelli of 
Florence (1469-1527), setting forth his 
political principles. 

The student of Machiavelli had not studied ' The 
Prince ' in vain.— GREEN, Hist, of the English People, 
D. .S3d. 



714 



PBINCE 



PEINCIPIA 



Prince Consort Prize (TM- '^or 
original historic research. Given every 
alternate year to graduates of not more 
than four years' standing. Value about 
lOOZ. Founded from the surplus of a 
memorial fund of Prince Albert, chan- 
cellor of the University of Cambridge, 
1888. See ' Modern History,' &c. 

Prince Florizel. George IV. 
Also called * Fum the Fourth,' ' The Fat 
Adonis of Fifty.' But the bitterest satire 
of all was 'The First Gentleman of 
Europe.' 

Prince Tite. The nickname of 
George II. 

Prince of Fools {The). The 
manager of the ' Enfans sans Souci.' 
iq.V.). 

Prince of German Poets (The). 

Goethe (1749-1832). 

Prince of Lyric Poets (The). 
Charles Dup^rier, born at Aix (1620- 
1692). So called by Menage. One of 
the French Pleiade poets. 

Prince of Music (The). J. Pier- 
luigi Palestrlna (1529-1594). 

Prince of Peace (The). A pun or 
abbreviation of 'Prince of the Peace.' 
Manuel de Godoy, duke of Alcudia, the 
cavalier of Maria Luiza, wife of Carlos 
IV. of Spain, was so called because he 
effected the pacification of Bale, 22 July, 
1795 (4 Thermidor, Year III.). 

In one year this obscure garde-decorps received 
the titles of lieutenant-general, admiral of the 
Spanish fleet,, duke of Alcudia, knight of the 
Golden Fleece ; and on his marriat/e with the 
king's niece he was created ' Prince of the Peace.' 
Born at Badajos 1767, died at Paris 1823. 

Prince of Priests (The), 1420. 

Henry V. of England, who on his wed- 
ding tour visited the shrine of every 
saint on his way. He was most assiduous 
in his devotions, most profusely liberal 
in his contributions, and most severe in 
repressing Lollardism. 

Prince of Quarrellers {The). 
Beaumarchais (1732-1799). A first-rate 
duellist and universal genius. Now best 
known by his two comedies, the ' Barber 
of Seville,' in four acts, and the ' Marriage 
of Figaro,' in five acts. 

Prince of the Youth {The). 
Gonzalvo di Cordova, the great captain 
(1453-1515). 



Prince's Metal. A metal like gold 
invented by Prince Rupert of Bavaria, 
nephew of Charles I. It is a mixture of 
copper and zinc. 

Prince's Peers {The), 1456. 
Tradesmen, farmers, and even mechanics, 
ennobled for money by Louis the 
Dauphin (Louis XI.), when he revolted 
against his father, Charles VII. 

Prince'ites (2 syl.). The members of 
the Agapemone, in Somersetshire, estab- 
lished by Henry James Prince. Letters 
to Prince are addressed ' The Lord.' He 
said to Mr. Hepworth Dixon, ' You see 
in me Christ in the flesh, Christ in my 
flesh.' He calls his wife 'the bride of 
his soul.' He says ' Christ came to 
redeem the soul, I am come to redeem 
the body.' Mr. Prince in 1851 took a 
party to the Great Exhibition, He drove 
about like a prince, with outriders bare- 
headed. Prince was born in 1811. 

Principal. In Oxford University; 
the title of the head of three colleges 
(Brasenose, Jesus, and Hertford), and of 
the four halls (New Inn, St. Alban's, St. 
Edmund, and St. Mary). 

Principality {The). In Roman 
history means the first three centuries of 
the empire, from Augustus to Diocletian 
(B.C. 29 to A.D. 287), when the emperor 
had no other title except princejJS. 
Diocletian introduced the title of Augus- 
tus, which had been occasionally loosely 
applied before his time, but not defi- 
nitely. 

Principia of Newton {The). 

' Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathe- 
matica,' in three books, by Isaac Newton. 

Book I. (1686). The motion of bodies 
in free space. Every particle of matter 
attracts every other particle with a force 
which varies directly as the masses, and 
inversely as the square of the distance 
between them. 

Book II. (3 months later). Of motion 
in a resisting medium. Hydrostatics and 
hydrodynamics. With a confutation of 
the Cartesian theory of vortices. 

Book III. (1687). The solar system. 
The motion of the moon, the theory of 
the tides, the proof that comets belong 
to the solar system. 

It is an inquiry into the truth of Kepler's ' Lawa 
of Motion.' 



PRINTER'S 



PRISON 



715 



Printer's Bible {The). Makes 
David pathetically complain that the 
'printers [princes] have persecuted me 
without a cause.' See ' Bible.' 

Prior {A), or ' Prior of the Arts.' A 
magistrate in the republic of Florence 
who superseded the Anziani or seniors 
in 1282. At first there were three priors, 
then six, and finally eight. 

Priori {Six), 1293. The executive 
government of Florence placed in the 
hands of six presidents. Dante the 
poet was one of the six priori in 1300. 

Prisage of Wine {The). The 
right of taking two casks out of each 
vessel for the crown. 

Priscil'lianists {The). Followers 
of Priscillian (4th cent.). A learned 
Spaniard, bishop of Avila in Spain. 
Their doctrines were substantially those 
of the ManichcTeaus, who taught that there 
were two principles, one of good and the 
other of evil. Priscillian said that the 
good principle in its descent from God 
to Earth fell into the power of the evil 
principle, and got corrupted. He also 
taught what is called Docetism ; that 
is, that the actions and sufferings of 
Christ were not real, but only phenomenal. 

Prison Authors and Litera- 
ture. 

Bacon (Roger) Imprisoned in 1278 in France by 
order of Pope Nicholas IV. During conlineinent 
he wrote his treatise ' On the Means of Avoiding 
the Infirmities of Old Age.' 

BOETHIUS (Anicius Maiilius Torqudliis SeverTiiiis) 
•wrote his ' De Consolatione Philosophite ' in his 
prison at Pa via, about 522 ; he was beheaded in 
524. 

Brienne (Le Comte de) -wrote his 'Memoirs' 
during his eighteen years' incarceration at St. 
Lazare. He died 16^8. 

BUNYAN wrote his ' Grace Abounding ' (16fi6) and 
Part I. of his ' Pilgrim's Progress' while confined 
In Bedford Gaol aGGO-1672). 

*,* Part I. of • Pilgrims Progress ' was printed 1678, 
and Pact //.in 1684. 

Carlile (Richard), during his ten years' imprl- 
Bonment, edited various journals, and won the 
right of a free press. 

COBBETT (Willidm) carried on his 'Political 
Kegister ' while in prison (1810-1812). 

Combe (IViUiam) wrote his ' Tour of Dr. Syntax' 
during his twenty years' imprisonment in the 
King's Bench (1743-1823). 

Cooper (Thomas), born 1805, wrote in Stafford 
Gaol the ' Purgatory of Suicides ' (1845) in Spenser- 
ian verse ; published under the patronage of 
Benjamin Disraeli ; and ' Wise Saws and Modern 
Instances.' 

Davitt (Michael) while confined in Portland 
Wrote ' Leaves from a Prison Diary, or Lectures to 
a Solitary Audience,' which was published in 1884. 

Defoe wrote his celebrated ' Keview ' in prison 
a704), and again (1713). 

Diderot was imprisoned at Vincennes in 1749, 
when he began his famous ' Memoires.' 



Hall (IViomajs) wrote in the Debtors' Ward, Win- 
chester, a volume of 'Poems' towards the close 
of the 18th cent. 

Harpsfield (Nicholas), Kegius Professor of 
Greek, Oxford, was imprisoned in the Tower in 
1562, and died there in 15«3. Rewrote in the Tower 
his bulky controversial work entitled ' Dialogi sex 
contra summi pontificatus, &c., oppugnatores, 
&c.,' published 1566 ; and a 'History of the Angli- 
can Church,' published after his death in 1622. 

Hetherington in prison composed political and 
poetical ephemera. 

Jones iKmfst) composed in gaol his political 
novel in which he attacked FeargusO Connor, and 
parodied the Chartist agitation (1848-1850). 

Lovelace (Richard) wrote some beautiful ditties 
to his ■ Divine Althea ' (Lucy Sacheverell) while in 
prison for presenting front Ivent a petition to the 
Long Parliament in behalf of the king (Charles II.). 

LovETT composed in prison poetical and poli- 
tical ephemera. 

Mirabeau was imprisoned in Vincennes three 
years and a half (beginning 7 June, 1777) ; during 
which cojifinement he wrote his ' Lettres a Sophie,' 
and ' Les Lettres de Cachet et les Prisons d'Etat.' 
He also translated in prison part of ' The Elegies 
of Tibullus,' ' Boccaccio's Decameron,' his ' Me- 
moires du Ministere du Due d'Aiguillon,' and 
several other works. 

OASTL,KR(Richard) kept up a fusillade of pamph- 
lets in favour of the Ten Hours' Bill while in tlie 
Fleet Prison (born 1789, died 1861). 

O'Brien (William) wrote the main part of his 
novel ' When We Were Boys ' while imprisoned for 
inciting to Irish disturbances. It was published in 
April 1890. 

ORl.£.A.SH (Charles d') comte d'Angouleme during 
his twenty-five years' captivity in the 15th cent, 
wrote, among other poetry, his charming ode to 
Spring, beginning ' Le terns a laissie son man- 
teau.' 

Pagano (Mario) wrote his ' Saggi Politici ' in 
prison (1783-1792). He was executed at Naples in 
1800. 

Paine (Thomas) wrote the second part of his 
' Age of Reason ' while imprisoned in Paris by com- 
mand of Robespierre, 1794-5. 

Pamphilus bishop of CiBsarea composed his 
' Five Books in Defence of Origen ' during the two 
years of his imprisonment. Eusebius completed 
the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. 

Pelhson wrote his two ' DiscoursauRoi ' and a 
' Memoire ' of his friend Fouquet while a priaouer 
in the Bastille (1661-1666). 

Penn (IVilliam), 1644-1718, while in the Tower, 
where he was confined at the instigation of the 
Bishop of London, wrote his famous ' No Cross, no 
Crown (1668-9). 

Raleigh (Sir Waller) wrote his ' History of the 
World ' (down to B.C. 170) during his thirteen years' 
imprisonment in the Tower (1552-1618). He was 
beheaded 1618. 

Sacy s Bible, the Port Royal translation into 
French, was made by Isaac Lemaistre [Sacy] (1666- 
1670) during his imprisonment in the Bastille. 

Taylor (Robert) composed his ' Devil s Pulpit* 
while in Oakham Gaol. 

Thomas (F.) of .Jesus, while confined in a dun- 
geon in Morocco composed his 'Sufferings of 
Christ • (16th cent.). 

Vincent composed in prison poetical and poli- 
tical ephemera. 

WOLLETT composed his ' Black Dwarf ' in prison. 

Voltaire in 1717 spent eleven months in the 
Bastille, during which time lie wrote two cantos 
of his ' Henriade,' and revised his tragedy of 
' (Edipe.' 

*.* Luther translated the Bible into German 
while he was lying perdu in the old castle of 
Wartburg. This was not strictly speaking a prison, 
but it was virtually so. 

Similarly : The crypt under the church of St. 
Maria, in Via Lata, is said to have been the place 
where Paul was held in captivity when he wrote 
his ' Epistles ' to the Hebrews, Ephesians, Philip- 
pians, Philemon, and 2 Timothy. 

There is also a tradition that St. Peter dictated 



716 



PRISON 



PEOCONSUL 



the ' Gospel of Mark ' ■while a prisoner at Rome ; 
and some say that Luke wrote his ' Acts ' in Borne. 

Prison Dress. A third-class man, 
that is, a man who has completed his first 
year satisfactorily, has i^o-cA; facing to his 
jacket, and begins to earn something. In 
twelve months more he is promoted to the 
second class, and his jacket is faced with 
yelloio. In twelve months more, if still 
on the good-conduct list, his jacket is faced 
with blue. If still under prison discipline 
at the end of four and a half years, he 
may receive a distinctive blue dress which 
will entitle him to a bonus of 3Z. at his 
discharge. See * Breeches Martyrs.' 

A black facing may earn Id. for 20 good marks ; a 
yellow facing lid. ; and a blue facing 2 d., credited 
to him, and given him at his discharge. Twenty 
good marks may be earned in about two days and 
a half. This allowance continues till it reaches 
the sum of U. 

Private "Wars. Those everlasting 
and wretched contests of the middle ages, 
between different barons, such as our war 
of the Two Roses, those of the Capulets 
and Montagues of Italy, the Armagnacs 
and Burgundians of France, the Guelfs 
and the Ghibellines, and so on. Charle- 
magne introduced a law to put a stop to 
these feuds, but it was powerless. The 
Church introduced the Paix de Dieu 
{q. v.), which, suspended hostilities on cer- 
tain days ; but St. Louis established the 
Quarantaine-le-Roi {q.v.), and punished 
with death those who violated it. See 
' Vendetta.' 

Privilege of Union in Aragon. 

A brotherhood or confederacy for obtain- 
ing redress of grievances by armed force, 
as the barons of England obtained Magna 
Charta from King John. This privilege 
was granted by Alfonso III. in 1287, and 
confirmed by Alfonso X. as a right of the 
nobility. 

The law runs thus : ' The duty of subjects to- 
wards their king enjoins them not to suffer him 
knowingly to endanger his salvation ... or pro- 
duce mischief to his kingdom. This may be done 
in two ways : one by good advice . . . and the 
other by preventing him from running to his own 
ruin.' 

Privy Council {The). The ' Curia 
Regis' existed under Henry III.; the 
Concilium Privatum or Privy Council 
arose in the reign of Henry VI., but it was 
Charles II. who first appointed a cabinet 
of fifty members because he found the 
council unworkable. Its number now is 
indefinite, the members are ' Right Hon.' 
for life. It works by committees, except 



when the sovereign issues 'orders in 
council.' 

In the reigns of James I. and Charles I., the ' Star 
Chamber ' was formed from the Privy Council. 
The chief committees of the Privy Council are the 
' Committee of Trade and Plantations, 1688 ' ; the 
' Judicial Committee ' ; the ' Committee of Educa- 
tion, 1839'; the 'Local Government Board, 1871," &c. 

Privy Council of Ireland {The) 
consists of some fifty or sixty members. 
Almost all the judges are members. 

Processio Plenaria. 

stent in ordine suo singuli in ecclesiam expec- 
tantes donee veniat poutifex cum processione 
plenaria ad Missam, sicut diebus solemnibus solet 
cum septem diaconibus, totidemque subdia- 
conibus et ceroferariis, et duobus thuribuiis cum 
incenso.— Quoted by Dv Cange, vol. v. p. 467, 
col. 1. 

Procession of the Black 
Breeches {The), 20 June, 1792. Car- 
lyle says in the procession led by San- 
terre to the Tuileries were ' tricolour 
ribands streaming from pike-head ; iron- 
shod batons ; a bull's heart transfixed, 
and with this inscription, " Heart of an 
Aristocrat"; and, more striking still, a 
pair of old black silk breeches, extended 
on a cross-staff, with this inscription, 
" Tremble, tyrants ; here are the Sans- 
culottes." ' The chapter is headed ' Pro- 
cession of the Black Breeches ' (Caelyle, 
' French Revolution,' last chap, of 
book v.). 

One of the standards consists of a pair of black 
silk breeches on a pole with the motto, ' Without 
breeches, but free.'— HowiTT, Hist, of England 
(Geo. III. p. G17). 

They shut their gates after the day of the Black 
Breeches.— Cari.yle, French Revolution, vol. ii. 
book vi. 4. 

Procession to Hernals {The). 
The estate of the Jorgers, 'where the 
Catholic doctrine had been first profaned 
by a Lutheran sermon,' established by 
the Jesuits in the reign of Elaiser Ferdi- 
nand II. (1619-1637). 

Processional {A). A book contain- 
ing all that pertains to ecclesiastical pro- 
cessions (1600). 

Proc'lida3 {Dynasty of the), b.c. 
1100-219. One of the two contempo- 
raneous dynasties of Sparta. The other 
was the dynasty of the Agidye. The 
former received its name from Procles, 
son of Aristodemus, and the latter from 
Agis son of Eurysthenes. 

Proconsul. In the Roman empire 
was the quasi-consul of a province. The 
first was Titus Quintius Barbatus (b.c. 



PKOCONSULS 



PEOPHECY 



717 



464). Pompey was for three years pro- 
consul of the sea. Julius Cassar was for 
five years proconsul of Gaul. As a rule 
they were avaricious, tyrannical, and 
inunoral. The name is a hissing and a 
byword. 

Proconsuls, 1793. French com- 
missioners appointed by the Convention, 
with uncontrolled power to arrest persons 
suspected of being counter-revolutionists, 
or those who murmured at the new state 
of things. They had the power of taxing 
the rich, making compositions with them, 
and of seizing private horses for the use 
of the army. These commissioners were 
most arbitrary and insolent. 

Proctors {The), 1629, of our univer- 
sities. Two annually, elected in Oxford 
by the House of Convocation, and in 
Cambridge by the Senate. .Their duties 
are to act as peace officers to maintain 
good behaviour of all persons in statu 
pupillari. Each proctor names a pro- 
proctor, who (in Oxford) must be an M.A. 
of three years' standing. The proctors are 
chosen by cycles. In Oxford from 1620 
to 1859 tiae cycle was 23 years ; in 1859 
it was extended to 30 years. In Cam- 
bridge the cycle is 50 years. (Trinity 
and St. John's have eleven turns each ; 
Christ's, Clare, Caius, Pembroke, 
Queen's, and Peter House six turns each ; 
Emmanuel, Magdalene, Jesus, Sidney 
Sussex, Corpus and St. Catharine's five 
turns each ; Trinity Hall three turns, with 
the right of nomination if a vacancy 
occurs within the year ; and Downing two 
turns. 

In Oxford the stipend of proctor is 350i. and of 
pro-proctor 801. In Cambridge there are two 
assistant pro-proctors. 

PrOCUlians. In Latin ' Proculiani.' 
A law school so called from Proculus, a 
jurist; opposed to the Sabinians {q.v.). 
Proculus is often cited, and there are 
thirty-seven extracts from him in the 
Digest. The Proculians were ' radicals,' 
but interpreted law literatim and ver- 
batim. The Sabinians were courtiers 
and equity lawyers. 

Procura'tor. A functionary in the 
Roman empire created by Augustus. 
Procurators were of two classes ; those 
in the senatorial provinces, who were 
proxies of the senate ; and those in the 
great imperial provinces, who were ap- 
pointed by the emperor. The former 



were viceroys; the latter were fiscal 
officers. 

Procura'tors of St. Mark. Nine 
magistrates in the repubhc of Venice 
who administered the effects of orphans 
and of those who died intestate. 

Prodigy of Prance (The). Bude 
was so called by Erasmus (1467-1540). 
He introduced into France the study of 
Greek, and was learned in all the 
sciences. 

Prodigy of Learning (The). 
Samuel Hahnemann, the German, is so 
caUed by J. P. Richter (1755-1843). 

Profound Doctor (T^e). 'Doctor 
Profundus,' Thomas Bradwardine arch- 
bishop of Canterbury (1848-1349). 

Egidlus de Colonna [Giles of Cologne] is called 
' The Most Profound Doctor ' (died 1316). 

Progresses. Royal visits were so 
called in the reign of Elizabeth. 

Elizabeth was in the habit of making visits to 
the houses of her nobles. . . . These visits were 
called progresses.— Prince, Parallel History, vol. 
ii. p. 106. 

Progressives. So the Home Rule 
party began to call themselves in the 
December of 1889. 

Projector [The). John Law of 
Edinburgh (1681-1729), the projector of 
the Mississippi Scheme or French bubble 
company. 

Propaganda Fide [The College of 
the Congregation de), 1622. Established 
by Urban VIII. A great nursery of 
missionaries of all sorts and for all parts 
of the world : Gregorian s, Persians, 
Nestorians, Jacobites, Melchites, Copts, 
Abyssinians, and Armenians. 

Propaganda Fide {The Congre- 
gation de), 1572. Originated by Gregory 
Xin., and instituted at Rome by bull of 
Gregory XV. in 1622. It has the direction 
of missions, and consists of thirteen car- 
dinals, three prelates, and a secretary, 

Propagation of the Faith 

{Society for the). Established at Lyons 
in 1829. 

Propagators of the Faith. 

Same as ' Converters ' {q.v.). 

Prophecy of St. Laser'ian {The). 
* The Church of Rome will surely fall 
when the Catholic faith is overthrown in 
Lreland.' St. Laserian was an ancient 
archbishop of Cashel. 



718 



PEOPHESYINGS 



PEOTESTANT 



Prophesyings suppressed, 

1577. Prophesyings, in 1569, Avere meet- 
ings held once a fortnight by the puri- 
tans, under the guidance of Cartwright 
and Travers, and supported by several 
of the bishops, nominally for the edifica- 
tion of the clergy. They were under a 
moderator appointed by the bishop of 
the diocese or his deputy 'to discuss 
theological subjects and expound scrip- 
ture.' They were called prophesyings 
from the text, ' Ye may all prophesy one 
by one, that all may learn, and all may 
be comforted' (1 Cor. xiv. 31). Queen 
Elizabeth, feeling convinced that this 
platform was a mere pretence, and that 
the true object of the meetings was 
poHtical, commanded them to be sup- 
pressed. As Edmund Grindal, recently 
elevated to the see of Canterbury, fa- 
voured the ' prophesyings,' he was ordered 
to ' keep his house,' and never regained 
the queen's favour. 

Prophetess of Exeter {The). 
Joanna Southcott (1750-1814). 

Propraetor. A Roman officer who 
discharged in a province the functions of 
a praetor. Like a prsetor he was attended 
by six lictors. 

Propre, in English A Proper, is 
either a ' propre du temps,' a * propre des 
saints,' or a ' propre d'une eglise.' The- 
first is a clause in a liturgy introduced 
for special days and religious festivals ; 
the second for special saints; and the 
third for special churches. 

In the English Prayer Book there are ' Propers ' 
in the ' Communion Service ' for the great festi- 
vals, just before the canticle 'Therefore with 
Angels and Archangels we ..." In bidding 
prayers the clause beginning ' and as in duty 
bound . . .' is a ' proper ' of the third sort. 

Pro-proctors. Instituted in the 
Cambridge University by a grace of the 
senate 29 April, 1818. They are nomi- 
nated by the colleges according to the 
cycle of ' Proctors ' (g.v.), but appointed 
by the senate. 

6 June, 1878, two ' additional pro-proctors ' were 
added by a grace of the senate. They must be 
masters of arts of not less than three years' stand- 
ing, and are in ofiQce for one year. 

Proscription. In Roman history, 
a list of persons proscribed stuck up in 
places of public resort. Sulla was the 
first to publish ' Tables of Proscription.' 
The triumvirs (Octavius, Antony, and Le- 
pidus) followed his example. Informers 
received a part of the confiscated pro- 



perty, so that avarice and private ven- 
geance were rewarded and encouraged. 

Proselytes of the Covenant. 

Such Gentiles as received the covenant 
or law of Moses. 

Proselytes of the Gate. Those 
Gentiles who worshipped the true God, 
but received not the law of Moses. The 
proselytes were only allowed to enter the 
outer court of the temple. In Solomon's 
time there were 153,000 of these pro- 
selytes who were compelled to hew wood, 
to draw water, to cut stones, and to carry 
burdens for the building of the temple 
(2 Chron. ii. 17, 18). These men were 
Canaanites who had continued in the 
country since the time of Joshua. They 
were proselytes of the gate because they 
were allowed to dwell ' within the gates ' 
of Jerusalem. 

Naaman the Syrian, Nebuzaradan (general of 
Nebuchadnezzar's army), Cornelius the centurion, 
the eunuch of Queen Candace (3 syl.), the Kenites 
and Kechabites were proselytes of the gate. 

Protection of British In- 
dustry. Acts of Parliament to compel 
people to purchase only home produce. 
This was done by laying a tax on all 
foreign commodities to make them dearer 
than similar commodities produced at 
home. Free trade in corn was intro- 
duced in 184:6 by the abolition of the 
Corn Laws {q.v.), and in most other 
articles since. 

In Oct. 1890 came into operation in the United 
States of North America the ' McKinley Tariff Bill," 
which imposed a tax on imported articles of 
enormous magnitude, ' to protect native industry 
against foreign competition.' This battle with 
England will determine once for all whether Free 
Trade or Protection is the sounder policy. 

Protector. In English history a 
kind of regent. The Duke of Bedford 
was protector of England under Henry 
VI.; the Duke of Gloucester [Richard 
in.] was protector under Edward V. 
See next article. 

Protector of the Commonwealth of 
England, Scotland, and Ireland. Oliver 
Cromwell, 16 Dec, 1653. Reinaugurated 
with all the pomp of a coronation 26 June, 
1656 ; died 3 Sept., 1658, aged 59. 

His son Richard succeeded him, but retired into 
private life in 16(30. 

Protestant and Popish Wind. 

In court and city, says Misson, in the 
reign of James II., an east wind was called 
Protestant, and a west wind a Popish one. 
October 23. James II., being extremely re.ptless 
aaid uneasy, ordered a weathercock to be placed 



PROTESTANT 



PROTO-SYNCELL 



719 



•where he might see it from his apartment, that he 
might learn with his own eyes whether the wind 
is I'rotestant or Popish. This weathercoclj, at one 
end of the Banqueting House, is still to be seen 
there (1719).— MISSON. 

Protestant Duke {The). James 
duke of Monmouth, said to be a love-child 
of Charles II. So called because he re- 
nounced the Catholic faith in which he 
had been brought up, and became a Pro- 
testant (1619-1685). See ' Monmouth.' 

Protestant Flail (A). A kind of 
life-preserver, worn by timid magistrates 
in the reign of Charles II. The handle 
resembled a farrier's blood-stick, and the 
flail was joined to the end by a strong 
ligature, so short as to avoid the hand. 
It was made of lignum vitae wood. 

It [the Protestant flail] was for street and crowd 
work; and the instrument lurking perdu in a 
coat pocket, might readily sally out to execution, 
and by clearing a great hall . . . carry an election, 
by a choice way of polling, called ' knocking 
down. —Roger North. 

Protestant Joiner (The). Col- 
ledge, in whose defence Titus Gates 
appeared in 1681. He was accused of 
treason, but there was not the slightest 
proof of the charge. ' State Trials,' vol. 
viii. p. 628. 

Protestant Livy (The). John 
Sleidan of Cologne (1506-1556). His 
great work is ' The State of Religion in 
the reign of Kaiser Karl V.' 

Protestant Patent {The), 1859. 
It granted to the communes of Hungary 
the free administration of their religious 
and educational matters. 

Protestant Pope {The). Gian Vin- 
cenzo Ganganelli, Pope Clement XIV. : 
so called from his enlightened policy, 
and more especially for his bull sup- 
pressing the Jesuits (1705, 1769-1774). 

Protestant Religion {The), 1675. 

Wlien the Earl of Shaftesbury asked in 
the House of Lords, ' What is the Pro- 
testant religion [of England] ? ' The 
Bishop of Winchester replied, 'The 39 
articles, the liturgy, the catechism, the 
canons, and the homilies.' 

Not very logical, nor very orthodox. A better 
answer would have been, ' the Bible, the whole 
Bible, and nothing but the Bible.' The bishop's 
response at best can only apply to the Anglican 
Church, but the Anglican Church is not Protes- 
tantism. 

Protestants, 1592. Those Chris- 
tians who belonged to the reformed 
Church, as Episcopalians, Presbyterians, 



Huguenots, Lutherans, Calvinists, and 
all dissenters of every denomination. 
Called Protestants from those who pro- 
tested against the decree of the second 
diet of Speyer, which pronounced 
Lutheranism to be heretical, and revoked 
the decree of the previous diet, which 
conceded liberty of conscience. 

The second diet was presided over by Ferdi- 
nand, the brother of Karl V., and the dissen- 
tients appealed to Karl V. 

Protesters. One of the ' religious ' 
parties into which Scotland was divided 
after the death of Charles I. The other 
party was called the Resolutioners {q.v.). 
The Resolutioners adhered to Charles II., 
but the Protesters were inclined to a 
union with the republicans. See Sir W. 
Scott, ' Gld Mortality,' ch. v. 

Proteus {The German). Melanch- 
thon (1497-1560). So called because he 
so often changed his religious views. He 
was a disciple of Luther, but followed 
Zwinglius in some points and Calvin in 
others. 

Protevangelion {The), or'Prote- 
vangelium.' A gospel falsely ascribed to 
St. James the Less, first bishop of Jeru- 
salem. It is noted for its minute details 
of the Virgin and Jesus. Some ascribe 
it to L. Carinas, who died 362. 

First of all we shall rehearse . ^ 
The nativity of our Lord, 
As written in the old record 
Of the protevangelion. 

Longfellow, The Golden Legeitd. 

Proto-Martyr {The). 

I. St. Stephen. The first Christian 
martyr. Stoned to death about nine 
months after the Crucifixion. 

II. Gf the British Isles. [St.] Alban, 
A.D. 285. Condemned to death by Con- 
stantius for refusing to offer sacrifice to 
the gods of Rome, according to the edict 
of the'Emperor Diocletian. 

It must not be forgotten that these executions, 
called ' persecutions, were political, not religious, 
except so far as state religion can be so called. 
Christian persecutions, on the other hand, are 
religious, not political, except, perhaps, in Eng- 
land, where churchmanship and dissent have a 
special political bias. 

Protonotaries Apostolic. A 

college of twelve notaries, secretaries 
of the Roman chancellery instituted by 
Clement I. to write the lives of martyrs 
and assist at canonisations. 

Proto-Syncell. The first syncell 
or domestic of the patriarchal palace of 



720 



PROUD 



PROVISIONS 



Constantinople. He was one of the first 
ecclesiastipal dignitaries of Constanti- 
nople. 

Proud Duke {The). Charles Sey- 
mour duke of Somerset (1662-1748). 

Prout {Father). The pen-name of 
the Rev. Francis Mahoney, a writer in 
' Fraser's Magazine,' in the ' Globe ' 
newspaper, &c. (1805-1866). 

Provant Rapier. A sword sup- 
plied by the provant master, or officer 
who provided for the soldiers. Such a 
sword was very inferior to a Toledo blade. 
In ' Kenilworth ' Wayland Smith speaks of 
his sword as a ' poor provant rapier,' and 
contrasts it with Varney's special Toledo. 
Similarly we read of ' provant apparel,' 
that is, ajjparel provided to soldiers by 
the provant-master ; ' provant-breeches,' 
&c. Provant also means ' common ' or 
* ordinary,' as ' provant rogue.' We see 
also the expressions ' provant breeches,' 
' provant swords,' (fee, and the person em- 
ployed to provide soldiers with their kit 
is called the ' provant master.' 

Provedito're (5 syl.). The governor 
of a province in the ancient republic of 
Venice. There was the ordinary prove- 
ditore, charged with the supervision of 
streets, buildings, and police; and the 
marine proveditore, who was to provide 
for the payment, <fec., of the fleet. 

Providence. Alexanderl. of Russia 
considered himself ^ La Providence 
Uberale of Europe, and the protector of 
the independence of the peoples ' ; but 
his good intentions for mankind took the 
form of the Holy Alliance, which stifled 
freedom all over Europe, re-established 
the old despotisms, and put back the 
world a generation at least (' Nineteenth 
Century,' June 1889, p. 834). 

Provincial {A). The superior of 
all the religious houses in a province, 
subordinate to the general of the order. 

By a ' province ' is meant a ' division of the 
order,' containing all the houses of a certain 
district, or all those which speak the same lan- 



Provincial Letters or Provin- 
ciales, 1656-1657. The famous letters 
of Blaise Pascal under the pseudonym 
of ' Louis de Montalte,' in defence of the 
Jansenists and against the Jesuits, whom 
he accuses of lax morals, want of piety, 
equivocation, mental reservation, simony, 



and so on. The letters are eighteen in 
number, and one fragment. Lemaistre 
added a twentieth. They are full of 
irony, very vigorous, and models of their 
kind. They were censured at Rome and 
condemned in France. 

The objection that his necessity did not leave 
him the power to contract freely would apply 
equally to the discontented servant of the ' fro- 
vincial Letters.'— r/it- World (2 May, 1888). 

Provincial Synod {A) in the Pres- 
byterian Church of Scotland consists of 
three or more presbyteries {q.v.) The 
chairman is called the ' moderator.' 

Provincials of Ijyndwood(T^e), 
1444. A collection of papal constitutions 
drawn from the canon law by fourteen 
archbishops (from Langton 1206 to 
Chichele 1443). Lyndwood, or Lyndwode, 
was an ecclesiastical la'wyer and bishop 
of St. David's. 

Provisions. Reversionary grants 
of benefices during the lifetime of present 
incumbents. This followed as a conse- 
quent on the maxim of Clement V. that 
the pope has the free right of disposing 
of all ecclesiastical benefices. In conse- 
quence of this claim all the best livings 
of Europe were held by Italians wholly 
ignorant of the language of the people 
over whom they had charge. In 1350 
Edward III. caused the Statute of Pro- 
visors {q.v.) to be passed, which enacted 
that, if the pope made a reversionary 
grant to anyone, the king should have 
the collation of such benefice. Sub- 
sequently it was enacted that no alien 
should be capable of holding any eccle- 
siastical preferment in England. 

Provisions of Merton {The), 
the day after the coronation of Henry III. 
This is the first enactment on the English 
statute-book. ' Provisions ' are acts of 
parliament to curb the arbitrary power 
of the crown. Merton, in Surrey, is 
the place where the parliament was held. 
These provisions are the most ancient 
body of laws after Magna Charta, and 
consist of eleven articles. 

Provisions of Oxford {The), 11 
June, 1258, Sworn to by Henry III. and 
his son Edward on one side, and by the 
citizens of London on the other. They 
provided that a council of twelve ' honest 
men' shall assist the king as his privy 
council; that the great officers and 
treasurer shall give in their accounts at 



PEOVISORS 



PROXENUS 



721 



the close of every year; that sheriffs 
shall be appointed from the chief tenants 
of each county ; that no fee shall be given 
directly or indirectly for the administra- 
tion of justice ; that three parliaments 
shall assemble every year. 

A 'provision is an act of parliament to curb 
the arbitrary power of the crown. These pro- 
visions are further noteworthy in that the royal 
proclamation which ordered their observance 
was in the English tongue, and this, as far as we 
know, is the first instance of the use of the English 
language for such a purpose. 

Provisors. Persons in whose favour 
provisos had been made in the Acts for 
the Settlement of Ireland after the Re- 
storation. To the English provisors 
477,873 acres were awarded, and to the 
Irish provisors 491,001 statute acres, out 
of the 7,778,037 acres forfeited under the 
Commonwealth. 

Provisors [Statute of), 25 Edward 
III., s. 6, A.D. 1350, &c. To prohibit 
anyone from making a reversionary gi'ant 
of a benefice, or from receiving any fee 
or reward out of a living ' as a provision ' 
for foreign cardinals. This act was fol- 
lowed by others of a like character, and 
the pope of Rome was deprived of pre- 
senting to any bishopric or living in Eng- 
land, or of receiving directly or indirectly 
any portion of the church revenues. 

In the 14th cent, in England the imposts and 
taxes received by the pope were fivefold the 
amount of those received by the crowu. 

Provost. In Oxford University ; the 
title of the head of three of the colleges, 
Oriel, Queen's, and Worcester. In Cam- 
bridge University the master of King's 
College only is called the Provost, the 
principal of Queen's College is called the 
President, but of all the other colleges 
the Master. 

Provost and Bailies (TJte) in Scot- 
land correspond to our English mayor 
and aldermen. They are chosen by the 
councilmen, and invested with the powers 
of magistrates in the burgh. The Scotch 
Municipal Reform Act passed in 1840 
(18 August). 

Provost of Paris (TM; 'LePre'- 
vot de Paris,' magistrat d'epee, chef du 
Chatelet. Cha.rgedwiih.ih.e gouverneme7it 
politique, and also with the finances of 
Paris. He is the Viscount of Paris. This 
officer dates from the reign of Hugues 
Capet [You Cap-jiay']. 

Provost of the Army. ' Le Pre- 
v6t de I'Armee,' a French officer charged 

31 



to administer justice between military 
men, to adjust diffei-ences between officers 
and privates, military men and civilians. 
Also called ' Les Pre'vots des Bandes.' 

Provost of the Constabulary, 
or G-rand Provost of France [The). 

* Le Prevotde la Connetablie.' This office 
was in 1572 united to that of the ' Provost 
of the Hotel ' [q.v.). 

Provost of the Hotel [The). ' Le 
Pre'vot de I'HOtel, 1572.' A French officer 
who joined to his functions that of Pro- 
vost of France, the chief military com- 
mander. The King of the Ribalds was 
also absorbed in the same office. 

Provost of the King's Hotel 
[The). 'Le Prevot de I'HOtel du Roi,' 
judge in all crown cases. He moved from 
place to place with the court. The duties 
subsequently passed to the tribunal of 
the Maitres cVHutel du Boi, and in 1573 
the office was submerged in that of the 
Provost of France. 

Provost of the Marshals {The). 
' Le Prevot des Marechaux.' The Marshals' 
Provost adjucated only between the upper 
officers. Under Charles VI. and VII. this 
provost was attached to the court. 

Provost of the Merchants 

{The). 'Le Prevot des Marchands.' 
Elected every three years. At first these 
provosts were only excise officers, who 
visited and taxed ships exporting or im- 
porting goods ; but subsequently they had 
the jurisdiction of all mercantile affairs, 
were charged with public ceremonies, 
and capitation imposts. 

Provvedito'ri {The). Officers ap- 
pointed for the guardianship of St. Mark, 
at Venice. 

Prox'enus (pi. Frox'eni). The host 
of a stranger or ambassador. Before 
public houses of entertainment were 
known travellers had to depend on tlie 
hospitality of strangers, who expected in 
return similar civiUties if required. That 
the obligation might be recognised, the 
host and guest parted a white stone, and 
writing their name on the two halves, 
the host gave his portion to the guest, 
and vice versa {see Rev. ii. 17). In time, 
certain houses were selected for the en- 
tertainment of ambassadors. These pub- 
lic entertainers were called ' Proxeni,' 
3 A 



722 



PRUSSIA 



PSALTER 



and voluntary entertainers were called 
' Ethelo-proxeni.' 

To him that overcometh I , . . will give a white 
stone, and on the stone a new name written, 
•which no man linoweth saving he that receiveth 
it.-Rev. 11. 17. 

Prussia. The Elector Friedrich III. 
raised his electorate to a kingdom in 1701. 
From this date it has been constantly- 
increasing in power and extent, till in 
1866, in a war of seven weeks, it over- 
mastered Austria, and in 1870 in the seven 
months' war it triumphed over France, 
when the King of Prussia added to his 
other titles that of * German Emperor.' 

In 1878 the Queen of England, by the advice of 
Lord Beaconsfield, then premier, added the title 
' Empress of India ' to her other titular designa- 
tions. 

Prussia [Titles of the King of) 
[German Emperor], since 1888. 

His Imperial and Royal Majesty * * King of 
Prussia and German Emperor, Margrave of Bran- 
denburg, Burgrave of Nuremburg, Count of 
Hohenzollern, Premier Duke and Sovereign of 
Silesia and of the County of Glatz, Grand Duke 
of the Lower Rhine and of Posen, Duke of Saxony, 
of Westphalia, of Engern, of Pomerania, of Lune- 
berg, of Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, of 
Bremen, of Gelderland, of Cleves, of Juliers, and 
of Berg, Duke of the Wends and of the Cassubes, 
Duke of Crossen, of Lauenberg, and of Mecklen- 
burg, Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia, Mar- 
grave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of 
Orange, Lord of Rtigen, of Eastern Frisia, of Pader- 
born and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Miinster, 
Minden, Osnabruck and Hildeshelm, of Verdun, 
Kammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers, Princely 
Count of Henneherg, Count of the Marches, and 
of Ravensberg, Hohenstein, Tecklenburg, Lingen, 
Mansfeld, Sigmaringen andVeringen, and Lord of 
Frankfort. 

Prussian Boot (T/ie). Prince Bis- 
marck, chancellor of Prussia (1813- ), 
or more correctly the imperious domina- 
tion and insolent arrogance of the prince 
chancellor. 

In the course of these unfortunate discussions 
. . . Prince Bismarck himself has revealed a doubt 
whether all the states of Germany rejoice in the 
domination of Prussia. The truth is ... a vast 
number of Germans do not share the Berlinese 
idolatry of the Prussian Boot. They know the 
Boot ; they are aware that it has been a service- 
able aid to diplomacy ; but they do not like it. — 
Nineteenth Century (Feb. 1889, p. 263). 

Prussian Evangelical Churcli 

(The), 1828. A union of Calvinism and 
Lutheraiiism. Frederick William III., 
assisted by Bunsen his minister, compiled 
a new liturgy for Prussia and a new 
church organisation. The Calvinistic and 
Lutheran ministers were then invited to 
conform on a given day, and so many 
agreed to do so, that the few dissentients 
were compelled either to conform or to 
abandon their pastorates. 



Prussian Orders. The highest is 
the ' Black Eagle.' 

Pruth [Treat?/ of the), 23 July, 1711. 
A treaty of peace between Russia and 
Turkey, in which Czar Peter the Great 
was obliged to restore Azof and all of his 
other dominions on the Black Sea to 
Turkey, 

Pryt'anes (3syl.). Officers in ancient 
Greece entrusted with the chief magis- 
tacy in Corcvra, Corinth, Rhodes, and 
Mitylene. At Athens they were of second 
rank, next to the archons, and acted with 
them as judges, sitting in the prytaneum 
or hall of the prytanes. Their number 
was fifty, and all lived at the public 
expense. 

Prytane'um. I. A common hall in 
a Greek state for a given district, con- 
taining (1) a law court for the prytanes ; 
(2) granaries ; and (3) restaurants for 
citizens and strangers also. 

II. The Prytante Fran^aise was the 
college of Louis le Grand set apart by 
the republic for a treasury office. In 1803 
it was transferred to St. Cyr ; and since 
1852 to the military college of La Fleche. 

Psalmanazar [George). A literary 
impostor born in France in 1679. He 
pretended to be a Japanese, born in the 
island of Formosa ; and he wrote for the 
'Universal History' what he called a 
* History of Formosa,' altogether fabu- 
lous, but which thoroughly imposed on 
the learned world. The man died in Lon- 
don in 1763, but what was his real name 
nobody knows. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Psalmc'rum Codex, 1457. The 
first book printed in movable metal type 
bearing a date', the printing firm was 
Fust and his son-in-law Peter Schaeffer. 
See ' Biblia Sacra Latlna.' 

Psalter naRann (r^e),by ^ngus, 
is a hagiography of the saints of all nations 
including British, "Welsh, Irish, and even 
Egyptian (9th cent.). See p. 7, ' Acta 
Sanctorum.' 

Psalter of Cashel(r^e). A psalter 
is a provincial register of events, &c., 
briefly recorded for a national history. 
The oldest is the Psalter of Tara, which 
is lost. The Psalter of Cashel (in verse) 
was the work of MacCulinan bishop of 
Cashel and king of Munster, who died in 
the beginning of the 10th cent. 



PSALTER 



PUBLIC 



723 



Psalter of Mainz (The), 1457. 
The first book ever printed. 

Psalter of Tar a (r/ze). The great 
national register of the ancient Irisli 
in which was briefly entered provincial 
annals as materials for national history. 
The Psalter of Tara has been long lost, 
but parts of the Psalter of Cashel (com- 
piled in the 10th cent.) are supposed to 
have been transcribed from it. 

It began B.C. 900 ia the reign of 011am Fodlah 
Ot the family of la. 

Their tribe, they said, their high degree, 

Was sung in Tara's Ps iltery. 

Campbell, O'Connor's Child. 

Psaltery {A). ' Sacbut, harp, and 
psaltei'y.' The sacbut is a corruption of 
sambuc, a stringed instrument, ' genus 
citharae rusticas.' The psaltery is a tra- 
pezium with ten or thirteen strings, run 
over two bi'idges, struck' with a plectrum. 

The nablium or psaltery ... is called in Psalm 
XXXIII. 2, and CXLI V. 9, a ten stringed instrument 
. . . Josephus . . . assigns to it twelve strings. . . . 
There was another Instrument of this kind used 
In Babylon. It was triangular in form. In Greek 

It Is called <Ta^/3vKti, in Hebrew fc5D2D. It had 

originally only four strings, but subsequently 
twenty (Dan. iii. 7, 10, 15j.— Jahn, Arcliieologia 
Biblica, No. 94. 

Psylli. Jugglers of Egypt and 
Libya who pretended to neutralise the 
poison of serpents, and even to kill them, 
merely by fixing their eyes on them. 

Ptolemaic System (T7ie). Ptolemy 

of Alexandria about a.d. 160 published 
his ' Great System,' called 
by the Arabians 'Alma- 
gest.' It presumed that 

. , our earth was stationary 

\ / in the midst of the system, 

and that the heavenly 

bodies revolved round it. He adopted 

the theory of the epicycles. 

Here E is the earth. The planets, including sun 
and moon, moved first round the little circle, and 
the centre of that little circle described in its 
revolution the large circle round E. The large 
circle was called the ' deferent.' Epicycle means 
'upon the circle.' 

Public GrOOd (The), about 1820- 
1825. A Muscovite secret league, osten- 
sibly for improving the education of the 
Kussian empire by introducing the Eng- 
lish Lancastrian plan, but really a poli- 
tical organisation to republicanise Russia, 
and introduce a ' constitution.' Colonel 
Pestel was head of the league, but was 
aided and abetted by 122 men of rank, 



a\ 



among whom were several princes. On 
the death of Alexander in 1825 the 
Grand-duke Constantine relinqu shed the 
crown to his brother Nicholas, and when 
the troops were drawn up to administer 
to them the oath of fidelity, the cry was 
raised of ' Constantine and the Constitu- 
tion ! ' Instantly the leaguers were 
seized; Pestel and four others were 
hanged, and 118 were banished to Siberia. 

Public GrOOd {League of the). 
' Ligue du Bien Public,' 1465. An alli- 
ance against Louis XL It consisted of 
the Due de Bretagne, the Due de 
Bourbon, the Due de Calabre, the Due 
de Nemours, Charles the king's brother, 
the Comte de Dunois, the Comte 
d'Armagnac, and the Comte Dammartin. 
At the head of the league was Charles le 
Te'meraire. The nominal object of this 
formidable league was the relief of the 
people, but the real object was vengeance 
on the king for taking away from the 
aristocracy certam privileges. An inde- 
cisive battle was fought at Montlhery in 
July 1465, after which Louis XL contrived 
to break up the league by fair promises, 
which he never intended to fulfil, and the 
league was nicknamed La Ligue du Mai 
Public. 

Public Health Act {The), 1875. 
This act embodies all the sanitary acts 
passed since 1848, and provides for the 
removal of all things injurious to health : 
the overcrowding of houses ; the ventila- 
tion of factories ; and either the con- 
sumption of smoke or its being carried 
high into the air by long chimneys. 

Public Orator (The), of our univer- 
sities. Elected in Cambridge by the 
senate from one of two persons nomi- 
nated by the council. In Oxford he is 
elected by the House of Convocation 
{q.v.), and he must be either an M.A. or 
a B.C.L. He writes official letters, de- 
livers in Latin an oration on great public 
festivals, presents to the vice-chancellor 
those on whom an honorary degree is to 
be conferred, and (in Oxford) delivers the 
Creweian Oration alternately with the 
professor of poetry. The Public Orator 
is the official voice of the legislative body. 

The first Public Orator of Oxford was appointed 
in 1584 when Queen Elizabeth visited the univer- 
sity, and his salary was 20 nobles i6L 13.v. id.). This 
has been increased by Lord Crewe's benefaction 
by 201., and 1301. from the luxiversity chest. Total 
ISOi. 13s. id. 

3 a2 



m 



PUBLIC 



PURGERS 



Public Safety {The Committee of), 
1642. A committee appointed by the 
Long Parliament as its administrative 
organ. Its guiding spirits were Hamp- 
den, Hollis, and Pym. English and 
Scotch officers were drawn from the Low 
Countries, and Lord Essex was appointed 
commander-in-chief, with an army of 
20,000 foot and 4,000 horse. 

Pucelle (La), or 'La Pucelle 
d'Orleans.' * The Maid,' that is, Jeanne 
d'Arc (1412-1431). 

Puck. The nickname of William 
Ryan, an Irish rufl&an of detestable cha- 
racter. Brought to trial in January 
1848 for the murder of John Kelly, whom 
he shot deliberately in the presence of 
his family and in his own house. He 
was executed 8 Feb., 1848. 

Pudsha Be'gum (East Indies). 
Queen-mother. 

Pueri Regis. King's-men, or vassals 
of a king, who owed him homage and 
service. The service was help in time 
of war. King's-men had their vassals, 
who were called grafs. The lands held 
of a lord were called fiefs. The fiefs of 
king's-men were called immediate, be- 
cause held immediately under the king. 

Every kings-man was expected to furnish the 
king with a certain number of men in time of 
•war, and every man was to be furnished by the 
vassal with ' a shield, spear, bow, 12 arrows, and 
a breast-plate.' 

Pugilistic Club in Bond Street 

{The). In the time of the regency. Of 
this club not only the chief nobility, but 
even the Prince Regent and the Duke 
of York, were members. The ceaseless 
question was which school of boxing was 
the better, the Bristolian or the Hebrew. 
The Prince Regent was a Bristolian, 
but Frederick duke of York was for 
the Hebrews. Mendoza was the crack 
Hebrew prize-fighter; Jem Belcher, 
Thomas Cribb, and Molineux were the 
crack Bristolians. The members of the 
club were called Corinthians. Thomas 
Cribb was most unwisely attached to the 
household of the Prince Regent. 

The following names are famous in the ring : 
Jim Belcher (Bristolian) champion (he had but 
one eye), and his brother Tom, Bendigo, Ben 
Burns, Cohen, Tom Cribb, champion, Dick Curtis, 
Figg, Fuller, Gardolio (of the Hebrew school). Bob 
Gregson (the Pot of Pork), Gully, John C. Heenan 
(the Benicia Boy), Hudson, Humphries, Gentleman 
Jackson (Lord Byron was his pupil), Jim Mace, 
Jack Martin, Daniel Mendoza the Jew, Molineux 
the Negro, Oliver, Painter, Randal (the Nonpareil) 



noted for his pink cheeks, Caleb Rann(Mendoza'a 
crack pupil, and called T/te Pink [of Bow]i, Alec ^^ 
Reed, Richmond, Scroggins (a sailor), TomSayers 
(who fought the 'Benicia Boy' in 1860), Slack, 
Cyrus Smalley (Vic Sprig of Myrtle), Cribb's-crack 
pupil, Spring (so called by Cribb, but whose real 
name was Tom Winter), Sutton, Tomkins, Jim 
Ward (the Nestor of the Ring), &c. The era of box- 
ing was 171&-18C0. 

Punic "SATars {The). Three wars 
carried on between the Carthaginians 
and the Romans, in all of which the 
Romans had the mastery. The first 
B.C. 263-241 ; the second 218-216, 215- 
211, 210-207, 206-202 ; the third 150-146, 
which ended in the fall of Carthage. 

From Pani (Carthaginians) comes the adjective 
punlc-us; so from maenia comes muniie, sund from 
pcBiia comes punire. 

Punjab. Persian for five rivers. 
The five rivers are the Sutlej, the Beeas, 
the Ravee, the Chenab, and the Jhelum. 
These five rivers, uniting in succession, 
form ultimately a single stream called 
the Punjnud, which carries the collected 
water into the Indus. 

The united Sutlej and Beeas form the Gharra; 
and the three rivers Chenab, Ravee, and Jhelum 
form the Trinab (three rivers). Ultimately the 
Gharra unites with the Trinab, and flows into the 
Indus. 

Pura'nas, or ' Purani.' Eighteen 
poems in Sanskrit containing the Hindu 
traditions of ci'eation, mythology, and 
the stories of Indian heroes. These 
poems serve as a commentary on the 
Vedas {q.v.). 

Purchase {The Abolition of), 20 
July, 1871. To prevent persons obtaining 
commissions or grades in the army by 
money payments. Before this law was 
passed the price of promotion was : 

£ £ 

Lieutenant-colonel . 4,500 price 1,300 difference 
Major .... 3,200 „ 1,400 „ 

Captain .... 1,800 „ 1,100 
Lieutenant ... 700 „ 250 „ 

Cornet or Ensign . . 450 

Suppose a lieutenant-colonel wished to retire* 
the senior major might purchase the rank for 
1,300L ; the senior captain might purchase the 
majority for 1,400;., and so on, the cornet paying 
250f. for his lieutenancy, and a new man giving 
4501. for the vacant cornetcy or ensigncy. Fancy 
prices were often given as bribes, but always sub 



Purgers, 1793. In the French Re- 
volution the great purgers conunissioned 
by the Convention were — 

Babras. See ' Fre'ron.' 

Carrier was sent to extirpate the anti- 
revolutionists of Nantes, and murdered 
32,000 men, women, and children {Frud- 
hom,me). 



PURIFICATION 



PUSEYISM 



725 



CoLLOT d'Herbois was sent to extir- 
pate the anti-revolutionists of Lyons, and 
murdered 31,000 men, women, and child- 
ren [Prudhomme). 

Fk^ron and Barras were sent to extir- 
pate the anti-revolutionists of Toulon. 

KiiEBER, Westermann, Moreau, &c. 
were sent to extirpate the anti-revolu- 
tionists of Vendee, and murdered 337,000 
men, women, and children ( Prudhomme). 

Lebon was sent to extirpate the anti- 
revolutionists of Arras, St. Pol, and St. 
Omer. 

Maignet was sent to extirpate the 
anti-revolutionists of Orange in Vaucluse. 

TAiiLiEN was sent to extirpate the 
anti-revolutionists of Bordeaux. 

Victor Hugues was sent to extirpate 
the anti-revolutionists of St. Domingo. 

Purification of the Virgin 
Mary, 2 Feb. Instituted in 542. 

Purists. An English translation of 
Cathari {q.v.). 

Puritans, 1565. First applied by 
way of reproach to the Nonconformists, 
but subsequently adopted by them. 
They maintained that they adopted the 
pure Word of God as their guide, and 
desired the church to be purified or rid 
of all things else. They maintained that 
the Church of England still retained 
many things not to be found in the Word 
of God : i.e. the clerical dresses, the 
book of common prayer, kneeling at the 
sacrament, the cross in baptism, sponsors, 
lay baptism, the ring in marriage, bowing 
at the name of Jesus, episcopacy, forms 
of prayer, church organs, chanting, and 
intoning. 

The CathSji of the 3rd cent, were 'Puritani.' 

Purple {The). ' To be raised to the 
purple,' in the Catholic Church, means 
to be made a cardinal ; but purple was 
the colour of the imperial robe of the 
Romans, and to be raised to the purple 
or to wear the purple signified to be made 
emperor or to be emperor. Hence such 
terms as purpuram adordre, purpura- 
tOrum socius, and so on. 

Purple Cap. In primitive times 
young women who professed a state of 
virginity as a religious function had a 
purple cap, somewhat like a small mitre, 
given them at their consecration. See 
'Cap.' 



Purple Laws {The). The Roman 
rescripts {q.v.), grants, and pragmatic 
sanctions written in purple ink. 

A compound of vermilion and cinnabar. White 
laws were the edicts of preetors, and red laws the 

jus civile. 

Pursuivants. The four English 
pursuivants are Rouge-dragon, Portcullis, 
Blue-mantle, and Rouge-croix. 

The four Irish are Athlone the chief, 
and the other three are pursuivants of 
St. Patrick. 

The chief Scotch pursuivant is entitled 
Unicorn. See ' Heralds.' 

Purveyor, Purveyance. A pur- 
veyor was one who provided for the royal 
household. Purveyance was the provid- 
ing of necessaries for the sovereign; 
sometimes they were bought at a valua- 
tion, and sometimes they were taken 
without the consent of the owner and 
without compensation. Thus, in war, 
horses, wagons, and food were purveyed. 

Eadmer says : ' Those who attended the court 
plundered and destroyed the whole country 
through which the king passed without any con- 
trol. Some .... when they could not consume 
all the provisions which they had taken, either 
sold or burnt what was left. After having washed 
their horses' feet with the liquors they could not 
drink, they threw it in the streets.' Time : Rufus. 

Pusey and Ellerton Scholar- 
ships. Three for Hebrew. Value 50Z. 
a year, and tenable for three years, in 
the University of Oxford. Founded by 
Philip Pusey, of Pusey, Berkshire ; Dr. 
Pusey, regius professor of Hebrew ; and 
Dr. Ellerton, fellow of Magdalen, in 
1822. 

Puseyism, 1833. The doctrinal and 
ritual tenets of Dr. Pusey of Oxford. 
This party of the Anglican Church was 
started by Mr. Perceval, who with some 
others met at the house of the Rev. Hugh 
James Rose, domestic chaplain to the 
archbishop of Canterbury. Probably the 
views of Charles Simeon, fellow of King's 
College, Cambridge, instigated the move- 
ment. The Pusey party was soon joined 
by many men of great learning, who in- 
troduced stricter ritual observances, more 
frequent services, and enforced the doc- 
trines of apostolic succession, priestly 
absolution, and church sanctity, in oppo- 
sition to Calvinism and the ' evangelical ' 
party called Simeonites. A very large 
number of the Puseyites have joined the 
Roman communion. 



726 



PUSHTU 



QUADRIVIUM 



Pushtii. The Afghan language, a 
dialect of the Persian, but very much 
changed by copious foreign elements. 

Putrid Plain {The). The plain or 
field in Provence where the battle of Aix 
was fought B.C. 102. In this battle Caius 
Marius, the Roman general, almost extir- 
pated the Teuton army led by Teutobod, 
and the people of Marseilles (we are told) 
employed the bones of the slain * to make 
fences for their vineyards.' 

Tjrenees {Peace of the). I. 7 Nov. 
1659, between France and Spain. By 
this treaty it was stipulated that the 
crowns of France and Spain should never 
be united under one family. This stipu- 
lation was the pretext of the War of the 
Spanish Succession {q.v.), 1701-1714. 

II. 1660. A peace made after the 
united armies of Mazarin and Cromwell 
had defeated the Great Conde in the 
Dunes. This peace stipulated that Eng- 
land should retain Dunkirk ; that Spain 
should cede Roussillon and Artois to 
France ; and that France should restore 
Catalonia to Italy. 

Pyrrhonists. The disciples of 
Pyrrho of Elis, who died B.C. 280, aged 
90. He taught that nothing is what it 
seems to be, and therefore we know 
nothing as matter of fact. Pyrrhonism 
now means religious scepticism. 

Pyrrhonists have of late revived in Germany 
and England. 

Pythagore'anDiet {The). Veget- 
able diet. Pythagoras taught that it is 
cruel and unjust to put any animal to 
death for food. And the only animal 
foods that he would sanction are milk, 
butter, cheese, and eggs. 

Pythagore'an League {The). 
B.C.* overthrown B.C. 504. The only 
secret political society of ancient times 
known of. The ultras of the Carbonari 
of Naples, in the 19th cent., called them- 
selves Pythagoreans. The object of the 
Pythagorean league was to introduce 
the aristocratic element, but at the same 
time to make it an aristocracy of talent 
and not of birth only. 

Pythagorean Philosophers 

{The). Of ancient Greece, so called 
from Pythagoras (e.c. 481-411), a native 
of Samos, and often called the Samian 
Sage. His disciples were divided into 



two classes, the exoterics and esoterics. ; 
The latter must have attended his lec- 
tures for five years at least. The ' exo- 
terics ' were also divided into two classes 
— those who lived in the college, who 
were called ccBnoMtce — and those who 
merely attended his lectures, who were 
called acusmatici. The average number 
of the former was about 600 and of the 
latter about 2,000. See ' Golden Verses.' 

Quaderno de las Leyes nuevas de la 
Hermandad. The laws of the Her 'man- 
dad {q.v.) compiled in 1485. 

Quadragesima of St. Martin 

{The). At Milan, in Spain, and in Gaul, 
the number of Advent Sundays used to be 
six, beginning on the Sunday after Mar- 
tinmas, from which it was styled the 
' Quadragesima of St. Martin,' or ' Little 
Lent.' 

At Rome the number was originally 5, in the East 
it was 40 days. 

Quadrages'ima Sunday (1st Sun- 
day in Lent), the Sunday next to Ash 
Wednesday. Quadragesima originally 
meant the day on which the forty hours' 
fast is to commence. Gregory I. ex- 
tended the forty hours to forty days, and, 
including the four days from Ash Wed- 
nesday, the Sunday is forty days before 
Easter. See ' Sunday.' 

Quadrilateral {The). The four 
fortresses of Italy : namely, Peschiera 
and Mantua on the Mincio, Verona and 
Legnano on the Adige. Here the Aus- 
trians entrenched themselves after the 
battle of Solferino, 24 June, 1859 ; but 
hostilities were suddenly put an end toby 
a treaty of peace. 

Quadril'ogUS. A biography of 
Thomas Becket, so-called because drawn 
up from his four contemporary biogra- 
phers (bk. i. chap. ii.). 

Quadrivium. In the 12th and 
part of the 13th cent, what we now call 
university students spent four years in the 
study of the ' Trivium ' {q.v.), when they 
took their degree of Baclieler. The next 
three years were given to the Quadrivium, 
which included— 

1. Numbers absolute, or arithmetic, 
chiefly confined to the abacus. 

2. Numbers applied to music, chiefly 
church music. 

3. Magnitudes at rest, or geometry, 
some five or six propositions of Euclid. 



QUADEUPLB 



QUALIFICATION 



727 



4. Magnitudes in motion, or astronomy, 
which was only astrology, and the way of 
finding out the movable church festivals. 

Quadruple Alliance. 

1G06. 28 Oct., between the States-General 
of Holland, Denmark, the Grand 
Elector, and the Duke of Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg, for mutual de- 
fence. 

1G74. Between Denmark, Holland, Ger- 
many, and Spain against France ; 
because Louis XIV. had laid 
claim to Flanders and Franche- 
Comte. Finding the allies too 
strong, Louis then abandoned his 
claim on Flanders, but seized on 
Franche-Comte, which has ever 
since remained an integral part 
of the kingdom, empire, or repub- 
lic of France. 

1718. 2 August, between England, Aus- 
tria, France, and the IJnited Pro- 
vinces, against Spain. It was a 
continuance of the Triple Alliance 
(q.v.), only with the addition of 
Austria, the fourth power. The 
immediate cause of this alliance 
was the effort made by Cardinal 
Alber5ni of Spain to bring about 
the union of Spain and France, 
contrary to the terms of the 
Treaty of Utrecht, and subversive 
of the balance of power in Europe. 
This alliance guaranteed the suc- 
cession of England in the house 
of Hanover, and that of France 
in the house of Bourbon ; and it 
furthermore guaranteed that 
Spain and France should not be 
united under one crown. Sixain 
accepted the conditions in 1720, 
when she resigned Sicily to Aus- 
tria, and Sardinia was settled on 
the Duke of Savoy. 

1745. Between England, Austria, Holland, 
and Saxony, in support of Maria 
Theresa queen of Austria, who was 
attacked by the King of Bavaria 
and the King of Prussia (Frede- 
rick II. the Great). 

1834. Between England, Belgium, France, 
and Spain ; to put down the Car- 
lists in Spain, and mauitain 
Isabella on the Spanish throne. 
1840. Between England, France, Por- 
tugal and Spain , to support 
Maria da Gloria on the throne of 
Portugal, Queen Isabella on the 



throne of Spain, and to compel 

Mehemet Ali pasha of Egypt to 
withdraw from an attack on Tur- 
key by the bombardment of Acre. 

Quaesto'res Classiei. Roman ma- 
gistrates who had the charge of the public 
treasury. Called classics because they 
were originally elected by the centuries. 
Their number at first was two ; increased 
to four in B.C. 421 ; to eight soon after the 
Panic war; to twentjj in the time of 
Sulla; and to forty in the time of Julius 
Csesar. 

Quaesto'res Parricidii, i.e. track- 
ers of murder. The most ancient of the 
qusestorial magistrates of Rome. They 
were, later on, made public assessors, and 
ceased to exist in B.C. 366, when their 
duties were transferred to the ' Triumviri 
Cajjitales.' 

Quaker Poet (The). Bernard Bar- 
ton (1784-1849). 

Quakers, 1650. A religious sect 
founded by George Fox. Their great 
doctrine is that all religion consists in 
the inward operation of the Holy Spirit. 
They have no sacraments, no ordained 
ministers, are very serious in deportment, 
sober in dress, reject oaths, refuse the 
payment of tithes, use thou and thee in- 
stead of you, and call the days of the 
week and the months 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, 
&c. instead of Monday, Tuesday, &c., 
January, February, March, &c. They call 
themselves ' Friends.' The word ' Quaker ' 
is used as a term of disrespect. See 
' Nicolites.' 

It is said that they were called Quakers because 
Fox, who had been imprisoned by the Puritans, 
■when brought before Gervas Bennet, bade his 
Judge 'quaki^ and tremble nt the judgmenta of 
God.' Be this as it may, no body of Christians 
even approach them in morality. 

Quakers' * Confession of 
Faith' {The) contains twenty-three 
articles by Robert Barclay (Evans, ' Ex- 
position,' p. 67). 

Quakers of Germany {The). The 
Moravians {q.v.). 

Qualification {Property). Before 
Locke King's bill in 1859 all members of 
parliament were obliged to swear that 
they possessed a clear estate in perpetuity 
of 5011. a year (if a county member), and 
of 300?. a year (if a borough member), un- 
less the son of a peer. 

The argument that tlie abolition of theqaaliflca- 
tion test would encourage men of straw to set up 



728 



QUALIFICATION 



QUAET0DECIMAN3 



as candidates at elections was met by the fact 
that this did not happen in Scotland, where no 
qualification was required. — HowiTT, History of 
England (1859), p. 526. 

Qualification Act {The). A biU 

passed in the reign of Queen Anne, oblig- 
ing every candidate for a seat in the 
House of Commons to show that he is 
worth 501Z. a year in land if for a county, 
300Z. a year if for a borough. Abolished 
by 29 Vict. c. 22 (1866). 

There is another Qualification Act, but that is 
for killiiig game, 22, 23 Car. II. c. 25. Abolished by 
1, 2 Will. iV. c. 32. 

Qualifiers. OfiBcials in the * Con- 
gregation of the Holy Office ' (q.v.), whose 
duty it is to report on each case of sus- 
pected heresy for the information of the 
cardinals. 

Quarantaine-le-Roi (La), 1245. 
An ordinance by St. Louis which ren- 
dered it a capital offence for an ' avenger 
of blood ' to seek the death of the offender 
till full forty days had elapsed. In other 
words, there was to be a truce of forty 
days between the offence and the license 
of the kinsmen of the murdered person 
to avenge the death. This ordinance 
put an end to the guerres privees of 
France. 

Quaranti. The forty. Three tri- 
bunals of Venice were composed of forty 
members: (1) The tribunal of appeal 
from the judgment of the city magistrates ; 
(2) the tribunal of appeal from the sen- 
tences of the magistrates extra muros ; 
and (3) the criminal tribunal for all 
crimes except high treason. 

Quare Impedit. A writ to inquire 
why a bishop has refused to institute to 
a living a legal presentee. 

Pronounce Quair'-re im'-pe-dit. 

Quarrel of Friars {The), 1518. 
So the Lutheran controversy was con- 
temptuously termed at Kome. 

Quarta Luna Nati. Born to ill- 
luck, like Hercules, who was so born. 
According to tradition Abel was born on 
the fourth day of the moon, and was 
slain by his brother on the seventh day 
of the moon. 

Quarter Licence {A). A marriage 
licence after banns, limited to three 
calendar months. After the expiration 
of three months new banns must be 
asked if marriage has not been solemn- 
ized. 



Quarter Sessions. A court of 
justices of the peace held every three 
months in each county or borough for 
judicial and other business. The meet- 
ings are fixed by statute for the first full 
week after 28 Dec. (Epiphany), the first 
full week after 31 March (Easter), the 
first full week after 24 June (Trinity), 
and the first full week after 11 Oct. 
(Michaelmas) Sessions. 

The jurisdiction of the Court of Quarter Ses- ' 
sions is confined to criminal business, not in- 
cluding treason, murder, capital felony, blas- 
phemy, perjury, forgery, arson, bigamy, abduction, 
bribery, sedition, &c. 

QjUarteringS. Subdividing an ar- 
morial shield so that the son of an 
heiress or co-heiress at her death may 
marshal the coat of their mother or their 
own paternal coat. 

Besides the maternal arms the arms of all those 
to which the mother was entitled may be quar- 
tered according to seniority. 

Quartermaster {The). An officer 
on the staff of each regiment, in which he 
ranks as lieutenant. His duties are to 
superintend the quarters, barracks, and 
kits of the regiment ; to assign to each 
officer his rooms, and act as regimental 
storekeeper. After ten years' service he 
may retire with the honorary rank of 
captain. 

In the navy the quartermaster is appointed by 
the captain, and his duties are to take charge of 
the stowage of ballast and provisions, coiling of 
ropes, keeping time by the sand-glasses, &c. The 
ship's quartermaster receives 411. Is. 3ci. a year. 

Quartermaster-General {The). 
A staff-officer whose duty it is to arrange 
the marches, quarters, and internal ar- 
rangements of the army to which he 
belongs. His salary is 173Z. 7s. 6d. 
besides his pay. 

Quartermaster - Sergeant. A 

non-commissioned officer whose duty it 
is to assist the quartermaster. He 
receives daily 2s. 8^. in the infantry of 
the line, 3s. 2d. in the cavalry, and 3s. 9^^. 
in the artillery. 

Quartodec'iman Pasch. The 

Easter of the Quartodecimans {q.v.). 

Quartodec'imanism. The heresy 
of the Quartodecimans {q.v.). 

Quartodec'imans {The), or ' Pasch- 
ites' (2 syl.) 2nd cent. Christians who 
celebrated Easter on the fourteenth day 
of the first moon, whether Sunday or 
not, in imitation of the Jews. In 196 



QUASIMODO 



QUEEN 



729 



Pope Victor excommunicated all those 
who held Easter on any day but Sunday. 
The dispute was not finally settled till 
825 in the Council of Nice, which pre- 
scribed the rule that ' the festival of 
Easter shall be held on the Sunday next 
after the fourteenth day of the first lunar 
month.' 

The Asiatic churches followed the quartodecu- 
man practice, which they traced to the apostles 
John and Philip. 

The Western churches supported their views on 
the authority of Peter and Paul. 

Reperimus quosdam . . . quartodecima luna 
cum Hebrseis celebrare nitentes [i,e. celebrate ilie 
'immolation of Christ'].— Bede, ii. ch. li). 

Quasimo'do Sunday. The first 
Sunday after Easter. The introitus (or 
beginning of the mass) commences with 
the word ' Quasimodo.' See ' Sunday.' 

Sometimes called 'Dominica in albis,' because 
the neophytes who had been baptized at Easter 
wore their white dresses for the last time on 
Quasimodo Sunday, the octave of Easter Day. 

Quatre Nations {Les), 1661. An 
ancient college of Paris founded by 
Mazarin for the gratuitous education and 
bringing up of sixty sons of poor gentle- 
men of Spain, Italy, Germany, or Flan- 
ders. It is now ' Le Palais de I'lnstitut.' 

Quatre Premieres Filles de 
Citeaux {Les). The four chief Cister- 
cian abbeys of France, viz. La Ferte, 
Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond. 

Quatre Temps {Les). The three 
days' fast (Wednesday, Friday, and 
Saturday) at the beginning of each of 
the four seasons. These are ordination 
times. These fasts were introduced into 
France in 769, and Gregory VII. fixed 
the weeks in which the four fasts were to 
be held ; called also Ember-days. 

The Greek Church does not keep the Quatre 
Temps. 

Queen {The White). 'La Reine 
Blanche.' Mary queen of Scots was so 
called by the French because she dressed 
in white mourning for her husband, 
Francois II. king of France. 

Queen Anne's Bounty, 2, 3 

Anne, c. 11, 7 Feb., 1704. An act of par- 
liament by order of the queen to appro- 
priate her revenue arising from the tenths 
and first-fruits to the augmentation of 
small livings and to aid the poor of the 
clergy. The income was 17,000Z. a year, to 
which parliament added an annual grant 
of 100,OOOZ., and private individuals have 
still further increased the fund. 



These first-fruits and tenths were originally 
sent to Rome. Henry VIII. added them to the 
crown revenue. They are calculated according 
to the value set down in the ' Liber Regis.' 

Queen Anne's Dead. Addison 
announced this in the ' Spectator ' long 
after it was public property, and in 1889 
his letter containing the announcement 
was sold by Sotheby & Wilkinson at a 
literary sale. 

Queen Bess's Day, 18 Nov., when 
the pope and the devil were burnt in 
effigy. In Queen Anne's reign the ' Pre- 
tender ' was added. 

Queen Dick. Richard Cromwell 
was so called from his want of spirit and 
manliness (1626, 1658-1660, died 1712). 

Queen Eleanor Crosses. Nine 
crosses erected by the executors of Queen 
Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. (1) Lin- 
coln, (2) Northampton, (3) Stony Strat- 
ford, (4) Woburn, (5) Dunstable, (6) St. 
Albans, (7) Waltham, (8) Cheap in Lon- 
don, and (9) Charing Cross in London. 
Of these the crosses at Northampton and 
Waltham have been restored, and the 
cross of Charing Cross, pulled down by 
the Long Parliament 1647, has been 
built in facsimile in Charing Cross 
Station. There are two other Queen 
Eleanor crosses not included in the nine, 
one at Geddington and one at Newark. 

Holinshed's story is ccatradicted by the MS. 
discovered in 1841. See p. 287, ' Eleanor Crosses.' 

Queen Henry. Henrietta Maria, 
wife of Charles I., was so prayed for in 
the royal chapel, her French name Hen- 
riette being distasteful to English ears. 

Queen Margaret's Cave, 

Northumberland. After the battle of 
Hexham in 1464, Queen Margaret and 
her son Prince Edward were concealed 
in a cave on the south bank of a little 
stream which runs at the foot of Block- 
hill. Here they lay concealed till they 
escaped to Scotland. 

Queen Sarah. The imperious 
Sarah Jennings duchess of Marlborough, 
the queen of Queen Anne (1660-1744). 

Queen Anne only reigned, while Queen Sarah 
governed.— I'cjnpic' Bar, 208. 

Queen Square Hermit {The). 
Jeremy Bentham, who lived at No. 1 
Queen Square, London (1748-1832). 

Queen Victoria. Her name ac- 
cording to Lodge's ' Peerage ' is Alexan- 



730 



QUEEN 



QUEEN'S 



drina- Victoria, but according to * Men of 
the Time,' Victoria-Alexandrina [Guelf]. 
Her husband's name was Francis Albert 
Augustus Charles Emanuel [Wetter]; 
whence the queen is sometimes jocosely 
called ' Mrs. Wetter.' 

Some add Busiri to the prince's name. 

Queen of Beauty (The). The 

Duchess of Somerset, grandmother of 
Lady Houghton, who died 1887. 

Queen of Hearts {The). Elizabeth 
Stuart, daughter of James I. of England, 
was so called by her friends, but her 
enemies called her the Snow Queen (q.v.). 
She was not only lovely, but of a most 
kindly disposition, and was by her own 
mother called the ' Good Palatine.' She 
married Friedrich, the elector palatine 
[king of Bohemia], by whom she had 
eight sons and five daughters. One of 
her sons was the famous Prince Maurice, 
and her youngest daughter was Sophia, 
mother of George I. (1596-1662). 

Queen of Heaven {The). 

I. So Kao-tsong emperor of China 
called his wife (Voo-chee). Kao-tsong 
reigned in China 650-684. 

VooChee was a most infamous ■woman, the 
Catharine de' Medici of China. 

II. The Virgin Mary is so called by 
Catholics, but not by Protestants. 

Queen of Sheba (The). ' Nicauhs ' 
is the name given in the church of All- 
hallows, London, where is a large paint- 
ing on cloth, with the effigy of Queen 
Elizabeth lying on her tomb. The first 
two lines of the inscription are : — 
Read but her reign, this princess might have been 
For wisdom called Nicaulis, Sheba's queen. 

*,* The Arabs call her ' Balkis ' or ' Belkis ' ; the 
Abysslnians call her ' Macqueda ' ; others call her 
'Aazis.' It is said, on her return to Sheba [or 
Azal], that she changed her son's name ' Menilek ' 
into ' David.' 

Queen of Tears {The). Mary of 
Mof^ena, second wife of James II. of 
England, who was for ever weeping for 
the crown which her own ill policy con- 
tributed to lose (1658-1718). 

Queen of the Adriatic {The). 
Venice. 

Queen of the ^gean. Lesbos. 

Queen of the Antilles [An-teelj. 
Cuba. 

Queen of the Desert. The foolish 
title which Lady Hester Lucy Stanhope 
tried to assume (1776-1839). 



Queen of the East. Zenobia 
queen of Palmyra (reigned 266-273). 

Queen of the Eastern Arehi- 
pel'ago. Java. 

Queen of the Euxine {The). 
Sebastopol. 

Queen of the Lakes {The). 
Windermere, partly in Lancaster and 
partly in Westmoreland. The largest 
lake in England. 

Queen of the Mediterranean 

{The). Carthage, during her maritime 
supremacy — that is, before the Punic 
Wars had discrowned her. 

Queen of the Mississippi 
Valley. St. Louis, Missouri. 

Queen of the North. Edinburgh. 

Queen of the Northern Seas. 

Queen Elizabeth was so called because 
of her powerful navy (1533, 1558-1603). 

Great Britain, for a similar reason, is called 
* Queen of the Ocean ' or ' Queen of the Seas.' 
Hence the pun ' If Britannia rules the waves, I 
wish she'd rule them a little straiKhter." 

Tyre was also called ' Queen of the Sea.' 

Queen of the South. Queen 
of Sheba or Saba {q.v.). 

The queen of the south .... came from the 
uttermost parts of the earth to hear the wisdom 
of Solomon.— Matthew xii. 42; 1 Kings x. 1. 

Queens' College. I. In Cam- 
bridge University, founded by Queen 
Margaret of Anjou, consort of Henry VI., 
in 1448, and refounded in 1465 by Eliza- 
beth Woodville, consort of Edward VI. 
The head of Queens' College is called the 
president. 

II. Oxford, 1340, founded by Kobert 
de Eglesfield, chaplain to Queen Philippa, 
wife of Edward III. The headmaster is 
called the provost. 

Queen's Day, 17 Nov. The day of 
the accession of Queen Elizabeth (1533, 
1558-1603). 

Queen's Evidence, or 'King's 
Evidence.' The disclosure of a guilty 
transaction by one of the guilty party on 
the assurance of freedom from punish- 
ment. Such an impeacher of his accom- 
plices is said ' to turn queen's evidence.' 

Queen's Gap {The) at Hampden. 
So called because Griffith Hampden, Esq., 
cvit this passage through his 'wood when 
Queen Elizabeth went to visit him. 

Evelyn did the same when Peter the Great 
visited his seat at Wotton, in Surrey. 



QUEEN'S 



QUINI-SEXT 



731 



Queen's Herb {The). SnuflE was 
BO called, at least in France, in the 16th 
cent, in compliment of Catherine de' 
Medici, who was passionately fond of it. 

Queen's Men (Scotch history). 
See p. 490, ' King's and Queen's Men,' 

Queen's Poisoner {The). Master 
Rene, employed by Catherine de' Medici, 
the queen-mother of Charles IX. He 
poisoned Jeanne d'Albret, mother of 
Henri [IV.] of France, on her visit to the 
court to be present at the marriage of her 
son Henri to the Princess Marguerite, 
the sister of Charles IX. Jeanne d'Al- 
bret arrived at the court on 15 May; fell 
ill 4 June, died 9 June, being poisoned 
by a pair of gloves sent to her by the 
Florentine perfumer. 

Queen's University (Ireland), 
1850, founded by Queen Victoria. 

Queen's Ware, 1763. A durable 
earthenware first manufactured by Wedg- 
wood, and patronised by Queen Charlotte. 

Queenstown (Ireland), 1848. 
' Cove ' was so named from the visit of 
Queen Victoria accompanied by Prince 
Albert, the Prince of Wales, Prince 
Alfred, the Princess Royal, and the 
Princess Alice. Just as ' Dunleary ' was 
christened Kingstown in honour of the 
visit of George IV. m 1821. 

Queries {Constitutional), 1750. 
Papers aimed against the Duke of Cum- 
berland, and distributed through the 
penny post to each member of both 
houses of parliament. These papers are 
generally attributed to Lord Egmont. 
Burnt by the common hangman. 

Horace Walpole says the imputations made in 
the ■ Queries were : (a) that the l»uke of Cumber- 
land had disgraced or dismissed old officers, men 
of family and property, to make way for slaves, 
boys, and beggars ; (b) that he had acquired abso- 
lute power over the army, and was trying to make 
himself master of the fleet ; (c) that he had shown 
in Scotland an army superior to law ; (d) that the 
right of succession was endangered by him. 

Queries (the second paper), 1751, 
respecting the imprisonment in Newgate 
of Mr. Murray, M.P., who was accused 
by the bailiff of threatening his life 
during the election. Murray refused to 
receive on his knees the judgment of the 
house, saying he would kneel to no mortal 
man or set of men, and was committed 
to Newgate for contempt, where he re- 
mained till the close of the sessions. The 



* Queries ' condemned the Commons for 
acting ultra vires. 

Qui tam. An action partly at the 
suit of the crown and partly at that of 
an informer. So called from the first two 
words, ' Qui tam pro domina reglna, quam 
pro se ipso, sequitur.' 

Quia Empto'res {The Statute of), 
18 Edw. I. St. 1, c. 1, A.D. 1290. Making 
it lawful for every freeman to sell at 
pleasure his lands and tenements, or any 
part of them, under the proviso that the 
new feofee shall hold them of the chief 
lord thereof by the same service as the 
previous one held them. In other words, 
the sub-tenant was to hold of the lord or 
proprietor, not of the tenant. Emptores 
(3 syl.). 

Qui'etists. Those Christians who 
consider the highest state of man is 
stoical indifference to all temporal 
matters, and an unremitted contempla- 
tion of religious subjects. Like the 
Buddhists they place perfection in divine 
repose. Mine. Guyon, the mystic, was 
the founder of Quietism in France in the 
reign of Louis XIV. See ' Molinos.' 

The Hesychasts or monks of Mount Athos 
would pass whole days looking at their own 
navels. Mme. Guyon of France was a very cele- 
brated Quietist, and so was Molinos in Spain. 

Quindecemviri. A college of 
priests instituted by Tarquinius Superbus 
to take charge of the Sibylline books, 
and they alone could consult them. It 
was Sylla who increased the number to 
15 ; originally there were only 2, and the 
intermediate number was 10 ; they wore 
the toga praetexta, and were elected for 
life. This college continued to the time 
of Theodosius. 

Quini-sext. A supplemental coun- 
cil to the fifth and sixth general councils. 
The fifth was held in 553 on the subject 
of the ' Three Chapters ' ; and the sixth 
held in 660 to condemn the Monoth'elites 
(4 syl.) {q.v.). In 692 some 211 bishops 
met in a hall (called Trullus) of the im- 
perial palace at Constantinople. It laid 
down a law respecting celibacy which 
greatly displeased the Western Church, 
and prohibited fasting on Saturday even 
in Lent. The Pope of Rome reprobated 
the acts of the Quinisext Council, which 
pronounced the ' Apostolic Constitutions ' 
to be apocryphal. 
Quiiiqiie five, sex six. The council is by the 



732 



QUINQUAGESIMA 



QUORUM 



Greeks called the ncvecicn}, from 7r«/Te five, and €kto« 
sixth. 

Quinquagesi'ma Sunday. The 

fiftieth day before Easter Sunday, or 
rather the period when fifty special ser- 
vices will be held before Easter. In all 
such ecclesiastical terms as Septuagesima, 
Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, andQuadri- 
gesima, the week is reckoned as a ten-day 
week, because its octave and two eves are 
reckoned in. Quinquagesima Sunday 
precedes Ash Wednesday. See ' Sundays.' 

1 Eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 3 Monday, 4 Tuesday, 
5 Wednesday, 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Saturday, 
9 Octave eve, 10 Octave. So in music 7 notes with 
the octave of the 1st -we call an ' octave,' and the 
3 days of the entombment were 1 eve of Saturday, 
2 Saturday, 3 eve of Sunday. 

Quin'quartic'ular Controversy 

{The), 1618-1619. The controversy of the 
five points of dispute between Calvin and 
Arminius. The Synod of Dort was con- 
vened to settle this controversy, but, as it 
excluded all Ai miaians, it was a one-sided 
synod of no authority. 

Quin'quartic'ular G-raee, con- 
sisting of five articles. That is the five 
articles representing justification and 
grace, and in which reformers did not 
^gi-ee, but which the Synod of Dort met 
to settle. 

The door was thrown wide by a lackey in lace. 
Saying, ' What may you please to want with his 

Grace ? ' 
' His Grace ! ' quoth Jerome, for posed was he 
To guess of what kind this Grace could be— 
Whether Grace preventice, or Gr&ce particular. 
Or Grace of that sort called quiiiquurticular. 

Thomas Moore, St. Jerome's Visit to Earth. 

Quinquatria. A Roman festival of 
five days in honour of Minerva, opened on 
the 14th of the calends of April {i.e. 
19th March), the birthday of the goddess. 
On the first day all went to the temple of 
Minerva to pay their adorations, the 
next three days were given to games and 
gladiatorial exhibitions, and the fifth day 
was devoted to the purification of the 
sacred trumpets. The festival was a 
school holiday time. 

Quinta'na, or ' Quadrages'ima Sun- 
day,' the 1st in Lent, ' quinta a paschate.' 
This is the ' Dominica Brandonum," or ' Domi- 
nica Bar arum. ' See ' Sunday. ' 

Quintus Cur'tius {The Modern). 
Rene de Vertot (1655-1735), author of the 
histories of the ' Revolution of Rome,' the 
' Revolution of Portugal,' the ' Revolution 
of Sweden,' 'History of the Bretons,' 
' History of Malta,' &c. 



Quinze-Vingts. A hospital founded 
in Paris in 1254 by St. Louis for 300 
' gentilhommes a qui les Sarrasins avaient 
ere ve les yeux,' and whom the kingbrought 
home with him from the Holy Land. It 
stood between the Louvre and the Palais 
Royal. 

Quinze-vingts means 15 twenties, i.e. 300. The 
French numerals are the very acme of absurdity. 
Can anything exceed the folly of such a number 
as ' Four-twenty sixteen,' &c. ? 

Quiri'tes (3 syl.). So the Sabines 
were called ; but when the Sabines became 
fused with the Romans, the civilians of 
the united people were called Quirites. 
The soldiers never by any chance were 
addressed as Quirites except by way of 
reproach. A general always addressed his 
troops as milites (3 syl.) ; hence Caesar 
gieatly mortified his rebellious legions on 
one occasion by calling them Quirites in- 
stead of milites. 

In 1890 the Duke of Cambridge snubbed the re. 
bellious 2nd Grenadier Guards in a similar way. " 

Quit Rent. A small rent paid by 
tenants of old manors to acquit them ' of 
service.' Also called ' White Rent ' {q.v.). 

Quo Warranto. A writ demanding 
to be shown by -what right a person holds 
an office, estate, &c. Regulated by Ed- 
ward I. Charles II. made great use of 
these writs to evict Nonconformists, that 
the old Church livings might return to 
the Anglican clergy. Corporations were 
served by quo warrantos, and received 
back their charters shorn of their privi- 
leges. 

Quoad Sacra. A term appHed in 
Scotland to auxiliary churches built in 
large parishes, which already contain 
parish kirks. These chapels of ease have 
no territorial jurisdiction, and are usually 
supported by private or voluntary sub- 
scriptions. 

Quorndon Pack. Mr. Osbaldes- 
ton's pack of hounds, one of the three 
packs of the old Melton Mowbray Hunt, 
established in 1759. The other two were 
the Duke of Rutland's hounds, and the 
Earl of Lonsdale's pack called the Cottes- 
more. The Melton Mowbray Hunt is a 
thing of the past, but the Rutland hounds, 
the Quorn and the Cottesmore hounds are 
still celebrated (1890). 

Quorndon is in Leicestershire, and Cottesmore 
Park in Rutlandshire. Quorndon is always short- 
ened into Quorn. 

Quorum {A). The minimum legal 
number of a board, sufficient to discharge 



R 



RA.GMANS 



733 



the business. Sometimes those who are 
to form the quorum are selected out of 
the general number. Thus if the general 
numlaer is represented by the letters 
of the alphabet, a statute might direct 
that the five vowels should constitute the 
quorum or acting members. 

E,. Placed against a sailor's name in 
the muster-book of a man-of-war, stood 
for ' run ' [away] or deserter. Technically 
they were said to be prickt run, and so 
long as the letter remained uncrossed, 
the man was not entitled to bounty- 
money or promotion. See ' C. P.' 

R. The Pope ^narTted with 3 R^s. 
Silvester II. who held the sees of Reims, 
Ravenna, and Rome. 

Race of Stenkil {The). The third 
line of Swedish kings, so called from 
Stenkil, who reigned from 1056-1066. 
This race, which furnished five kings, 
succeeded that of Ivar, and was followed 
by the race of Sverker. It continued 
from 1056-1129. 

Race of Sverker {The). In 
Sweden ; so called from Sverker the 
founder (1129-1155). It succeeded the 
race of Stenkil, and continued alter- 
nating with it from 1129-1250, when 
the ' Folkungs ' or Jarls succeeded. 

Racine's Monkey. ' Le Smge de 
Racine.' So J. G. de Campistron was 
called (1636-1723). 

Radcliffe Library {The). In the 

University of Oxford, 1717, founded by 
Dr. John Radcliffe, Fellow of Lincoln. 
The building is now used as a reading- 
room in connection with the Bodleian 
Library {q.v.), and the books on natural 
science have been removed to the Uni- 
versity museum. The librarian has a 
salary of 150^. a year. 

Radcliffe Travelling Fellow- 
ships. Three of the annual value of 
200Z. eacii, tenable for three years. Can- 
didates must have passed their B.A. 
degree, and must travel abroad with a 
view of studying medicine. Founded in 
the University of Oxford by Dr. Radcliffe, 
1858. 

Radical. Apohticalparty. The word 
came into use in England about 1816 ; 
the general character of radicalism is 
democratic and republican. 



Radom {The Confederation of), 
1767. A confederation of the dissidents 
of Poland, Avho applied to Russia for aid 
against the patriots, called the Confede- 
ration of Bar {q.v.). This interference of 
Russia led to the partition of Poland. 
See ' Dissidents.' 

Russia, glad to have a pretence for getting a 
footing in Poland, supported the Confederation of 
Eadom. She pressed on the whole line of the 
Polish frontier with her armies, inundated the 
kingdom with her troops, and levied contributions 
for their support, as if she had been in a con- 
quered country. France supported the con- 
federates of Bar.— HowiTT, Hist, of E)igland (Geo 
III. chap. iv. p. 96). 

Radstadt {Peace of), 1714. Between 
Germany and France. It preserved to 
France its frontiers, and gave to Germany, 
Naples, Sardinia, Milan, and the Nether- 
lands all taken from Spain. This treaty 
ended the war of the Spanish Succession, 
which had lasted twelve years. 

Raffael. See ' Raphael.' 

Rag {The). Episcopacy was so called 
in the 17th cent, by the Presbyterians. 
The term is a contracted form of 'the 
rag of the woman of Babylon.' 

Though Leighton restored many of the Scotch 
ministers to vacant parishes, the most violent 
gloried in the name of Covenanters, and persisted 
in preaching in conventicles against 'the rag.' — 
Pkince, Parallel History, vol. ii. p. 303. 

Rag {The). A familiar name of the 
Army and Navy Club. The rag, of course, 
is the flag. 

Ragged Schools. Opened in 

London 1838; in Aberdeen 1811. The 
Union established in ISli. 

Ragman Roll {The), 1296. A list 
of all the Scotch barons and men of 
note who subscribed the Submission to 
Edward I. It contains the largest and 
most authentic enumeration extant of 
the nobility, barons, landholders, bur- 
gesses, and clei-gy of Scotland prior to 
the 14th cent., and only genuine statis- 
tical notices of Scotland of the period. 
There are four rolls consisting of thirty- 
five pieces sewn together. A copy is 
preserved in the Rolls House, Chancery 
Lane, but the original no longer exists. 

Ragman is a corruption of Ragtmund, the 
name of a legate of Scotland who compelled the 
clergy of Scotland to give a true account of their 
benefices, that they might be duly taxed. 

Ragmans. Long written documents, 
such as bulls, charters, patents, lists of 
names, &c. Rymer, in the 'Fcedera.' 
speaks of liter as patentes, vocata ragge- 



i3i 



RAID 



RAJAH 



mans, sive blank chartres. Piers Plow- 
man says ' Rede on this ragman, and 
rewle you theraftur.' 

Henry IV. issued a proclamation commanding 
all the blank bonds, called ragmans, which had 
been extorted from the people by Richard and his 
courtiers, to be made null and committed to the 
names.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eugland, vol. I. p. 481. 

Raid [The], 1468. In Scotch history 
means the removal to Edinburgh of 
James III. at the age of fourteen by 
Robert lord Boyd and his two sons. 
His guardian Kennedy archbishop of St. 
Andrews being dead, the estates of Scot- 
land appointed a new regency. The 
king wished to act for himself, and the 
Boyds helped him. The parliament sanc- 
tioned the raid. 

According to Prof. Skeat. raid is from ride. Its 
usual meaning is a foray, or predatory excur- 
sion in border warfare. 

Raid of Carlisle {The), 1596, 

This was the seizure of Kinmont Willie, 
a noted depredator upon the English 
border, during a day of truce. Sir 
Walter Scott of Buccleuch, warden of 
the Scottish border, held a day of truce 
for meeting the deputy of Lord Scroope, 
governor of Carlisle Castle. When the 
meeting broke up, the English on their 
return home saw Willie, and took him 
prisoner. Buccleuch sent a challenge to 
Lord Scroope, which was insolently 
declined. Whereupon he assembled his 
clansmen, forced his way into the castle, 
and set Willie free. Elizabeth demanded 
that Buccleuch should be delivered into 
her hands ; this the Scotch parliament 
refused to do, but Buccleuch consented 
to appear before the queen to explain 
the whole m*tter. The queen was so 
pleased with his manly bearing and bold 
spirit, that she dismissed him with 
tokens of honour and regard. 

Raid of Leith {The), 2 April, 1594. 
An attack of the Earl of Bothwell to get 
possession of the king's person on his 
return from church at Leith, on Sunday 
morning 2 April, 1594. Bothwell failed 
in this attempt. 

In his proclamation, distributed at the raid of 
Leith, the Catholic lords were designated 'ene- 
mies of the true religion, and the practisers for 
bringing in of strangers ; a company of lewd per- 
sons crept into the state to the high contempt of 
God and dishonour of the king.'— Sir W. ScOTT, 
Hist, of ScoUand, xxxviii. 

Raid of Rutliven {The), 1582. 
The forcible detention of James VI. at 
Ruthven Castle, to which he had been 



invited in a hunting expedition, by 
Alexander Ruthven earl of Gowrie. The 
object of this detention was to compel 
the king to dismiss his favourites, the 
Duke of Lennox and Stewart earl of 
Arran. See p. 380, ' Gowrie Conspiracy.' 

Raid, in Scotland, was applied to any assembly 
met together in arms to enforce their will. Thus 
the barons who forced from John the Magna 
Charta would be called in Scotland the Raid of 
Runnymede. 

Raid of Stirling; {The), 1585. An 
armed attack on Stirling Castle, where 
James Stewart earl of Arran and chief 
minister of James VI. was cooped up. 
He defended the castle for a time, but 
had neither men, arms, nor provisions 
for a siege. Arran, therefore, fled, and 
having the key of Stirling Bridge, made 
good his escape by locking the gates 
behind him to prevent pursuit. Arran 
was dismissed the public councils, and 
lived in private as James Stewart. 

Rail Splitter {The). President 
Abraham Lincoln. So called because at 
one time he earned his bread by sphtting 
rails (1809-1865). 



Railway King {The). 
Hudson (1800-1871). 



George 



Railway Mania {The), 1845, when 
all the country went mad on railway 
speculations. The advertisements of 
projected railways in the ' Times ' news- 
paper were from 3,000Z. to 6,000Z. weekly 
in the months of September, October, 
and November. Railways proper (with 
Robert Stephenson's locomotives) were 
first opened in England and America 
in 1830, between Manchester and Liver- 
pool. Brunei introduced the broad 
gauge in 1833. Railways were not prac- 
tically introduced into France till 1845, 
when the Chemin de fer du Nord was 
opened. The Chemin de fer de I'Ouest 
was opened in 1846 ; and that between 
Paris and Lyons in 1851. 

' Chemin de fer ' pronounce Sli'fhand fair. 
' Shmand ' to rhyme with darned (silent). 

Rajah of Mattan {The). If the 
Braganza is not a diamond, the Rajah of 
Mattan is the largest diamond known. 
Its original weight was 787 carats; but 
being given to Borgis, a Venetian, to cut, 
it was reduced to 379^ carats. Borgis 
was fined 10,000 rupees for his waste, and 
received nothing for his cutting. See 
' Diamonds.' 



RALEIGH 



RAMPAETS 



785 



Raleigh Conspiracy {The), 1603. 

This was the ' Main Plot ' {q.v.) to seize 
James I. and set Arabella Stuart on the 
throne. Raleigh and others were arrested. 
Clarke and Watson were hanged ; Brooke 
was beheaded ; Cobham, Grey, and 
Markham were pardoned; and Raleigh 
was reprieved and released from the 
Tower 30 Jan., 1616. He then sailed for 
Guiana, returned in 1618, was again 
arrested for complicity in the ' Main 
Plot,' and beheaded 29 Oct., 1618. 

Ramadan. The ninth month in the 
Moslem year. It is a kind of Lent or 
fast in commemoration of the first revela- 
tion received by Mohammed. A strict 
Moslem must not eat or drink, smoke or 
bathe, smell any perfume, or even swallow 
his own spittle till after sunset. This 
fast is followed by the festival called 
' Bairam ' {q.v.). 

The word "Ramadan ' means the 'hot month,' 
from the Arabic rainiddh, or ramaddh, ' to be hot.' 

Rambam. A sonant of ' R. M. B. M.,' 

that is. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, born 
at Cordova in 1135. He wrote com- 
mentaries on the Talmuds (Babylonian 
and Jerusalem), and a work on the 
Calendar. He is generally called ' Mai- 
monides,' ' the doctor, the great sage, the 
glory of the West and light of the East, 
second only to Moses.' 

RambouiUet {L'Hotel de), 1600. 
The society which met in the mansion of 
the Marquis de RambouiUet, Rue St. 
Thomas, near the Louvre, Paris. The 
society consisted of the most distinguished 
persons in the city. The palmy days of 
these reunions were from 1635 to 1665. 
Cardinal Richelieu, Prince Conde, and 
Montausier were among the magnates, 
while Racan, Voiture, Benserade, Balzac, 
Menage, Chapel ain, La Calprenede, 
Scude'ry, D'Urfe', Sarrasin, Desmarets, 
St. Sorlin, and the Abbe Cottin repre- 
sented the beaux esprits. The ladies 
who usually attended were the Duchess 
of Longueville, the Marchioness of La- 
fayette, Madame de Sevigne, Madame 
Deshoulieres, and the Duchess Montau- 
sier (the life and soul of the society). 
Each guest was nicknamed by some 
Greek or Roman celebrity, and the ladies 
•were called Les Precieuses. At first this 
society was the arbiter of taste and 
literature, but it lapsed into prudery and 



affectation, gibbeted by the 'Precieuses 
Ridicules ' of Moliere. 

Ramillies Wg {A). Introduced 
in the reign of George I., and so named 
from the famous battle of Ramillies. It 
had a long, gradually diminishing, plaited 
tail, called the ' Ramillie tail,' which was 
tied with a great bow at the top and a 
smaller one at the bottom. In 1736 the 
officers of the horse and foot guards were 
commanded to wear Ramillie periwigs. 

This [the buzz wig] was the paragon of the three 
yet remaining wigs of the parish, which differed, 
as Monkbarns used to remark. Uke the three 
degrees of comparison— Sir Arthur's Ramillies 
being the positive, his own bob-wig the compara- 
tive, and the overwhelming grizzle [i.f. buzz wig] 
of the clergyman figuring as the superlative. — Sir 
\V. Scott, The Antiquary, ch. xvii. 

Ramists. Those who followed Pierre 

Ramus in his new pronunciation of Latin. 

This novelty especially affected such 

words as contained qu, pronounced k ; 

as 'quisquis,' pronounced kiskis. This 

innovation produced riots in Paris, just 

as Sir John Cheke's innovation in the 

pronunciation of Greek produced riots 

in Cambridge a few years before. See 

' Greeks and Trojans.' 

Sir John Cheke died 1557 ; Pierre Ramus fell in 
the massacre of Barthelemi in 1572. 

Ramnes. A Roman gentfeman, 
{See Propertius, iv. 1, 31.) A con- 
traction of ' Ramnenses.' Livy (i. 13) 
says ' a Romulo,' and tells us it was one 
of the three tribes or centuries into which 
Romulus divided his people. If ' Roma ' 
is from ' Romulus,' as we are told by 
Varro, then, with a little shuffling of the 
cards, we can get ' Romanenses ' (natives 
of Rome), contracted into ' Rom'nenses,' 
and corrupted into ' Ramnes.' 

'Tatienses, the Sabine tribe, from Tatius the 
Sabine king (Ovid, ' Fast.' iii. 131). The third cen- 
tury or tribe was called ' Luceres ' (strangers). 
Plutarch says ' a luco, ubi Romuli asylum fuit, 
ut sint advense in hac tribu.' 

Ramorantin {The Edict of), 1560. 
Issued by Francois II. after the con- 
spiracy of Amboise, constituting the 
bishops judges of heresy, and depriving 
Huguenots of the right of holding religious 
assemblies. 

Ramparts. Those great masses of 
earth, about 7r, feet in height, which are 
thrown up from the ditch inwards in for- 
tification, in order to give the defenders 
in a siege a commanding surface for their 
cannon and musketry. The first range 
of ramparts is called the body of the place 
(or enceinte) ; and all the works between 



736 



KAMSDEN 



EAPPAREES 



the enceinte and the covered way are 
called outworks. Those constructed 
beyond the covered way and the glacis, 
but within the range of the musketry of 
the main-works, are termed advanced 
works ; and those beyond that range are 
called detached works. In the outline 
or ' tracing of a fortress,' if the angle 
points outwards towards the country 
it is called a salient angle ; if inwards 
towards the place fortified, it is a re-enter- 
ing angle. 

Ramsden Sermon (The). On 
Church Extension. To be preached in 
full term in St. Mary's Church, Cam- 
bridge. Fee, five guineas. A fund was 
left for the purpose by Mrs. Charlotte 
Ramsden, of Bath, 1848. 

Ranche'ros {The). The half-Indian 
and half-Spanish breed in Mexico. They 
form by far the best part of the Mexican 
army. They are a thin muscular. race, 
temperate, daring, and hardy. 

Rank and File. The technical 
phrase for privates and corporals of in- 
fantry, often spoken of as ' Bayonets,' 
from the instrument which they carry. 

Rails tadt (Treaties o/). I. 24 Sept., 
1706. A treaty of peace between Charles 
XII. of Sweden and Frederick Augustus 
of Poland. 

II. 22 Aug., 1707, a Convention signed 
at Alt Eanstadt between Charles XII. of 
Sweden and the kaiser Joseph I. 

Ranters. The Primitive Methodists 
are sometimes so called. They seceded 
from the Methodists because, in their 
opinion, the true spirit of Methodism 
was no longer jDreserved in the body. By 
this they meant that too much attention 
was paid to formality, and that not suffi- 
cient fervour was manifested. Field- 
preaching and street-preaching of an 
emotional character was strongly advo- 
cated. Hugh and J. Bourne, with "W. 
Clowes, were the chief instruments of 
this separation. 

Ranz desVaches {The). Simple 
melodies played on the Alphorn in the 
Swiss Alps, or sung by the herdsmen, or 
both, when they drive their cattle to and 
from the pasture. 

Ranzelman {A). A petty magis- 
trate in the Zetland islands, whose office 



it is to divide the spoil of wrecks cast on 
the coast. 

The Ranzelman was dividing with all due im- 
partiality the spoils of the wrecked vessel . . . 
and, if the matter in hand had not been, from 
beginning to end, utterly unjust and indefensible, 
discharging the part of a wise and prudent magis- 
trate.— Sir W. Scott, The Pirate, chap. viii. 

Rape of the Sabines, 8th cent. 

B.C. Romulus, wishing to find wives for 
his new city, invited the Sabines and 
other neighbouring towns to come and 
see his consualia, or public games, in 
honour of the god Census, and when the 
spectators were intent on the show, a 
number of Roman youths rushed in 
among them, and seized all the marriage- 
able maidens on whom they could lay 
hands. 

A very similar incident is recorded in Judges 
xxi. 19-23. 

Raphael {The Flemish). Frans 
Floris. His chief works are ' St. Luke at 
his Easel,' and the ' Descent of the 
Fallen Angels,' both in Antwerp Cathe- 
dral (1520-1570). 

Raphael {The French). Eustace 
Lesueur (1617-1655). 

Raphael the Divine. Raffaello 
Sanzio il Divino (1483-1520), the greatest 
of all painters. His first works were 
under the influence of Peruglno, such as 
the 'Coronation of the Virgin,' in the 
Vatican, and the ' Marriage of the Virgin,' 
at Milan. His second class of paintings 
(1504-1508) were of the Florentine 
school, of which class is 'St. Catharine,' 
in the National Gallery, London. The 
cartoons in Hampton Court are of the 
third or Roman class. 

Raphael of Cats {The). Godefroi 
Mind, a Swiss painter (1768-1814). 

Raphael of Holland {The). 
Martin van Hemskerck (1498-1574). 

Raphael of Opera or of Music 

{The). J. C. Wolfgang Mozart (1756- 
1791). 

Raphael's Sketch Book ought to 
be called the ' Venice Sketch Book,' as 
Morelli has proved them to be sketches 
by Pinturicchio, the Umbrian artist, 
before Raphael was bom. It is pre- 
served in the Accademia deile Belle 
Arti, in Venice. 

Rapparees, 17th cent. Wild Irish 
plunderers, so called from their being 



RASKOLNIKS 



RAVEN 



737 



armed with a rapary, or half-pike. They 
were especially numerous in the Bog of 
Allan, if we may trust Lord Macaulay, 
who, speaking of newspaper leaders, 
refers to the ' Rapparees of the Bog of 
Allan ' as one of the items which helped 
to furnish journals in their early days. 

They commonly wear little woollen jackets, 
breeches close to their thighs, and over them a . . . 
shag rugg, deeply fringed. They go, for the most 
- part, bareheaded, wear their hair long, and count 
it the greatest ornament. . . . They count it no 
infamy to commit robberies, and when they go to 
rob they make prayers to God that they may 
obtain booty. . . . Tliey also suppose that violence 
and murder are in no wise displeasing to God.— 
Gay Miege, Nclc state 0/ England (second edition, 
1711 ; Ireland added). 

Raskolniks {The), 1654. Russian 
schismatics who opposed the revised 
translation of the Bible and Liturgies. 

Rat, Cat, and the Dog. William 
Collingham was author of the rhyme 
(1483) 

The rat, the cat, and Lovel the dog, 
Rule all England under the hog. 

The rat was Rat-cliffe, the cat was 
Cat-esby, Lovel was Francis viscount 
Lovel the king's ' spaniel,' and the hog 
was the blue boar, the crest of Richard 
III. Collingham was put to death for 
his too pregnant wit. 

Rats. When the Assyrians, B.C. 692, 
invaded Egypt, Sethos the king raised 
an army of artisans and labourers. But 
no battle was fought; for during the 
night a swarm of rats gnawed to pieces 
the quivers, bowstrings, and shield-straps 
of the Assyrians, who at once fled. In 
honour of this event Sethos had a statue 
of himself, holding a rat in one hand, 
erected in the temple of Memnon. 

Was not the rat in the band of Sethos the 
•water-rat, or ichneumon, the god of the people of 
Heracleopolis ? 

Rate in Aid (A), 1849. Sixpence in 
the pound to be levied in every county 
of Ireland towards a general fund for 
the relief of the poor of that country. 
The potato disease had reappeared, and 
this rate more equally divided the burden 
of supporting the poor by placing a 
portion of it on shoulders better able to 
bear it. 

Rath (A). A hill-fortress, the dwell- 
ing of an old Irish chief, built on a 
natural elevation and surrounded by a 
rampart. The whole enclosure was the 
rath, and the chief's dwelling stood within 



the area. It was made of wood, mud, and 
hurdles. 

Rational School (The), in theology, 

revived in Germany by Paulus, who 
produced his 'Commentary of the New 
Testament ' (1800-1804). His object is to 
show that miracles and all that is beyond 
man's reason and experience must be 
discarded. 

Rationalism, in theology, is the re- 
jection of everything in religion which 
cannot be supported by reason, as mira- 
cles ; and the explaining away of miracles 
by ascribing the phenomena to natural 
causes. Thus, in the passage of the Red 
Sea, the Rationalists maintain that Moses 
and his host passed when the tide was 
out, but that Pharaoh and his host were 
overwhelmed by the returning tide. 

Like King John and Lynn Wash. 

Rationalists. A fanatical party 
which arose during the civil war, after- 
wards called 'Levellers' (1647). John 
Lilburne (afterwards Colonel Lilburne) 
was a leading spirit of these republicans. 
They said the election of Saul by the Jews 
plainly teaches that kings usurp the place 
of God, and that lords and princes are 
denounced in scripture, which teaches the 
equality of man. Their platform was 
rehgious equality ; biennial parliaments ; 
six-monthly sessions ; a widely extended 
franchise ; and a more equally distributed 
representation. These Rationalists or 
Levellers were pretty well the same as 
the Agitators. See Rom. xiii. 

Ratisbon, in Bavaria {Truce of), 
15 Aug., 1684. Between France and Spain 
on the one hand and the kaiser on the 
other. 

Ratisbon Interim {The), in 1541* 
A provisionary arrangement between the 
Roman Catholic and Lutheran ad in- 
terim — that is, till the matters in dispute 
could be laid before a general council. In 
the Ratisbon Interim 3 Roman Catholics 
and 3 Lutherans were appointed to make 
provisionary measures of agreement. The 
Roman Catholic deputies were Eck, Pflug, 
and Gropper ; the Lutheran deputies were 
Melanchthon, Bucer, and Pistorius. They 
agreed on all points except the sacraments 
and the power of the Church. 

Raven Knight {The). John Hun- 
yadi, whose shield had a black raven 
8B 



738 



RAWANDIANS 



REALISTS 



holding a gold ring in his beak painted 
on it (1400-1456). 

Never before had they witnessed fighting as gal- 
lant as that of the Raven Knight at the head of 
his small troop.— Vambery, Hungary, chap. ix. 

Rawandians (The), a.d. 759. A 
Saracenic sect believing in metempsy- 
chosis. 

Rawlinsonian Professorship 

(The) of Anglo-Saxon, in Oxford Univer- 
sity. Stipend 300Z. a year. Founded by 
Richard Rawlinson, D.C.L., of St. John's 
College, in 1750. 

Rayleigh d'lsgustin {Sir). A 
punning toast {Really disgusting, Sir), 
by way of reproof. 

Re G-alantuomo, Victor Emmanuel 
II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia 1849, king 
of Italy 1861. 

' Here ' (said Garibaldi), ' in the presence of our 
Re Galantuomo, I must be permitted to speak ray 
mind.'— HowiTT, History of England (year 1859), 
p. 539. 

Readers = ' Lectores ' in the Greek 
and Latin Churches, were young men 
studying for the priesthood. They served 
as secretaries to the bishops, and were 
promoted according to merit ; some, how- 
ever, never graduated to any higher 
degree. Tertullian is the first who men- 
tions this office. The readers had charge 
of all the sacred books, and acted as 
messengers. By the Fourth Council of 
Carthage the bishop, on ordaining a 
reader, had to place a Bible in the hand of 
the candidate, and say : ' Receive this 
book, and be a reader of the Word of God. 
If thou exercise thy ministry faithfully, 
thou wilt have part with those who ad- 
minister God's word.' 

The lectors used to read the Epistles till Inno- 
cent III. appointed the office of sub-deacon in the 
10th cent. ; but after that the lector only read the 
lessons at matins. 

Reading {The Council of), 1279. It 
enacted that two representatives chosen 
by the clergy of each diocese shall attend 
the national synod, to consult respecting 
the redress of grievances, granting subsi- 
dies, and whatever else relates to the well- 
being of the Church. This is called the 
nucleus of ' Convocation.' 

Pronounce Red'-ding, 

Real Estate. Land and houses, in 
opposition to personal property, such as 
cash, jewels, and furniture. The Romans 
divided property into immovable (real) 
and movable (personal). Lands and 



houses are real because they cannot be 
carried away ; personal property can be 
moved by the possessor from place to 
place. 

Real Laws. Laws for the regulation 
of property without interfering with the 
state of persons. 

Les lols reelles n'ont point d'extension directs ni 
indirecte hors la juridiction et la domination du 
leglslateur.— Story, Conflict of Laws, 610. 

Real Presence. The dogma that 
the bread and wine in the eucharist, after 
consecration, become the veritable and 
real body and soul, humanity and divinity 
of Christ. This is called the doctrine of 
transubstantiation, and is held by the 
Roman and Eastern Churches. Luther 
taught the same doctrine with a difference. 
By transubstantiation is meant that the 
wine is no longer wine, and the bread 
is no longer bread after consecration ; 
Luther taught that the bread and wine 
remained bread and wine, but that the 
body and soul, humanity and divinity of 
Christ were incorporated with those ele- 
ments. This is called the doctrine of 
con-substantiation. Calvin taught that 
the body and soul of Christ were taken 
only by faith, and not substantially by 
communicants in the eucharist. 

Luther's word was impanation. As God was 
incarnate in Christ, so Christ was impanated, or 
introduced into the elements of bread and wine, 
and incorporated with them. 

Real Right. A jus in re or right 
in the thing itself, and not its equivalent ; 
in opposition to jus ad rem, or a right to 
enforce an obligation or the performance 
of something. 

A servant has a jus in re, a master a jus ad rem. 
A master must pay his servant watjes, and cannot 
instead of wages substitute work. A servant, on 
the other hand, must give his master work, and 
cannot be allowed to pay money instead. Thus a 
master, by paying a month's wages in advance, 
can dismiss a servant ; but a servant cannot, by 
forfeiting a month's wages, quit a master's service. 
The master's obligation to a servant is tnoney ; a 
servant 8 obligation to a master is work. 

Realists. Thosewho believe in real- 
ism, or the independent existence of 
universals. Tree in the abstract is a 
universal ; an oak-tree, an elm, a fir-tree, 
are particular trees. Now realists main- 
tain that tree exists in the abstract, and 
is not the hypothetical creature inferred 
from particular objects. Nominalists say 
universalia post rem, universals are 
a posteriori, and particulars come first. 
Realists say universalia ante rem, that 
universals precede sensible objects. 



EEALM 



REBELLION 



739 



In theology we are told that Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost are one God. There 
were certain divines who insisted that 
these three persons were only three 
names {nomina) of the same Being, as 
father, son, and husband are three names 
of the same person. Other theologians 
insisted that they are not only three 
names, but three real persons. Guillaume 
de Champeaux (1053-1120) was the 
founder of the realistic school. 

There is yet a third sort of realism, or 
belief — viz. that the phenomenal world has 
an objective existence, quite independent 
of our perception thereof. To me or you 
the phenomenal world is what our senses 
cognise ; but even if we were deprived of 
our senses, and there was no phenomenal 
world to us, still (say the realists) the 
phenomena would exist. This realism is 
opposed to Berkeley's ' Idealism.' 

Traced to its origin we come to Plato 
and Aristotle. Plato insisted that the 
divine idea is a real something, a mould 
or matrix in which creation was fashioned. 
Aristotle contended that the Divine word 
was enough ; ' he commanded, and it was 
done.' 

*«* We also speak of realism in art and letters, 
meaning an imitation of nature, not a fanciful 
ideal. 

Rosceline seems to have raised the question 
■whether the personal distinctions of the Deity are 
real or only nominal. 

St. Anselm of Canterbury, Albertus Magnus, 
Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus were Realists. 

Abelard, William Occam, Buridan, Hobbes, 
Locke, Bishop Berkeley, Condillac, and Dugald 
Stewart were Nominalists. 

The Realist (as opposed to the Idealist) holds 
that the phenomenal world has an objective ex- 
istence. The Idealist contends that it has only a 
subjective existence. The whole contest may be 
settled thus: To an individual every phenomenon 
is only subjective to him ; that is, his perception of 
a phenomenon depends upon his senses, but inde- 
pendent of himself the phenomenon is real, or 
there is a real phenomenon. 

Realm of St. Stephen {The). 
Hungary. 

Croatia is still a member of the realm of St. 
Stephen.— Vambery. Hungary, chap. vii. 

Rebecca Riots {The), 1843. A 
crusade against toll-gates begun in Wales. 
See next article. 

Rebeccaites, or ' Children of Ee- 
becca,' 1839. Welsh rioters who went 
about destroying turnpike gates. So 
called from Rebekah, the bride of Isaac. 
When she left home her father and 
friends said to her (Gen. xxiv. 60), ' Let 
thy seed possess the gate of those which 
hate thee.' See ' Rebecca Riots.' 
Also called ' Rebecca's Daughters,' and ' Re- 



beccas.' The word has been revived of late in 
reference to illegal fishing. 

* Rebekah's Camels ' Bible 

{The), 1823. So called because in Gen. 
xxiv. 61 the word ' damsels ' is mis- 
printed camels. Thus: 'And Rebekah 
arose, and her camels' [damsels]. See 
' Bibles.' 

Rebel Cro-wn {The). A silver 5s. 
piece struck at Kilkenny in the reign 
of Charles I. There are seven varieties, 
distinguished by the size of the crown, 
and the shape of the letter S. 

Rebellion {The Great). That of 
the Parliamentarians against Charles I. 
of England. It began in August, 16-42, 
when Charles set up his standard at 
Nottingham, and terminated with the 
Restoration of Charles II., 29 May, 1660. 

Rebellion of Paraguay {The), 

1750. The Spanish Jesuits succeeded in 
forming a flourishing colony, amounting 
to 200,000 individuals, in Paraguay and 
Parana, which for a century and a half 
enjoyed both peace and happiness ; then 
Spain gave up seven districts of Paraguay 
to Portugal in exchange for certain 
territory on the left bank of the river 
Plate, and ordered the colony to remove. 
The Indians resisted, and this resistance 
was called rebellion. Ultimately the 
matter was arranged, and the colony re- 
mained undisturbed. 

Rebellion of Shane O'Neil, in 

Ulster, 15G1. On the death of O'Neil 
earl of Tyrone a dispute arose respecting 
the succession. England acknowledged 
the eldest son as heir to the earldom, 
while the sept maintained their right 
of choosing a chief from any of the 
family, and selected a younger son. 
Shane O'Neil made good his claim by 
the sword, and having defeated the lord 
deputy invaded Connaught. He was 
defeated by Colonel Randolph in 1566, 
took refuge in Antrim, and was hewn to 
pieces, June 1567, in a drunken squabble 
by his Scotch retainers. 

Rebellion of 1715 {The), when 
the Chevalier de St. George landed in 
Scotland. James Francis Edward, son 
of James II., was defeated at Preston 
Nov. 1715, and the cause was resumed in 
1745 by his son Charles Edward. See 
below, ' Rebellion of 1745.' 

These were reasons which unquestionably 
operated to prevent [in 17UB] that bloody retalia- 

3b2 



V40 



EEBELLION 



RECUSANTS 



tion which follov/ed the rebellions of 1715 and 
1745.— HowiTT, Hist. ofEng. (Anne, 245). 

Rebellion of 1745 {The), when 
Charles, afterwards the 'Young Pre- 
tender,' landed in Scotland. Charles 
Edward Stuart proclaimed his father 
' James VIII. of Scotland,' and defeated 
the royal troops at Prestonpans (22 Sept., 
1745), and at Falkirk (28 Jan., 1746), 
but was defeated at Culloden (16 April, 
1746), and returned to France. At his 
father's death (31 Jan., 1788) he became 
* the Young Pretender.' 

Rechabites (3 syl.). The posterity 
of Jonadab, son of Eechab, who were 
forbidden to build houses, to plant vine- 
yards, to possess lands, to dwell in tents, 
and to drink wine. They continued to 
observe these injunctions for 300 years. 
(Jer. XXXV. 6, 7.) 

They were probably carried away captive by 
the Chaldeans, as the title of Psalm Ixx. is ' Sung 
by the sons of Jonadab and the principal cap- 
tives.' They returned from captivity, and settled 
in the city of Jabez, beyond Jordan. 

Reciprocity Acts, 1823 (4 Geo. 
IV. c. 77 ; 5 Geo. IV. c. 1), empowering 
the king, by order in council, to authorise 
the importation and exportation of goods 
in foreign ships, provided the foreign 
country in whose favour the order is 
made places British ships on the same 
footing as its own ships. See * Navigation 
Act.' 

Reciprocity Treaty (T^e), 7 June, 
1854 (18 Vict. c. 3). Between Great 
Britain and the United States, regulating 
British American coast-fisheries, and the 
navigation of the St. Lawrence and the 
lakes. Terminated by notice from the 
United States 17 March, 1866. 

Recluse of Edgbaston {The). 
John Henry Newman, created cardinal 
(1801-1890), author of Tract No. 90, 
the hymn ' Lead, kindly Light,' and a 
dramatic poem called ' Gerontius,' with 
numerous other works. 

Recognition {The Act of), 1531. 
That the king and not the pope is 
' unicus et supremus dominus ' of the 
English Church ; not in the same sense 
as Christ is head of the Church, but in 
the sense that he is head of all his 
subjects, with a right to their allegiance, 
obedience, and submission in all legahsed 
matters. 

Thus the Convocation of York, 1534, unani- 
mously agreed that the Pope of Kome has no 



' greater jurisdiction In these realms ' than any 
other foreign bishop. In the Convocation of Canter- 
bury thirty-four assented, one doubted, and four 
denied the Act as interpreted by the Convocation 
of York. See Article XXXVII. 

N.B. — The words 'quantum per Christ! legem 
licet ' were afterwards added. 

Recognitions {The). Quoted by 
Origen as a work of Clement's; was a 
romance in ten books embodying the 
Christian doctrines and history. It was 
translated by Rufi'nus into Latin and 
called 'The Acts and Travels of St. 
Peter.' 

Called Recognitions because it supposes Clement 
to recognise his father, mother, and brother, who 
had been lost. 

R^collets (Reformed Franciscans). 
Established in Spain in 1484, introduced 
into France in 1592, and into Paris in 
1603. Like the Soccolanti they adopted 
sandals. Reformed Clares and Colettes 
are called ' Recollettines ' (4 syl,). 

The word is RecoUecti, that is recueiUis. It has 
reference to spiritual recollection— tliaX is, the 
complete devotion of all the powers to a spiritual 
life. 

Reconciliation {The Bill of), 1554. 
An Act of Parliament repealing the whole 
ecclesiastical legislation of Henry VIII. 
and Edward VI. It, however, rejected 
all proposals for the restoration of 
church lands, and refused to change the 
succession from Elizabeth to Philip. 

Reconciliation {The Feast of the), 
25 Jan. {St. Andrew's Day), 1555. To 
commemorate the return of England to 
the see of Rome in the reign of Mary. It 
was celebrated by a grand religious pro- 
cession, and ordered to be kept as an 
anniversary for ever. 

When the pope heard thereof he ordered a 
jubilee In honour of the event. 

Recopilacion {The). The code of 
Castilian law. 

The deputies in 1525 obtained a general law, 
inserted in the Recopilacion, enactmg that the 
king shall answer all the petitions before he 
dissolves the assembly [Cortes].— Hallam, Middle 
Ages, vol. ii. p. 43. 

Rector. In Oxford University; the 
title of the head of Exeter CoUege and 
Lincoln College. 

In the Church of England the rector has the 
great tithes ; a vicar merely represents the 
owner of a living, and receives either an annual 
stipend or the small tithes. 

Recusants. Persons who wilfully 
absented themselves from their parish 
church on Sundays and other days ap- 
pointed by the ordinary. This absence 
was made a legal offence by 1 Eliz. c. 2, 



RECUSANTS 



RED 



741 



A.I). 1558. Popish recusants for wilfully 
hearing mass wei'e fined G6l. I'ds. id. 
(100 marks) ; and for saying mass double 
that sum, with a year's imprisonment in 
both cases. They could inherit no real 
estate, purchase no land, teach in no 
school, hold no public office, were not 
permitted to have arms in their houses, 
could not appear within ten miles of 
London under a penalty of 100^., could 
not travel above five miles from home 
without a licence, could bring no action 
at law or equity. These enactments 
were partly removed in 1791, and more 
fully by the Emancipation Act of 1829. 

Recusants [Statute of), 25 Henry 
VIII. c. 20, transferred the annates and 
tenths from the pope to the crown. 

Red and Black Lists [The). In 
the Irish parliament it was customary to 
publish lists of the Ayes and Noes on 
every important division. In the Union 
debates (1799, 1800) this custom was 
followed. These lists were printed in 
red and black. Hence the Red and 
Black Lists are lists of how the Irish 
members voted on the bills referred to. 

Red and Blue Cockade [The), 

1789. The cockade given to the French 
militia at the outbreak of the great 
French Revolution. Red and blue were 
the Parisian colours. White was the 
royal colour. Before the militia (or 
national guard) was organised the insur- 
gents wore a green cockade {q.v.). The 
tricolour was adopted after the fall of the 
Bastille, 

Red and Blue Hoods [The). In 
1356, during the captivity of Jean le Bon, 
the Commune of Paris, as opposed to 
the dauphin (afterwards Charles V.), 
wore party-coloured hoods, mi-partie 
(rouges et hleues) ; but at the death of 
the provost Marcel in 1358 this faction 
died away. 

Red or Cardinal Band [The), 
1572. The companies of assassins organ- 
ized at Bordeaux for the massacre of the 
Huguenots at the general slaughter 
begun on Sunday, St. Bartholomew's 
Day. 

Red Beard. 

I. Friedrich I. kaiser of Germany, 
called Barharossa (1121, 1152-1190). 



II. Horush or Horuc sultan of Algiers 
(1474, 1516-1518). 

III. Khair Eddin sultan of Algiers 
(reigned 1518-1546). 

Red Book [The). 

I. In England is a register of all 
persons under government in every de- 
partment, legal, civil, military, and naval. 
This register in the American govern- 
ment is termed their ' Blue Book.' The 
words Red and Blue refer to the colour 
of the wrappers, but even those parts 
issued without wrappers retain the 
generic name. See ' Blue Book.' 

n. In China (so called from its red 
cover), contains the name, birthplace, 
and other particulars of the 14,000 
officials of the Chinese empire. It is in 
six small volumes, and is printed quar- 
terly. 

No individual can hold a magistracy in his own 
province, and no public officer may make alli- 
ances with those under his own government ; nor 
can a son, brother, or other near relative hold 
office under a near kinsman. 

Red Book of Hergest [The). 
Includes the Mabiuogion [q.v.), copies 
of some of the poems of Taliesin and of 
Llywarch Hen, a brief clironology from 
Adam to 1318, and a chronological his- 
tory of the English to 1376. The MSS. 
are preserved in the library of Jesus 
College, Oxford, and are of the 14th 
cent. 

Red Book of Maximilian I. of Ger- 
many [The). A manual which Maxi- 
milian always cai'i'ied about him, and in 
which he set down all the injuries which 
he received from the French, a nation 
he hated with deadly hatred. 

Red Book of the Exchequer 

[The). ' Liber Rubens Scaccarii ' (in the 
Record Office), compiled in the reign of 
Henry III., 1246, by Alexander de Swere- 
ford archdeacon of Shrewsbury. It con- 
tains the returns of all tenants in capite 
in the reigns of Heni-y II., Richard I., 
John, and part of the reign of Henry III., 
certifying how many knights' fees they 
held, and the names of those who held 
them. It also contains much other 
matter from the Pipe Rolls and other 
sources. It has never been printed 
(1890). The other book is called the 
Black Book of the Exchequer, 'Liber 
Niger Scaccarii.' The Red Book derives 
its name from the colour of its cover, 



742 



RED 



RED 



which was originally a pinkish-red 
leather. 

The Red Book contains the only known frag- 
ment of the Pipe Roll of 1 Henry II., and copies of 
the important Inquisition returned into the Ex- 
chequer in 13 John. 

Red Books of Spain (The). 
Similar to our Blue Books {q.v.). All 
sorts of official reports, papers, and docu- 
ments printed for government and laid 
before the legislative houses. Red and 
blue refer to the colours of the covers. 
See ' Yellow Books.' 

Red Boots {A Pair of). A Tartar 
phrase referring to a custom of cutting 
the skin of a victim round the upper part 
of the legs, and then stripping it off at 
the feet. A Tartar will say, ' When you 
come my way again, I will give you a 
pair of red boots to go home in,' 

Red Branch. {Knights of the). An 
early military order of Ireland. So called 
from their chief seat, ' The School of the 
Red Branch,' in Emania, adjoining the 
palace of the Ulster kings. T. Moore 
refers to these knights in his ' Irish 
Melodies,' and subjoins a note of explana- 
tion : — 

Let Erin remember the days of old .... 

When her kings, with standard of green unfurled, 

Led the Red-branch Knight? to danger;— 
Ere the emerald gem of the western world 

Was set in the crown of a stranger. 

Red Button (A). A mandarin of 
the first class, whose badge of honour is 
a red button on his cap. 

An interview was granted to the admiral 
[Elliot] by Kishen, the imperial commissioner, 
the third man in the empire, a mandarin of first 
class and red button.— HowiTT, Hist, of England, 
1841, p. 471. 

Red Coat in Fox-hunting. 

Henry II. made fox-hunting a royal 
sport, and enjoined by mandate that all 
who took part in that royal sport should 
wear also the royal livery. 

Red Columns ofVenice (The). 

Two magnificent columns of red granite 
erected in the Piazzetta of St. Mark in 
1180. They were brought in 1125 from 
Palestine bj^Dominico Michielli, the doge, 
but for more than fifty years were left on 
the quay because no one knew how to 
erect them. At length Nicolo Barattiero, 
a Lombard, succeeded in rearing them. 
One column is surmounted with the 
winged lion of St. Mark, and the other 
with a full-length statue of St. Theodore, 
armed with sword and lance, and tramp- 



ling on a serpent. The space between 
was the site of executions. 

St. Theodore carries his shield on his ri^ht arm 
and his lance in the left hand. 

Between the pillars of St. Mark's, where tis 
The custom of the State to put to death 
Its criminals.— Byron, Marino Fali,-rn, v. 2. 
Becanati expiated his treason between the Red 
Columns.— Hwtori/ of Venice, vol. i. p. 'S-'jO. 

Red Comyn (The). Son of John 
Corayn of Badenoch and Margery sister 
of John Baliol. 

David Earl of Huntingdon had two daughters- 
Margery and Isabella. 

Margery s son was named Baliol, and Baliol's 
son was B.\LlOL (the king). The king's daughter 
■was Margerj'themother of John, the "Red Comyn.' 

Isabella (David s younger daughter) was the 
mother of Bkuce (the Competitor) ; the ' Compe- 
titor ' had a son named Bruce, whose son was 
Robert Bruce, the great hero. 

Red Cross {The). The Badge of 
the royal banner of England till those of 
St. Patrick and St. Andrew were added. 

The fall of Rouen (1419) was the fall of the whole 
province . . . and the red cross of England waved 
on all the towers of Normandy. — Howitt, Hist, of 
Enjland, vol. i. p. 54.5. 

Red Cross Knights {The). The 
Knights Templars, whose badge was a red 
cross on a white robe in contradistinction 
to the Knights Hospitallers, who wore 
a black robe with a white cross. See 
' Templars.' 

Red Cross Society {The), 1870. 
For the relief of those wounded in battle. 
It recognises no distinctions of rank, 
friend, or foe. To be wounded is enough 
to call forth all its sympathy, all its 
skill, all its nursing care. The red cross 
on the field of battle is quite sufficient to 
command immunity from both belligerent 
armies. See ' Geneva Convention.' 

Red Earl {The). Richard Burke or 
Burgo (1227-1229), earl of Ulster. 

Red Flag {A). 

I. In the Bomayi empire signified war ; 
and when displayed on the capitol it was 
a call to arms. 

*,* As a railway signal it intimates danger, and 
warns the engine driver to stop. A areen flag is 
displayed by way of caution, and a white flag sig- 
nifies that the rails are clear and all things in 
order. 

II. Hoisted by British seamen, it in- 
dicates that no concession will be made. 
Thus, previous to the mutiny at the 
Nore, the sailors at Portsmouth hoisted 
the red flag, and when Lord Bridport 
promised redress the crew of every ship 
hauled down the red flag. 

On the 2.3rd May [1797] the mutineers hoisted 
the red flag, and all the ships of war lying near 



I 



RED 



RED 



743 



Bheerness dropped down the Note. — HOWITT, 
Hist, of EnnUind, Geo. III. 1797, p. 158. 

III. In France. ' Le Drapeau Rouge,' 
since 1791, has been made the symbol of 
insurrection and terrorism. By a decree 
of the Constituent Assembly the red flag 
was unfurled to indicate that martial 
law was established, and that all gather- 
ings of the people would be dispersed by 
force of arms. Usually, a red flag signi- 
fies defiance. 

Black flag betokens a pirate; white flag, peace; 
red flag, dfjiance ; yellow flag signifies that the 
vessel is in quarantine. 

IV. A symbol or synonym of radi- 
calism. 

Mr. Chamberlain sticks to the red flag, and 
apparently believes in its future success.— .yeuJS- 
paper paragraph, January 188(5. 

Red Flag with a White Flag 

{A) indicates that unless the besieged 
request peace without delay they will 
receive no quarter. 

De Feuquieres planted a cannon on a level with 
the castle, on the mountain of Guignevert, and 
then hoisted a white flag, and after that a red 
one.— Ant. Monastier, Hist, of the Vaudois Church, 
pp. 371-2. 

Red Hand of Ulster {The). It 

is said that in an expedition to Ireland 
the leader thereof gave out that whoever 
first touched the Irish shore should be 
made possessors of the territory. One 
of the O'Neills, in order to be the first, 
cut off his hand and threw it on the 
coast. The badge of the O'Neills is the 

* Red Hand.' 

Red Hat. First presented by Inno- 
cent IV. to cardinals, 25 Dec, 1244, called 

* the Sun's birthday,' and red is the sym- 
bolical colour of the sun. The notion 
that it indicates a willingness in a car- 
dinal to shed his blood for the church is 
mythical. 

David Beatoun was born of good family, had 
been made privy-seal by James V., and was raised 
to a red hat by Pope Paul III.— Peincb, Parallel 
History, vol. ii. p. 81. 

Red Heads (The). The regular sol- 
diers of the Persian empire, so called 
from their red caps. 

The Persian word is ' Kuzzilbashes.' They were 
80,000 in the reign of Shah Abbas, but were after- 
wards reduced to 30,000. 

Red Hoods. The party colour of 
Paris. Blue hoods, the party colour of 
Navarre. Red and blue, the party colour 
of Charles [V.] when dauphin. White 
hoods, the party colour of the Burgun- 
dians. 



Red Hugh. Hugh O'Donell. So 
called from a red birth-mark on his face 
(reign of Elizabeth). 

Red Indians of Newfoundland. So 
called because they daub their skin, 
garments, canoes, weapons, and almost 
everything with red ochre mixed with 
grease. Probably red has a religious 
significance, as the Maoris of New Zea- 
land regard red as a sacred colour. It 
will be remembered that when the banner 
of St. Ambrose, the sacred oriflamme of 
Milan, was taken to a battle-field, it was 
drawn in a red car by red buUocks har- 
nessed with red trappings. 

Whether it was merely a custom, or whether 
they daubed their skin with red ochre to protect 
it from the attacks of mosquitos and black flies, 
which swarm by myriads in the woods and wilds 
during the summer, it is not possible to say. — 
Lady Blake, Nineteenth Century (Dec. 1888, p. 906). 

Red King {The). 

I. Otto II. of Germany (955, 973-983). 

II. William II. [Bufus] of England 
(1057, 1087-1100). 

III. Amadeus VII. count of Savoy 
(1360, 1383-1391). See ' Red Beard.' 

Red Land {The). The jurisdiction 
over which the Vehmgericht of West- 
phalia extended. The coui-t was called 
a ' Free Session ' ; the judges were ' Free 
Grafs ' or ' Free Burghers.' See ' Child 
of the Cord.' 

Red Laws {The). The civil code. 
Juvenal says 'perlege rubras majorum 
leges ' (' Satires,' xiv. 193). The civil 
laws, being written in vermilion, were 
called rubnca, and ' rubrica vetavit ' 
means ' it is forbidden by the civil laws.' 
The praetors' laws were inscribed in white 
letters, as Quintilian informs us (xii. 3), 
'praetores edicta sua in albo propone- 
bant.' Imperial rescripts were written 
in purple. 

Red-Letter Days. Saints' days, 

Sundays, and festivals. Non-working 
days, printed at one time in red letters 
in almanacs. 

Red Peter. Pierce earl of Ormond, 
deputy to the Earl of Surrey, lord- 
lieutenant of Ireland in the reign of 
Henry VIII. 

Red Prince {The). Prince Fried- 
rich Karl of Germany (born 1828). So 
called because wherever he has made 
his appearance a red-letter day has been 



744 



RED 



REED 



added to the fasti of Fatherland. His 
daughter Louise married the Duke of 
Connaught. Prince Friedrich Karl was 
one of the most successful generals of 
the age. 

Red Republicans. Extreme demo- 
crats who scruple not to dye their hands 
in blood. In France they used to wear 
red caps. This was taken from the old 
Roman custom of manumission. Wlien 
a slave was manumitted a small red 
cloth cap, called pileus, was placed on 
his head. Their journals had red 
wrappers. See p. 406, ' Hats.' 

The red cap of the French Republicans was a 
Phrygian cap, but the red cap given to the Roman 
slave was sack-shaped. See p. 142, ' Cap.' 

Red Scarfs {The). The party of 
Henri and Charles IX. 

White scarfs, the badge of the Crusaders, Ar- 
magnacs, and Huguenots. Green scarfs, the 
badge of Mazarin, Isabella, and the Conde family. 
Tricolour scarfs, still worn in France by the 
municipal magistrates and the commissaires of 
police. White hoods, the badge ot the Burgun- 
diang. 

Red-Shanks, 1327. So the Enghsh 
called the Scotch, who covered their feet 
and shanks with the raw hides of the 
beasts which they looted from the Eng- 
lish, wearing the hair inside. 

In 1273 the Scots and Redshanks out of the 
Highlands made a sudden incursion into Ireland, 
and, committing the most cruel murders and 
depredations, escaped with their booty before the 
inhabitants had time to rally in their defence.— 
Thomas Moore, Hist, of Ireland, oh. xxxv. 

Red Standard {The). This was 
the Roman signal for battle. 

Red Triumvirate {The), 1849. 
Three cardinals sent by the pope from 
Gaeta to Rome after the Restoration to 
conduct the civil affairs of the Papal 
States during his voluntary exile. Delia 
Genga was one of the Triumvirate. These 
commissioners robbed the people to the 
amount of 35 per cent, of all the money 
which bore the stamp of the republic, but 
promised liberal institutions so far as 
they were consistent with absolute power 
founded on divine right. 

Red Turbans, G-reen Turbans. 

The Shiahs or Shiites of Persia wear the 
red turban, as all the Fatimites of Egypt 
did, to distinguish themselves from the 
Sunis or Sunnites of Turkey. The de- 
scendants ot Fatima in Turkey, called 
' emirs ' or ' sherecfs,' wear green turbans. 
Shiites the unorthodox Sunnites the orthodox 
party. The former dc not allow the KaUfatea of 
Aboubekr, Omar, or Othman. 



Reds and Blacks, or ' I Rossi,' and 
' I Neri.' The Signory or privy council 
of the Doge were termed ' I Rossi ' (the 
Reds) from their red robes of office. The 
Council of Ten was called ' I Neri ' from 
their black official robes. 

N.B.— Red, white, blue, and green were livery 
colours worn in the chariot races of Constanti- 
nople, just as light and dark blue are worn as 
distinctive colours in our university athletic con- 
tests, such as boat-racing, cricket, football, &c. 
In Constantinople the Reds merged into the 
Greens, and the Whites into the Blues. See ' Bluea 
and Greens." 

Rede*s Lecturer {Sir Bohert). 
On natural history, antiquarian history, 
literature, science, &c., in the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. One lecture to be 
given in full term. Fee nine guineas. 
Fund left for the purpose by Sir Robert 
Rede, lord chief justice of the Common 
Pleas in the reign of Henry VII. Founded 
1524. 

Redemptionists {The), 1199. An 
order of monks, founded by Jean de 
Matha and Felix de Valois, for the re- 
demption of Christian captives from 
slavery in Barbary. These monks were 
originally called Trinitaires, or Beli- 
gieux de la Ste Trinite. Subsequently 
they were called Maturins, from a church 
in Paris (St. Maturin) given to the order 
in 1226. Suppressed in 1790. 

Redemptorists {The), or ' The 
Redemptorist Fathers,' 1732. A Roman 
Catholic missionary fraternity founded 
by St. Alphonso Maria de Liguori. 
Their object is to supply preachers for 
rural districts, and to instruct the pea- 
santry. 

Also called Liguorists or Liguorians, from Liga- 
ori, their founder. 

Redpath Boys. An Irish secret 
society, connected with the Moonlighters 
and Land-leaguers {q.v.). See 'Irish 
Associations.' 

Reduction of Paraguay {The), 
1690. An exchange of territory between 
Spain and Portugal by which the sove- 
reignty of that country was transferred 
to Portugal. At the time of these ' reduc- 
tions ' the Jesuits were virtually the domi- 
nant power in Paraguay. 

Reed {The) connected with the 'Cru- 
cifixion ' of Jesus was not found by the 
Empress Helena with the three crosses, 
but was discovered subsequently. It 
was sent in 614 to Constantinople, when 



REFEKENDAKY 



REFORMATION 



745 



Jerusalem was taken by the Persians. A 
part of it is said to be in Florence, a part 
in St. Julian's church of Lunegarde, a 
longer piece is in the convent of Andeschs 
in Bavaria, and a still larger piece in the 
convent of Vatopedi on Mount Athos, 
We are not, however, told which of the 
reeds is meant, whether the roseau de la 
royaute derisoire, or the reed which held 
the sponge dipped in vinegar, or whether 
the same reed was used on both occasions. 
See p. 231, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.'' 

Referendary {A). A public officer 
whose duty was to procure, execute, and 
despatch diplomas and charters. The 
office of grand referendary of France is 
now merged in that of the chancellor. 

Reform Banquet [The), of the 
12th arrondissement of Paris, 1848. Or- 
ganised by 92 members of the opposition, 
and on Feb. 22 began the ' nouvelle revo- 
lution de trois jours.' 

Reform Bill {The), 1832. Prepared 
by Lord John Russell for the better re- 
presentation of the United Kingdom in 
the House of Commons. 

1. It changed the voters from free- 
men [q.v.) to persons having stated money 
qualifications. 

2. It disfranchised rotten boroughs 
and pocket boroughs, such as Gatton and 
Old Sarum (which had no inhabitants), 
and gave members to large boroughs, 
such as Birmingham and Brighton, which 
were unrepresented 

3. It reduced or increased the number 
of members according to a numerical 
scale of inhabitants. 

4. It shortened the time of elections. 

Reform Club [The) was established 
in London 20 May, 1835. 

Reform League [The), 1866, dis- 
solved 1869. President, Mr. Edmond 
Beales, a barrister. The ostensible 
object of the league was the extension of 
the suffrage, but it is best known by its 
breaking down the railings of Hyde Park 
July 23, 1866, in vindication of a public 
right to enter the London parks and ad- 
dress the people there. The committee 
of the league had publicly announced 
their intention of delivering an address 
in the park, and the authorities of the 
park ordered the gates to be shut. The 
mob broke down the railings and forced 
32 



their way in. In 1872 a law was passed 
to regulate the right of speaking to the 
people in public. 

Reform Pope [The). John Calvin, 
1509-1564. He established a consistory 
at Geneva invested with power to censure 
and even excommunicate ; and made the 
church a corporation independent of the 
state. 

Reformatio Legum, 1571. A 

digest of the ecclesiastical laws of 
England into a code, begun in 1534, 
renewed in 1536, 1549, but not completed 
till the reign of Elizabeth, 1571, when it 
appeared under the fuller title of ' Re- 
formatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum.' See 
next article. 

Reformatio Legum Eccle'si- 
astica'rum,1571. The Reformatio le- 
gum completed and passed into law in the 
reign of Elizabeth. This code of ecclesi- 
astical laws deals with the doctrine of 
the Trinity, the powers of the church, 
the general councils, heresies, the sacra- 
ments, confirmation, ordination, witch- 
craft, marriage, simony,- dilapidations, 
church parish officers, synods, visitations, 
excommunication, and ecclesiastical 
courts. Cranmer was the chief com- 
piler. 

Reformation {The). That great 
spiritual and ecclesiastical ' reform ' which 
took place in Europe in the 16th cent. 

In France, 1512, begun by Lefevre and 
Farel. 

In Switzerland, 1516, begun by 
Zwingli. 

In Ge?-many, 1517, begun by Luther. 

In Denmark, 1527, introduced by 
Fi-ederick I. 

In Scotland, 1527, introduced by 
Patrick Hamilton. 

In Sweden, 1529, established by Gus- 
tavus Vasa. 

In England, 1534, begun under Henry 
VIII. 

In Geneva, 1535, established by Farel. 

Reformation Tree, or Oak {The). 
An old oak on Mousehold [heath], near 
Norwich, under which Robert Ket, the 
tanner, sat to meet the rebels in 1549. 
Under this tree the insurgents aired 
their grievances and concocted their 
schemes of redress. Here it was that 
Ket, or Kett, sat as a Judge Lynch to try 



746 



EEFORMATIONES 



EEGENT 



offenders, and here he and other stump 
orators addressed the people. 

Aldrich the Mayor of Norwich, several clergy- 
men both of the old and new learning, and even 
Matthew Parker, the future Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, ascended the tree to address the people. 

Mousehold, pronounce Mtiscle; Norwich, pro- 
nounce Nor'ridge. 

E etormationes. ' Inquisitiones 

Reformatorum in provincias missorum. 
Literse Philippi VI. Franc. Regis, 1340, 
vol. iii.' (Du Cange, vol. v. p. 638). 

Reformatory Schools, 1834. 
Schools where young misdemeanants are 
sent instead of being sent to prison. The 
greatest reformatory in England is at 
RedhiU. 

Reformed Chur ch{Second Parent 
of the). John the Constant, elector of 
Saxony (1407-1532). He succeeded his 
brother Frederick the Wise in 1525, and 
in 1530 presented to Karl V. (Charles 
Quint) the Augsburg Confession of Faith, 
drawn out by Melanchthon. 

Reformed Churches. Those of 
the Zwinglians, Swiss, Upper Rhine 
Provinces, and Holland, which Were ' re- 
formed ' without accepting Lutheranism. 
There is a German-Swiss 'Reformed Church" 
and also a Dutch ' Reformed Church ' in the U.S. 

Reformed European Patriots 

{The), 1821, or Philadelphians. A branch 
of the Carbonari. 

Reformed Presbyterian 

Church {The). A remnant of the old 
Cameronians, who have more than thirty 
congregations in Scotland, and about as 
many in Ireland. There are some also 
in the United States and in Canada. 

Reformed Presbyterian Synod 
of Ireland {The). Unconnected with 
the General Assembly, it does not there- 
fore participate in the parliamentary 
grant. 

Reformers {The) of Hungary, 1794. 
A secret political society to insure the 
introduction of the principles of the 
French Revolution. This society was in 
alliance with the more aristocratic one 
called ' The Friends of Liberty and 
Equality.' 

Reformers' Bible {The). The 
' Black Book.' An exposition of crown 
revenues, with lists of pluralists, place- 
men, pensioners, and sinecurigts. Effing- 
ham Wilson, 1833 



Refreshment Sunday. The fourth 
Sunday in Lent, when the Gospel of the 
day is about Christ feeding the multitude, 
and the first lesson (Gen. xliii.) is about 
Joseph feasting his brother. See ' Sun- 
day.' 

Regalia, or 'Right of Regale.' A 
right in ecclesiastical things claimed by 
sovereigns as royal prerogatives : such as 
presentation to benefices, the revenues of 
vacant benefices and sees, &c. The most 
memorable conflict on the subject was 
that between Pope Innocent XI. and 
Louis XIV., which was only terminated 
by the death of the pope. 

Regality {A). A territorial juris- 
diction formerly existing in Scotland, 
resembling our palatinate. The holder, 
called a ' Lord of Regality,' exercised the 
rights of a king in his own jurisdiction. 
Abohshed by 20 Geo. II. c. 50. 

Regarders. Forest rangers, who 
made their regard or range through 
royal forests. 

Regardes. Visitations held by the 
king's justiciaries to correct encroach- 
ments on crown lands, impose and assess 
fines, determine suit and service, and 
regulate forest ordinances. The ' Great 
Regarde ' was held once in every fifty 
years, and was entrusted to the highest 
baron of the reahn, who empanelled 
juries, summoned witnesses, required the 
attendance of all forest officers, and 
made all appointments. 

Edward I., Aug. 1282, and Henry Vn. undertook 
these inspections. 
And early rising from his couch, with scant 

reflection done, 
Soon from his woodland towers, I trow, had the 

good Abbot gone. 
And with his white-frocked monks that day 

rode o'er the grassy sward, 
Oblivious of the bleating fold, to join the Great 
Regarde. 

Hayward Oaks, at the Regarde of Brian 
d' Insula, the King's Jiisticiarie, 1202. 

Regent and Won-regent. A 

regent was a professor or university 
lecturer. See Rymer, ' Foedera,' vol. iv. 
page 411, col. 1 ; and again, p. 413, col. 1. 
A non-regent is a master of arts or 
doctor, no longer bound to give lectures. 
The terms were retained in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge till 1858, though 
the duties of giving lectures had long 
passed to what are called ' professors.' 

Regent Diamond {The). See 
' Pitt Diamond.' 



REGENT 



REGISTRARY 



747 



Regent House (The) originally 
meant the governing body of the uni- 
versity. It was strictly confined to those 
graduates who were actively engaged in 
teaching, and those who had ceased to 
teach formed, in 1400, a second assembly 
called the Non-regent House, whose 
consent was needful to the more impor- 
tant graces. The two houses formed 
the Senate. The master's hood for the 
regent house was lined with white, for 
the non-regent house the black hood had 
no lining. In 1535 professors were sub- 
stituted for regents as teachers. In 1570 
the regency of masters was extended to 
five years, when a master became neces- 
sarily non-regent, and in 1858 both re- 
gents and non-regents ceased to exist. 

The Regents were Masters of Arts of less than 
five years standing, and Doctors of less than two; 
the non-Regents were Masters of Art of more 
than five years' standing, with the Doctors of two 
years' standing, who belonged to either of the 
bouses. 

Regent's Park, London, 1838. 
Planned and given to the public during 
the regency of George, afterwards the 
fourth of that name. 

Regiam Majestatem. An ancient 
collection of laws said to have been com- 
piled by order of David I. of Scotland 
(1124-1153), but probably not older than 
the reign of our Edward I. (1272-1807). 

Regiam Potestatem. A compila- 
tion of laws by Ranulph Glanvil, chief 
justice of England, who died 1190. 

Regicides {The). I. In English 
histoiy the party which favoured the 
execution of Charles I. 

Thirteen suffered death for the part they took 
in this affair, viz., Axtell, Barkstead, Carew, 
Clement, Cook, Corbet, Hacker, Harrison, Jones, 
Okey, Peters, Scott, and Scrope. 

II. In Russian history, 1881, means 
those Terrorists, or pol tical confederates, 
who combined to assassinate Czar Alex- 
ander II. 

R^girae de la Calotte {Le). The 

regime of priests. So the priestly ad- 
ministrator of affairs, at the restoration, 
was called in France. 

The calotte is tne skull-cap worn by monks over 
their tonsure. 

R^gli- .nt de la Calotte {Le). 
See ' Calotti'^tes.' 

Regimes, of Factors (T/ie), 1745. 
The ' Factors -vere the dukes of Devon- 
shire, Bedford Jutland, and Montague 



with the lords Herbert, Halifax, Chol- 
mondeley, Falmouth, Malton, Derby, and 
some others of less note belonging to the 
great Whig party. Subscriptions were 
given to a large amount for the raising of 
troops, both horse and foot, to oppose the 
Young Pretender after his victory at 
Prestonpans ; but the Whig lords, ' fearing 
that their relations and friends would 
lose a magnificent job,' pro^josed in the 
House of Lords that all the regiments 
should be paid by the king only. 

The 'Regiment-factors,' as they were called, 
thus loaded the army list with a swarm of lord- 
lings and lazy young fellows of high family, whom 
the men in various cases refused to follow. — 
HOWITT, Hist. ofEnq. (Geo. II.), 507. 

Cholmondeley, pronounce Chum'-ly. 

Regiomontanus. A Latinised 
form of Konigsberger. ' Konigs-berg ' = 
king's-mount, like ' Regius-mons ' ; and 
Kiinigs-berger = Regio-montanus. Regio- 
montanus was really John Miiller of 
Konigsberg, in Franconia (1436-1476), 
the restorer of the science of astronomy, 
and archbishop of Ratisbon. 

Regiomontanus was also noted for his mechani- 
cal toys. Hence, says Sir T. Brown, ' who ad- 
mires not Regiomontanus— his fiy more than his 
eagle.' 

A foolish fashion existed about the time of the 
Reformation, especially with German and Dutch 
scholars, of converting their names into Greek or 
Latin. As Melanchthon for Schwarzerdt, &c., &c. 
See p. 599, ' Names Classicised.' 

Registrar {The), in the Oxford 
University, is elected by the House of 
Convocation {q.v.), and must be either an 
M.A. or a B.C.L. He has to attend all 
meetings of both Congregations, of Con- 
vocation, and of the Hebdomadal Council 
{q.v.) ; and registers all acts and docu- 
ments to which the university seal is 
affixed. His stipend is 600Z. a year. 
See ' Registrary.' 

Registrar-General {The), 1837. 

Appointed under the Great Seal, with his 
central office at Somerset House. Under 
him is a chief clerk, six superintendents, 
and a large staff of clerks appointed by 
tlie lords of the treasury. From the office 
of the registrar-general emanate instruc- 
tions to all superintendent registrars, 
registrars of births and deaths, and re- 
gistrars of marriages. A copy of any 
registry may be obtained by anyone for 
3s. 6d., which includes search. 

Registrary (T;^e), in the Cambridge 
University, is elected by the senate from 
one of two persons nominated by th<> 
council. His duties are to attend all 



748 



REGISTRATION 



REGIUS 



congi-egations of the senate, and to re- 
gister all Graces {q.v.) in the University 
Records. This officer, in the University 
of Oxford, is called the registrar {q.v.). 

Registration of Aliens Act 

{The), G, 7 Will. IV. c. 11, a.d. 1836. This 
was the repeal of 7 Geo. IV. c. 54, a.d. 1827, 
which obliged all aliens or foreigners who 
visited the British Isles to present them- 
selves at the Alien Office to be registered. 
By the new act, masters of vessels arriv- 
ing from foreign parts are required to 
declare what number of foreign passen- 
gers are on board, and every foreigner on 
landing is required to show his passport 
to the chief officer of customs at the port 
of debarkation. This registration and 
showing of passports is never exacted ; 
and no return is kept of vessels lauding, 
nor have they been registered since 1842. 

Registration of Copyright 

{The), 5, 6 Vict. c. 45, a.d. 1842, autho- 
rizing the registration at Stationers' 
Hall of the title of copyright property. 
The omission to register will not affect 
the copyright, but will bar any action 
being brought for its infringement. 

Registration of Death {The), 

1874. 37, 38 Vict. c. 88, s. 8 enacts that 
the death of every person dying in Eng- 
land shall be registered within five days 
of the decease, and the cause of death 
stated on a certificate to be handed to the 
officiating minister before interment. It 
devolves on the nearest relatives present 
at the death or in attendance at the time 
to give the registrar notice and to sign the 
register. In default of relatives the duty 
devolves on the occupier and inmates of 
the house. 

Registration of Electors Act 
{The). 2 William IV. c. 45, s. 26, a.d. 
1832, making it requisite for a voter in 
the election of members of Parliament to 
be registered before exercising the fran- 
chise. 

' The Registration of 



This 
Voteri 



is sometimes called 
Act.' 



Regium Donum. An annual grant 
of public money for the maintenance of 
dissenting ministers in Ireland. It be- 
gan in 1672, when Charles II. gave 6001. 
of secret servic e money to be distributed 
annually among the Presbyterian clergy 
in Ireland. William III. in 1690 increased 
the grant to 1,200/. a year. George III. 
in 17H4 raised it to 2,200/., and in 1792 to 



5,000/. In 1863 the grant was 39,746/.; 
and in 1869 it was abolished. 

In 1793 commenced an annual grant to dissent- 
ing ministers in England. 

Regius Professor of Civil 

Law {The), in the University of Cam- 
bridge, 1540, founded by Henry VIII. 
Original stipend 40/. a year. Present 
stipend 534/. 18s., and 10 guineas a head 
from each of the students who attend his 
lectures. See ' Downing Professorship of 
the Laws of England,' 'International 
Law, &c.,' ' Chancellor's Medal, &c.,' 
' Battle's Scholarship,' ' Browne Scholar- 
ship,' 'Craven Scholarship,' 'Whewell 
Scholarship of International Law.' 

Regius Professorship of Civil 

Law {The), in Oxford University. 
Founded in 1546 by Henry VIII. at 40/. 
a year. The present stipend is 440/. a 
year. 

Regius Professorship of Di- 
vinity {The), in the University of 
Cambridge, 1540, founded by Henry VIII. 
Original stipend 40/. a year, but now 
considerably augmented. See ' Lady 
Margaret Professorship of Divinity,' 
' Norrisian Professor of Divinity,' and 
' Hulsean Professor of Divinity,' ' Crosse 
Scholarship,' 'Evans's Prize,' 'Jeremie 
Prize,' ' Burney Prize,' ' Hulsean Prize,' 
' Kaye Prize,' ' Norrisian Prize.' 

Regius Professorship of Di- 
vinity {The), in Oxford University. 
Founded in 1535 by Henry VIII. at 40/. 
a year. Augmented by James I. in 1605. 

Regius Professorship of Greek 

{The), of the University of Cambridge, 
1540. Founded by Henry VIII. The 
original stipend was 40/. a year, but the 
present endowment includes acanonry of 
Ely Cathedral. See ' Chancellor's Clas- 
sical Medal,' ' Porson Scholarship, ' Da- 
vies Scholarship,' 'Pitt's Scholarship,' 
' Waddington Scholarship,' ' Scholefield 
Prize,' ' Porson Prize,' ' Browne's Medals.' 

Regius Professorship of Greek 

{The), in Oxford University. Founded in 
1547 by Henry VIII. at 40/. a year. In- 
creased in 1865 to 500/. a year. 

Regius Professorship of He- 
brew {The)t in the University of Cam- 
bridge, 1540. Founded by Henry VIII. 
Original sti^ jnd 40/. a year, now endowed 
with a canonry of Ely Cathedral. See 
'Tyrwhitt Hebrew Scholarship.' 



REGIUS 



EEIGN 



749 



Regius Professorship of He- 
bre"W [The), in Oxford University. 
Founded in 1540 by Henry VIII. at iOl. a 
year. Augmented by Charles I. in 1630. 

Regius Professorship of Medi- 
cine (The), in Oxford University. 
Founded in 1540 by Henry VIII. at 40^. a 
year. Augmented by Chcxrles I. in 1630. 

Called in the Cambridge University the ' Regius 
Professorship of Physic ' (.q.v.). 

Regius Professorship of Mo- 
dern History, &C., in Oxford Uni- 
versity. Stipend 620Z. a year. Founded 
by George I. in 1724. 

In the University of Cambridge there is a Pro- 
fessor of Modern History, who holds his appoint- 
ment during the sovereign's pleasure. Stipend 
3111. a year, paid by the University. 

Regius Professorship of Phy- 
sic {The), in the University of Cam- 
bridge, 1540. Founded by Henry VIII. 
Original stipend AOL a year. Present 
stipend SOOl. a year and a house in 
Market Street. See ' Downing Professor- 
ship of Medicine.' 

Regular Abbot {A). An abbot 
who discharged the duties of an abbey 
held by a secular abbot. As a secular 
abbot is a layman, he is not qualified to 
undertake clerical duties. 

Regular Canons. ' Canonici Ke- 
gulares,' canons who lived in community, 
bound by the ' rule ' of the house. Secu- 
lai canons were exempt from the ' rule.' 

Regulars {The). I. ' Kegular Clergy ' 
{Begulares,hova.Tegula, a rule), Catholic 
clergymen of some monastic order, who 
live according to the rule of their order, 
always including obedience, chastity, and 
poverty. The secular clergy are those, 
engaged in parochial duties, who are not 
bound by monastic rules. 

Archbishops, bishops, rectors, vicars, and 
curates are not usually regulars but seculars. 

II. In the British army. All troops 
except the militia, yeomanry, and volun- 
teers. They are regular all the year, and 
not called out for certain days or weeks 
only. 

Regulation Act {The), 1773. Re- 
lative to the East India Company. It 
established a governor-general and a 
Supreme Court of Judicature for all 
British possessions in India ; prohibited 
judges and members of council from 
trading ; forbade any receipt of presents 
from natives; and ordered that every 



act of the East India Directors should be 
submitted to the House of Commons for 
approval before it was enforced. 

Regulators. 

I. In 1687. A committee of seven 
Catholics and Jesuits a^jpointed by 
James II. to send deputations to different 
corporations and rejDort on them. The 
board was at Whitehall, and they were 
empowered to introduce into the corpora- 
tions new rules and new men as they 
thought fit. Of course the object was to 
prepare for the reintroduction of Roman 
Catholicism by returning members to the 
parliament about to be convened favour- 
able to the king's views. 

II. In 1770. A body of men who took 
the law into their own hands, and inflicted 
bodily punishment according to their 
own discretion and on their own 
authority upon cffenlers. The diffi- 
culty of bringing olienders in the back 
settlements of North America to justice 
induced orderly people to institute this 
rough and ready method of proceeding. 

III. In 1776. Backwoodsmen collected 
together by Gov ernor Martin to recover 
North Carolina in the American War of 
Independence. They were decoyed into 
a swamp, and such as escaped made 
again for the backwoods. 

Regulators were, later on, especially active in 
Texas and California, where the population sud- 
denly outgrew the constituted authorities. 

Reichstag, 1871. The diet of the 
German empire. Since the establishment 
of the empire under the king of Prussia 
the legislative council has consisted of 
one representative to every 100,000 in- 
habitants. As the entire population is 
about 47 millions, this will give 470 
members to the legislative assembly. 
The delegates of the confederated govern- 
ments form the ' Bundesrath,' and what- 
ever passes the two houses and is signed 
by the king-emperor becomes binding on 
all the twenty- six states. 

Reign of Tears {The), 1871. The 
French Revolution terminated with the 
' Reign of Terror ' ; the Franco- German 
war terminated with the 'Reign of 
Tears ' [Thiers]. 

Reign of Terror {The). 

I. In Algiers, 1509. That of Bar- 
barossa, the Turkish chief who put to 
death Salem-Aben-Toumi, the Arab 



750 



EEIS-EFFENDI 



EELIEP 



sheik whom lie came to assist against 
the Christians. 

II. ' Le Re'giroe de la Terreur ' (from 
31 May, 1793, to 27 July, 1794). It began 
with the triumj)!! of the Mountain over 
the Girondists in the National Conven- 
tion, and terminated with the execution 
of Robespierre. While Robespierre and 
his Committee of Public Safety {q.v.) do- 
minated, France was filled with scaffolds. 

Among its victims were Louis XVI., the Queen 
Marie Antoinette, the Due d' Orleans (Philippe 
Egalite), twenty-one Girondists, and many thou- 
sands of others. It lasted 4-20 days. 

III. In Ireland, 1881-1887. Under 
the domination of Charles Stewart Par- 
nell, M.P. for Cork. Mr. Parnell, in 
order to obtain the severance of Ireland 
from Great Britain, was at the head of an 
organization which terrorized the Irish 
by shooting at the legs of those who re- 
fused to support their league, boycotting 
them, pouring pitch on the bare heads 
of their wives and daughters, maiming 
their cattle, and rendering their lives a 
ceaseless terror. In 1886 he contrived 
to get eighty-six of his partisans elected 
to tiie Imperial Parliament, and block the 
business of the house. Some of his Ameri- 
can friends tried to terrorize the English 
by blowing up public buildings by dyna- 
mite, and denouncing death on the public 
servants of Ireland. See p. 679, ' Phoenix 
Park Murder.' 

Reis-Effendi. A Turkish secretary 
of foreign affairs. 

Relies {Christian). Excepting those 
connected with the crucifixion, which 
are noticed each in loco, the following 
may be mentioned : — 

The famous Mamis de. ccelo missa, which even Pope 
Pius IX., in 1852, aclinowledged to be genuine (! !) 
M'iUiam of Oulx was a peasant who had lost his 
right hand, and for his piety an angel brought 
him one from heaven. When he died the ' hand ' 
refused to be buried, and persistently pushed 
itself through the coffin. So the Archbishop of 
Embrun ordered it to be cut olf and stored among 
the holy relics. This was done, and certain days 
were set apart when it was to be shown to the 
people. This is one of the best attested relics of 
the Catholic Church. 

In a monastery of Calabria is the hood which 
an angel from heaven brought Francis of Paula, 
and put upon his head. 

In half a dozen places is shown some of the 
milk of Mary while she was nursing the infant 
Jesus ; but we are not informed how this ' spilt 
milli ' was gathered up and preserved. 

Part of one of the stones cast at Stephen is 
preserved at Toul. So Father Benedict informs 
us in his ' Life of St. Gerard ' (1700). 

Harmer, in his ' Observations,' tells us he was 
shown ' a prodigious tooth,' wrapped in three 
covers of paper, on one of which was written, A 
tooth 0/ the holy int. Paul. 



Peter himself told St. Longis where to find one 
of his teeth. The tooth was taken to Boisseliere, 
and Harduin says that a great crowd of people 
flocked thither ' pour venerer ce gage de la- protec- 
tion du prince des Apotres.' 

The girdle of Joseph the carpenter is preserved 

in Notre Dame, Joinvillesur-Marne i his walking 

stick at Florence ; one of his hammers at the 

, church of St. Anastasia, Rome ; and one of his 

cloaks in the same place. 

Brady gives us the following list : One of the 
coals that broiled St. Lawrence ; a finger of St. 
Andrew, another of John the Baptist, and a thumb 
of St. Thomas; the hem of Christ s garment 
touched by the woman suffering from the issue 
of blood ; a lock of Mary Magdalen's hair, with 
which she wiped her tears from the feet of Jesus ; 
a phial of the sweat of St. Michael when he con- 
tended with Satan ; some of the rays of the guiding 
star which appeared to the Wise Men of the East ; 
a rib of the Veibiim caro factum ; a pair of Enoch's 
slippers ; the pap-spoon of the infant Jesus ; St. 
Michael's sword and buckler ; one of the tears 
shed by Jesus at the tomb of Lazarus ; and one of 
the water-pots used at the marriage feast of Cana 
of Galilee. See ' Clavis Calendaria,' p. 240. 

There was an ' age of relics, ' and it would require 
many pages even to tabulate them. Some could 
not even be set down without seeming to cast 
ridicule on a subject far too sacred to be trifled 
with. They have, however, an historic value, as 
they show a very important phase of religious 
thought and pious sentimentality in the middle 
ages, though in this matter-of-fact age they are 
much discredited. 

Relics not Christian. 

In one of the visits of the Prince of Wales to 
Germany, the English ladies staying at the hotel 
bought as relics the cherry-stones left by him at 
dessert. This surely was the very crest unto the 
crest of snobbism. 

At Salamis was shown the sacred stone on 
which Telamon the father of Ajax sat. 

In one of the Spartan temples was suspended 
one of the eggs of Leda, who had been transformed 
bv Zeus into a swan. Probably it was an ostrich's 
egg. 

At Panopeus, in Phocis, was shown some of the 
clay out of which Prometheus made man, and we 
are assured that it had a strong smell of human 
fiesh. 

Mazois, a French architect and archteologist, 
published in 1819 a work entitled ' The Palace of 
Scaur us,' in which were plates of the bones of the 
sea-monster which Perseus slew. 

At Ceylon is preserved a tooth of Buddha ; 
doubtless, from its great size, the tooth of some 
extinct saurian, for no animal with a mouth 
smaller than a horse could possibly have had such 
a huge molar. 

From 1424, for many years, the Heiltum was ex- 
hibited at Nuremberg, the second Friday after 
Easter, together with the sword of Charlemagne, 
his crown and sceptre, as well as a piece of the 
true cross, a nail used at the crucifixion, the lance 
which pierced the dead body of Christ, part of the 
manger of Bethlehem, and portions of the several 
chains vsrith which Peter, Paul, and John were 
bound. 

Relief. A sum of money paid by a 
vassal to his baron on his coming of age, 
when he took up his right and paid his 
fee to the king. 

Relief Bill (The), or ' Catholic Re- 
lief Bill,' 13 April, 1829. A bill to relieve 
Catholics from religious and civil dis- 
abilities. The same as the * Catholic 
EmanciiDation Act' {q.v.). 



RELIEF 



RELIGIOUS 



751 



The pastoral [of Dr. Doyle] besought the people 
to promote the end which the legislature contem- 
plated in passing the Belief Bill.— HowiTT, Hist. 
o/EngAyesLT 1829, p. 146). 

Relief Church {The), 1752. Se- 
ceders from the Kirk of Scotland who 
choose their own pastors. 

Relief Synod {The), 1752. A seces- 
sion h'om the Scotch Church led by the 
Rev. Thomas Gillespie, who was after- 
wards joined by the Rev. Thomas Boston. 
They allowed greater freedom of com- 
munion than any other sect in Scotland, 
and, next to the Associate Synod, are the 
most numerous of the Scotch Dissenters. 

Reliefs. Fines paid to the lord by a 
new tenant on his entering on the tene- 
ment of his predecessor at death. Intro- 
duced by William the Conqueror, and 
abolished by 12 Car. II. c. 24. 

Religieux de Citeaux, 1098. 

Twenty inmates led by St. Robert from 
the abbey of Molesme to the neighbour- 
hood of Nuits, in the department of Cote 
d'Or, and so called from the citcrnes or 
subterraneous pits which they found 
there. Commonly called Cistercians. 

Religieux de la Merci {Les), 
1218. Confirmed by Gregory IX. in 
1235. An order under the rule of St. 
Augustine for the redeeming of captives. 

Religionists {The). So the Hugue- 
nots or Calvinists were often called in 
France. 

The universities and colleges . . . invented diffi- 
culty upon difficulty against conferring academic 
degrees upon the Religionists. — FELICE, Hist, of 
the Protestants of France, bk. iii. 7. 

Religio'si. Monks or Regulares 
(4 syl.) were so called. Nuns were Reli- 
giosse. Called Regulars because they 
followed some regula or rule ; and called 
Religiosi because their entire life was 
spent in religious duties or observances. 

Religious Peace {The), or 'The 
Treaty of Passau,' 1552. Imposed on 
Karl V. by Maurice. It was agreed : 

1. That both belligerents should lay 
down their arms, and assist Ferdinand 
against the Turks. 

2. That the landgraf of Hesse should 
be set at liberty. 

8. That the ' Interim ' {q.v.) should be 
revoked, and Protestants be free till the 
Diet met, which was to be within six 
months. 



4. That those banished for their alli- 
ance with the Smalcaldic League {q.v.) 
should be recalled and reinstated. 

5. That Protestants and Catholics 
should be on an equal footing. 

Religious Peace of Augsburg 

{The), 26 Sept., 1555. This was supple- 
mental to the Treaty of Passau in 155*i. 
By this ' Peace,' full liberty of worship, 
granted by the Treaty of Passau, was 
confirmed. Lutherans and Catholics were 
declared alike eligible to all offices of 
state ; and every ruler might sanction 
in his own province whatever form of 
religion he chose, but all were to tolerate 
those who held different religious views 
from those favoured by the state. 

Religious Statistics, 1890. As- 
suming the entire population of the 
globe to be 1,450 millions, of these, 
1,050 millions are non-Christians, 400 
millions are nominally Christians. 

1. Nan-Christians— 

Buddhists . . 400 millions. 
Brahmins . .250 „ 
Mahometans • . 180 „ 
Fetish Worshippers 150 „ 
Jews ... 8 „ 

Various ... 62 „ 

Total 1,050 

2. Christians — 

Koman Catholics . 175 millions. 
Protestants . . 110 „ 
Greek Church . 90 „ 
Various ... 25 „ 



Total 



400 
1,050 



Entire p Dpulation 1,450 „ 

Religious Wars {The), 1562-1598. 
In the reigns of Charles IX. and Henri 
III. of France. 

First, 1562-1563. The Catholic leaders 
were Fran(,-,ois due de Guise, St. Andre, 
and the Comte de Montmorency ; the 
Protestant leaders were Louis prince de 
Conde', and the Sire de Coligny. The 
chief events of this war were the siege of 
Rouen, the battle of Dreux, and the siege 
of Orleans. 

Second, 1567-1568. The only event of 
note was the battle of St. Denis, in which 
Anne due de Montmorency lost his life. 

Third, 1569-1570. The chief events 
were (1) the battle of Jarnac (1569), in 
which the Catholics were victorious, and 
the Prince de Conde, the great Huguenot 
leader was slain ; and (2) the battle of 
Moncontour, also won by the Catholics. 

On 24 Aug., 1572, occurred the great slaughter 
of the Huguenots, called the Massacre of St. Bar 
thoiomew's Eve. 



752 



KEMEMBER 



REMONSTRANCE 



Fourth, 1573. The Cathohcs besieged 
La Rochelle, but were obhged to raise the 
siege. 

Fifth, 1575-1576. The CathoHc leader 
was Henri of Guise; the Protestant 
leaders were the prince de Conde and 
Henri of Navarre. 

Sixth, 1577. The Protestants were 
overmastered, but Henri III. coquetted 
with them through fear of the Gruises. 

Seventh, 1577-1578. In which Henri 
of Navarre carried Cahors with a coup- 
de-main, and peace ensued. 

The last of the Catholic triumvirate 
lost his life. The command of the 
Catholic army was now given to Henri 
due d'Anjou. 

Remember the Vase of 
Soissons. Kings never forgive or 
forget. After the battle of Soissons (a.d. 
486), Clovis wished to appropriate a 
valuable vase, but one of the warriors 
stepped forwards and broke it to atoms 
with his battle-axe, saying, ' Thou shalt 
have thy share only, like the rest of us.' 
Clovis dissembled his anger, but did not 
forget the insult ; and one day, finding 
the same warrior had neglected to clean 
his axe, he snatched it out of the man's 
hand and split his skull with it, saying, 
' Remember the vase of Soissons.' 

Remembrance {The). This was 
the first document which openly avowed 
an intention of bringing the king 
(Charles I. of England) to a personal 
judgment, and of changing the monar- 
chical form of government. 

Remem.brancer. An officer of the 
Exchequer, who reminds the lord trea- 
surer and the justices of that court of 
such things as are to be called on and 
dealt with for the benefit of the crown. 
The clerks are called the ' Clerks of the 
Remembrancers.' The office of lord 
treasurer was abolished by Act 3, 4 
William IV. chap. 99 (28 Aug., 1833), and 
its duties transferred to the lord high 
treasurer. 

Rem^em.brancers {Clerks of the). 
First mentioned in 1303. See above. 

Reminiscere (5 syl.) Sunday. 
The second Sunday in Lent, so called in 
the Catholic Church from the introitus 
(or beginning of the mass), the first word 
of which is Bemiiiincere. 



Remish Bible {The), 1584. A 
translation of the Bible by the Roman 
Catholics at Reims. Printed on large 
paper. The great objection to this ver- 
sion is its retention of so many Hebrew 
and Greek terms untranslated, as 
Azymes, Tunike, Holocaust, Prepuce, 
Pasche, &c. See ' Bible.' 

When any doctrine or dispute hangs on the 
word, without doubt it is better to retain the ori- 
ginal Greek or Hebrew, as baptism, schism, and 
so en. 

Remonstrance. From the council 
of officers, 1648, called for the election of 
a new parliament ; for electoral reform ; 
for the recognition of the supremacy of 
Parliament ; for the change of kingship 
into a parliamentary magistracy ; and that 
Charles I. should be brought to justice 
for treason, blood, and ill-government. 
See next article. 

Remonstrance {Grand). On the 
state of the kingdom, 22 Nov., 1641. 
Clarendon says it was ' a very bitter 
representation of all the illegal things 
that had been done by the king [Charles 
I.] from the first hour of his coming to 
the crown to that minute.' It contained 
206 clauses, and led to the arrest of the 
five members {q.v.). 

Among the charges were these : The war against 
the French Protestants, tlie innovations in the 
Church, the illegal imposition of ship-money, 
forced loans, the cruelties of the Star Chamber 
and High Commission, the forcing of episcopacy 
on Scotland, the forcing of it on the Irish by 
Strafford, and other illegal proceedings.— HowiTT, 
Hist, of England, Charles I. chap. iv. p. 220. 

Remonstrance {The), 1610. The 
petition presented to the States of Hol- 
land by the Arminians. It contained 
these five points : (1) Predestination is 
conditional on faith. Those who believe 
are predestined to be saved, those who 
refuse to believe are predestined to 
perish ; (2) Christ died for all, but only 
believers will receive the benefits of 
redemption ; (3) all must be born again, 
as no man is otherwise capable of exer- 
cising a saving faith ; (4) though grace 
may be resisted, yet without grace ho 
man can think or will any good thing; 
(5) believers are able by the aid of the 
Holy Ghost to resist sin. 

Remonstrance {The Irish), 1318. 
In reply to a letter from Pope John XXII. 
to the Irish clergy, commanding them to 
censure all those who rebelled against 
the ruling powers. The remonstrance 



REMONSTEANCE 



REPEAL 



753 



gives a sketch of Irish history ' for 4,000 
years ' ; expresses irreconcilable bitter- 
ness against the English rulers; states 
that they had given Ireland to Edward 
Bruce, brother of the Scotch hero ; and 
concludes with a threat of war a outrance 
against every Englishman who holds an 
inch of land in the whole island. See 
' Irish Associations.' 

Remonstrance of G-rievances 

(The), 1640. Sixteen articles. These 
were Irish grievances laid before the 
British Parliament, such as the arbitrary 
decision of pleas by the lord deputy ; the 
perversion of law by the judges; the 
punishments inflicted for freedom of 
speech; the exorbitant powers of the 
court of commission; want of security 
for persons or property ; the increase of 
monopolies ; exorbitant fees extracted by 
the clergy, and so on. 

Remonstrant Synod of Ulster 

(The), 1830. Formed in consequence of 
the separation of seventeen ministers 
with their congregations from the General 
Synod of Ulster, on the ground that it 
required from its members in 1827 and 
1828 submission to certain doctrinal 
acts not in accordance with the code of 
discipline and contrary to previous 
usage. 

Remonstrants, 1610. Arminians 
were so called from their humble petition 
or ' remonstrance ' against Calvinism, 
addressed to the states of Holland. See 
' Remonstrance,' 1610. 

The anti remonstrants \9^ere called Gomarists. 
The two leaders were Barneveldt (remonstrant) 
and Maurice of Nassau (Gomarist). 

Remonstrators or ' Remonstrants,' 
1650. A break from the general body of 
Presbyterians after the battle of Dunbar. 
They consisted, at first, of some 4,000 
Scotchmen, under Kerr and Strachan, 
giving out that the defeat of Dunbar was 
a divine punishment on the Presbyterians 
for joining with Engagers {q.v.) and 
Malignants (q.v.) in espousing the royal 
cause. They were inclined to unite with 
the republicans. 

The royalists obtained the name of Public Reso- 
lutioners ; their opponents, of Protestors or Be- 
monstrants.— Dr. LiNGARD, History of England, 
viii. 4. 

Strachan, pronounce Strawn. 

Rena'ssance Period {The). 
Began in France with the reign of 
Francois I. (1515). In Italy it began 



under the patronage of the Medici (1453). 
The Greeks, driven from Constantinople 
by Mahomet II., took refuge in Italy, and 
were the chief cause of this renaissance. 

In architecture the Gothic was supplanted by 
the Renaissance, which was itself succeeded by 
imitation Greek. The Renaissance architecture 
is conspicuous for its high roofs, crowded orna- 
mentation, fanciful chimneys, statues introduced 
into walls, parapets, and vestibules, for its doors 
and windows, and its general bad taste. 

Repairs of Church Images. 

The subjoined is an extract from an old 
account-book in the Muniment Room of 
Winchester Cathedral, a.d. 1450. 

For work done as follows : a. d. 

Item : For soldering and repairing ye St. Josef 8 
Item : For cleaning and ornamenting ye Holy 

Ghost 6 

Item : For repairing ye Virgin Mary before 

and behind, and making a new Child 4 8 

Item : For repairing ye Nose of Devil, putting 

a new Horn on his head, and glueing a piece 

on his tail 5 6 

114 

Repeal Agitation (Ireland). Or- 
ganised in 1842 ; reached its culmination 
in 1843. Its objects were to agitate for 
a resident parliament in Dublin, and to 
sever Ireland from the crown of Great 
Britain. It was distinguished for its 
monster meetings under the leadership 
of Daniel O'Connell; the largest was 
that held at Tara, in Meath, when above 
250,000 persons assembled. Happily at 
this period the temperance cause under 
Father Mathew was in full force, so these 
vast meetings were not riotous. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Repeal Association (TAe). 1.1829. 
Followed the Catholic Association of 
1824 [q.v.). The object was the repeal of 
the union of the two parliaments effected 
in 1801. Daniel O'Connell was the great 
agitator of this repeal. When the Repeal 
Association was proclaimed in 1830 a new 
society rose under the name of the Anti- 
Union Society. See ' Irish Associations.' 

II. 1840, or ' National Association for 
the Repeal of the Union,' set on foot by 
Daniel O'Connell, who held his monster 
meetings in 1843. 

Repeal Cap (The). Green, gold, 
and velvet. Green for Ireland. It was 
worn by O'Connell and his party on their 
release from prison in 1844. 

Repeal Year {The), 1843. So called 
from the monster meetings held in Ire- 
land for the repeal of the union. The 
first was held at Trim, in Meath ; the 
largest was that on Tara hill, 15 Aug., 
3C 



754 



REPEAL 



RESCRIPT 



under the auspices of Daniel O'Connell, 
and the last was at Mullaghmast, 1 Oct., 
1S43. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Repeal of the Union (between 
Great Britain and Ireland). Resolutions 
in its favour passed by a meeting at 
Dublin, 1 Sept., 1810. Associations or- 
ganised to promote the repeal in 1829. 
O'Connell brought forward his motion for 
the repeal in 1834, but it was rejected by 
the House of Commons. The National 
Association for the Repeal was estab- 
lished in 1840, and monster meetings 
were held for the object on Tar a hill in 
Aug. 1843. In 1881-1890 the question 
again agitated Ireland under the leader- 
ship of Mr. Parnell. See ' Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

Representers {The), 1721. The 
twelve ' Marrow-men ' [q.v.) were so called 
because they signed a ' representation ' 
or protest against the judgment of the 
General Assembly on the subject of the 
book entitled ' The Marrow of Modern 
Divinity.' See ' Marrow Controversy.' 

Republica Parthenope'a, 1799. 
The republic of Naples was so named by 
Championnet, who took possession of it. 

Neapolis was anciently called Parthenope, from 
one of the syrens who was said to have lived 
there. Naples, a contraction of Neapolis, means 
the New City, referring to the new city built by a 
colony of Cumaeans. 

Republican Calendar. I. The 

Months, beginning 22 Sept. Each month 
80 days. 

Autumn. 
Vendemiaire (Vintage month) ... Sept. 22— Oct. 21. 

Brumaire (Foggy month) Oct. 22— Nov. 20- 

Frimaire (Sleety month) Nov.21— Dec. 20. 

Winter. 
Nivose (Snowy month) . .. ... Dec. 21.— Jan. 19. 

Pluviose (Rainy month) Jan. 20— Feb. 18. 

Ventose (Windy month) Feb. 19— Mar. 20. 

Spring. 
Germinal (Budding month) ... Mar. 21— April 19. 
Floreal (Flowery month) ... April 20— May 19. 
Prairial (Pasture month) May 20— June 18. 

Summer. 

Messidor (Harvest month) June 19— July 18. 

Thermidor (Hot month) July 19— Aug. 17. 

Fructidor (Fruit month) Aug. 18— Sept. 16' 

From Sept. 16 to Sept. 22 are five days. These 
were called Sansculottides'ii syl.), and were national 
holidays ; 17 dedicated to Venus, 18 to Genius, 19 
to Labour, 20 to Opinion, and 21 to Rewards. 

II. The Years. 

Year I. From 22 Sept., 1792 to 21 Sept., 1793. 

II 1793 „ „ 17y4. 

III. „ „ 1791 „ „ 1795. 

•> IV. „ „ 1795 „ „ 1796. 

I. V. „ „ I79(i ,, „ 1797. 

H VI. „ „ 1797 „ „ 1798. 



Year VII. From 22 Sept., 1798 to 21 Sept., 1799. 



VIII. 


^^ 




1799 „ 


„ 1800. 


IX. 






1800 „ 


„ 1801. 


X. 






1801 „ 


„ 1802. 


XI. 






1802 „ 


„ 1803. 


XII. 


, 


„ 


1803 „ 


„ 1804. 


XIII. 






1804 „ 


„ 1805. 


XIV. 


„ 


„ 


1H05 to the close of tho 



year, when the reckoning was abolished by Napo- 
leon. 

Republican Calendar of 

Brazil, 1890, beginning with Sunday : 
Humanidi, Maridi, Patridi, Filidi, Fratidi, 
Domidi, and Matridi. This ridiculous 
list of names is called the ' Positivists' 
Calendar,' and the twelve months are 
equally absurd. 

Charlemagne — July 

Dante— August 
Gutenberg— September 
Shakespeare— October 



Moses— January 
Homer— February 
Aristotle— March 
Archimedes— April 
Caesar— May 
St. Paul— June 



Descartes— November 
Frederick the Great— Dec. 



Republican Marriages, 1794. 
A device by Carrier for putting to death 
those persons in Nantes supposed to be 
disaffected towards the republic. It con- 
sisted in tying men and women together 
by their hands and feet and casting them 
into the Loire. No people in the world 
have shown such refinement of savage 
cruelty as the French. See p. 236, 
' Damiens,' as one example out of many. 

Republican Martyr (T7ie). Jean 
Paul Marat, murdered in his bath by 
Charlotte Corday (1744-1793). 

Requests by the Captain of 
the G-reat Assembly in Kent 
{The), June 1450. A paper of grievances 
and requests handed in by Jack Cade 
for the consideration of the king and his 
advisers. It demanded that the king 
should resume the crown grants, so that 
his subjects might be relieved of too 
heavy taxation ; that the false progeny of 
the Duke of Suffolk be dismissed from 
the king's council ; and that the Duke of 
York be restored. 

Jack Cade was an illegitimate son of the Duke 
of York. 

Rescessory Act {The), 1661. 

Whereby Charles II. revoked his oath 
taken in Scotland to be true to the 
' Engagement ' {q.v.). The revocation 
was grounded on the plea of moral com- 
pulsion. 

The Rescessory Act at one blow levelled with the 
groiind every legal prop of the Scottish Kirk. — Dr. 
LiNGARD, History of England, ix. 1. 

Rescript {A). The response of a 
king to an individual on some question 



RESCEIPTS 



RESTORERS 



755 



officially submitted to him. If the re- 
sponse is made to a council, corporation, 
or community, it is called a ' Pragmatic 
Sanction.' 

Rescripts {The) are replies of the 
Roman emperors to questions of law put 
to them by magistrates and colonial 
governors. They were written in purple 
ink. The edicts of praetors were in white, 
and the jus civile in red ink. 

Reservatum Ecclesiasticum. 

A provision of the religious Peace of 
Westphalia (1549), whereby the church 
claimed the territorial property annexed 
to any dignity if the holder thereof 
changed his religion. This enactment 
led to the Thirty Years' War (q.v.). 

Residences of the kings of France. 
See p. 492, * Kings of France,' &c. 

Resolutioners (The), or 'Public 
Resolutioners,' 1650, who were inclined 
to treat the conduct of the deceased king, 
Charles I., with leniency in opposition 
to the Remonsti-ants, who ' protested ' 
against his conduct in unmeasured terms. 
In Scotch law a resolutioner is one who 
does something prejudicial to an estate, 
and if found guilty the estate is forfeited 
and passes to the next heir. 

The kingdom of Scotland was divided into Reso- 
lutioners and Protesters, the former of whom 
adhered to Charles II., after his father's death 
upon the scaffold, while the Protesters inclined 
rather to a union with the triumphant Republi- 
cans.— Sir W. Scott, Old Mortnlity, ch. v. 

Respublica Binepsis, l4th cent. 
A social order founded by some Polish 
noblemen, and so called from Binepsis, 
the seat of its founder. It was a multum 
inparvo of Poland itself, with its king, 
council, chamberlain, master of the chase, 
and other officers. Any of the members 
conspicuous for a foible was created to 
some office or title in ridicule thereof. 
Thus a great lover of hunting was made 
' Master of the Chase,' a boaster was 
made ' Field Marshal.' But no one was 
allowed to chaff or ridicule these officers. 
At one time the order contained well-nigh 
all the court of Poland. The objects of 
the order were to promote charity, good 
feeling, and sociability, and to repress 
immorality and affectations of all kinds. 

Restitution Edict {The), 1630. i 
Published by Kaiser Ferdinand II., 
when the king of Denmark retired from j 
the Thirty Years' War. It enjoined i 



restitution to the Catholics of the two 
archbishoprics, the twelve bishoprics, 
and all the parish churches, lands, and 
other properties which had been confis- 
cated by Protestants since the ' Treaty 
of Passau.' Compliance with this edict 
was well-nigh impossible, so the Pro- 
testants applied to Gustavus Adolphus 
of Sweden, and thus begixn the second 
part of this long religious war. 

Restoration {The). 

I. In English history, 29 May, 1660. 
The restoration of monarchical govern- 
ment interrupted at the death of Charles I. 
by a Commonwealth. The old form was 
restored by the recall and return of 
Charles II., who had been living in exile. 

II. In French history. The restora- 
tion of Louis XVIII. to'the throne after 
the abdication of Napoleon and his 
banishment to Elba, 3 May, 1814. On 
21 March, 1815, Napoleon broke from 
Elba, and Louis XVIII. fled ; but after 
the battle of Waterloo Louis was re- 
stored a second time, and entered Paris 
8 July, 1815. 

Restorationists. A religious sect 
which believes that all persons will ulti- 
mately be restored, after a due time of 
purgaaon proportionate to their sins. 
Origen was a Restorationist. 

Restorer of Cities, and Father of 
his Country. Sancho I. of Portugal, who 
repaired the cities which had suffered 
greatly in the recent wars (1154, 1185- 
1212). 

Restorer of French Liberty 

{The). ' Le Restaurateur de la Liberte 
Fran^aise,' 13 Aug., 1789. A title con- 
ferred on Louis XVI. when he signed 
the 19 articles formulated on the 4th by 
the National Assembly. See ' August 4.' 

Restorer of Learning {The). 

Lorenzo de Medicis the Magnificent 
(1448-1492). Also caUed the ' Patron of 
the Fine Arts.' 

Restorer of Letters {The). Alex- 
ander Heigius of Westphalia (18th cent.). 

Restorer of the Protestantism 
of France {The). Antome Court 
(1696-1760). 

Restorers of Astronomy {TJie) 
JohnMiiller (better known as ' Regio- 
montanus,' q.v.), 1436-1476, and his pupil 
G^^org Purbach of Austria (1423-1461). 
3c 2 



756 



RESUMPTION 



KEVIVAL 



Resumption Bill {The), 1700 (11, 
12 Will. III. c. 2). For the resump- 
tion of grants of land in Ireland by 
William III. to foregners, as Keppel of 
Guelderland (Earl of Albemarle); William 
Bentinck, son of the Earl of Portland (a 
Dutch favourite of William's), created 
Viscount Woodstock ; Ginckel, another 
Dutchman, created Earl of Athlone ; and 
Ruvigny, a French Huguenot, created 
Earl of G-alway. To these four foreigners 
William gTanted above 300,000 acres of 
h nd in Ireland. The land was sold to the 
highest purchasers, and the money em- 
ployed in paying the arrears of the army. 

He granted also to Elizabeth Villiers, his mis- 
tress, above 95,000 acres, valued at -25,995/. a year ! 1 

The first duke of Portland was Henry Bentinck, 
1716. 

Resurrection {The). Tertullian 
saysthe Crucifixion occurred on 25 March, 
and the Calendar of the Arbuthnott 
Missal places the Resurrection on 27 
March. If so the year must have been 
A.D. 29, when 25 March fell on a Friday. 

Tertullian says that Christ suffered under Tibe- 
rius Cfesar in the consulate of Uubellius Gercinus 
and Fufius Geminus, in the month of March, at 
the time of the passover, on the 8th day before 
the Kalends of April [25 March], on the first day 
of unleavened bread, on which they slew the lamb 
at even.—AdreisusJudaos, c. 8. 

The next year on which 25 Blarch was Friday 
•was A.D. 40, and not again till A.D. 119, 124, 214, &c. 

Resurrection Men. Men who 

stole buried bodies out of cemeteries and 
churchyards, and sold them to surgeons 
for dissection. They were also called 
'body sn?.tcliers.' In 1829 Burke and 
Hare made themselves conspicuous by 
this infamous traffic, and added to it the 
sutfocation [burking] of living persons by 
strangulation, or smothering them by 
pitch-plasters placed over the mouth and 
nose. Bishop and Williams, in 1831, 
burked a poor Italian boy named Carlo 
Ferrari, and were both executed. 

Retreat of the 10,000 {The), 
B.C. 401-399. Conducted by Xenophon, 
the historian, who had joined the expedi- 
tion of Cyrus. In the battle of Cunaxa 
Cyrus lost his life, and the Greeks were 
left without a leader. Xenophon volun- 
teered to lead them back to Greece, and 
has left an historical narrative of this 
famous retreat, called Xenophon's Anab- 
asis. 

Return of the Heraeli'dse {The), 
B.C. 1103. The migration of the descend- 
ants of Heracles {Hercules) and the 



Dorians to the Peloponnesus, which they 
conquered. Heracles was promised the 
land of Argos by Zeus, but was kept out 
by Hera {Juno). Five times the de- 
scendants of Heracles attempted to take 
possession of the promised land, but were 
driven out four times. The fifth invasion 
was 110 years after the first by Hyllos, 
son of Heracles, and 80 years after the 
siege of Troy. It was completely suc- 
cessful, and the peninsula was divided 
by lot among the three leaders {Mythic 
History). 

Revised Bible {The). Published 
in May 1885. The Revised New Testa- 
ment was pubhshed 17 May, 1881. The 
work was begun 30 June, 1870, by twenty- 
five scholars, ten of whom died before 
the revision was completed, 20 June, 1884. 
The revisers had eighty-five sessions, 
which extended over fourteen years. 
See ' Bible.' 

There seems no likelihood that the Revised 
Bible will ever supersede the Authorised Ver- 
sion. Whatever its critical value, it is sadly 
defective in style, and is not to be compared to 
the older book in rhythm and simplicity. It is 
equally defective in arrangement, and we greatly 
miss the tables of contents at the heads of tho 
chapters. 

Revised Code of 1862 {The). By 
Lord Sherbrooke. The minutes of the 
Committee of Council established by 
government in 1846 on the education of 
the children of the labouring poor, with 
government grants based on ' results.' 

The three grades of the results are ' fair, good, 
and excellent,' as tested by government inspec- 
tors on examination, and the grant varies accord- 
ingly. In 1890 a change was made in the grant 
by results, by which 'cramming' was greatly 
checked, and general information was encour- 
aged. 

Revising Barrister {A). A bar- 
rister annually appointed by the English 
judges to revise the lists of voters for 
members of Parliament, and to settle who 
are qualified to vote. 

Revival in Belfast {The), 1859. 

A strange religious movement in which 
the preacher produced hysteria, especially 
among the mill girls. When any girl 
was ' struck ' the preacher evoked from 
her a wild continued scream, which of 
course was catching. Those struck were 
removed from the church to a darkened 
room, and there told 'what they had 
seen and heard.' This experience was 
in all cases a rigmarole based more or 
less on the Revelation 



EEVOCATION 



REVOLUTION 



757 



Revocation of the Edict of 

Nantes [The), 18, Oct., 1685. It pro- 
hibited all exercise of the reformed reli- 
gion in the kingdom of France. Pastors 
were to quit France within fifteen days ; 
if, however, they abjured, they were to 
be endowed with pensions one-third more 
than their previous salaries, with the 
reversion of one-third to their widows. 
If pastors wished to enter the legal pro- 
fession they might dispense with academic 
studies. Parents were forbidden to teach 
their children the refoi'med religion, and 
were to bring them to be baptized in the 
Catholic Church, under a penalty of 500 
livres (20^.) Refugees who did not re- 
turn within four months were to suffer 
confiscation of all their property. Re- 
formers caught in the act of emigrating 
were to be sent to the galleys (if men), 
and if women to be imprisoned for life. 

By the Edict of Nantes granted by Henri IV. 
Fn neh Protestants enjoyed full freedom of their 
religion and were placed on the game level in all 
civil rights as Catholic subjects. It was Louis 
XIV. who revoked this Edict, whereby 80,000 I'ro- 
testants fled the country, and 20,000 were slain or 
driven into the fields houseless and homeless. 

Revolt of Egypt [The), 1835. A 
large body of Egyptians ha\dng taken 
refuge in Syria in 1832, Mehemet Ali 
Bent his son Ibrahim to punish the pacha 
of Acre for taking them under his protec- 
tion. Ibrahim was wholly victorious, and, 
being opposed by a Turkish army, con- 
quered it and took the vizier prisoner. 
The great powers now interfered, and 
Syria was added to the pachalik of Egypt, 
but in 1840 Syria was restored to the 
Porte by the intervention of the great 
powers. 

Revolt of Hugh O ISTeill [The), 
1597-1599. After the death of Shane 
O'Neill, Hugh obtained the title of Earl 
of Tyrone. He was brought up in the 
English court, and was apparently in the 
queen's interest ; but immediately he re- 
turned to Munster he took up an attitude 
of open defiance and offered Ireland to 
the King of Spain. In 1597 he defeated 
the English forces in Tyrone, but in 1601 
he was obliged to surrender to Lord 
Mountjoy. Being brought to England, 
O'Neill was pardoned, retired to Brussels 
in 1607, and died at Rome in 1616, 

Revolt of the Desmonds, in 

Ireland, 1579. Rome and Spain thinking 
Ireland oppressed by Queen Elizabeth, 
and hoping, through Ireland, to overthrow 



the great heretic queen, landed on the 
shores of Kerry a force of 700 men, which 
was supported by the Earl of Desmond. 
The invaders were cut to pieces at Smer- 
wick, and Desmond declared a traitor. 
He was discovered in a hovel, and put to 
death by his pursuers. 

There is a well-known legend that this old man 
is not dead, but keeps his state under the waters of 
Lough Gur, and that every seventh year he re- 
appears fully armed, rides round the lake early in 
the morning, and will ultimately return in the 
flesh to claim his own again. 

Revolution [The American), 1775. 
By which the United States of America 
threw off their dependence on Great 
Britain. 

Revolution [The Glorious), 1G88, in 
English history means the accession of 
William III., whereby the Stuart dynasty 
was set aside, and a new dynasty intro- 
duced. 

William III. was grandson of Charles I., his 
mother being Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I. 
He married :\Iary, eldest daughter of James II. So 
that the choice of the nation fell on these two 
from their alliance to the Stuarts both by blood 
and marriage; but James II. was alive, and his 
son and grandson were set aside. On the death of 
William without offspring Anne, another daughter 
of James II., succeeded. 

Revolution [The Great French), 
1789-1794. A great reaction against 
absolutism, which began with the de- 
struction of the Bastille. The king, 
Louis XVI., was beheaded 21 Jan., 1793. 
The Christian religion was set aside, and 
the worship of Reason substituted in its 
place. The Revolution terminated with 
the death of Robespierre. 

Revolution [The Italian), 1859- 
1860. In which the various minor sove- 
reigns of Italy were driven into exile, and 
the whole Italian peninsula (except the 
Roman and Venetian territory) was sub- 
jected to "one ruler styled the 'King of 
Italy.' 

The Roman and Venetian territories were added 
subsequently— the Venetian States in Oct. 1806, 
after the Seven Weeks' War ; and the Papal States 
in Oct. 1870. 

Revolution ( Victims of the French). 
Prudhomrae gives the following statistics: 
18,603 nobles, priests, artisans, and others; 
that is 13,623 commoners, 1,467 wives of 
operatives, 1,278 nobles, 1,125 priests, 
750 noblewomen, and 350 religieuses. 
Besides these 18,603 persons guillotined, 
we have 403,748 destroyed in various 
ways at Vendee, Nantes, Lyons, &c. Of 
these the victims of Vendee were 337,000, 



753 



EEVOLUTIQN 



BHAPSODISTS 



of Carrier at Nantes 32,000, of Lyons 
31,000 ; of women who died of grief, &c. 
3,748. This does not include those mas- 
sacred at Versailles, the Abbaye, the 
Carmelites, the September victims, the 
victims of the Glaciere d'Avignon, of 
Toulon, of Marseilles, and the whole town 
of Bedouin. 

Revolution of Denmark {The), 
8 Sept., 1660. By this revolution the 
kings of Denmark, who had hitherto 
been feudal chiefs, elected and controlled 
by the barons, were made hereditary and 
unlimited sovereigns, both in the male 
and female line. By the constitution 
granted by Frederick III., in 1665, the 
monarch of Denmark was declared to be 
hereditary and absolute, holding the 
whole legislative, executive, and judicial 
power of the state. It vested in him the 
unlimited power of appointing all public 
offices and dignities; of commanding the 
forces of the kingdom by sea and land; of 
making war, peace, and alliances. It gave 
him the supreme jurisdiction in ecclesi- 
astical affairs, subject only to the obliga- 
tion of professing the Protestant religion 
as expounded by the Confession of Augs- 
burg. 

Revolution of February {The), 

1848. By which the Orleans dynasty was 
overthrown in France. Eighteen years 
before (1830) the Bourbon dynasty in 
the person of Charles X. had been over- 
thrown. The revolution of 1848 occurred 
on 22, 23, 24 Feb. ; on the last of these 
three days Louis Philippe fled from Paris, 
and abdicated. See p. 538, ' Louis- 
Philippe.' 
Revolution of July {The), 1830, 

when Charles X. was obliged to flee from 
Paris, and abdicate. 

Revolution of the 17th Cent., 

1060, began with the restoration of 
Charles 11. It transferred the crown 
from Cromwell and his party to Charles ; 
it transferred the power of the crown 
from the king to the House of Commons ; 
it overthrew Puritanism and introduced 
freedom of religious thought ; it changed 
the manners and customs of the nation; 
it changed the fashion of dress and do- 
mestic life ; it even introduced the study 
of experimental philosophy in place of 
dogmatism and tradition. 

Revolution Society (T/ie), 1792. 
A society numbering many of the highest 



names in the Whig aristocracy, which 
met on the 4th Nov. to celebrate the 
anniversary of the landing of William III. 
This society sent a glowing address to the 
French National Assembly, which was 
carried over by Lord Stanhope and 
Dr. Price. In their address they vowed 
that they 'would never again fight with 
France at the command of any despot.' 

The 4th Nov. was William's day. Ho was born 
4 Nov., IGoO ; he took Bonn 4-12 Nov., 1(>7;.' ; he mar- 
ried the Princess Mary 4 Nov., 1677 ; and the 
4th Nov. was the anniversary of his landing at 
Torbay in 1688. 

Revolutionary Army {The), 
Sept. 1793. A Parisian guard, raised by 
the Convention at the instigation of Ba- 
rere, to clear Paris of all enemies of the 
Republic, or (in other words) to massacre 
all who differed in opinion from the leaders 
of the revolution. The property of these 
victims was seized and confiscated to the 
state. 

Revolutionary Committees 

(1793) were appointed by the Convention 
to act under the Committee of Public 
Safety, to receive denunciations and re- 
port them. See ' Revolutionary Tribunal.' 

Revolutionary Parties in 
France between '93 and '95. See 
' Partis en France.' 

Revolutionary Tribunal {The), 

March 1793. A court of judgment insti- 
tuted by the French Convention {q.v.) to 
quash conspiracies against the revolu- 
tionary government. This infamous 
court sat in judgment on all persona 
accused of disaffection to the state. Dur- 
ing the Reign of Terror, when Fouquier 
Tinville was ' public accuser,' it acquired 
a horrible notoriety, being a mere official 
tool in the hands of Robespierre. 

Revolver Boys, about 1885. Irish 
moonlighters, land-leaguers, and others, 
supplied with revolvers to shoot at those 
obnoxious to the secret societies. Gene- 
rally the legs were aimed at. See * Irish 
Associations.' 

Rex G-entis Anglorum. The 

over-king of the English heptarchs,the first 
being Hengist king of Kent (457), and the 
last Egbert king of Wessex (who in 827 
became bretwalda or king of all England). 
Rhapsodists. Greek minstrels who 
wandered from place to place reciting in 
musical chant the epic ballads of Homer 
and other poets. After Peisistratos re- 



RHODE 



EICE 



759 



duced the Homeric ballads into a con- 
nected epic, the occupation of the rhapso- 
dists rapidly declined. 

A rhapsody means a single canto, ballad, or 
part, suitable for one sitting or entertainment. 

Rhode Island (U.S. America). So 
named, in 1663, from the isle of Rhodes 
in the Mediterranean. There seems no 
special reason for this name, but it is so 
called in the charter of Charles II. An 
old nickname of the people is Gunflints. 

Rhodian Law [The], The earliest 
known code of marine law ; it was com- 
piled by the Rhodians about B.C. 900. 
Probably the marine laws of Justinian 
were based on the Rhodian code. 

Rhodian School of Sculpture 

[The). Famous for (1) the Colossus, by 
Chares, one of the seven wonders of the 
world ; (2) the Laocoon group, by Ages- 
ander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus ; and 
(3) the Farnesian bull, in the museum of 
Naples. This group represents Zethus 
and Amphion binding Dirce to a wild bull 
in order to revenge their mother. It was 
the work of Apollonius and Tauriscus, 
and was discovered in 1546. Called 
Farnesian because it was set up in the 
palace of Farnese at Rome. 

Rhone of Christian Eloquence 

{The). St. Hilary (a.d. 800-368), bishop 
of Poitiers. 

Rhuddlan {Statute of), 10 Edw. I. 
1282. In Rhuddlan (North Wales) Ed- 
ward I. held a parliament, which secured 
to the Welsh certain rights ; and in this 
town, in 1284, the infant Edward was 
acknowledged as ' the Prince of Wales.' 
The statute of Rhuddlan is the statute 
confirming to the Welsh the rights con- 
ferred on them by Edward I. Amongst 
other grants conferred by this statute, 
Anglesey was erected into a county. 

It is said that Edward was born at Carnarvon. 

Rialto {The) of Venice. A contrac- 
tion of Bivo alto, the deep stream. First 
the name of an island in the Lagune, 
called ' Isola di Rialto ' ; then of the 
bridge called ' II Ponte di Rialto,' con- 
necting the island with the opposite 
shore ; and lastly of the exchange called 
the Rialto which stands on the island, 
and is so familiar from Shakespeare's 
* Merchant of Venice.' 

Ribalds {The), 1189. A militia 
raised by Philippe II. Auguste of France. 



The captain was called the ' king of the 
Ribalds,' united by Charles V. of France 
to the ' Provost of the Hotel.' Disbanded 
on account of their unbridled licentious- 
ness. 

Kibalds or Ribauds, from the Latin ripalis, from 
ripa, a banker border. The licentiousness of these 
soldiers gave birth to our word ribald, obscene. 

Prof. Skeat derives ribald from the French 
riber, to dally with women. 

Ribbonism. The political prin- 
ciples of the Ribbonmen of Ireland. See 

next article. 

Ribbonmen, 1808. A secret asso- 
ciation among the lowest classes in Ire- 
land opposed to the Orange confedera- 
tion. It originated in Armagli, spreading 
into Down, Antrim, Tyrone, Mon'aghan, 
and Fermanagh (where Protestants most 
abounded), but either under the same or 
some other name it had affiliated societies 
in King's County, Queen's County, Meath, 
Louth, and Tipperary. The members 
had their secret signs and pass-words, 
and though at first confined to the lowest 
classes, embraced later on farm-labourers, 
artisans, and even clergymen and mer- 
chants. The main object of the society 
was to prevent landlords from evicting 
or changing their tenants, or new tenants 
from taking the farms of evicted tenants. 
' Tenant right ' or fixity of tenure was 
also an essential part of their demand 
which they determined to carry out to 
the death ; and general interference be- 
tween employers and the employed. Rib- 
bonism was suppressed by Act of Parlia- 
ment in 1871, but only to break out again 
under some other name. From 1840 it 
was in the fullest operation. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

It is supposed that the name refers to soma 
badge worn by the members. 

The Ribbonmen apparently branched from the 
'Defenders,' a Catholic couiiterorganisal ion to 
the Orangemen, who were Protestants, and are so 
Still. 

The Defenders being proclaimed changed their 
name in 1806 into ' Thre.'^hers,' who for the most 
part appeared in Sligo, Mayo, Leitrim, Longford, 
and Ca'van. 

Next appear the Ribbonmen in 1808, first in 
Armagh, and thence spreading north and north- 
west. 

Other societies sprang up in other parts of Ire- 
land, i.e.— 

The Cardf.ys in East and West Meath, Ros- 
common, and part of Mayo, 

The Shanuvt'sU and Citiavats In Tipperary, Kil- 
kenny, Cork, and Limerick. 

The Phi'iiicians, the Biotkerhood of St. Patrick, the 
Fenians, &c. follow in rapid succession. See each 
of these. 

Rice Christians. Hindus and 
Chinese who profess to be converted for 



760 



EICHARD 



RICHMONDISM 



the sake of the rice given by the mis- 
sionaries to converts. Followers of 
Christ, not for his doctrines, but for the 
loaves and fishes. 



Richard CoBur de Lion. 
Richard I.' 



See 



of Bordeaux. See 



Richard 

' Richard II.' 

Richard surnamed Crook- 
back. See ' Richard III.' 

Richard I., surnamed ' Coeur de 
Lion ' for his great daring and courage 
in the Holy Land during the crusade 
against Saladin. He was the third son 
of Henry II. of England, and married 
Berengaria, daughter of Sancho, king of 
Navarre, but had no lawful issue. 
Richard I. was the first to adopt the 
words ' Dei gratia ' before his titles. His 
style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex Anglise et 
dux Normandiae et Aquitaniae [Guienne], 
et comes Andegaviae [Anjou].' 

When he travelled through Germany from the 
Holy Land, he assumed the name of Hugh the 
Merchant. 

The youth who shot him with an arrow dis- 
charged from the castle of Chaluz was Bertrand 
de Gurdun or Gourdon. Being asked why he shot 
the king, the lad replied, ' Because he slew my 
father and two brothers.' Richard commanded 
that Bertrand should be set free, but Marcadee, 
leader of the Braban?ons, flayed him alive, and 
then hanged him. 

Richard II., of England, called 
' Bordeaux,' because he was born there 
(1366, reigned 1377-1399, died 1400). He 
was the only son of the Black Prince and 
the Fair Maid of Kent (his wife). Richard 
II. married twice, but left no issue. His 
first wife was Anne of Luxembourg, 
daughter of the kaiser-king Karl IV., 
aged 15. His second wife was a mere 
child of 7, viz. Isabelle, daughter of 
Charles VI. of France. 

His style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex 
Angliae et Franciae, et dominus Hibernise.' 

It is generally asserted that when Richard was 
deposed he was imprisoned in Pontefract Castle, 
and murdered there or starved to death ; but it 
has been also said that he made his escape, and 
lived many years disguised as an ordinary man. 
They say that the person exhibited to the people 
as the deceased king was his chaplain, Maudelain. 
This rumour was still rife in the reign of Henry V., 
whefi Thomas de Trumpington, in 1415, was in- 
duced to palm himself off as the deposed king. 

In 1402 the French court sent Creton, the page 
of Richard II., into Scotland to ascertain if 
Richard was indeed alive, and Creton declared the 
Scotch Richard to be an undoubted impostor. The 
French ordinance for the payment of Crston still 
exists, and may be seen in the Archseologia. Sarla 
before ho was executed confessed that the Scotch 
Richard was Thomas Warde, Richard's court fool. 



Richard III., of England, surnamed 
' Crookback ' (1452, 1483-1485), was the 
younger brother of Edward IV., and 
uncle of Edward V., whom he succeeded. 
He married Anne, widow of Edward 
prince of Wales (son of Henry VI.), and 
was slain in the battle of Bosworth Field. 

His style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex 
Angliae et Franciae, et dominus Hiberniae.' 

Edward III.'s third son was Lionel, who had a 
daughter named Philippa. Philippa married Ed- 
ward Mortimer, and tlieir son was Roger Morti- 
mer. 

Roger Mortimer's daughter (Lady Anne) married 
Richard (son of Edmund duke of York), and their 
son was the famous lUohard duke of York, 'the 
AVhite Rose,' slain in the battle of Wakefield, 
leaving behind him two sons, Edwakd IV. and 
Richard III. 

Whether Richard III. had a ' crookback ' is very 
doubtful. Shakespeare makes him deformed, but 
this might be out of flattery to Queen Elizabeth, 
who was of the Lancastrian or lied Rose House. 
Stowe says of Richard III., ' He was comely 
enough, though low of stature.' 

Richard IV., of England. Peter 
or Perkin Warbeck, who was put forward 
to personate Richard duke of York, 
younger son of Edward IV., and one of 
the two princes murdered in the Tower 
of London in 1492. Charles VIII. of 
France received the pretender as the true 
prince and paid him regal honours (1492)/ 
Margaret duchess of Burgundy acknow- 
ledged him as her nephew in 1493; James 
IV. of Scotland received him as the 
prince, and gave him to wife Lady Cathe- 
rine Gordon, granddaughter of James I. 
(1493). ' Richard ' invaded England in 
1496, and assumed the royal title of 
Richard IV. (7 Sept. 1497), but he soon 
surrendered, and was committed to the 
Tower in Oct. 1497. He made his escape 
on 9 June, 1498, was retaken and put to 
death 23 Nov., 1499. His wife Lady 
Catherine received an appointment in 
the queen's household, was three times 
married, and died at Fyfield, Berks, 1537. 

It is said that Perkin Warbeck was son of John 
Warbeck, or Osbeck, a renegade Jew of Tournaye, 
with whom Edward IV. did business. Some, how- 
ever, maintain that he was the son of Edward IV. 
and the beautiful Catherine de Faro. Without 
doubt he bore a striking likeness to the king. 

Rlchmondism. That the higher 
the price of corn the higher will be the 
wages of agricultural labourers. This 
was an axiom of the Chartists. When 
Joseph Lankaster, in 1844, was arrested 
for setting fire to wheat-stacks in order 
to raise the price of wages, the act was 
called bv the free-traders ' Riclimondism 
put in practice.' 



RICIMER 



EIGHTS 



761 



Ricimer. A Roman general of Sue- 
vian origin, grandson of Walha the Goth. 
He rose to the highest rank, and for 
eighteen years was the ' king-maker ' of 
the west. In 456 he dethroned Avitus 
and gave the crown to Majorian. Ma- 
jorian being assassinated in 461, Ricimer 
gave the purple to Libius Severus (467), 
and married his daughter. In 472 (Se- 
verus being murdered) Ricimer placed 
Olybius on the throne. But the king- 
maker died forty weeks afterwards. 

In the decrepitude of the western empire .... 
the Ricimers and Odoacers put up and pulled down 
at pleasure a succes!-ion of insignificant princes, 
dignified with the names of ' Caesar ' and ' Au- 
gustus.'— Prince, Paralli'l HUtorij, vol. ii. p. 627. 

Riding the Marches. 'Beating 
the bounds ' of a parish. Saxon mearc, 
a boundary. 

RidleyHall, Cambridge, 1882. For 
training young men in the ' evangelical 
principles ' of the Church of England. 

Rienzi the Tribune (1310-1354). 
A man of mean birth invited by Pope 
Clement VI. to Rome, then in a state of 
anarchy. Rienzi proclaimed in 1347 a 
new constitution, drove away the turbu- 
lent barons, and put a stop to brigandage. 
He then received the title of Tribune 
with dictatorial power, and formed a 
design of making all Italy one united 
republic. He lost his popularity and was 
driven from Rome in 1348, returned in 
1352, but was slain in 1354 in an insur- 
rection. 

Right and Fact, 1653. This dis- 
tinction arose from a book called ' Augus- 
tlnus ' by Cornelius Jansen, who died in 
1638, just as the book was finished. The 
Jesuits condemned the book, and Urban 
VIII. px'onounced it heretical. The 
friends of the book admitted that the 
five propositions condemned as heretical 
were in point of right justly condemned, 
but declared that in point of /ac^ no such 
doctrines were taught or could be deduced 
from the book in question. That is, the 
doctrines condemned by the bull were 
heretical doctrines, but they were not the 
doctrines taught in Jansen's book. 

In consequence of the bull of Urban VIII. a gainst 
' the five propositions,' the Jansenists miiintained 
that though the pope is infallible in points ot faith, 
' ble 



he is not infallible in points of fact. 



In 



Right, Left, Centre {The). 
the French Parliament. The Right, i.e. 
the conservatives or landed gentry. The 



Left, i.e. the rich wine merchants and 
other radicals. The Centre, i.e. the 
moderate party or Laodiceans. 

Right-boys, 1787. An offshoot of 
the White-boys or agi-arian rebels, who 
rose in defence of Irish 'rights,' and 
waged uncompromising war for a time 
against the exaction of tithes from 
Roman Catholics in support of the 
Anglican church in Ireland, and against 
various grievances comiected with the 
tenure of lands. See '-Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

Right Honourable. Honourable 
by legal right. The younger children of 
earls and the children of viscounts and 
barons are called ' Honourable,' but have 
no legal right to the peerage. A peer, 
being Right Honourable, has such a right. 
Members of the privy council, even if com- 
moners, and the mayors of London and 
York are right honourable because they 
are lords ex officio, and not by courtesy 
only. The former are, by right of office, 
' Lords of H.M. Privy Council,' and the 
latter are by legal right ' lord mayors of 
London and York.' 

Not only members of the privy council, but all 
who have been members. The Lord Mayor of 
Dublin and the Lord Provost of Edinburgh are 
also called ' Right Honourable." 

Right of "Way. The right of passing 
over or through the grounds of another 
person, as over a path in a field or park 
which has been tacitly permitted by im- 
memorial usage. 

It is still thought in some places that a funeral 
procession passing over a field gives a right of 
way. I know a village where the man who walks 
at the head of the procession sticks a pin in the 
gate-post by way of fee or acknowledgment that 
there is no free ' right of way ' through the field. 

Rights {The Bill of). The statute 
1 "William and Mary, st. 2, chap. 2, 
A.D. 1689, in which is embodied the 
Declaration of Rights presented by both 
houses to William and Mary in the 
banqueting-house at Whitehall, 13 Feb., 
1689. The bill contains thirteen clauses: 

(1) No law shall be suspended or held in 
abeyance without consent of parliament ; 

(2) it is illegal for the crown to dispense 
with a law or suspend its operation ; (3) 
courts of commission for ecclesiastical 
causes are illegal ; (4) it is illegal to levy 
money by royal prerogative or without 
consent of parliament ; (5) subjects shall 
have free right to petition the king ; (6) 
it is illegal to keep a standing array with- 



702 



EIGHTS 



EINGAN 



out consent of parliament ; (7) Pro- 
testants may carry arms in self-defence ; 
(8) elections for members of parliament 
shall be free and unrestrained ; (9) free- 
dom of debate shall not be tampered 
with ; (10) excessive bail and excessive 
fines are illegal ; (11) jurors shall be duly 
empanelled and returned, only free- 
holders shall be jurors for high treason ; 

(12) fines before conviction are illegal; 

(13) parliaments shall be called together 
frequently. N.B. It transferred the 
sovereignty from the king to the House 
of Commons. See ' Petition of Rights.' 

Rights of Man {The), 1795. Pub- 
lished by the Batavian Republic. 

1. All men are born with equal 
rights. 

2. Each man has a right to serve God 
or not as he chooses 

3. All the men of a state are eligible 
to office in that state. 

4. Every functionary ought to give an 
account of his administration. 

5. The people have a right to choose 
and change their rulers and magistrates. 

Rights of Man {The Society of 
the), 1791. The name adopted by the 
club of the Cordeliers, after Bailly, the 
mayor, shut them out of their hall, 
because Danton denounced both him 
[BaillyJ and Lafayette as traitors. The 
members removed to the Paris tennis- 
court and changed their name. 

RimbecCO. The reproach by the 
relatives of a murdered man that the 
next akin has not followed up the blood- 
feud according t9 the custom of the 
vendetta. In Genoa the uttering of such 
reproach was punishable, but in Corsica 
the vendetta is considered so sacred a 
duty that the rimbecco is practically 
unknown. 

Ring. At Rome the different orders 
of citizens were distinguished by a ring ; 
in the early days of the republic only 
senators wore rings of gold, subsequently 
knights wore them, and later on anyone 
who chose wore one or more of them. 
Slaves wore an iron ring. The man in 
marriage gives the bride a ring to show 
that he confides in her the seal of his 
rights in his possessions. A ring with 
the cross is the symbol of pastoral 
power; it is given by the pope to car- 
dinals, archbishops, and bishops ; some- 
times the ring is enchased with an 



amethyst. The pope's ring, called the 
' Fisher's Ring,' with which he signs his 
briefs, has the image of St. Peter sitting 
in his boat. At the death of the pope 
the ring is broken. 

Ring {A), Juvenal, speaking of 
Hannibal, says — 

No sword his death, no dart, nor such- 
like thing. 
Rings he at Cannae reaj)ed, his death a 
ring. 

At the battle of Cannae 5,630 Roman 
knights were slain, and three bushels of 
gold rings were sent to Carthage (b.c. 
216). In 183 the great hero poisoned 
himself with the contents of a ring which 
he wore. 

Ring and Crozier, 1052. First 
given to a bishop on his consecration by 
Kaiser Heinrich III. as a symbol of 
investiture {q.v.). After the settlement of 
the moot point of investiture, the pope 
invested the bishop with ring and crozier, 
and the king invested him with a sceptre. 
See ' Hallam,' vol. ii. p. 266. 

Ring-money. A very ancient 
coinage in use with the Egyptians. 
Caesar mentions both gold and iron 
rings as used in Gaul and Britain for 
money. Sometimes a number of these 
rings were strung together into a chain, 
one or more being detached when re- 
quired in payment of service. In 1805 
a silver chain of thirty-three such rings 
was dug up near Inverness, and is now 
in the museum of the Scottish Anti- 
quaries. 

Ring of the Fisherman {The). 
The papal official seal. See ' Ring.' 

Rings. Military encampments. Low 
Latin, rinca or ringa. The Avars lived 
in camps called rings, because they were 
disposed in concentric circles, and when 
Charlemagne in 796 exterminated these 
Huns, he took possession of their rings, 
where he found rich plunder which they 
had been accumulating for many years. 

Rings of the Avars {The). 
Wooden fortifications which encompassed 
their villages and districts. Destroyed 
by Charlemagne, a.d. 796. 

Ringan {St.), i.e. St. Ninian. 

Their devotion to tliis church of St. Ninian, or, 
as she was popularly termed, St. llingau.— Sir W, 
Scott, The i'imte, chap. xxv. 



EIPAILLE 



ROBEKVALLIAN 



763 



Kipaille Fraternity (The). A 
brotherhood of aged knights founded by 
Amadeus VIII., noted for their luxurious 
living, and giving rise to the phrase 
/aire ripaille, to live jollily. Ripaille is 
the chateau of Savoy, and the Duke 
Amadeus was afterwards Pope Felix V. 
He abdicated his dukedom in 1434, when 
he retired to Ripaille, and left it when 
he was pope, 1440-1449. 

RitcMe's Act {Mr.), 1888. The 
Local Government Act, of which Mr. 
Ritchie was the sponsor. See p. 220, 
' County Councils, 1889,' and p. 529, ' Lo- 
cal Government Act.' 

Ritual or Pastoral {The). A book 
containing directions for all the pastoral 
duties of the inferior clergy of the Roman 
Catholic Church, such as the administra- 
tion of the sacraments and the celebra- 
tion of the daily services. The book, 
wliich contains all that pertains to the 
celebration of the mass, is usually called 
the Missal. The two chief rituals are 
those of Rome and Paris. See ' Cere- 
monial ' and ' Pontifical.' 

Ritualisni now means that stricter 
observance of church rites and cere- 
monies introduced by what is called the 
' Oxford Party,' or ' High Church.' See 
p. 421, and ' Tractarians.' 

Ritualism abjured. In 1890 was 
introduced in Suffolk the ' Besom Pledge,' 
to sweep from the land ritualism and 
Romanism. Tlie phrase was suggested 
by the words of Isaiah, ' I will sweep it 
with the besom of destruction.' 

River of Paradise {The). St. 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091-1153). 
Also called the ' Mellifluous Doctor.' 

Robber Synod {The), a.d. 449. A 
council held at Ephesus against Fla- 
vianus. This council declared in favour 
of Eutychianism, and was called Latro- 
cinium, or the Assembly of Thieves and 
Robbers. 

Robbers of the Bristol Mail 

{The). John Hawkins and George Symp- 
son, executed on Hounslow Heath, 1722. 

Robe {The), worn by Jesus at the 
crucifixion (John xix. 23). Two robes 
claim pre-eminence — viz. ' the holy robe 
of Treves ' and ' the holy robe of Argen- 
teuil.' The former is by far the mora 



delicate fabric, the latter being a tissue 
of goat's hair without seam. We are 
told that the robe of Treves was the one 
worn as a shirt, and that of Argenteuil 
was the tunic for which the soldiers cast 
lots. Gregory of Tours tells us that this 
tunic was bought of the soldier who won 
the lot, and, being packed in a wooden 
box, was sent to Galatia, then removed 
for safety to Jaffa, then to Jerusalem. 
When Jerusalem was taken by the Per- 
sians, this tunic was removed to Persia ; 
then, in 627, to Constantinople. It was 
given by Irene empress of Constantinople 
to Charlemagne, who sent it in 800 to his 
daughter Theodrada abbess of Argenteuil. 
A cure of Argenteuil cut the robe into 
several pieces, so that it is not now pos- 
sible to piece the parts together. 

The White Bohe in which the soldiers 
of Herod arrayed Jesus is said to be at 
Venice. 

The Purple, or Scarlet Bobe, in which 
he was ai'rayed by the Roman soldiers, 
was divided (we are told) between the 
churches of St. Francis of Philip Anagni, 
St. John Lateran, and Santa Maria Mag- 
giore. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 

Moscow claims to have a robe of Christ, and so 
do several other places, as St. Prassada, Rome. St. 
Eoch. &c. 

Christ is always represented in the Gospels as a 
very poor man. but the shirt of Treves is that of 
a prince, and must have been of fabulous price. 
The same inconsistency is remarkable in nume- 
rous other sacred ' relics.' 

Robe of the Disdain {The). A 
robe given to the court-bard of Wales, at 
Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. The 
bard sat next to the prefect of the palace 
and received from him his harp. When, 
however, the bard sang to the troops be- 
fore a battle, the king himself handed to 
him his harp, and the queen a gold ring. 

Robes of State. Peers have the 
privilege of wearing in parliament robes 
of scarlet cloth, differenced by bars of 
ermine. Dukes have 4 bars on each 
side ; Mabquises have 4 bars on the right 
side and 3 on the left ; Eakls have 3 bars 
on each side, but Viscounts and Babons 
have on each side 2 rows of plain white 
fur, not ermine. 

Robert Emmett. See 'Sons of 
Freedom.' 

Robervallian Lines, 1646. Cer- 
tain curves in geometry, invented by 
Gilles Persone de Roberval, delimiting 



764 



EOBESPIERRE'S 



ROI 



the boundaries of lines infinitely extended 
in length, yet equal to other spaces which 
are terminated on all sides. 

Robespierre's Soldiers, 1794, 
The French soldiers were so called by 
foreign potentates, intimating that Robes- 
pierre was virtually king of France. 
The term occurs in a proclamation by the 
Duke of York. 

Robespierre's ^^eavers, 1793. 
The rowdy women, consisting of fishwives 
and other females of the lowest grade, 
who joined Henriot's sans-culottes 
called the Parisian Guard. This miscel- 
laneous riff-raff lined all the avenues of 
the chamber during the session of the 
National Assembly, and never ceased 
yelling ' Down with the Girondists ! ' 

Robin Bluestring. Sir Robert 
Walpole (1676-1745), so called because as 
knight of the garter he wore a blue 
ribbon. He was also called the ' Grand 
Corruptor,' because bribery was practised 
by him on all occasions. 

Robin Hood's Day. 1 May, the 
anniversary of the death of Robin Hood 
(1247). 

Robin of Redesdale, Robert 
Hilyard, an insurgent in the reign of 
Edward IV.; executed in 1469. He 
seems to have been a political tool of the 
Nevilles, who played him off against the 
Woodvilles. 

Robinsonians, Followers of John 
Robinson of Leyden, a puritan divine 
(1575-1625). He seceded from the Church 
of England in 1604 ; escaped to Amster- 
dam in 1608 ; removed to Leyden in 1609 ; 
and conducted the service at the embark- 
ation of the Filgrim Fathers, 21 July, 
1620. 

The Robinsonians were only semi-Separatists, 
the Brownists were rigid Separatists. 

Rob Roy. Robert king of free- 
booters was Robert M'Gregor Campbell, 
a Highland chief, born about 1657, and 
died after 1733. 

Rock of Lamentation (The). 
Craigchonichen, in Kincardine, where the 
Marquisof Montrose fought his last battle, 
April 1650. 

Rockites, in Ireland. Followers of 
* Captain Rock,' a name assumed by the 
leader of the Irish insurgents in 1822. 



Letters so signed were sent to persons 
opposed or obnoxious to the league, 
threatening death, or personal injury, or 
loss of property, unless the person ad- 
dressed subscribed to the league, or did 
something specified, or forbore to do 
something. The threats held out were 
not vain words, and a warning from 
' Captain Rock ' was a real terror. The 
Rockites made themselves conspicuous in 
the sanguinary tithe- war {q.v.) 1830-1832. 
See p. 455, * Irish Associations.' 

Rogation Days prescribed by the 
first Council of Orleans in 511 are the 
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday pre- 
ceding Ascension Day. The term means 
the Days of Supplication, and on these 
days the Catholic Church enjoins that the 
Litanies be recited or sung in public pro- 
cession. In the Anglican Church the days 
are only faintly observed ; but ' Beating 
the Bounds,' or the 'Perambulation of 
Parishes ' was very general to the middle 
of the 19th cent., and even still survives 
in some parts of Great Britain. 

ROi^ations {Day of the), 10 May, 
1790 (French history). The day selected 
by the Municipal Council to visit the con- 
vents about to be suppressed. Extinct. 

Rogations [Fete of the), a.d. 474. 
Instituted by St. Mamert bishop of 
Vienne, in Dauphine, to invoke God's 
blessings on the fruits of the earth. It is 
celebrated three days before the Ascen- 
sion. 

Roger Bold. Robert Harley first 
Earl of Oxford of the name of Harley 
(1661-1724). 

The De Veres were created earls of Oxford in 
the reign of Stephen, and the earldom became ex- 
tinct in 1702 on the death of Aubrey de Vere, the 
twentieth earl. 

Rogue-money, Scotland. Imposed 
by 11 Geo. 11. c. 28 (1737), and abolished 
in 1868. It was an annual cess for de- 
fraying the expenses of apprehending 
offenders, maintaining them in gaol, and 
prosecuting them. 

Roi Panade. Louis XVIII. of 
France (1755, 1814-1824). 

A panade is a pipkin for babies' pap. 

Roi de Paques. The boy or man 
who draws by lot the bean in the Twelfth- 
night cake. This person is ' king ' for the 
nonce, according to the rules of the game. 



KOI 



EOLLIAD 



765 



The word pdque in this case means the 
Epiphany, the ' Pascua de Epifania.' 

Roi de Th^^tre {Un). Joachim 
Murat king of Naples, who used to parade 
the streets of Naples in silks and satins, 
like a stage-king (1771-1815). 

Roi des Halles {Le). Francois de 
Vendome due de Beaufort (1616-1669), 
grandson of Henri IV. and Gabrielle 
d'Estrees, idolised by the common people, 
and one of the leaders of the Fronde 
against the court party. 

Roi des Versailles [Le). Nick- 
name of M. Thiers the French historian 
(1797-1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' 

Rois Chevelures (Les). The 
long-haired kings. So the successors of 
Clodion in Gaul were designated. Clodion 
introduced from Germany the custom of 
wearing long hair. 

It will be remembered that Homer calls the 
magnates of the confederate Greek armiy ' the 
Lontjhaired Greeks.' St. Paul denounces long 
hair for men (1 Cor. xi. 14). 

Rois FaiiK^ants (Les), 638-742. 
Clovis II. and his ten successors. These 
worthless kings were all parents at 15, 
and old men at 30, to which age only one 
of them attained. Clotaire IV. died at 
the age of 12 ; Clovis III. and Dagobert 
III. at 15 ; Clotaire III. at 18 ; Chilpe'ric 

II. at 20 ; Clovis II. at 23 ; Thierry IV. 
at 25 ; Childebert 11. at 28 ; and Thierry 

III. was the only one who outlived the 
age of 30. 

Louis v., the last of the Carlovingian kings, was 
also surnamed ' Le Faineant.' 

Roll of Arms (The). An heraldic 
record of arms which goes back to the 
reign of Henry III. The original vellum 
roll is lost, but a copy made in 1586 by 
Glover, Somerset herald, is preserved in 
the English College of Arms. 

Roll of Caerlaverock (The). An 
heraldic poem in Norman French, reciting 
the names and arms of the knights pre- 
sent at the siege of Caerlaverock in 1300. 

Roll of Court. The court-roll in a 
manor, wherein the business of the court, 
the admissions, surrenders, names, rents, 
and services of the tenants, are copied 
and enrolled. 

Rolls {Master of the). * Magister 
Eotulorum.' The chief of a body of officers 
called ' Masters of Chancei-y.' He is 



judge of the Equity court, and ranks 
next to the Lord Chancellor. The Master 
of the Rolls has the keeping of the rolls 
and grants which pass the great seal, 
and the records of Chancery. Since 
1838 he has been charged with the direc- 
tion of the Public Record Office. 

Rolls Court {The). The Chancery 
Court of the Master of the Rolls in 
Chancery Lane. The house was origi- 
nally called Domus Conversuruvi, being 
appointed by Henry III. for the use of 
converted Jews; but Edward II. con- 
verted it into a place for the custody of 
the rolls. In 1838 the Mastev of the 
Rolls was placed in charge of the Public 
Record Office, and under his superinten- 
dence have been translated, printed, and 
published a large number of MS. rolls ; 
a magnificent historic work, which still 
goes on with great judgment and activity. 

Rolls of Court {The). In Scotch 
law. The lists of causes depending on 
the Court of Session. 

Rolls of Parliament. The MS. 

registers of the proceedings of our old 
parliament. 

Rolls of the Exchequer. Rolls 

relating to the revenue of the country. 

Rolls of the King's Court {The). 
Reports of legal processes from the 
6 Rich. I, to 1 John. A very valuable 
document still extant giving great in- 
formation on the status of the people, 
wages paid, their wealth, their legal 
rights, &c. 

Rolls of the Temple, or ' Calves- 
head rolls,' in which every bencher, 
barrister, and student is taxed yearly in 
consideration of a dinner of calves-head, 
provided in Easter term. 

Rolled Bacon. A consignment of 
dynamite from America to London. So 
called from being packed in barrels of 
what was invoiced as ' Rolled Bacon.' 
Sometimes these consignments were in- 
voiced as ' American Apples ' (1884-1885). 

Rolliad {The). A series of political 
satires, the first of which appeared in a 
London newspaper in 1784, and was a 
humorous criticism on Colonel Rolle 
(afterwards Lord Rolle), member for 
Devonshire. The most important of the 
series was a pretended review of an 
imaginary epic poem. 



766 



ROMAN 



ROMAN 



Northampton 

Nottingham 

Plymouth 

Portsmouth 

Salford 

Shrewsbury 

Southwark 



Roman Achilles (The). Lucius 
Sicinius Dentatus. Assassinated B.C. 
450. 

Roman Catholic Hierarchy of 

England and Wales since 1850, consti- 
tuted by Pius IX. The ' Province of 
Westminster ' consists of the archiepis- 
copal See of Westminster and fourteen 
Suffragan Sees of 
Birmingham 
Clifton 

Hexham and Newcastle 
Leeds 
Liverpool 
Middlesborough 
Newport and Menevia 

In 1890 there were 2,635 Catholic 
priests in Great Britain under the hier- 
archy, and 1,030 places having churches 
or chapels, with resident clergy, inde- 
pendent of those places which have 
weekly services, but no resident priest. 

The hierarchy of Scotland -was appointed in 
1878 by Leo XIII., and comprises (1) the Province 
of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, with four sufira- 
gan sees (viz. Aberdeen, Argyll and the Isles, 
Dunkeld, and Galloway) ; and (2) the archiepisco- 
pal See of Glasgow without suffragan sees. 

Roman Catholicism {Develop- 
ment of). 

A.D. 

Prayers for the dead began 200 

Paul, the first hermit 251 

Sunday made by Constantine the Christian 

Sabbath 321 

First General Council, at Nice in mthynia .. 325 

Celibacy of the clergy recommended ... 325 

The Scriptures called the Bible by Jerome 340 

Saints, Martyrs, and Angels t/uloration of) 360 

Christmas Day a religious festival 375 

Bells used in churches 390 

The Nicene Creed introduced 891 

(Except the word 'Dead,' and 'Commu- 
nion of Saints.) 

Mary called the Mother of God ... 431 

Sprinkling of Ashes, in Lent (Felix III.) ... 487 

Canon of Scripture completed ... 494 

Priests began to wear a distinctive dress ... 500 

Stone altars enjoined .. 506 

Extreme Unction introduced by Felix IV. 525 
Lenten Fast extended to forty days (Council 

of Orleans) ... 547 

Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary ... 593 

Worship in an unknown tongue 600 

(It was in Latin as far back as 547.) 
The title of POPE first assumed by Boniface 

III 606 

Papal Supremacy assumed at the same 

time ... ... 606 

All-Saints' Day introduced 625 

Holy Bread first distributed „. 655 

Athanasian Creed introduced ^ C70 

(Athanasius died 37H) 

Crucifixes used as talismans 680 

Holy Water introduced .. 682 

Kissing the Pope's toe introduced 7o8 

(Abolished in 1773) 

Veneration of Images imposed 788 

Tithes exacted ... ... ^ ISd 

Kogation days established by Leo III. ^. 8Ul 

AsstiMPTioN Festival intiodued 813 

Cardinals created .« ^. tl7 



The ' FiLiOQUE ' dogma introduced KS) 

Baptism of bells introduced ... ... 965 

Canonisation of Saints introduced by 

John XVI. 993 

All-Souls' Day appointed 998 

Advent Sunday appointed. . ... 1000 

Celibacy of Priests made obligatory 10(X) 

Prayers for souls in purgatory introduced ... 1000 
Indulgences first bestowed by Ponce, 

bishop of Aries 1002 

Interdicts introduced .. 1073 

Infallibility of the Roman Church 

taught 1076 

Excommunication introduced by Gregory 

VIL 1077 

Sale OF Indulgences sanctioned .. 1087 
Plenary Indulgence 'in this life and in 
the life to come,' authorised by the Council 

of Clermont .. ... .. 1095 

OfBce of the Virgin Mary appointed by ditto 1095 

Transubstantiation made a Church dogma 1215 

Auricular Confession officially imposed ... 1215 

Adoration of the Host enjoined 1218 

The Inquisition established _ .. 1229 

The Cup withheld from the Laity 1263 

Tha Angelus announced by a bell 1316 

The dogma of Purgatory officially recog- 
nised 1439 

Holy Oil in chrism first used 1540 

Tradition declared authoritative ... .. 1540 
Veneration of Relics enjoined by the 

Council of Trent ,. ... 1563 

Marriage made a sacrament 1563 

Confirmation made a sacrament ... 1563 
The Festival of the Seven Sorrows intro- 
duced by Benedict XIII. 1725 

The festival of the Sacred Heart introduced 1732 

The Immaculate Conception proclaimed .. 1854 

Papal Infallibility proclaimed 1870 
*,* A glance down this list will give a better 
history of the Catholic Church than many 
volumes, whether from the Catholic or Protestant 
standpoint. 

Roman Catholics, or, as they call 
themselves, ' Catholics.' Those Chris- 
tians who acknowledge the supremacy of 
the Church of Rome. They believe that 
St. Peter was appointed by Christ head 
of the Apostolic College, that this same 
apostle founded the Roman diocese, and 
that the present pope comes in direct 
line by ordination from the first founder. 
All Roman Catholics accept seven sacra- 
ments iq.v.), believe in the doctrine of 
transubstantiation, withhold the cup from 
the laity as unnecessary, admit the in- 
fallibility of the pope when he speaks ex 
cathedra, believe in the doctrine of pur- 
gatory, in the efficacy of masses and 
prayers for the dead, in works of super- 
erogation, the advocacy of saints, the 
sanctity of relics, and, above all, the power 
and exaltation of the Virgin Mary, whom 
they call ' the Mother of God ' and ' Queen 
of Heaven.' In the Eastern rite the cup 
is given to the laity. 

As the Roman Church seceded from the Eastern 
Church they are in reality schismatics. They 
rent the robe in two, the Protestants merely tore 
the rent a little further. 

Roman Era [The). This era began 
24 April, B.C. 753. 



ROMAN 



ROMANCE 



767 



Roman Hercules {The). The 
Emperor Commodus (a.d. 161, 180-192). 
So lae styled himself, and the club and 
lion's hide were placed by the side of his 
throne among the ensigns of sovereignty. 

Roman Literature {The Four 
Ages of). 

1. The Golden Age, B.C. 217 to a.d. 
14. It includes Plautus, Ennius, Terence, 
Cato, Catullus, Cassar, Cicero, Nepos, 
Sallust, Virgil, Tibullus, Propertius, 
Horace, Phaedrus, Ovid, and Livy. 

2. The Silver Age (a.d. 14-117), in- 
cludes Celsus, Persius, Seneca, Lucan, 
Pliny, Juvenal, Martial, Quintilian, 
Statins, Tacitus, and Florus. 

3. The Brazen Age (a.d. 117-476), 
includes Justin, Eutroi^ius, Vegetius, 
Ausonius, Macrobius, Symmachus, Victor, 
Claudian, and Orosius. 

4. The Iron Age, from 476, includes 
Sulpicius, ApoUinaris, Boethius, Priscian, 
Festus, Jomandes, and Cassiodorus. 

Roman Liturgy {The). The oldest 
forms of this liturgy are to be found in 
the three Sacramentaries (viz. those of 
Leo, Gelasius, and Gregory the Great). 
That of Gregory the Great is most pro- 
nounced in the modem Roman missal, 
brought into its present shape by a com- 
mission appointed by the Council of Trent 
(16th cent.). Revised first by Pius V., 
then by Urban VIII., and thirdly by 
Clement VIII. 

Said to have been the work of Peter the apostle, 
but without a sliadow of proof. The Roman, the 
Milan, the Galilean, and the Spanish liturgies are 
the four chief ones of the Latin Church. 

Roman Obedience. In ecclesias- 
tical history means adherence to the 
Roman pope in opposition to the Avignon 
pope in the great Western Schism {q.v.). 
Sometimes it implies adherence to Latin 
Clii-istianity, instead of Greek, Anglican, 
&c. 

Roman Republic {The). The 
name, after the transfer of the seat of 
government {o Constantinople, was con- 
fined to the Latin provinces. 

Roman Tribes {The). The three 
original tribes were: (1) The 'Ram- 
^ nenses,' so called (says Livy, i. 13) 'a 
Roinulo ' ; (2) ' Tatienses,' from Tatius 
king of the Sabines ; and (3) ' Luceres ' 
(people of the grove), i.e. those received 
into the grove whiLh Romulus turned 



into a sanctuary. (Virgil, ' .^neid,' viii. 
342.) 

Ramnenses. Of course ' -enses ' is a mere ter- 
mination, meaning ' a man or men of.' This leaves 
' Ram- ■ as the crude form. ' Rem-us ' is another 
variant. ' Ram-,' ' Rem-,' ' Rom-,' ' Romanus,' with 
•etisis, will explain the derivation of Livy. We 
have 'Catanensis' for ' Caithness,' ' Elfin-ensis ' 
for 'Elphin,' ' Imelacensis ' for 'Emley,' 'Mid- 
en-is' for 'Midd,' i.e. 'Meath,' ' Osti-ensis ' for 
'Ostia,' ' Palensis' for ' Palencia,' ' Sabi-ensis' for 
'Siben,' 'Uticensis' for 'Utica,' and hundreds of 
others. 

Roman Type. The upright type 
used in the printing of this book, first 
used at Rome in 1467 by Sweynheim and . 
Pannartz. The type previously used was 
what is called ' black letter.' Sloping 
letters are called ' italics ' {q.v.), and type 
used in the heading of these articles is 
termed * Clarendon type.' 

Romans {Emperor of the), and 
' Emperor-Elect of the Romans,' See 
under ' Emperor,' &c. 

Romans {King of the), and ' King of 
Rome.' See under ' King,' &c. 

Romans {Last of the). 

I. Cato, called ' Uticensis ' (b.c. 95-46). 

II. Caius Cassius was so called by 
Brutus. 

The last of all the Romans fare thee well ! 
It is impossible that ever Rome 
Should breed thy fellow. 

SHAJiESPEARE, JuUxis Cccsar, V. 3. 

III. Rienzi, last of the Tribunes (1310- 
1354). 

IV. Horace Walpole, Ultimus Boinan- 
orum (1717-1797). 

V. Charles James Fox (1749-1806). 

Romance Languages {The) 
Languages based on the Latin. 

1. Italian. 

2. The Wallachian or Roumanian. 

3. Spanish (mixed with Arabic). 

4. Portuguese, a dialect of Spanish. 

5. Provencal, south of France, called 
the Langue d'oc. 

6. French, i.e. the northern portion, 
with Belgium and Switzerland. There 
are also minor Romance tongues, as 
Catalan, Valaque, Rhetian, Ladinique, &c. 

' Valaque ' is the Valacian dialect, ' Rhetian ' is 
the language of the Grisons, and 'Ladinique,' 
spoken in the Engadine, is the Romance. 

Romance of the Rose {The). An 

allegorical romance in verse begun by 
Guillaume di Lorris in the latter pai-t of 
the 13th cent., and continued by Jean 
de Meung in the former half of the 14th 
cent. The sequel alone is longer than 



EOMANOV 



EOOI 



Homer's ' Iliad.' The part by Guillaume 
di Lorris contains 4,000 lines ; the sequel 
by Meung contains 18,000. 

The poet dreams that dame Idleness conducts 
him to the palace of Pleasure, where he meets 
Love, -whose at.endants are Sweetface, Courtesy, 
Youth, Jollity, and Competence, who lead the poet 
to a bed of roses. He singles out one, and was 
about to pluck it, when an arrow from Love's bow 
stretches him fainting on the ground, and ho is 
carried off. When he comes to himself he resolves 
to seek out the rose of his choice, and Welcome 
promises to aid him ; but Shyness, Fear, and Slan- 
der obstruct him, and Reason advises him to give 
up the pursuit. Pity and Liberality now show him 
the object of his desire, but Jealousy seizes the 
guide Welcome, and locks her in Fear Castle. 
Here the original poem ends. It is called the 
French Iliad. 

Jean de Meung, pronounce Jahnd Muhng. 

Romanov {TJw Dynasty of). The 
second Russian dynasty. The first five 
of this line of czars were scarcely acknow- 
ledged. Boris Godounov usurped the 
throne in 1598, and till 1613 it was a con- 
stant struggle with Poland and Sweden. 
In 1613 Michael III. [Romanov] put an 
end to these troubles, and from him 
dates the third dynasty ; but it was still 
Romanov, and continued to 1762. Peter 
the Great (1613-1686) was the third suc- 
cessor of Michael, and there were four 
queens, Sophia, Catherine, Anne Ivanovna 
(Joanna), and Elizabeth Petrovna. It was 
succeeded by the dynasty of Holstein- 
Gottorp. 

Romantic School of France 
{The), or Bomanticists, 1830-1840. Le- 
mercier, Victor Hugo, and Alexandre 
Dumas are the chief exponents of the 
French Bomantic School, which sought 
to free the stage from the Aristotelian 
unities, and to introduce the English, 
Spanish, and German freedom. Dela- 
vigne attempted a compromise, and 
founded the Classico-romantic school of 
French tragedy. The Romantic School 
was not confined to tragedy ; all poetry 
discarded the classic affectations intro- 
duced at the revolution even into names 
and dress. 

Romantic School of Germany 

(The), 1800-1810. Its founders were 
Schlegel, Novalis, and Ludwig Tieck. 
The next three names of the same school 
are Hoffman, De la Motte Fouque (author 
of 'Undine'), and Chamisso (author of 
*• Peter Schlemil, the shadowless man '). 

Novalis is the pen-name of Friedrich von Har- 
denberg of Saxony. 

Rome of the African "World 

{The). Carthago, a long time the rival 
of Rome. 



Though Carthage might yield to the royal pre- 
rogatives of Constantinople, and perhaps to the 
trade of Alexandria or tlie splendour of Antioch, 
she still maintained the second rank in the west, 
as the 'Rome' of the African world.— GIBBON, 
chap, xxxiii. 

Romeseot, a.d. 720. When Ina 
king of Wessex abdicated he went to 
Rome, where he founded a Saxon school, 
to provide for which he imposed a penny 
on every family. This tax was called 
Romeseot, and sometimes Peter-pence, 
because it was collected on the festival 
of St. Peter ad Vincula (Sharon Turner, 
'History of the Anglo-Saxons '). 

It was also called Hearth -mom-y, being a tax on 
each hearth or family. Offa in 790 settled the tax 
on the pope. It was discontinued by Edward III., 
A.D. I.S60, and prohibited by Act of Parliament, 
25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, AD. 1534. 

Romorantin {The Edict of), 1560. 
A law passed through the influence of 
Michel de I'Hopital, chancellor of France, 
to keep out the Inquisition, which the 
Guises wanted to introduce. By this 
edict the crime of heresy was entrusted 
to the bishops, and parliament was for- 
bidden to interfere in matters of faith. 

Romulus {The Second). Marcus 
Furius Camillus, four times Dictator of 
Rome ; died in retirement B.C. 360. After 
the Gauls had burnt Rome Camillus both 
repelled the invaders and restored the 
city. 

Ronsard School {The). A school 
of French poetry founded by Ronsard 
(1524-1584) ; his sonnets were modelled 
on those of Petrarch; his epic on the 
* ^neid ' and his odes were in imitation 
of Horace, Pindar, and Anacreon. Pe- 
dantry was the characteristic of this 
school. Ronsard was the Cowley of 
France. 

Rood of G-race {The). At Boxley 
in Kent. An image of Christ on the 
cross, which hung its lip when silver was 
offered it, but shook its beard merrily 
when the offering was of gold. At the 
dissolution of the smaller monasteries in 
England Thomas Cromwell (1538) had 
the rood taken to Paul's Cross, and 
Hilsey bishop of Rochester, before a 
large crowd of the citizens of London, 
exposed the wires, wheels, and springs 
by which this was done, and the image 
was broken to pieces. See ' Darvel 
Gatheren,' ' Blood of Christ,' &c. 

Root and Branch Party {The), 
1640. The Independents in the reign of 



ROOT 



ROSARY 



Charles I., hostile alike to the ' root,' 
that is Episcopacy, and to the ' branch,' 
that is Presbyterianism. A compromise 
was made by 16 Car. I. c. 27, a.d. 1642, 
when the bishops were deprived of their 
suffrages in the House of Lords ; but the 
status quo was restored by 13 Car. II. c. 2, 

A.D. 1661. 

Root and Branch Petition 

{The), 1641. A petition containing 15,000 
signatures in favour of the abolition of 
Episcopacy in England and the establish- 
ment of Presbyterianism. 

Rope Dancer {The). Yvo de Grant- 
mesnil the Crusader, one of the leaders 
of Robert duke of Normandy's party 
against Henry I. of England. Yvo was 
one of those who escaped from Antioch 
when it was besieged. He was let down 
by a rope over the wall, and was hence 
called * The Rope Dancer.' 

Rope Dancers (^/^e). The deserters 
from Antioch in the first crusade, who 
dropped in the night from the walls, and 
fled. (Gibbon, chap. Iviii.) 

Rory o' the Hill {Captain), 1880. 
The signature adopted by the writer of 
threatening letters to landlords, tenants 
who paid their rent, those who took the 
farms of evicted tenants, &c., under the 
authority of the Irish Land League. See 
p. 435, ' Irish Associations.' 

Like the Fenians, the Land Leaguers wanted 
to sever Ireland from the British crown. Rory 
=Roderick, a commou name in Ireland, as Rory 
O'More. 

Rosamond. Daughter of "Walter 
Clifford, a Hertfordshire baron, mistress 
of Henry II. of England, was the mother 
of William Longsword, who married the 
daughter of the Earl of Salisbury, and of 
Geoffrey archbishop of York. She re- 
tired to the convent of Godestow, near 
Oxford, where she died. The tale of the 
labyrinth and the poisoned bowl forced 
upon her by Queen Eleanor is not men- 
tioned by any contemporary, and pro- 
bably is a mere invention of romance. 

Rosary {A). Either a sacred office 
in honour of the Virgin Mary or a string 
of beads, 15 of which are large ones. 
The 15 large beads tell off the Pater 
Nosters ; the 150 smaller beads tell off 
the Ave Marias. Instituted by St. 
Dominic (1170-1221). 
33 



Rosary. The office so called con- 
sists of three parts, each of which con- 
tains five mysteries. The entire rosary 
consists, therefore, of fifteen mysteries. 
The rosary begins by making the sign of 
the cross thrice : (1) to ward off the devil; 
(2) to implore the help of the Holy 
Trinity; and (3) to bring to mind that 
the cross is man's salvation. 

After crossing comes the 'Apostles' 
Creed,' or Symbol, then the Lord's Prayer, 
and then ' Hail Mary ' is repeated thrice : 
once in honour of God, the Virgin's 
' Father-in-law ' ; once in honour of the 
Virgin's son ; and once in honour of the 
Holy Ghost, the Virgin's spouse. 

These being done, the rosary proper 
commences. The rosary proper consists 
of fifteen decades or dizains, divided into 
threes, five recounting the ' Five Joyous 
Mysteries' {q.v.), five recounting the 
* Five Dolorous Mysteries ' {q.v.), and five 
recounting the ' Five Glorious Mysteries ' 
{q.v.). In each mystery ' Hail Mary ' is 
repeated 50 times, i.e. 150 times in the 
three mysteries. 

As each mystery begins with a Pater 
Noster, and as there are fifteen mysteries, 
it follows that the Lord's Prayer is re- 
peated fifteen times and ' Ave Maria ' is 
repeated 150 times. 

There is supposed to be a meditation after the 
repetition of each mystery, a private prayer, and 
a doxology. 

*,* There is something revolting in the idea 
that God is the ' father-in-law ' of a peasant girl, 
that this villager is ' mother of God,' and also the 
' wife ' of God. It may be logical, but it certainly 
anthropomorphoses Deity most shockingly. 

Rosary {The Festival of the), 1573. 
Instituted by Gregory XIII. to com- 
memorate the victory of Lepanto, when 
in 1571 Don John of Austria defeated the 
Turks. 

Rosary {The Greater) includes all 
the three parts or fifteen mysteries with 
their component prayers. See ' Rosary, 
the Office.' 

Rosary {The Lesser). Takes in one 
of the three decades or mysteries. See 
' Rosary, the Office.' 

That is, five mysteries [the joyous mysteries, the 
dolorous mysteries, and the glorious mysteries. 
(SVt- under the word ' Five,' p. oi'J]. 

Rosary {The Living). A recital by 
fifteen persons of the entire rosary, each 
person saying daily one of the fifteen 
mysteries. 

3D 



770 



ROSCIUS 



EOSICRUCIANS 



Roscius {The British). I. Richard 
Burbage (15G6-1G19). 

Richard Burbage is famous as our ' English 
Boscius.' 

II. Thomas Betterton (1635-1710). 

III. David Garrick (1716-1779). 

Roseius {The Irish). Spranger 
Barry, the ' Silver-tongued ' (1719-1777). 

Roscius {The Modern). William 
Henry West Betty, who appeared at 
Covent Garden Theatre 1 Dec., 1804, at 
the age of 13, in the character of Achmet 
in the play entitled ' Barbarossa.' He 
received 50 guineas a night for the first 
three nights, and 100 guineas a night 
for the next twenty-five nights. In fifty 
nights with benefits he realised 34,000Z., 
and retired from the stage. He died in 
1874, at the age of 84. 

He is called sometimes the ' Infant Roscius,' and 
sometimes the 'Youthful Roscius.' The great 
Roman comic actor was Quintus Roscius, who 
died B.C. C2, having realised an immense fortune. 
His contemporary jEsopus was a tragic actor 
equally celebrated. 

Roscius of France {The). Michel 
Baron (1653-1729). Roscius was a come- 
dian of Rome, but the word in modern 
times is generally applied to tragic 
actors. Shakespeare says: 'What scene of 
death hath Roscius now to act ! ' Baron, 
however, was both a comedian and a 
tragedian. 

Rose. The plucking of white and red 
roses by the Yorkists and Lancastrians, 
which (according to Shakespeare) gave 
the name to the great civil contest in the 
reign of Henry VI., was paralleled in the 
French Revolution, when CamiUe Des- 
moulins, after addressing the mob, tore a 
green leaf off a tree and placed it in his 
hat. ' Others ' (says Carlyle, ' French 
Revolution,' vol. i. p. 160) ' followed his 
example, until the trees wexe stripped, 
and the " wearing of the green " became 
general.' 

Rose of Derrinsalla {The), in 
Tipperary. She came into the Cleburne 
family by the marriage of Ellen Palmer 
to Edward Cleburne (grandson of Richard 
Cleburne, of Ballycullatan Castle, Tippe- 
rary). 

Rose of Raby {The). The mo- 
ther of Richard III. She was Cicely, 
daughter of Ralph de Neville of Raby, 
earl of Westiuoreland, 



Rose of Sharon {The), Cant. ii. 1. 
Solomon says : ' I am the Rose of Sharon.' 
Jesus Christ is also called the Rose of 
Sharon, i.e. the wild rose. 

Rose of York {The). The Princess 

Elizabeth, eldest child of Edward IV. 
She married Henry VIL, and thus united 
the Rose of York to the Rose of Lan- 
caster. 

Rose's Act, 1812, on clerical fees, 
&c. It directs ' that all customary fees 
for making entries in the register and 
giving copies shall remain in force.' In 
1836 a uniform scale of fees for searches 
and certificates was fixed by act of parlia- 
ment. 

Roses {Wars of the), between the 
Houses of York {q.v.) and Lancaster 
{q.v.). Began with the battle of St. 
Albans, 23 May, 1455, and terminated 
with the battle of Bosworth Field, 22 Aug., 
1485. The chief battles were those of 
Northampton, Wakefield, Towton, Hex- 
ham, Barnet, and Tewkesbury. A red 
rose was the badge of Edmund earl of 
Lancaster, brother to King Edward I. ; 
and a white rose was the badge of the 
Black Prince. Tradition says that 
Somerset, in the Temple Gardens, 
plucked a red rose, saying, ' Let all the 
friends of Lancaster follow my example ; ' 
and Warwick, the friend of York, plucked 
a white rose, saying, ' Let all the friends 
of York wear a white rose for their badge.' 
The two tales are quite consistent, and it 
seems that ribbons and rosettes of red 
and white were worn by the partisans of 
Lancaster and York. 

Rosicrucians. A secret society of 
the 17th cent., involved in much mystery. 
Mosheim and others derive the word 
from ros (dew) and crux { + symbol of 
Lvx, light). ' Lux,' we are told, is that 
which produces gold, and ' ros ' is its 
greatest solvent. 

In 1614 appeared a book entitled the 
' Brotherhood of the illustrious Order of 
the R. C {Rosy Cross), which is the 
story of Brother Christian Rosenkreux, 
a German who is represented as living 
in the 14th cent., and who was the 
founder of the society. 

F. R. C. stand for Fratres Boris Coacti, 
the philosopher's stone being supposed 
to be congealed dew. 

That there was a secret society called 



ROSIN 



ROUND 



771 



Rosicriicians in the 17th cent, may be 
admitted, but the tale about Brother 
Rosenkreux is mere romance. 

Amongst other f oohsh things attributed 
to the Rosicrucians is a behef in the pos- 
BibiHty of perjiettial motion, and also of 
a perpetually burning lamp. 

Rosin Bible {The), printed 1609. 

So called because the word rosin is sub- 
stituted for ' balm ' in Jer. viii. 22. Thus : 
* Is there no rosin in Gilead ? ' See 
'Bible.' 

Roskild {TreaUj of), 28 Feb., 1658, 
between Sweden and Denmark. Charles 
X. of Sweden had invaded Poland in 
1655, and subjugated that country, when 
Frederick III. of Denmark unwisely 
espoused the Polish cause. On this in- 
terference Charles at once invaded Hol- 
stein, overran it, and proceeded to 
Zealand, which no doubt would have 
fallen into his power if Frederick had not 
sued for peace. By the treaty signed at 
Roskild, the Danish provinces beyond 
the Sound, Scania, Halland, and Bleking, 
were ceded to Sweden, together with the 
district of Trontheim, the northern part 
of Norway, and the island of Bornholm. 
The district of Trontheim and island of Born- 
holm were restored to the Danes 10 June, IGGO, by 
the Treaty of Copenhagen. 

Trontheim, pronounce Tron-yein. 

Rosse's Telescope, 1844. A tele- 
scope of 6 ft. aperture and 54 ft. focal 
length, erected by Lord Rosse in his 
grounds at Parsonstown, King's County, 
Ireland. The speculum weighs 4 tons. 
This telescope cost Lord Rosse as much 
as 20,000Z. 

Rossi (I) and 'I Neri.' See under 
' Reds and Blacks.' 

Rotten Borough System [The). 

The old ' free-men system ' which held in 
elections for members of parliament be- 
fore it was abolished by the Reform Bill. 
These boroughs were rotten or corrupt 
because the electors were venal. 

Rotten Boroughs. Places which 
returned members to the House of Com- 
mons, the only electors being tenants or 
subservients of the lord of the soil, who 
virtually nominated the member, while 
the electors merely gave effect to his 
nomination. 

Rotulus Wintonise. The Win- 
chester Roll. So. Doomsday Book was 



called ; because it was anciently preserved 
under tlu'ee locks and keys, in the royal 
treasury of that city. 

Rouge-croix. One of the four pur- 
suivants of England. So called from 
the red cross of St. George. See p. 415, 
' Heralds.' 

Rouge-dragon. One of the four 
pursuivancies of England founded by 
Henry VII. on the day before his 
coronation. It was the ensign of Cadwa- 
ladyr, the last king of the Britons, from 
whom Henry was crookedly descended. 
Sometimes Henry VII. used a red dragon 
as a supporter. See p. 415, ' Heralds.' 

Round Table {The). I. a.d. 540. 
King Arthur is said to have founded this 
order of knighthood at Winchester. So 
called because Arthur and his knights 
sat on state occasions at a round table, in 
order that no dispute about rank might 
arise. 

II. A.D. 1884. The modern departure 
of this phrase hails from America, and is 
in no wise connected with the famous 
table round of King Arthur. The Chau- 
tauqua Reading Circle, near Lake Erie 
(instituted 1871), has given birth to a large 
number of similar societies in America 
and Canada. Members meet together 
occasionally at each other's houses to talk 
over given subjects, and these gatherings 
are called ' Round Tables,' or * Round 
Table Conferences.' 

I was present at one of Dr. Vincent's ' Bound 
Table Conferences, ' which was attended by several 
hundred members, . . . questions were asked and 
opinions invited respecting the choice of boolcs, 
and the best mode of reading itiQva..— Nineteenth 
Century, Oct. 1888, p. 490. 

Round Table Conference {Har- 
court's), Dec. 1886 to March, 1887. Held 
at the house of Sir Wm. Harcourt, where 
the members assembled. See above. 
The object was to unite, if possible, the 
Liberal party, which had been broken 
up by Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy. Mr. 
Chamberlain, who had been one of Mr. 
Gladstone's ministers, had left the party, 
and was invited by Sir Wm. Harcourt to 
join the Conference. In March a quarrel 
between Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Cham- 
berlain broke up the Conference. The 
members were three Liberals (Lord 
Herschel, Sir William Harcourt, and 
John Morley), and two Unionists (Sir 
George Trevelyan and Joseph Chamber- 
lain). 

The platform was to give Ireland an Irish 
3 D 2 



772 



ROUND 



ROUSSEAUISM 



executive, dependent on Irish legislation, with 
regular departments, Including a Home Rule 
office. Irish members were to be admitted to 
Westminster to vote on Irish questions. The 
great stumbling-block was Ulster, the most 
wealthy and loyal part of Ireland, which strongly 
objected to ' Home Rule ' (q.v.). 

The whole history of Ireland shows that the 
Irish would invite over Spanish or French 
armies to strengthen their own if they were free 
to act for themselves, thus rendering the island 
a perpetual menace to Great Britain. On the 
other hand, Ireland would lose infinitely by sepa- 
ration ; for, if cut off (ro.n England, of course no 
Iris-hmen could hold office in Great Britain, 
and Ireland itself would be a poor field for Irish 
genius and enterprise. Mr. Gladstone's notion of 
the Irish managing ' their own affairs ' is silly, 
unless he will show that their ' own affairs ' do 
not mean their government, which indubitably 
the Irish intend by the phrase. There can be no 
objection to extending County Councils to Ire- 
land, bat an Irish parliament is quite another 
matter. 

Round World (The). The ro- 
tundity of the world was not believed in 
by the early Christians, and was thought 
to be antagonistic to Mosaic teaching. 
In A.D. 200 Tertullian held that the 
'Books of Moses [were] not only all 
truth, but that all truth was contained 
in them,' and as the globular form of 
the earth is not part of that revelation, 
the tenet is heretical. Lactantius about 
a century later, referring to the globosity 
of the earth and its revolution, says : 
* Is it possible that men can be so absurd 
as to believe that the crops and trees on 
the other side of the earth hang down- 
wards ? ' And St. Augusiine, about A.D. 
400, says : ' Is it possible there should 
be inhabitants on the other side of the 
earth, since there is no such race men- 
tioned in Scripture among the descend- 
ants of Adam ? ' And then he adds : 
'In the day of judgment men on the 
other side of the earth could not see the 
Lord descending through the air.' (!) 

Cosmas, in the 6th cent., published his ' Chris- 
tian Topography,' the object of which was to 
denounce the heathen doctrine of the rotundity 
of the earth, and to show that the tabernacle in 
the wilderness is the pattern or model of the 
universe. ' The earth,' he says, ' is a rectangular 
plane, 400 days' journey east and west, and half 
that distance north and south. It is surrounded 
by mountains, on which the sky rests. The 
heavens come down to the earth on all four 
sides, like the wall of a room. All below the 
firmament is the world, the story above is 
heaven, and below the earth is hell. Beyond 
ocean, bordering on the edge, is Paradise. Here, 
too, on a barren and thorny soil, outside the 
walls of Paradise, dwelt man from the Fall to the 
Deluge. The ark floated the survivors across the 
great ocean belt to the lands which we inhabit. 
This plain lies a little tilted to the south, so 
that the rivers (like the Tigris and the Euphrates) 
running south run rapidly, while those running 
north (like the Nile) run more slowly, because 
they have to run uphill.' (!) This notion pre- 
vpiled for above 1,000 years in the Christian 
Chuich. 



*«• Even so late as 25 Feb., 1616, the Holy OfBce, 
presided over by the pope, declared it to be ab- 
surd and contrary co Holy Writ to teach that the 
sun does not move from its place, that the earth 
is not the centre of the universe, that it moves 
round the sun, and has also a diurnal motion. 
These heretical notions were laid to the charge 
of Galileo, and he was threatened with imprison- 
ment unless he abjured them. The judgment is 
signed by seven cardinals. 

Roundabout Raid {TJie), 1565. 
A military insurrection headed by Mur- 
ray, the duke of Chatelherault, Argyle, 
Glencairn, and Rothes, at the marriage of 
Mary queen of Scots with Henry Darn- 
ley. Mary, arrayed in light armour, and 
wearing pistols in her saddle-bow, rode 
at the head of her troops, and the in- 
surgents retreated from place to place 
to dodge the royal troops, without coming 
to a combat. Murray applied to Queen 
Elizabeth for aid, but Elizabeth dis- 
missed the envoys, calling them traitors, 
and the insurgents dispersed, making the 
best terms they could, each for himself. 

Morton and his associates [after the murder of 
Rizzio] went to occupy those quarters in North- 
umberland which had been lately tenanted by 
the lords concerned in the Roundabout Raid. — 
Sir W. Scott. Hist, of Scotland, xxviii. 

Roundheads (The), 1641. The 
Independents or Puritans in the reign of 
Charles I. The royalists were nicknamed 
' The Cavaliers.' The former wore their 
hair short, and dressed with great sim- 
plicity ; the latter wore their hair flowing 
over their shoulders, and dressed showily 
and expensively. The two came into 
collision about the expulsion of the 
bishops from the House of Lords. The 
Roundheads insisted on their expul- 
sion, and the severance of the clergy 
from all secular and state offices. It 
was in this brawl that the two parties 
gave each other the nicknames of Round- 
heads and Cavaliers. 

Clarendon says, when Williams archbishop of 
York was hustled by the mob, one David Hide, 
an officer who had been with the army in the 
North, drew his sword and swore that he would 
'cut the throats of those Roundhead dogs,' and 
by this expression gave the first utterance to the 
name Roundheads. 

Rousseauism. The political theory 
of Jean- Jacques Rousseau as set forth in 
the ' Contrat Social ' and his ' Discours sur 
I'origine de I'inegalite' parmi les hommes.' 
In the state of nature man was strong, 
healthy, contented, and good; all the 
evils which have befallen him (such as 
feebleness, sickness, poverty, and in- 
equality of social life) result from civili- 
sation ; and the first step to this Avernus 



ROUT 



ROWLEY'S 



773 



is 'the right of property.' His axioms 
are: — 

I. All men are born free, politically 
equal, and good, and in a ' state of nature ' 
remain so. Consequently, it is their 
natural right to be free, equal, and good. 

II. If all are equal, none have any 
right to disturb that equality by appro- 
priating property or usurping authoi'ity. 
The former is robbery, the latter tyranny. 

III. If so, the spoliation of wealth is 
simply restitution, and the disregard of 
all authority not delegated by social con- 
tract is simply a vindication of natural 
rights. 

The reply is :— I. No child Is born free, but from 
the moment of birth is under control and re- 
straint. 

II. Children are not born equal, but some tire 
stronger and more intelligent than others, so 
that in the nursery some lead and others follow. 

III. They are not born ' good,' in any sense of 
the word. 

IV. In regard to authority, on board ship who 
•would take the votes of the sailors and crew 
in regard to the steerage or trimming of the 
vessel '? Applied to politics, this practical rule 
goes far to upset the popular theory of universal 
Bufirago. 

V. Historically, no people ever did exist in 
Rousseau's hypothetical 'state of nature'; such 
a state of existence is morally impossible. 

VI. All nature, from the stars of heaven to the 
■worm and rush, shows the greatest Inequality ; 
and as for independence, thtre is no such thing 
in heaven above, the earth beneath, or the waters 
under the earth. 

*,* ' Born politically equal ' is unmitigated non- 
sense. Political means that which pertains to 
civil government, and government of necessity 
implies rulers and subjects. Some to command, 
and others to obey. 

Rout of Moray {The), 1746. Lord 
Loudoun, hearing that Charles Edward 
(the son of the Pretender) was living in 
easy security at Moray, sent out a noc- 
turnal party to surprise him and carry 
him off captive ; but the ' surprise party ' 
were met in a wood by the Macintoshes, 
who caused them to retreat. This flight 
of Lord Loudoun's surprise party is called 
' The Rout of Moray.' 

Rout of Rosbacli (The), 5 Nov., 
1757. A household phrase for a dis- 
graceful rout. Its reference is to the 
battle of Rosbach, won by Frederick II. 
over the allied Austrian and French 
army. The Prussian loss was 300, that 
of the allies was 1,300 slain and 6,000 
prisoners. 

Routes, Chemins. Routes are 
high-roads, chemins are common roads. 
There are two sorts of Routes : (1) 
Routes Nationales, the great high-roads 
which lead to Paris, or which join two 



principal towns, as Lyons and Bordeaux ; 
(2) Routes Departementales, which con- 
nect the principal towns of a department 
one with another. 

There are three sorts of Chemins : (1) 
Chemins de granule communication, the 
network of the routes departmentales. 
Originally the routes were kept up by 
government and the chemins by rates ; 
(2) Chemins dHnteret commun, country 
roads connecting villages ; (3) Chemins 
vicinaux ordinaires, bye-roads. 

Route =roo^ Chemins, pronounce Shmair]n. 

Routiers. Bands of French ad- 
venturers confederated in 1147, soon 
after the departure of Louis VII. on his 
crusade. They were so called from the 
old French word route. These adven- 
turers were put down in 1183 by the 
Pacifici near Dun-le-Roi. Those who 
survived enlisted in the militia called 
the ' Ribalds ' {q.v.). 

The Pacifici were the ' Confrerie du charpentier 
Durand du Puy.' 

Rowdy Parliament (The), 1887. 

Lord Salisbury was prime minister and 
Mr. W. H. Smith leader of the House 
of Commons. Eighty-one of the Irish 
members, led by Mr. Parnell, resolved 
to obstruct the business of the house 
by long speeches, endless amendments, 
and disorderly conduct. ' The most con- 
spicuous in insolence and vulgarity were 
Dr. Tanner and two members named 
Healy. A Mr. Dillon, a Mr. Conybeare 
member for Camborne, and a Mr. Labou- 
chere senior member for Northampton, 
were also especially conspicuous. Cer- 
tainly the conduct of the house was never 
so disgraceful. See * Parliaments.' 

In 1890, in six months, six members of the 
House made above 750 speeches, or an average of 
1-25 each. Chief of the six were Sir William Har- 
court, Mr. Labouchere, and Sir George Campbell. 
Now in six months, supposing parliament sits 
five hours a day (with only four days' holiday), 
this would give them 700 hours for busiiness. 
Some of the obstructive speeches lasted over an 
hour. So 750 speeches by six Opposition members 
in 700 hours certainly look very much like ob- 
struction of public business. 

Rowley. Applied to Charles II. 
Rowley was the name of a goat which 
used to run about the Priory garden. 
The animal was lecherous, good- 
humoured, and familiar, certainly typical 
of the good-humoured royal libertine. 

It is said that a famous stone-horse of that time 
was called ' Old Rowley.' 

Row^ley's Poems. A volume of 
poems said by Chatterton to have been 



774 



ROXALANA 



ROYAL 



found by him in the muniment room of 
the church of St. Mary RedcHffe, Bristol, 
■written on yellow parchment in very 
antiquated style. Horace Walpole be- 
lieved them to be genuine, but they 
were the productions of Chatterton him- 
self, a lad only 16 years of age. Besides 
the poems of Rowley were those of 
his friend Canynge (15th cent.). See 
p. 525, ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Roxalana. So Elizabeth Daven- 
port (decoyed by Lord Oxford into a 
mock marriage) was called from ' Roxa- 
lana,' in the ' Siege of Rhodes,' her 
great part. 

Roxburghe Club {The), 1812. A 
literary club founded in London to 
print, for members only, works hitherto 
unedited or extremely rare. The idea 
was started by the sale of the Duke of 
Roxburghe's library in 1812, which con- 
tained several rare books, as an edition 
of Boccaccio, bought by the Marquis of 
Blandford for 260^., afterwards purchased 
by Lord Spencer for 918^. 15s. 

Other similar clubs are the Camden Society, the 
Percy, the Shakespeare, the Cheetham, the Whar- 
ton, the Surtees (in England) ; and the Bannatyne, 
the Maitland, the Abbotsford, and the Spalding 
Club (in Scotland). 

Koxburghe, pronounce Rox-burrah. 

Royal Ac&demy of Arts {The), 
1768. To promote the cultivation of 
painting, drawing, engraving, sculpture, 
modelling, and other fine arts. There 
are forty academicians and twenty asso- 
ciates, and six associate engravers. The 
first attach to their names the letters 
R.A. (Royal Academician) ; the second 
attach to their names the letters A.R.A. 
(Associate of the Royal Academy). They 
first exhibited (1761) in Somerset House. 
In 1836 they occupied part of the Na- 
tional Gallery in Trafalgar Square ; but 
in 1869 they moved to Burlington House. 

That members of the Academy should be al- 
lowed to hang on the line eight pictures each is 
preposterous, and hundreds of excellent pictures 
are discarded every year for want of room. Two 
pictures should be the first limit to members, 
then the best of the pictures of the general pub- 
lic. If room still remained, begin again with the 
members, and go on to non-members, one each. 
The exhibition is now a mere clique, and very 
often most disappointing. We want to see national 
progress, not what forty men can do (1890). 

Royal Arms of Great Britain. Our 
earliest kings bore for a lion an heraldic 
figure purely hypothetical — a mixture 
between a lion and a leopard. Scott, in 
his 'Talisman,' makes the Duke of 



Austria refer to the change of this funny 
animal into a lion, 

Edward III. quartered the arms of 
France with those of England. 

Mary united those of Spain, after her 
marriage with Philip II. 

James I. added the arms of Scotland 
and Ireland ; the first and fourth 
quarters representing France and Eng- 
land, the second Scotland (represented 
by the lion rampant), and the third 
Ireland (represented by a harp). 

Anne had England and Scotland im- 
paled in the first and fourth quarters, 
France in the second, and Ireland in 
the third. 

George IH. renounced the absurd 
titular assumption of ' King of France.' 

Victoria omitted the arms of Hanover 
from the escutcheon, because by the 
Salic law a female could not be monarch 
of Hanover, and no sovereign of Great 
Britain ought to covet such a white ele- 
phant. 

Royal Arms in Churclies {The), 
1547. Shortly after the date of Henry 
VIII. General in the reign of Elizabeth 
(1558-1603). 

• Whereas it is generally enjoined by the Great 
Counsell of England that in all churches thorow- 
out the kingdoms of England his Maiesties Armes 
shalbe sett up.' — Parisli Register of War ring ton, 30 
July, 1660. 

*^* Surely this mixture of ' His Maiesties armea 
and the Tenne Commandments ' is only an un. 
seemly recognition of that divinity which doth 
hedge a king,' and ought to be utterly and en- 
tirely discontinued. 

Royal Assent {The) in parlia- 
mentary matters. 

I. To a public bill the words are * Le 
roy (or la reyne) le veult.' 

II. To a private bill the words used 
are ' Soit fait comme il est de'sire'.' 

III. To a bill of supply the words used 
are ' Le roy remercie ses bons sujets, 
accepte leur be'ne'volence, et ainsi le 
veult.' See ' Royal Refusal.' 

This was all very well with such kings as George 
I. and II., who could not speak English, and be- 
fore them, when the Court thought it more courtly 
to talk French ; but it is now full time to speak 
English, and to discontinue this ridiculous and 
superannuated pedantry. Must aristocratic Eng- 
land go to republican France for royal speech ? 
It is full time for English monarchs to speak Eng- 
lish to their British subjects (1890). 

Royal Assurance {The). In 
Swedish history. An act passed in 1720, 
which limited the power of tlie king. He 
could in future make no laws without 
the consent of the states, nor could he 



ROYAL 



ROYAL 



775 



proclaim either peace or war. The coun- 
sellors of the king were in future to be 
called the Senate, and the number limited 
to sixteen. The king was to have two 
votes and the casting vote in the senate. 

Royal Butcher {The). Henry VIII. 
(1491, 1509-1547). 

Royal Chamber (The). A substi- 
tute for the Paris parliament which 
Louis XV. dissolved, and gave to the 
new chamber full jurisdiction in all civil 
and criminal matters. The barristers 
and councillors refused to plead before 
the Royal Chamber, and the king was 
obliged to give way. 

Royal Collection of MSS. (The), 
1757, in the Britsh Museum, presented 
by George II. These MSS. date from 
the reign of Richard III. to Charles II. 
One of the most remarkable is the 
Codex Alexandrlnus, a present from 
Cyril patriarch of . Constantinople to 
Charles I, It is in four quarto volumes, 
written on fine vellum in uncial cha- 
racters, is ascribed to some period 
between the 4th and 6th cents., and is 
supposed to be the oldest Greek Text 
extant. This collection contains many 
illuminated MSS., the Basilicon Doron 
of James I. in his own handwriting, 
several volumes executed for Edward 
IV., a volume of French romances pre- 
sented by Talbot earl of Shrewsbury to 
Queen Margaret, and many other richly 
illuminated books. 

' Royal George ' {Loss of the), 1782. 
The ' Royal George ' was an old ship of 
100 guns, fitted out at Portsmouth for 
the relief of the garrison at Gibraltar. 
Before starting a gang of carpenters 
were sent to careen the vessel, and 
heeled her over too far, so that the sea 
ran into the portholes, and the ship 
went down suddenly. Admiral Kempen- 
felfc (aged 70) and 900 or 1,000 others 
were drowned, and not above 300 were 
saved. 

Royal Literary Fund {The), 

1790, incorporated 1818 in Great Russell 
Street, Bloomsbury, London. For the 
relief of authors and literary men who 
have published works of merit, but who, 
from age or infirmity, are reduced to 
poverty. 

Royal Marriage Act {The), 1772. 
It prohibits any descendant of George 



U. from marrying tiU the age of twenty- 
five without the king's consent. After 
the age of twenty-five the person must 
apply to the privy council ; and if within 
a year of such application both houses of 
parliament assented the marriage might 
be solemnized. 

The bill was introduced because the Duke of 
Cumberland had recently married Mrs. Horton 
at Caldis, and the Duke of Gloucester had 
married the Countess-Dowager Waldegrave. 

Royal Medals of the Royal Society 
of London, 1825. Instituted by George 
rV. for scientific discoveries. 

Royal Oak {The). The oak at 
Boscobel in which Charles II. hid him- 
self in his flight after the battle of Wor- 
cester, 1(551. From this circumstance 
oak leaves were worn on the birthday of 
Charles II. (May 29), especially when he 
returned to his kingdom, which he did 
on his birthday 1660. 

Royal Refusal {The). In parlia- 
mentary matters. The words of dissent 
are ' Le roy {or La reyne) s'avisera.' See 
p. 774, ' Royal Assent.' 

The last instance of royal refusal to a bill was 
in 1707, when Queen Anne refused to sign a bill for 
settling the militia of Scotland. 

Royal Salute {A). Consists of 21 
guns, i.e. 3x7. Three is the Trinity, 
seven the sacraments. 

Royal Society {The). 

I. Of London, founded 1660 for the 
promotion of mathematical and physical 
science. 

The Copley Medal was Instituted in 1709 by- 
Sir Godfrey Copley for scientific discoveries. 

The Rumfnrd Medal was instituted in 1796 by 
Count Eumford for discoveries in light and heat. 

Royal Medals were instituted in 1825 by George 
IV. for scientific discoveries. 

The ' Philosophical Transactions ' (q.v.) were 
published 16C5, to be continued monthly. 

II. Of Edinburgh, founded 1783, on 
the model of the Berlin Academy, for the 
investigation and discussion of subjects 
in every branch of science, erudition, and 
taste. 

The Keith prize was founded by Alexander Keith 
of Dunnottar. 

The M'Dougal Brisbane prize was founded by Sir 
Thomas M'Dougal Brisbane. 

The Neill Prize was founded by Dr. Patrick 
Neill. 

All for communications on subjects connected 
with the society. 

Royal Society of Literature 

{The). Founded in 1823. and chartered 
1826. 



776 



ROYAL 



EUDOLPH 



1 



Royal Style and Titles of the 

sovereigns of England since the Con- 
quest. 



1066 William I. 
1100 William II. 
1135 Stephen. 

1154 Henky II. 

1199 John. 

1265 Henry III. 
1341 

1421 Henky V. 
1429 Henry VI. 
1544 Henry VIII. 



1559 Elizabeth. 
1603 James I. 
1702 Anne. 
1801 George III. 

1877 Victoria. 



' Rex Anglorum.' 

' ^nglelandes King." 

'Rex Anglorum, Dux Nor- 
mannorum.' 

' Rex Anglise.Dux Normannise 
et Aquitaniae.' 

' Rex AnglisB, Dominus 
Hibernise, Dux Norman- 
nisB et AquitanisB.' 

' Rex AnglisB, Dominus 
Hibernioe, Dux Aquilanioe.' 

'Rex Anglioe et P'rancice, et 
Dominus Hiberniae.' 

'Rex Anglise, Hseres et 
Regens Franciee, et Domi- 
nus Hiberniae.' 

'Rex Angliae et Francise, et 
Dominus Hiberniae ' (as 
Henry III.). 

' Angliae Franciae et Hiberniae 
Rex, Fidei Defensor et in 
terra Ecclesise Anglicanae 
et Hiberniae supremum 
caput.' 

' Queen of England, France, 
and Ireland, Defender of 
tlie Faith.' 

'King of Great Britain, 
France, and Ireland, De- 
fender of the Faith.' 

'Queen of Great Britain, 
France, and Ireland, De- 
fender of the Faith.' 

' Britanniarum Rex, and of 
the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland 
King, Defender of the 
Faith.' 

'Of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland 
Queen, Defender of the 
Faith. Empress of India. 

Or, ' Victoria, Dei Gratia, 
Britanniarum Regina Fid. 
Def.' 



Royal [English] Subsidy (The). 
The interest of a fund formed from a 
grant by Mary the wife of WilHam III. 
of England for Vaudois pastors of the 
valleys and of the Wiirtemberg colony. 
This colony consisted of the French sub- 
jects expelled from the valleys by the 
secret treaty of Loretto. See ' Treaty of 
1696.' The royal subsidy was augmented 
in 1770 by the ' National Subsidy ' {q.v.). 

Royalists and Cardinalists, 

1642. The friends and adherents of 
Cinq-Mars, the friend and favourite of 
Louis XIII., called themselves Royalists. 
The adherents of Richelieu, whom the 
king hated, were called ' Cardinalists.' 

Roydamna. The heir presumptive 
of the over-lord of Ireland. The heirs 
presumptive of the under-lords or dynasts 
were called tanists. The heir presumptive 
was elected in the lifetime of the ruler, 
and was generally one of the sons, 
brothers, or cousins of the blood royal. 



He was ex-ofi&cio commander-in-chief of 
the forces. 

Rubens's "Women. The portrait 
of Helena Forman (or Fourment), his 
second wife, married at the age of sixteen, 
is introduced into several of his historical 
pictures; but in the painting called 
Bubens and his Wife in the Munich 
gallery the woman is the artist's first 
wife, Isabella Brandt of Antwerp. 

Rubicon [The). Now the ' Pisatello,* 
a small river which flows into the Adriatic, 
and separates Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
proper. It was an act of treason for a 
Roman to enter Italy proper with an 
army ; when therefore Julius Ctesar, b.c. 
49, crossed the Rubicon at the head of 
his army, it was a declaration of revolt, 
and the commencement of the civil 
war. 

From this passage of the Rubicon by Caesar, the 
phrase ' To pass the Rubicon ' became proverbial, 
meaning to take a decisive step and abide the 
consequences, or to ent7er on an undertaking from 
which there is no retreat. 

Rubric {The). The directions to the 
minister and congregation given at the 
heads of divers parts of the liturgy. 
These were originally printed in red 
letters, the office itself being in black 
letters. (Latin ruber, red.) 

Rubrics. The Romans called the 
jus civile ' Rubrica,' because these laws 
were written in vermilion. The praetors' 
edicts were written in white, the imperial 
rescripts in purple ink. 

Rudel {Geojfre]/). The king of min- 
strels, to whom Henry II., on one occa- 
sion, gave four manors in reward for a 
song. 

Rudmas-day. The feast of the 
rode or holy cross. There were two of 
these feasts, one on 3 May (the invention 
of the cross), and the other 14 Sept. (the 
exaltation of the cross). The latter is 
called the Holy Rood-day. 

Rudolph I. of Habsburg king of 
Germany, but never kaiser or ' Emperor 
of the Holy Roman Empire ' (1218, 1273 
-1291). 

Ftither, Albrecht count of Habsburg; 

Mother, ; Wives, (1) Gertrude of 

Hohenberg, (2) Elizabeth of Burgundy. 
Contemporary with Edward I. 

After the close of the Hohonstauffen dynasty 
in 1254 to the accession of the Austrian dynasty in 
143S, nearly 200 years, the rulers of Germany were 



EUDOLPH 



RULE 



777 



promiscuous. After an interregnum of seventeen 
years came Eudolph I. of Habsburg, Adolph of 
Nassau, Albreciit I. of Austria, Heinrich VII. of 
Luxemburg, Friedrich III. of .\ustria, Ludwig V. 
of Uavaria, Gunther of Schwarzburg, Karl IV. of 
Luxemburg. VVenzel [Wenceslaus] the Worthless, 
Ruprecht the Elector Palatine of the Rhine, and 
Siegmund of Drandenburg, altogether eleven 
kings, besides the three nominal ones during the 
interregnum. 

Rudolph. II. Kaiser-king of Ger- 
many of the House of Austria (1552, 
1576-1612). 

Father, Maximilian II.; Mother, 
Mary. It was in honour of this monarch 
the ' Tabulae Rudolphlnoa ' were so 
named. Contemporary with Elizabeth 
and James I. 

Rudolphine Tables (The). 
'Tabulae Rudolphlnae,' 1627. Astrono- 
mical calculations begun by Tycho 
Brahe', and continued by Kepler under 
the immediate patronage of Kaiser 
Rudolf n., after whom Kepler named 
the work. See ' Ilkanian and Alfonsine 
Tables.' 

Rudolph gave Tycho Brahe an annuity of l,500i. 
sterling. 

Ruel {The Treaty of), April, 1649. 
Terms of peace made by Mazarin and 
Anne of Austria with the Prondeurs 
or Parlementarians. Scarcely was the 
treaty signed when the Prince de Conde 
headed the party called ' La Jeune 
Fronde.' The queen-mother arrested 
the Prince de Conde', the Prince de 
Conti, and the Due de Longueville while 
assembled in council in the Palais Royal, 
and sent them prisoners to Vincennes 
(18 Jan., 1650). All the nobility flew to 
arms. Anne of Austria stood out for a 
time, but Mazarin fled. In the autumn 
of 1651 Louis XIV. came of age, took the 
government into his own hands, and the 
nation quieted down. 

Rufus Stone {The). A stone, now 
enclosed in an iron casing, near a by-road 
to Bramshaw, to commemorate the spot 
where Purkis picked up the body of 
William II. after he was shot. The tra- 
ditional cottage stands some 100 yards 
off, in the hamlet of Canterton. 

Rule Nisi. An order of the law 
court that something stated shall be 
done, unless the opposite party, within a 
certain time (say three or six days) show 
cause why it should not be done. 

Rule of Faith ( The). The dogmas 
and doctrines binding on Christians : 



Dissenters say ' the Bible, the whole 
Bible, and nothing but the Bible is bind- 
ing as a rule of faith.' 

Catholics say the practices and doc- 
trines recorded in the ' Fathers ' show 
the rule held in their days, and this ' tra- 
dition ' supplements the written Scrip- 
tures, the two together making the rule 
of faith. 

The Church of England adds to the 
Bible the decisions of the first four gene- 
ral councils, and admits other practices 
' not contrary to Holy Scriptures,' as the 
change of the Sabbath for Sunday, infant 
baptism, &c. 

Rule of Monastic Houses. Cer- 
tain laws to be observed by the order 
referred to. Originally there were but 
four orders (Augustine, Basil, Benedict, 
and Francis of Assisi) ; but these four 
have given rise to a large number of sub- 
ordinate orders. 

Every religious order was bound to the four 
vows of Obedience, Poverty, Charity, and Chastity; 
but history must very much wrong them if these 
vows were generally observed. 

I. Rule of St. Augustine {The). 
St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa, 
lived 354-430, and founded a society of 
hermits ; but what is called ' Augustine 
or Austin Friars ' is a society organised 
in 1256 by Pope Alexander IV., who 
appointed Lanfranc the ' general.' The 
Augustine Friars wore originally a gray 
habit, but afterwards a black and white 
one, with a leathern girdle about the 
waist. 

There were also Augustine canons. 

In 1567 Pius V. made the Augustine 
friars one of the four mendicant orders, 
the others being the Dominicans, the 
Franciscans, and the Carmelites. 

In 1574 Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese, 
founded the Barefooted Augustines 
(Augustins De'chausses). 

What is technically called ' The Rule 
of St. Augustine ' is a set of laws ap- 
pointed to be observed by those who be- 
long to the order ; but who was the author 
of these laws nobody knows. There 
were, in fact, three sets of rules ; the chief 
items were : 

1 Class : Absolute and holy poverty. 

To possess no worldly goods of any 
kind. Even articles of personal use to be 
in common. See IV. 

If any novice had property he must 
sell it all, and give the proceeds to the 



778 



EULE 



EULE 



poor, before he could be admitted into 
the order. See IV. 

Never to receive money from anyone, 
nor any present except food, which must 
be taken untouched to the monastery for 
general distribution. See IV. 

2 Class : Monastic duties. 

To recite daily the psalms and ap- 
pointed offices. 

To employ the first part of the morning 
and afternoon in manual labour. 

To wash their own clothes. 

To observe strict silence at meals ; to 
attend to what was read ; and never to 
eat out of the monastery. 

Whenever they left the monastery, to 
go two together ; and not even to go to 
the baths separately. See IV. 

Never to utter an idle word. 

Never to receive a private letter. 

Never to engage in a lawsuit. 

On a Sunday a little wine was allowed. 

3 Class : Beligious duties. 

To love God and their neighbour man. 

To attend prayer at the canonical 
hours. 

To sing only what is appointed. 

To fast with discretion. 

To be modest in look, word, and deed. 

Never to look immodestly on any 
woman, or harbour an immodest thought. 

*,* Augustine himself, one of the four doctors 
of the Church, is called, • Le Miroir des prelats, 
le Maitre de la theologie, 1 Ornement des eveques. 
I'Eclat de tout I'ordre sacerdotal, la Lumiere des 
docteurs, le Soleil de I'Afrique, le Bouclier de la 
foi, le Fleau des heretiques. le Temple de la reli- 
gion, le Firmament de I'eglise, et la Colonne ine- 
branlable de la verite.' 

The following -".vere branches of the Augustine 
order, and observed the same rule with a differ- 
ence — viz. the Austin Friars, the Brigettines, 
Dominicans, Gilbertines, Prsemonstratensians 

or NORBERTINES, TABENNITES, TRINITARIANS, (ic. 

See those in capitals ' Bule of ... ' each name. 

II. Rule of St. Basil [The). St. 
Basil lived 329-379. He retired into a 
desert in the province of Pontus, and 
founded there a monastery, for the better 
government of which he drew up a series 
of laws, called the ' Rule of St. Basil,' 
even to the present day universally fol- 
lowed by all Oriental monks, even by 
those who call themselves of the order of 
St. Antony. There were two sets of 
rules, the Longer and the Shorter. All 
that St. Basil himself enjoined are the 
following : — 

No monk of this order to return to his 
parents without express permission of 
his superiors. 

Use hospitality to strangers, but avoid 



dainty fare. Let even your hospitality 
teach your guests temperance and so- 
briety. 

Communicate your most secret 
thoughts to your superior. 

Never omit the service of prime, but 
always consecrate ' the firstfruits of your 
thoughts to God.' 

St. Basil's day is 14 June. 

III. Rule of St. Benedict {The). 
Absolute and holy humility. St. Bennet 
or Benedict (480-542) was the founder 
of the Benedictine Order. Gregory the 
Great preferred the Benedictine Rule 
to all others. Some ascribe the rule 
to Gregory III. (731-741). It contains 
twelve degrees of humility. 

The following are the chief items of 
the Benedictine Riole : — 

The monks to serve by turns in kitchen 
and at table, and the monks in service to 
wash the feet of the other monks, and on 
Saturday to cl^an the plate and linen 
seven hours a day to be given to manual 
labour, four in the morning and three in 
the afternoon ; service seven times a day 
two hours to be given to pious reading. 

Total abstinence from meat and fowls 
The allowance of bread per day to be 1 lb 
and a hemina of wine. Fast all Lent 
till 6 p.m. ; but no voluntary austerities 
allowed. Perfect silence to be observed 
at meals. 

Avoid singularity, never give way to 
loud laughter, and never at any time 
speak in a loud voice. 

Always to keep their eyes fixed towards 
the ground. 

Renounce your own will ; bear injuries 
patiently ; think meanly of yourself and 
most highly of God. 

Train yourself to continual penitence ; 
do all lowly offices ; be modest in look, 
word, and thought. 

Know your own will ; obey promptly ; 
show your most secret thoughts to your 
director. See II., IV. 

Never go abroad except in pairs ; all 
to sleej) in one dormitory, but never two 
in one bed ; all to sleep in their day-dress 
and girdle, with a lamp burning in the 
dormitory all night. 

Small oftences to be punished by loss 
of meals, great ones by expulsion from 
chapel. 

No vows to be perpetual. 

The dress to be a black gown with wide 
sleeves and a pointed cowl. Every monk 



I 



RULE 



RULE 



779 



to have two of each, but to prefer old 
clothes to new ones. 

St. Rennet's Day is March 21. 

The following observed the Benedictine Rule 
with a difierence— viz. 

The Bernardinas, Camaldules, Carthusians, 
Celestines, Cistercians, monks of Cluny or Clu- 
NIACS, Feuillants, Trappists, *c. .S.v those in 
capitals under ' Rule of . . .' each name. 

IV. Rule of St. Francis (The). 
Absolute poverty. St. Francis of Assisi 
(1182-1226) was the founder of three 
orders: (1) the Fratres Minores in 1206; 
(2) the nuns in 1212 ; and (3) what was 
far more important (in 1221) the secular 
order called Tcrtiaries — that is, men and 
women who lived in ordinary life (married 
and given in marriage), but promised to 
live religiously, and to abandon frivo- 
lity of dress, needless extravagance, and 
self-indulgence. The Franciscans were 
allowed to have nothing they could call 
their own, not even the clothes they wore, 
their convents or churches. Their right 
extended only to the use of these things. 
{See I.) They had to work for their living, 
and, when provisions ran short, to beg 
alms ; but under no consideration were 
they allowed to take goods or money. 
See 1. If a novitiate had property he 
was bound to sell all and give the pro- 
ceeds to the poor, not one farthing might 
be invested even for the convent or the 
order. See I. 

There are at present many conventual ter- 
tiaries. 

The following are the chief of the twelve 
articles of the Rule of St. Francis : 

Never to leave the convent except in 
twos. See I. 

Never to preach without permission of 
the ordhiary of the diocese. 

Never to ride on a journey ; and never 
to go into any foreign country. 

Never to stand godfather to a child ; 
and never to enter a nunnery. 

To fast all Lent, and from All Saints' 
Day (Nov. 1) to Christmas Day. 

To confess to their superior their most 
secret thoughts. See II., III. 

This apostrophe of St. Francis is given in the 
'Petits Bollandistes,' vol. xii. p. 29: 'Seigneur 
Jesus, montrez-moi les voies de votre tres-clitre 
pauvrete ! Ayez pitie de moi et de ma dame la 
Pauvret«; car je I'aime avec tant d'ardeur, que je 
ne puis trouver de repos sans elle, et vous savez, 
O mon Dieu, que e'est vous qui m'avez donne ce 
grand amour.' 

When some persons complained to St. Franci i 
that his rule was too austere, Mgr. Guerin says 
(p. 86), 'lis furent surpris dentendre la voix de 
Jesu-Christ meme qui lui dit en leur presence 
ces paroles distinctes : "Francois, cette Regie 
n'est point ton ouvrage, maia le mien; j'entends 



qu'elle soit gardee a la lettre, a la lettre, k la lettre, 
sans glose, sans glose, sans glose. Si quelques- 
uns ne la veulent pas garder, qu'ils soient rejetes 
de la compagnie comma desdifflciles, des mucins, 
des scandaleux, et des incorrigibles. Je sais la 
capacite de Ihomme et je sais les graces et les 
secours que je veux lui donner." Ces superieurs, 
saisis de frayeur, tomberent par terre et n'ose- 
rent ouvrir la bouclie.' Notwithstanding, the 
rule was greatly modified by Elias (the successor 
of St. Francis), and the society was split in two, 
those who were strict Franciscans and those who 
followed a greatly modified rule. 

St. Francis s Day is 4 Oct. 

The following were Franciscans, and observed 
the Franciscan Rule with a difference— viz. 

The Capucins or Capuchins, Clarisses, Minims, 
Picpus, R.'coUets, i&c. 

St. Francis of Paula, who founded the Minims, 
Bald that no monk who died without his cord of 
two knots would ever go to heaven. 

Rule of St. Chrodegand [Fran- 
ciscans], 76.S. By this rule canons were 
bound to manual labour, silence, and 
confession twice a year. Clorodegand's 
day is 7 March. 

Rule of St. Dominic [Augustines]. 
St. Dominic (1170-1221) was the founder 
of preaching friars ; his rule of absti- 
nence and poverty was similar to that of 
St. Francis, with this exception — the 
order might accept small rents in money. 

The motto of his order was ' Perfect self-distrust, 
out perfect trust in God.' 

Not only individual monks had no personal pro- 
perty, even the collective society had none. They 
entirely depended on alms. 

St. Djminic s great object was to multiply 
churches and train zealous preachers. 

The occupations of his monks were preaching, 
contemplation, severe study, and acts of charity. 
Retirement and self-denial were strictly enforced. 

St. Dominic s day is 14 Aug. 

Rule of St. Fintan of Leinster, 
6th cent. [Benedictines]. The Rule of 
St. Fintan and that of the Trappists are 
unusually austere. 

The monks of St. Fintan lived only on roots and 
vegetables, in many cases not even cooked. 
They tilled their own land. 
St. Fintan's Day is 10 May. 

Rule of St. Macar ius [Augustines] 
301-404. 

The monks fasted every day except 
Sunday, and from Easter Day to Whit 
Sunday. 

They divided the day between manual 
labour and prayer. 

Hospitality was enforced by this rule. 

No monk was allowed to speak a word 
to a stranger without express permis^ioii 
of the superior. 

The abbots of this order wore no in 
signia. 

St. Macarius's Day is 2 Jan. 

Rule of the Carthusians [Bene- 
dictines], 1170, composed by Guido, the 



780 



RULE 



RUMP 



fifth prior. They had nineteen articles 
in their rule : 

To fast all Lent till six o'clock at night ; never 
at any time to eat flesh, fowl, or fish. Their bread 
to be made of bran. Sunday and Thursday their 
diet to be bread and cheese ; Tuesday and Satur- 
day pulse ; all the rest of the week bread and 
water. 

Each monk to have a separate cell, where he 
was to sleep, work, and eat in silence his solitary 
meals. 

Each monk to have a hair shirt at all times. 

All to work at agriculture, to be hospitable, and 
given to hospitality. 

Rule of the Cistercians [Bene- 
dictines], an order of monks founded 
by Robert of Moleme (1018-1110). The 
Virgin Mary was the protectress of this 
order. The Cistercians were reformed 
Bernardines, who affected the severest 
simplicity. 

The rule enjoined four hours' sleep, four for 
choir singing, and four for manual labour in the 
morning. 

The diet was roots and herbs, which were not 
served on a table, but on the bare ground. They 
slept also on the bare ground. 

Rule of the Cluniacs, or ' Monks 
of Cluny,' founded by St. Hugues, abbot 
of Cluny (1024-1109). Reformed Bene- 
dictines. The rule was very austere. 
St. Hugues abolished the law of manual 
labour, but enjoined total abstinence from 
animal food, and restricted the diet to 
bread and pulse. 

MgT. Paul Guerin, camorier de sa Saintete Leon 
XIII., says in his ' PetitbBollandistes,' vol. v. p. 76, 
' Un moine de Cluny, plusieurs disent Hildebrand 
qui fut plus tard Gr goire VII., vit un jour Jesus- 
Christ s'asseoir dans une stalle du choeur, a cote 
de Hugues, et lui dieter les decrets et les regies 
monastiques.' 

Rule of the Worbertines [Au- 
gustines]. The monks who followed this 
rule were called Norbertines, Premon- 
stratensians, or White Canons. Robert 
Norbert lived 1092-1134. 

His rule enjoined total abstinence from 
flesh, constant fasts, and avoiding linen. 

St. Norbert's Day is 6 June. 

Rule of the Tabennites. 

Founded by St. Pachomius (292-348), 
who 'was the first to draw up a mon- 
astic rule in writing. St. Jerome's ver- 
sion of it is still extant. Mgr. Guerin, 
camerier de sa Saintete Leon XIIL, says 
in his ' Petits Bollandistes,' vol. v. p. 526 : 
' Pacome allait quelquef ois dans un vaste 
desert, nomme Tabenne, situe sur les 
bords du Nil. Un jour qu'il y faisait son 
oraison, il entendit une voix qui lui ordon- 
nait de batir, a I'endroifc ou il e'tait, un 
monastere destine a recevoir tous ceux 
qui y seraient envoyes de Dieu pour le 



servir fidelement. Vers le meme temps, 
un ange lui donna la Regie que devaient 
suivre ses religieux, appele's depuis Ta- 
bennites.' 

These monks ate in common and in dead silence, 
having their hoods over their faces that they 
might not see each other. Their tunic was made 
of white linen, with a cowl, but no sleeves. 
Over their shoulders they wore a white goat skin 
called a meloies. They communicated the first and 
last day of every week. There was not one minute 
of tlie day which had not some duty awarded to 
it. The law of silence was so severe thvt a monk 
was allowed to express what Jie wanted only by 
signs. 

His day is 14 May. 

Rule of the TrappistS [Bene- 
dictines]. The most austere of the 
Cistercian order, reformed by Jean le 
Bouthillier de Ranee (1G26-1700). 

The monks are not allowed to speak either to a 
stranger or to one another. 

They may never visit or even write to their 
friends or relatives, nor may they receive any 
communication whatever either from them or of 
them. If a father or mother, sister or brother, 
dies, the superior may be informed of it, and all 
that he says is, ' The prayers of the brotherhood 
are requested for the soul of one who has departed 
this life.' 

No monk of this order can possess any property 
of any sort, nor give any at any time to the monas- 
tery. 

They may never look on a stranger, but are 
bound to keep their eyes constantly on the 
ground. 

Their diet is weak cider and herb soup, with a 
raw radish, carrot, or a few lentils : but never meat, 
fowls, fish, or eggs. On fast days their allowance 
is two ounces of the coarsest bread. 

They work in the fields and lie upon straw. 

These monks not only obey the superior, but 
must obey the slightest sign of a brother-monk 
instantly, no matter how employed, even if their 
work is ruined by the interruption. 

The very slightest fault is most severely pun- 
ished, and yet withal they seem cheerful and 
contented. 

In fact, it is not self-denial but self-indulgence, 
ambition, and uncertainty which are the chief 
seeds of man's unhappiness. 

Rule of the Trinitarians [Au- 

gustinians]. Their special function was 
the redemption of cap! ives. They divided 
their income into three parts : one for 
their own maintenance ; another for the 
poor ; and the third part for the redemp- 
tion of Christian captives. 

*jf* There are a multitude of sub-orders, but the 
instances given above will suffice to show the 
nature of their rules. 

Rumford Medal {The), 1796. In- 
stituted in the Royal Society of London 
by Count Rumford for discoveries in 
light and heat. 

Rump {The). The fag-end of the 
Long Parliament after ' Pride's Purge ' 
{q.v.), 6 Dec, 1648. It was dissolved by 
Cromwell, 20 April, 1653. The members 
of the Rump were only 100, and the usual 
attendance did not exceed 50. It refused 



RUMPERS 



RUSSIA 



781 



to dissolve, and therefore on 20 April, 
1633, Cromwell stationed 50 musketeers 
within call, and after sitting awhile as if 
listening to the debate, rose and said, 
' Come, come, we have had enough of this. 
I will put an end to your prating.' The 
musketeers then entered, and the mem- 
bers rushed out. 'Takeaway this bauble,' 
he said, referring to the mace, and locking 
the door he walked away, and the Rump 
was dissolved. 

In 1849, from 6 to 18 June, was the German Rump 
Parliament in Stuttgart. We want a Cromwell to 
stop some of ' the prating ' in our present House 
of Commons (1890). 

Humpers. Members of the Rump 
Parliament (q.v.). 

Rundale (In). In patches : sale of 
land in small separate patches. Some- 
times, in Ireland, half an acre or an aci-e 
of land is held in thirty or forty little 
patches, too small to be enclosed, and 
thus subject to depredations from cattle. 
Sometimes the patches are so far asunder, 
it is no easy matter for a tenant to know 
what is his and what is another's. This 
is because he ' conacres ' {q.v.) to two or 
more different farmers. 

Running Footmen were footmen 
who ran in front of their master's coach, 
to help it out of ruts, and to serve as 
couriers. The costume was a light black 
cap, a jockey coat, white linen trousers, 
and a staff some six feet long. The staff 
had a ball at the top containing a hard- 
boiled egg and a little white wine, to serve 
as refreshment. The last in England 
was in the service of the Duke of Queens- 
berry (1810), but in Saxony there were 
running footmen even so late as 1845. 

Running Parliament (The). A 
Scotch parliament, so called from its con- 
stantly being shifted from place to place. 
See ' Parliaments.' 

Rupert [Ruprecht] surnamed Klemm, 
i.e. pinched or straitened in circum- 
stances, last but one of the promiscuous 
kaiser-kingsofGermany(1352. 1400-1410). 
He married Elizabeth of Niirnberg, and 
was contemporary with Henry IV. 

Rupert [Prince). Grandson of 
James I. of England. His mother Eliza- 
beth, daughter of James I., married 
Friedrich V. the elector palatine. 
Charles I. was his uncle. 



Rupert's Land (1670). All the 
lands that pour water into Hudson's 
Bay. So called from Prince Rupert, who, 
with certain specified associates, formed 
the original Hudson's Bay Company 
{q.v.). 

Rural Dean {A). A person (gene- 
rally a beneficed clergyman) appointed to 
supervise in a certain district, called a 
deanery, the condition of the churches, 
the church furniture, the glebe houses, 
the schools, the appliances of public wor- 
ship, and all other things pertaining to 
the church services, and to report on all 
to the bishop as occasion seems fit. 

Rural Labourers' League {The), 
12 May, 18^8. A society which super- 
seded the Allotments Association of 1882 ; 
its object being to deal with every prac- 
tical grievance of the rural population, 
such for example as footpaths, commons, 
local charities, allotments, rights of 
labour, and so on. 

Rurik {The Dynasty of). The first 
Russian dynasty, 862-1598. They were 
not kings of Russia, but rulers of a part 
of Russia, over-lords of other princes, 
and held their courts at Novogorod, 
Kiev (1154-1240), Moscow (1154-1240), 
Vladimir (1240-1339), Moscow again(1339- 
1584). The seventh of the line, Vladimir I. 
the Great, introduced Christianity ; the 
ninth, Jaroslav I., was a great legislator ; 
Ivan (or John) III. the Great unified the 
kingdom (1462-1505), and assumed the 
title of czar. This is called ' The Great 
Dynasty '; it gave sixty-seven sovereigns, 
and continued 736 years. 

Russell's Cairn. A spot on the 
farm of Auldton-burn, on the march be- 
tween England and Scotland, where Sir 
Francis Russell, eldest son of the Earl of 
Bedford, was mortally wounded in 1584 
by a party of Scotch raiders led by Sir 
Thomas Kerr, of Ferniherst. 

Russia, four dynasties. 

1. The dynasty of Rurik (862-1598) 
gives 67 sovereigns. 

2. The dynasty of Godunoff (1598-1613) 
gives 5 sovereigns. 

3. The dynasty of Romanoff (1613- 
1762) gives ll sovereigns. 

4. The dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp 
(1762- *) 



782 



RUSSIA 



RUSSIAS 



Russia. The Scythians, we are told, 
called the Scandinavians Musses, i.e. war- 
riors. This may be, but it is quite certain 
that the Norwegian Rus means a new 
or fresh-man; Bus-land the new-man's 
land ; Russia is the freshman's land. The 
notion that ' Eussia ' is derived from 
* Rurik ' is absurd. 

Ilu<5Sia {The Seven Crowns of). 
Three in Europe : Russia proper, Poland, 
and Finland. Four in Asia: Caucasus, 
Trans-Caspian, Central Asia, and Siberia. 
Population about 105 millions. 

Russia Company ( The). Formed 
in the reign of Edward VI., and chartered 
by Mary, in 1555, under the name of the 
' Company of Merchant Adventurers of 
England for the Discovery of Lands, 
Territories, Islands, &c. unknown or un- 
frequented.' Their privileges were to 
have 'a governor, four consuls, and 
twenty-four assistants ; to make laws, in- 
flict penalties, send out ships to make 
discoveries, take possession of them in the 
king's name, set up the royal banner of 
England, and enjoy the exclusive privi- 
lege of trading to Archangel and other 
parts of Russia, not yet frequented by 
the English.' The company still exists 
for social gatherings, but not for commer- 
cial purposes. 

Russian Afghan Treaty, 1881. 

A treaty between Alexander II. of Russia 
and the Ameer of Afghanistan, in which 
the Russian Government engaged to be 
the perpetual friend of the government of 
Afghanistan, and to assist it against any 
enemy which the Ameer might be unable 
to subdue. The Ameer, on the ooher 
hand, engaged not to make war on any 
foreign power without first obtaining the 
consent of Russia ; and to report to 
Russia whatever goes on in Afghanistan. 
The secret object of the treaty was to 
win the Ameer from the British alliance, 
and make Afghanistan a standpoint to 
threaten our Indian empire, if at any 
time England and Russia should be at 
war. 

Russian Byron {The). Alexander 
Sergeivitch Pushkin (1799-1837). 

Russian Church Catechisms 

{The). The larger one was the Greek 
Church catechism prepared in 1642 by 
Peter Mogilas. The shorter one was the I 



catechism prepared by the order of Peter 
the Great. 

Russian History {Father of). 

Nestor, a monk of Kiev. His ' chronicle ' 
is from 8G2-1116. Nestor died in the 
12th cent. 

Russian Influenza. 20 Jan., 1837, 

was called Black Sunday, because 1,000 
persons died in London of influenza, and 
numerous churches were closed from want 
of a congregation. Of the London police 
force 800 men were incapacitated for 
duty. 

1832 and 1833 wore influenza years. The next 
prevalence occurred in Jan. 1890. It was called 
'The Russian Influenza,' and in France, where it 
was very fatal, it was called La Grippe, 

Russian Laws. The code was com- 
piled in 1497, by order of Ivan III. the 
Great. It was revised and completed in 
1550 by Ivan IV. (the Terrible). Called 
Sudehnik. 

The New Code was compiled in 1649 
by order of Alexis. It was called the 
Sobornoe Ulajenie. 

The corpus juris {Svod Zakonov) was 
published 1826-1833. 

Ivan III. the Great was the first to assume the 
title of ' czar.' 

Russian Messali'na(r^e). Catha- 
rine, wife of Peter III. of Russia. Her 
paramour when Peter was alive was 
Gregory Orloff, officer of the guards. 

Russian Murat {The). Michel 
Miloradowitch (1770-1820). 

Russian Rebels. See 'Decem- 
brists,' ' Nihilists,' * Propagandists," Ter- 
rorists.' 

Russias {All the). 

Baltic Russia, that part which borders 
on the Baltic Sea. 

Black Russia, the western part of 
Lithuania, which forms the governments 
of Minsk and Grodno. Called black from 
the black caps and vestments which the 
inhabitants used to wear. 

Gkeat Russia, the north and middle 
portions of Russia in Europe ; formerly 
called Moscovia when Moscow was its 
capital. 

Little Russia, the south-west region, 
the Ukraine. 

New Russia, the southern region, com- • 
prehending the governments of Kerson, 
Jekaterinoslav, Tauris, Bessarabia, the 
territory of the Cossacks of the Don, that 



EUSSO-GERMAN 



SABBATH 



783 



of the Black Sea, and all the parts re- 
cently added. 

Red Russia, the part occupied by the 
Ruthenians (or Russniaks) and Poles of 
the Austrian frontier. It is said that 
they wore a red cap, like the Turkish fez. 

White Russia, that part of Lithuania 
detached from Poland in 1772, forming 
the governments of Smolensk, Moholev, 
and Vitebsk. It is said that they wore 
white caps and dresses; the Austrian 
soldiers wear white. 

Rus is Norwegian for n£W, Russers^the new 
men ; and Rusland=the new man's land. 

Russo-German Wa,r (The), 1812- 
1815, against Napoleon Bonaparte. It 
began with the Russian campaign of 
Napoleon, and ended with the battle of 
Waterloo. 

Rustic War {The), 1525. Waged by 
the Elector of Saxony and the German 
princes against Munzer and the Ana- 
i)aptists. The battle of Frankenhausen 
put an end to the Anabaptist rebellion. 
Munzer, being taken prisoner, was igno- 
miniously put to death. 

Rye House Plot (T/ie), 1683. After 
the failure of the Mealtub plot, James 
duke of York was taken into the king's 
councils, and directed the affairs of 
government without a parliament. The 
nation grew alarmed, and a pjofc was set 
on foot for the assassination of the king 
on his way home from Newmarket. As 
the house in which the king lodged acci- 
dentally caught fire, he left Newmarket 
sooner than was expected, whereby his 
life was preserved ; but the conspirators 
were hunted up, and amongst others 
Lord William Russell and Algernon Sid- 
ney were executed. 

Called the Rye House Plot, because the conspira- 
tors met at a farm belonging to Rumbold, a mu.lt- 
Bter, called the Rye House, on the river Lea, nenar 
Hoddesdon, in Hertfordshire, to concert their 

Elans. Whether Lord William Russell was guilty 
as been much disputed. 

Ryswiek (Peace of), 20 Sept., 1697. 
Signed by EnL^land, France, Spain, and 
Holland ; 30 Oct., 1697, by the Emperor 
of Germany. To establish the peace of 
Europe disturbed by Louis XIV. The 
treaty consisted of four parts : (1) Be- 
tween France and England ; (2) between 
France and Holland ; (3) between France 
and Spain; (4) between France and Ger- 
nia ay. By the 1st, Louis XIV. engaged to 
abandon the cause of James II., and to 



acknowledge William III. as lawful king 
of England. By the 3rd, Louis restored 
to Spain Garonne, Roser, Barcelona, Lux- 
embourg, Charleroi, Mons, Courtrai, and 
all the fortresses he had taken in Namur, 
Brabant, Hainault, and Flanders, 

This important treaty closed the conspiracy 
between Louis XIV. and the Stuarts, begun at 
Dover ; the object of which was to make England 
a dependency of France and to restore Catholi- 
cism. 

Sabathai Sevi (1625-1676). A 

false Messiah who went to Jerusalem in 
1665, and, joining an ally named Nathan, 
gave out himself to be the Messiah and 
Nathan his Precursor. He collected a 
large following, but was arrested by Kiu- 
perli (minister of Mohammed IV.), and, 
being brought before the sultan, confessed 
his imposition, consented to embrace 
Islamism, and became a public laughing- 
stock. 

Sabbatarian Controversy (T7ie), 

1630. A controversy in the early part of 
Charles I.'s reign respecting the observ- 
ance of the Sunday and its being called 
the ' Sabbath ' or the ' Lord's Day.' The 
' Book of Sports ' (q.v.), published in the 
last reign, and appointed by Charles I. 
to be read in churches, gave great offence. 
Prynne printed his ' Histriomastix ' in 
ridicule of Sunday sports, and spared 
neither king nor queen from his merciless 
castigation. For this he lost his ears, 
was fined, imprisoned, and struck off the 
Rolls. 

Sabbatarians. Those Christians 
who observe the seventh day (our Satur- 
day) as the true Sabbath. They are 
chiefly Baptists, and are sometimes 
called the ' Seventh-day Baptists.' 

There are also Seventh-day Adventists both in 
America and in Europe. 

Sabbata'ti, 12th cent. The Wal- 
denses. Prat'eolus says ' quod qui 
inter eos perfectiores erant, signum 
quoddam in superiore parte sui sotularis, 
quod sahbatem appellabant, deferre 
solebant.' Ebrardus Bethuniensis says : 
' Sotulares cruciant, cum membra potius 
debeant cruciare ; calceamenta coronant, 
caput autem non coronant.' They were 
also called ' Insabbatati ' {q-v.). 

It is quite certain that the word is not connected 
with Sabbath, though it may be with Sabot. 

Sabbath, or Day of Rest. 

1st day, Sunday — Christians. 
2nd day, Monday — Greeks. 



784 



SABBATICAL 



SACHEVEREL 



3rd day, Tuesday — Persians. 
4th day, Wednesday — Assyrians. 
5th day, Thursday — Egyptians ; Jesids 
iq.v.). 

6th day, Friday— Turks. 
7 th day, Saturday — Jews. 

Sabbat'ical Year (The). Every 
seventh year, when the Jews abstained 
from husbandry. 

Sabbatum in Albis. The 

Saturday following Easter Sunday. So 
called because on that day those bap- 
tized on Holy Saturday {i.e. Saturday 
preceding Easter Sunday) laid aside the 
white robes or stoles assumed on their 
baptismal day. 

Sabbatum in Traditio'ne 

Sym'boli. The Saturday preceding 
Palm Sunday. So called in the Ambro- 
sian ritual, because on that day the 
Mediolani gave the creed (or symbol) to 
the catechumens, who appeared in white 
stoles on Palm Sunday. 

Sabbatum Magnum., in the 
Catholic Church, means the Sabbath 
which occurs in the Paschal Week. The 
day when Christ lay in the grave, between 
Good Friday and Easter Sunday. Of 
course the day was the Saturday follow- 
ing Good Friday. 

Sabbatum Vaeat. The fifth 

Sunday in Lent. ' Diem Dominicum ita 
dictum, qui Pascha prtecedit ; quia pro- 
prio officio caret. Propterea quod papa, 
ipso die, occuparetur eleemosyna ero- 
ganda ' (Du Cange). See ' Sunday.' 

Sabbatum XII. Lectionum. 

' Ita appellatum Sabbatum Quatuor Tem- 
porum, auctor est Amalarius ' (bk. ii. eh. 1). 

Sabeism. Worship of the sun, moon, 
and stars. So-called from the Sabeans, 
a people of Arabia Felix. 

Sabel'lianism, about a.d. 252. The 
heresy of Sabellius of Libya, who main- 
tained that there is but one person of the 
Godhead. According to Sabellius, Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost are not three dis- 
tinct persons, but only three functions or 
manifestations of the one God. Before 
the incarnation there was only the One 
God ; this One God descended into the 
Virgin and became the Son, and on the 
Day of Pentecost this son diffused him- 
self on the apostles, and that is the Holy 
Ghost. So that Father, Son, and Holy 



Ghost are only three names of the one 
hypostasis. The Sabellians also believed 
in the eternity of matter. Condemned 
by the Council of Alexandria in 261. 

According to Sabellius the Son or Word and the 
Holy Ghost or Comforter are functions or opera- 
tions of God, as light and heat are emanations of 
the sun. 

*,* The Orthodox are those who accept the 
creed of the dominant state church. Heretics are 
those who choose for themselves their own reli- 
gious tenets, or forjn their own opinions of reli- 
gious truths. (Greek, mid. voice of aipttu, to select 
for one's self.) 

Sabian'ism. The religious system 
of the Sabians. They prayed thrice a 
day, and the temple of the moon at Haran 
was the term of their pilgrimage. Their 
traditions of the creation, deluge, and 
patriarchs were very similar to the Bible 
stories; they appealed to the secret 
books of Adam, Seth, and Enoch; and 
had a slight infusion of Christianity. It 
was not, however, as Sale says, 'the 
primitive religion of the Arabs,' but a 
graft of Chaldeanism. They are now 
called Mandseans, or St. John's Chris- 
tians. The sect still exists '1890). 

Sa'bians (The). A people and sect 
of Turkey. The same as the ' Naba- 
tlieans.' 

Sabin'ians. In Latin, Sahiniani. 
A law school which derived its name 
from Massurius Sablnus, a jurist in the 
time of Tiberius. He was opposed to 
the Proculeans {q-v.). The Sabinians 
were orthodox equity lawyers, attached 
to the court and aristocracy. The Procu- 
leans were radicals. 

Saecharissa. Dorothy Sydney is 
so called by Waller, who made love to her 
in vain. 

In the meantime Sydney paced to and fro with 
him [Hugo Warnclitfe] in the avenue which was 
called ' Saccharissa's Walk,' in memory of Syd- 
ney's beautiful sister Dorothy, immortalised by 
Waller under that name.— Edna Lyall, In the 
Golden Days, ch. x. 

Sache'verel {Dr.), 1709-1710. He 
preached two sermons on passive obe- 
dience and non-resistance : one 15 Aug., 
1709, at the Derby assizes, before the 
judge and sheriff, and the other 5 Nov., 
1709, before the lord mayor and corpora- 
tion in St. Paul's Cathedral, on the text 
' Perils from false brethren.' The gist 
of these sermons was against toleration 
in religion. He was tried in Westmin- 
ster Hall in Feb. 1710, and condemned. 
But his sentence was suspension for two 



SACRAMENT 



SACRED 



785 



years, and the sermons to be burnt by 
the common hangman. 

There was a large mob of Sacheverelites 
(5 syl.), who went about London pulling 
down the chapels of Dissenters and 
burning the hymn-books, Bibles, and fur- 
niture. The whole of this disgraceful 
riot was as much political as anything, 
the object being to oust the Whigs and 
bring the Tories into power. 

Sacrament of the Mass, or 

♦Elevation of the Host.' That part of 
the mass in which the officiating priest 
holds up the consecrated bread and 
shows it to the people (a.d. 1373). 

Sacranienta'rian Confession 

{The). The confession of faith presented 
by the Sacramentarians {q.v.) in the Diet 
of Augsburg (1530). 

Sacramentarians, or ' Sacra- 

mentaries,' 1524. Certain reformers who 
sepai-ated from Luther on the doctrine 
of the eucharist. Luther believed in con- 
substantiation, but the Sacramentarians 
rejected the doctrine of a corporal pre- 
sence, and admitted only a spiritual pre- 
sence of Christ with the truly devout. 
Zwingli was a Sacranaentarian ; so were 
Carlostadt, CEcolampadius, Muncer, 
Storck, and Martin Bucer. 

M. Police, in his ' History of the Protestants of 
France,' tells us that Lutherans were so called. 
' Many Lutherans, or Sacramentarians as they 
were then called, were cast into prison ' (iv. p. 34) ; 
but whether he means all Lutherans or somi' is 
not evident. Certainly Luther's 'impanation' 
means something added to the bread, or incorpo- 
rated with it, or the word is senseless. 

Sacramen'tary, or ' Sacramen- 
tarian.' One who rejects the doctrine of 
the real presence as taught in the Roman 
Catholic and Lutheran churches [that is, 
transubstantiation and consubstantia- 
tion]. 

The only thing which he [the Duke of Norfolk] 
thought his enemies might bring against him was 
for ' being quick against such as had been accused 
for sacramentaries ' [151C],— Howitt, Hist, of Eng., 
vol. ii. p. 293. 

*,' The book used by Catholics in celebrating 
mass is called a ' Sacramentary.' 

Sacred Art {The). Ars Sacra. 
Chemistry, which in Alexandria was 
limited to the priests. 

Sacred Band {The). A Theban 
band of 300 hoplites of the best families, 
enrolled under Epaminondas. The spe- 
cial duty of this 'i.fpo<: X.<>xo^ was to 
defend the Cadmea. In 1821, 500 Greek 
students enrolled themselves into a 



* Sacted Band ' to resist the Turks. They 
fought most bravely, but, overpowered 
by numbers, they were all slain at Drage- 
schan. 

The motto of their standards was 'Death or 
Freedom,' or 'This, or Upon this' in rav, ? rwt 
Tuv), the motto inscribed in the shields of the 
ancient Spartans. 

Sacred College {The), a.d. 311. 
The Roman Church agreed to appoint 
seventy of their clergy into a sacred 
college. The number was in imitation 
of the Jewish Sanhedrim and the seventy 
disciples appointed by Christ. It was 
composed of six bishops, fifty priests, 
and fourteen deacons, to be called ' car- 
dinals,' out of which one was to be elected 
chairman or head of the hierarchy. The 
assemblies of the college were called 
conclaves, and each of the members now 
wears a red hat. 

The full number is not strictly kept up. Thus, 
in ly41, there were but 61 (38 instead of 50 being 
cardinal priests, and 11 instead of 14 being car- 
dinal deacons). 

Sacred Geese. Geese kept by the 
ancient Romans in the temple of Juno 
on the Capitoline HiU. These geese are 
especially noted in Roman story, because 
when a party of Gauls climbed stealthily 
up the steep rock, unobserved by the 
sentinels, and even without disturbing 
the watch-dogs, the geese gave the alarm 
by their cackling, and Manlius, being 
aroused, reached the rampart just in 
time to push over the foremost Gaul and 
thus saved the capitol. 

Sacred Heart {The). There are two 
fetes so called in the Catholic Church : 
(1) ' Le Sacre Coeur de Jesus,' insti- 
tuted in 1698, from the revelations of 
Marie Alacoque, and celebrated the third 
Sunday after Pentecost, but in 1822 
transferred to the second Sunday in July. 
And (2) the Sacre Cceur de Marie, insti- 
tuted in 1G61, and celebrated 8 February. 

We are told as an historic truth that Jesus 
allowed this visionary to repose on his bosom, and 
one day said to her : ' Mary, my sacred heart is 
full of love to man, but to thee especially, to 
whom I enjoin the privilege of making known the 
treasures of sanctification and salvation, which 
alone can redeem from hell.' Then taking his 
heart, he put it into hers. She saw it distinctly, 
and says it was like a burningcoal. Every Friday 
this was repeated, till she consented to establish 
the festival of the Sacred Heart (!!). See 'Life 
and Works of Margaret Mary Alacoque' ; BRE- 
TON, 'Instruction sur le Sacre Cceur de Jesus,' 
and 'Les Petits LJoUandistes,' vol. xii. p. 421. 

Sacred Island {The). Ireland was 
BO called long before the introduction of 
Christianity into the island. Probably it 
3E 



786 



SACRED 



SACRED 



was the seat of Spanish-Phcenician mis- 
Bions. Festus Avienus says that two 
days will bring you 

.... in sacram sic insulam 
Dixere prisci .... 
Eamque late gens Hibernorum colit. 
Plutarch refers to the Magi of Ireland, and 
Diodorus Siculusto its sun-worship. 

Sacred Month (The), 1838, of the 

Chartists. In which the Chartists swore 
to abstain from all work and all drink, 
* in order to secure the charter of their 
political salvation.' See ' Six Articles, 
&c.' In some places the ' Sacred Month ' 
began in July, in others in August. 

From the despatch of the Sacred Ship (q.v.) to 
Its return was a Sacred Month in Attica. 

Sacred Mount (The), or Mons 
Sacer, a hill about two miles from Rome, 
commanding the junction of the Tiber 
and Anio. Called the Sacred Hill 
because it was here that the Roman 
army encamped with the intention of 
forming themselves into a free and inde- 
pendent community when they found 
that Appius and the senate refused to 
fulfil the promises twice made to them 
when enemies were at the gates. Ulti- 
mately a compromise was effected, and 
two popular officers were granted to the 
revolters. The terms of this treaty were 
called the Sacred haws, or Leges Sacratce. 

Sacred Shields {The). Of the 
Salian priests, in the reign of Numa. 
These twelve shields, we are told, fell 
down from heaven, and became the pal- 
ladium of Rome. 

Sacred Ship {The). The ship in 
which Theseus (2 syl.) sailed to Crete to 
deliver Attica from the tyranny of Minos. 
It was preserved ever afterwards, and 
sent by the Athenians every year to the 
island of Delos with offerings. From 
the dispatch of the ship to its return no 
criminals were put to death. 

It so happened that Socrates was condemned to 
death the night before the sacred ship weighed 
anchor, and consequently his death was deferred 
for thirty days, till the ship returned. 

Sacred Spring {A). Ver Sacrum, 
a dedication of all the produce of the 
Bpring to the gods. Even the children 
born during a sacred spring were devoted, 
and had to leave the city of their birth. 
It was a Sabine custom ; but when Han- 
nibal, invaded Italy, Quintus Fabius 
Maximus advised the Roman senate to 
decree a ' Sacred Spring.' 



Sacred Standard {The). The 
'standard of green silk,' unfolded by 
Mussulmans in times of imminent dan- 
ger, and said to have been borne by the 
prophet himself. When Selim I., in 1517, 
conquered Egypt, this standard went to 
the Osmanlis, and has ever since been 
regarded as a palladium. In 1595 it was 
displayed in the war of Hungary. 
Mohammed III. confided it to the cus- 
tody of 800 emirs. At present the sacred 
standard is enveloped in four coverings 
of green taffeta, and inclosed in a case 
of green cloth. In the same case is a 
small Koran written by the hand of the 
Calif Omar, and the keys of the Caaba 
{q.v.). 

The pole of the standar-^ is twelve feet high, 
and is surmounted with a rlosed hand. In times 
of peace it is preserved in the ' Hall of the Noble 
Vestments,' which also contains the prophet's 
tunic, the sacred teeth, beard, stirrup, sabre, and 
bow of the prophet. 

Sacred War {The). There were 
two sacred wars in Grecian history — the 
first from 595 to 586, and the second 
from 356 to 346, each therefore of ten 
years' duration. The first of these broke 
out in Phocis soon after the establish- 
ment of Solon's laws in Athens. The 
Crisseans levied grievous taxes on those 
who went to consult the oracle of Delphi, 
and even seized the sacred treasures of 
that temple. Solon induced the Amphic- 
tyonic league to avenge the sacrilege, 
BO the lands of the Crisseans were laid 
waste. In the ninth year of the war the 
city of Crissa was taken, and the spoil 
consecrated to Apollo. As many of the 
Crisseans had taken refuge in Cirrha, 
that city was attacked and shared the 
fate of Crissa ; the whole territory of both 
Crissa and Cirrha was consecrated to 
Apollo, and was henceforth uncultivated. 

The cause of the second sacred war 
was that the Phocians cultivated a part 
of the Cirrhsean territory which had been 
dedicated to Apollo. The offenders were 
cited before the Amphictyons, and fined, 
but they refused to pay the fine. War 
broke out. Thebes, Locris, Thessaly, 
and several other states joined the 
Amphictyons; but Athens and Sparta 
joined the Phocians. At length Philip 
king of Macedonia joined the Amphic- 
tyons, and compelled Phocis to surrender 
at discretion, B.C. 352. 

It was on the interference of Philip of Macedon 
in this war that DemosthSnes spol^e his first 
Philippic and Olynthiac orations. 



SACKIFICATI 



ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S 



787 



Sacrifica'ti {The). Those lapsed 
Christians who, to avoid persecution, 
consented to offer sacrifice to heathen 
gods. They were very numerous. 

Sacrificial Mass, or Sacrifice of 
the Mass. ' Missa Perfecta,' reKeCa 
Hvaia. The 'Missa Imperfecta' was 
that in which the body and blood of 
Christ were not administered. The ' Missa 
Perfecta ' contained the perfect sacrifice. 
See ' Mass.' 

Sacy's Bible. 'Bible de Sacy.' 
The Port Royal translation of the Bible, 
so called from Isaac Lemaistre (Sacy), 
director of the Port Royal monastery. 
He was imprisoned for three years in the 
BastiUe for his Jansenist opinions, and 
during his captivity translated the Bible 
into French (1666-1670). See ' Bible.' 

Saci (now written Sacy) is an anagram of Isaac. 
See ' Prison Literature.' 

Saddueees, b.c. 250. A sect of the 
ancient Jews who took their name from 
' Zadoc,' one of the followers of Antigonus 
Sochaeus, president of the Sanhedrim. 
They rejected tradition, believed only in 
the pentateuch, disbelieved in a future 
state, in angels, and spirits. They were 
very rich and very influential. 

Sadle'rian Professorship. Of 

pure mathematics, in the University of 
Cambridge, founded in 1710 by Lady 
Sadler. In 1886 an alteration was made, 
and the stipend increased to SoOl. See 
* Mathematics (Professorship of).' 

Saffron Hue {The). The royal 
colour of the ancient Irish kings ; tlius 
Murkertach is described by the Four 
Masters {q.v.) as ' a warrior of the saffron 
hue.' 

Henry VIII. forbade by statute any Irishman 
' to wear or use any shirt, smocke, kerchor, bendol, 
neckerchour, mocket, or linnen cap, coloured 
or died with sattron.' The two chieftains. Lord 
Roche and the Wliite Knight, having by tlieir in- 
cessant quarrels wasted each other's lands, were 
both seized by order of Henry VIII., and in prison 
slept amicably in one bed. After a time they were 
released apparelled as Englishmen, and no longer 
wearing 'their saffron shirts and liernoghe's 
coats.' 

Saffron Veil. The Greek and Bo- 
raa,n brides, wore a, flamme urn or yellow 
veil which wholly enveloped them (Pliny, 
' Natural History,' xxi. 22). When the 
bride was taken home, it was the hus- 
band's part to take off her veil (Lucan, 
ii. 861). 

We call a sweetheart ' a flame.' The coincidence 
[is worth noting, if of no other valaa. 



Sagas, 11th to 16th cent. Poetical 
compositions by the Scalds or Scandi- 
navian bards. The subjects are mytho- 
logical and historic traditions of Norway, 
Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. 

Sage of Syracuse {The). Archi- 
medOs. 

So Tully paused, amid the wrecks of time, 
On the rude stone to trace the truth sublime : 
When at his feet, in honoured dust disclosed, 
The immortal sage of Syracuse reposed. 

Rogers. Pleasures of Memory, pt. 1 

Sahidic Version {The) of the 
Scriptures, also called 'the Thebaidic,' 
in the dialect of Upper Egypt, and sup- 
posed to be of the 2nd cent. See ' Scrip- 
tures.' 

Sailor King {The). WiUiam IV. of 
the British Empire (1765, 1830-1837). 
He entered the navy 15 June, 1779 ; was 
captain of royal navy 10 April, 1786 ; 
created rear-admiral 1790, vice-admiral 
1793, admiral 1799, lord high-admiral 
1827. 

The great seal of William IV. represents him 
on horseback with ships in the background; and 
seated in a chair of state with Neptune and sea- 
nymphs, Minerva and sailors. Minerva holds a 
spear and Neptune the trident. 

St. Andre^W {Order of). Instituted 
by Hungus king of the Picts. It took 
its name, because after the battle with 
Athelstane of England, Hungus and his 
soldiers went barefooted to St. Andrews, 
and there vowed that they and their 
posterity would ever afterwards use his 
cross as their ensign in every warlike en- 
terprise (Peter Heylyn, ' Cosmography,' 
p. 340). 

St. Augustine's Oak. At Aust 
in Gloucestershire, where the conference 
was held in 601 under an oak on the 
banks of the Severn, to secure the co- 
operation of the British in the missionary 
work of St. Augustine, and to effect a 
complete uniformity of religious usages 
in the island. The British bishops 
utterly refused to accept Augustine as 
their archbishop, or to accept his plat- 
form. 

His platform was this: (1) To keep Easter on 
the first Sunday after the 14th of Nisan ; (2) to 
baptize by ' trine immersion ; ' and (3) to join 
Augustine in missionary work. 

St. Bartholomew's Day, 24 Aug., 

1572. A day never to be forgotten, on 
which at midnight began in Paris the 
diabolical massacre of the Huguenots. 
Those employed in this slaughter wore a 
8c 2 



ST. BEIGE'S 



ST. PETERSBURG 



scarf on their left arm, and a white cross 
on their hat. For three days and three 
nights the butchery went on, and as 
many as 6,000 were massacred in Paris 
alone. The whole number murdered 
in France has been estimated at 50,000, 
some say 80,000. The day after St. Bar- 
tholomew's Day the king went in state 
to Notre Dame to assist at a Te Deum, 
or service of praise to God, and all the 
bells of the city rang out their joy peals, 
but the massacre was still going on and 
still were heard the shrieks of the dying 
and the roar of burning houses. 

The massacre was planned by Catherine de' Me- 
dici, the queen-mother, in the reign of her son 
Charles IX. It seems past belief, but is never- 
theless true, that Pope Gregory XIII. went in 
solemn state to the church of St. Louis to offer 
thanksgiving to Almighty God for this butchery ; 
and yet dared to talk of the persecutions of the 
Koman emperors. 

St. Briee's Day, 13 Nov., 1002, 
noted for the massacre of the Danes in 
England, at the instigation of Ethelred 
the Unready. 

' St. Cecilia, the beautiful mother of 
beautiful daughters,' mentioned by Mac- 
aulay, was Mrs. Sheridan and her three 
daughters — the Duchess of Somerset, 
Lady Dufferin, and the Hon. Mrs. Norton. 

St. Germain-en-Iiaye (T^e Treaty 
of), 8 Aug., 1570. Gave liberty of wor- 
ship in all places under the French 
crown ; it gave furthermore two towns 
in each province for the celebration of the 
Protestant service ; an amnesty for the 
past, equal right of admission to all pub- 
lic offices, permission to reside in any part 
of France, and four hostage towns — viz. 
La Rochelle, La Charite, Cognac, and 
Montauban. 

St. G-uy's Dance, 1374. Same as 
St. John's Dance [q.v.]. 
St. Guy's dance is another name for St. Vitus's 



St. John's Dance, 1374. So the 

Dancing Mania was originally called. 
When it appeared at Strasburg in 1418 it 
was called St. Vitus's Dance. Whether 
St. John's or St. Vitus's Dance, the saint 
was the one applied to by the afflicted, 
who made small offerings on the altar of 
the favourite saint. 

Not St. John the Evangelist but St. John the 
Baptist, to whose day was transferred several 
hen then customs. The dancing mania broke out 
on St. John the Baptist s Day (June 24). 

St. Louis. Louis IX. of France 
(1'215, 1226-1270). 



St. Margaret's, the church of the 
House of Commons, is noted in history 
as being the place where the Commons 
swore to the Solemn League and Cove- 
nant in Sept. 1642. Mr. Nye read the 
Covenant from the pulpit ; all present, 
consisting of members of both houses, the 
Assembly of Divines, and Scottish Com- 
missioners, signified their assent to it by 
holding up their hands. The members 
afterwards signed the parchment- roll, 
and then Dr. Gouge implored a blessing 
upon the act. 

St. Mark, Venice. 

The glory, nay perhaps the very existence, of 
St. Mark must pass away for ever. These cities 
[mentioned in tiie text] still owed fealty to bt. 
Mdik.— History of Venice, vol. i. p. 631 ; vol. ii. p. 379 
(Murray). 

St. Mary Overie, Southwark, now 
St. Saviour's. It was founded by Mary 
Overie, a nun, on the site of her father's 
house. John Overie (it is said) was a ferry- 
man, who used to ferry passengers from 
Southwark to the city and back again. 

Shakespeare's brother (Edmond), Fletcher and 
Massinger (the dramatists) were buried in the 
churchyard ; and there are monuments to Gower 
the poet, Andrews bishop of Winchester, Lockyep 
(the quack doctor in the reign of Charles II.), and 
other historic characters. 

St. Wieolas Shambles, London. 
A flesh-market, east of Greyfriars. So 
called from the church of St. Nicolas. 
The Butchers' Hall was close by. The 
lane of the shambles and hall used to be 
called Stinking Lane, but is now named 
King Edward Street. 

St. Patrick's Purgatory. The 

place of penance on an island, now called 
Station Island, in Lough Derg, Irelaad. 
It was a kind of cave dug up in fhe reign 
of Charles I. 

St. Petersburg {Treaties of). 

I. 30 Oct., 1715, between Peter I. and 
the King of Prussia, respecting the war 
in Pomerania. 

■ II. 10 Aug., 1726, between the Czarina 
Catherine and the King of Prussia. 

III. 16 Dec, 1740, a defensive alliance 
between the regent Anne of Russia and 
Frederick II. of Prussia. 

IV. 4 Feb., 1744, a treaty of aUiance 
between Russia an(i Poland. 

V. 22 May (2 June), 1746, a defensive 
alliance between Great Britain and 
Russia. 

VI. 9 March, 1759, a treaty between 



ST. SALVATOR'S 



ST. STEPHEN'S 



789 



Russia and Sweden to protect the navi- 
gation of the Baltic. 

yil. 5 May, 1762, a treaty of peace be- 
tween Czar Peter III. and Frederick II. 
of Prussia. 

VUI. 11 April, 1764, an alliance be- 
tween the Czarina Catherine and Frede- 
rick II. of Prussia. 

IX. 20 June, 1766, a treaty of com- 
merce between Great Britain and 
Russia. 

X. 5 Aug., 1772, for the partition of 
Poland between Austria, Prussia, and 
Russia. 

XI. 1 Aug., 1773, an alliance between 
Russia and Denmark. 

XII. 1 Aug., 1780, an alliance between 
Russia and Sweden for the protection of 
commerce. 

XIII. 11 Jan., 1787, a treaty of com- 
merce with France. 

XIV. 12 July, 1792, a defensive alli- 
ance between Russia and the King of 
Hungary and Bohemia. 

XV. 18 Feb., 1795, a treaty of alliance 
between Russia and Great Britain. 

XVI. 15 Jan., 1797, a treaty between 
Czar Paul I. and the Order of Malta. 

XVII. 29 Nov., 1798, an alliance be- 
tween Russia and the Two Sicilies. 

XVIII. 28 Sept., 1799, an alliance be- 
tween Russia and Portugal. 

XIX. 21 May, 1800, between Russia 
and Turkey, constituting the Ionian Isles 
a republic. 

XX. 18 Dec, 1800, an alliance between 
Russia and Prussia. 

XXI. 13 March, 1801, a treaty of com- 
merce between Russia and Sweden. 

XXII. 8 April, 1805, a treaty for a 
third coalition against Napoleon, between 
Great Britain and Russia. 

XXIII. 24 March, 1812, an alliance be- 
tween Sweden and Russia against Napo- 
leon. 

XXrV. 1 Aug., 1812, a treaty of peace 
and union between Great Britain and 
Russia. 

St. Salvator's College. Better 
' San Salvator.' See p. 27, ' Andrews, 
TJniversitij of St.' 

Saint-Simonianism, 1814. A 
non-communistic socialism, in which in- 
dustry is to be regulated in obedience to 
a self-constituted authority; production 
is first to be accumulated to excess, and 
then distributed in the ratio of merit; all 
transmission of property is to be abo- 



lished; marriage is to be abolished, all 
grades of rank, all family ties, and each 
individual is to belong to the one univer- 
sal family of man. With all this com- 
munism there is to be a head called the 
' Supreme Father,' whose authority is 
to be wholly absolute. See ' Supreme 
Father.' 

A scheme which does not contemplate an equa.l 
but an unequal division of the produce. It does 
not propose that all should occupy alike, but dif- 
ferently, according to the vocation or capacity of 
each individual ; the function and salary of each 
being assigned by the directing authority.— Mill, 
PolUical Economy, 258. 

St. Simo'nians {The), 1825. The 
school of the Industrialists (5'. v.) founded 
by St. Simon, for the amelioration of the 
working classes, perverted after his death 
into a communistic society, advocating 
the aristocracy of toil, the perfect equality 
of man, community of property, and the 
abolition of inheritance and marriage. 
Abolished by law in 1833. 

• The aristocracy of toil and perfect equality,' 
indeed ! This is mere clap-trap of the silliest 
kind. Where is the ' aristocracy ' of digging a few 
potatoes, cobbling old boots, or crying ' Dust, 
oh ! ' •? Stutt ! And where is the equality of the 
infant and its father, the idiot of an asylum and 
Shakespeare or Newton ? It is a mere perversion 
of language, and most misleading. The very stars 
differ in glory. 

St. Stephen's. The British Houses 
of Parliament : thus we say, 'Tie parlia- 
ments called by Edward I. were identical 
with those which still sit in St. Stephen's.* 
St. Stephen's Chapel was built 1150 by 
King Stephen, rebuilt by Edward II. and 
III. and finally destroyed by fire in 1834. 
It was fitted up for the use of the House 
of Commons in the reign of Edward IV. 
In order to enter ' the palace of Westmin- 
ster,' we pass through St. Stephen's porch 
into St. Stephen's Hall, and north and 
south of this hall corridors lead to the 
House of Peers and House of Commons ; 
hence it is, that, by a figure of speech, 
the House of Commons is called ' St. 
Stephen's,' and even the House of Lords 
is sometimes so called, but not often, as a 
separate house. The two together are 
not unfrequently called St. Stephen's. 

St. Stephen's originally formed part of the 
palace of Edward the Confessor. 

St. Stephen's Crown. The Hun- 
garian crown. St. Stephen (979, 997- 
1038) received a royal crown from Pope 
Sylvester II., and the title of apostolic 
king, which the emperors of Austria 
bear to the present day. 

II Hungarian independence should be secured 



790 



ST. VITUS'S 



SALT 



through the help of Prince Napoleon, the prince 
himself should accept the crown of St. Stephen. 
—Kossuth, Minnoirnofmi) Exile, 1880. 

St. Vitus's Dance. Chorea, a 
disease marked by an involuntary and 
irregular contraction of the muscles of 
the face and limbs ; a kind of jerking 
movement, and in some cases a mere 
fidgetiness. In Germany the 'dancing 
mania' was called ' St. "Witt's Dance,' in 
Italy called ' Tarantism ' {q.v). 

St. "Witt's Dance, 1374. So the 
dance of the dancing mania was called in 
Germany. See also ' St. Guy's Dance.' 

Sainte Ampoule (JLia). The cruse 
containing the sacred oil with which the 
French kings were anointed at Reims. 

Henri IV. and Louis XVIII. were not anointed 
at Reims. Nor, of course, were Napoleon I. and 
III. 

Saints. Henry Garnet (Father Gar- 
net), the English Jesuit (1555-1606), 
born at Nottingham, and educated at 
Winchester, is reckoned among the 
'martyrs.' He confessed his implication 
in the Gunpowder Plot, and was execu- 
ted for high treason. 

Martyrdom and high treason should certainly 
never be made synonymous terms ; yet the name 
of Henry Garnet is duly enrolled in the hagio- 
graphy of the Boilandiscs, under 3 May. 

At best the word ' Saint ' applied to any man is 
most objectionable ; and Irish agitators have 
reduced the word ' Martyr ' to utter ridicule. If 
traitors and rebels are ' saints and martyrs,' the 
title dishonours the head that wears it. 

Saka Era(r/Ks) of Hindustan begins 
from the death of Salivahana, A.r>. 76. 
The Sakas or Scythians gained a footing 
in Hindustan in 76, and gradually ex- 
tended their empire. Tliey were the 
ancestors of the numerous tribes of Raj- 
puts from Oude to Marwar. 

Sal'adin Tax {The), 1200. A tax 
imposed on Christendom by Pope Inno- 
cent III. for the prosecution of the 
fourth crusade. 

Saladin himself died in 1194. 

Sal'adine Tithe {The\ 1187. A 
general tax of the tenth of all movable 
estate, imposed by the kings of France 
and England upon all their subjects, 
whether ecclesiastic or lay, towards the 
expense of their intended crusade (the 
third). This tax was sanctioned by the 
pope and prelates as well as by the kings 
and barons. 

This is the first eminent instance of a general 
tax. Church property as a rule paid no tax, as 
it would have been deemed sacrilegious to take 
church property for civil purposes. 



Salic Law [The). The code of the 
Salian Franks, introduced into France 
(Gaul) by the Franks. It contained 400 
articles, chiefly concerning debt, theft, 
murder, and battery, the penalty in every 
case being a fine. The most famous 
article of the code is Title Ixii. 6, accord- 
ing to which only males could succeed 
to the Salic land or lod, i.e. to the lands 
given for military service. In 1316, at 
the death of Louis le Hutin, the law was 
extended to the crown, and continued to 
be observed to the end of the monarchy. 

Salii {The). Twelve priests of Mars 
chosen from high patrician families and 
appointed to guard the twelve sacred 
ancilia which were kept in the Temple 
of Mars on the Palatine hill. The great 
festival of Mars began on 1 March and 
continued several days. They were 
called Salii, from salio (to dance), from 
their dancing in procession. Their dance 
was called the ' Salic Dance,' and their 
hymns or chants the ' Salic Songs.' 
Varro says a salitando. 

Salisbury, or Sarum Missal 

{The), or ' Sahsbury Hours,' a.d. 1078. 
A liturgy drawn up by Oswald or Osmund 
bishop of Salisbury in usum Saruni. It 
was in Latin and based on those of Rome. 
This Missal was used throughout the 
whole kingdom, 

'Sarum is the better word, as 'Salisbury' is 
' New Sarum.' Our Common Prayer-Book is 
almost a translation of this Missal, and the Litany 
is almost word for word the same. 

Sallust of France (T/ie). L'Abbe 
de St. Real (1639-1692), author of 
' Spanish Conspiracies against the Re- 
public of Venice,' from which Otway 
borrowed his ' Don Carlos ' and his 
* Venice Preserved.' 

Salt. At the accession of James I. 
the people of Grace Dieu (within the 
liberties of Waterford) closed their gates 
against Mountjoy, the English lord- 
lieutenant of Ireland; but Mountjoy 
warned the people if they compelled him 
to enter by force he would utterly destroy 
the town, and * spread salt upon the 
ruins.' In allusion to an ancient custom 
of drawing a plough over the walls of a 
conquered city and strewing salt over the 
place. Thus when Abimelech took the 
city of Shechem he sowed the place with 
salt (Judges ix. 15). {See also Judges 
ii. 9 ; Psalms cvii. 34 ; Jer. xvii. 6.) 



SALTERS' 



SAMSON 



791 



Salters* Hall Controversy 
{The), 1719. A Baptist controversy on 
the question whether toleration is or is 
not to be extended to Unitarians. 

Salvation Army [The), 1878. A 
home missionary organization set on 
foot by William Booth, who was called 
the ' General ' of the army. The plan of 
operation is for a company to march 
about cities, towns, and villages, singing 
popular sacred songs and sjjeaking 
between whiles for about five minutes. 
The army has also a large number of 
religious periodicals and small books. 

Mr. Booth was a minister of the Methodist New 
Connexion, which he left in 1861, and began ' revi- 
valistic services ' in a tent in Whitechapel. In 
1805 his little band of followers called themselves 
'The East London Christian Revival Society,' 
afterwards changed to 'The Christian Mission.' 
In 1869 the Missionmade expeditions to provincial 
towns. Lastly, in 1873, the name was changed to 
' The Salvation Army.' 

Their literary organ, called 'The Christian 
Mission,' first appeared monthly in 1874. In 187J 
it was called ' The Salvationist,' and in the same 
year its title was changed into ' The War-Cry.' 

Salvationism, Ecelesiasti- 

cism. Ecclesiasticism is dogmatic 
religion, the doctrine that the church is 
the ark, out of which there is no salva- 
tion. Salvationism is the doctrine that 
the church is simply a name for all be- 
lieving Christians, and that salvation is 
a gift wholly independent of an hierarchy 
or community of any kind called 'a 
church.' Ritualists are strong believers 
in ecclesiasticism ; Dissenters and what 
are called 'Evangelicals' are Salvation- 
ists. 

Samaneans {The), or ' Saman8ei,' 
were distinct from the Brahmins and 
Gymnosophists (the latter were pro- 
bably Jains), yet equally austere and 
living in solitude. They were apparently 
Buddhist priests. All the worshippers 
of the Dalai-Lama have been also called 
'Samaneans.' 

Kot to be mistaken for the Chamaneans. See 
'Chamanism.' 

Sama'nides (3 syl.). A Persian 
dynasty while Persia was a province of 
the Califs. Founded by Ismail al Sa- 
mani. Lasted only 97 years (902-999). 
It succeeded the Sof'farides (3 syl.), and 
was overthrown by the Ghaz'nevides (3 
syl.). It reigned only over Transoxiana, 
Khorasan, Balkh, and Seiatan. 

The Samanides reigned over Seistan, Korasan, 
Balkh, and Tabaristan. The Bowides in 932 ob- 
tained a part of Persia. Gibbon (ch. Ivii.) says 
the dynasty lasted 125 years (874 999). 



Samaritan Pentateuch {The), 

2nd cent. A translation of the Hebrew 
Pentateuch into the Samaritan dialect. - 
It bears a strong resemblance to the 
Targum of Onkelos. See ' Scriptures.' 

It must not be confounded with the ' Pentateuch 
of the Samaritans,' which is a copy of the Hebrew 
Pentateuch in Samaritan characters. The Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch is a translation. 

Samaritan War {The), a.d. 529. 
A war carried on by Justinian against 
the Samaritans, who had risen in arms 
to retaliate their wrongs. In this war 
20,000 Samaritans were slain and as 
many more were sold as slaves to the 
Arabs and Persians. Gibbon (xlvii.) 
says 100,000 Roman subjects were extir- 
pated in this war, by which the fruitful 
province of Samaria was converted into 
a wilderness. ' But,' he adds, ' in the 
creed of Justinian, the guilt of murder 
could not be applied to the slaughter of 
unbelievers.' 

Samaritans {The). Not Israelites, 
but Assyrian and Medish colonists sent 
thither by Shalmanezer, when he had 
carried the native population to Nineveh. 
They received 'the books of the law.' 
The division into Israelites and Judseans 
had ceased long before the Incarnation. 

Sa'mian Sage {The). Pythagoras 
of Samos (b.c. 481-411). One of the 
most astounding geniuses ever born. 

Samnite Wars {The). A series of 
wars between the Romans and the Sam'- 
nites (2 syl.), which lasted, with few in- 
terruptions, for fifty-three years. The 
three great wars were : (1) 343-341 ; (2) 
326-304; (3) 298-290. 

Samos'atans. Followers of Paul 
of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who 
denied the doctrine of the Trinity and 
the divinity of Jesus the Christ. He 
was excommunicated by the Synod of 
Antioch in 270. His followers are also 
called Paulianists, or Paulinists. 

Samp'sicera'nus, Alabar'ches, 
the Jerusalemite. So Cicero desig- 
nates the haughty Pompey, the great 
eastern conqueror (b.c 106-48). 

Snmpsicerdnm was king of Emesa in Syria. Ala- 
harch^s is an oriental name for a tax gatherer. 
Jerusalemite refers to his taking Jerusalem, B.C. 63, 
when he entered the Holy of Holies out of curi- 
osity and found nothing. 

Samson {The Greek). Her'akles, 
called by the Romans Her'cules. 



792 



SAMSON 



SANS-CULOTTES 



Samson {The Italian). Milo of 
Crotona, the athlete. 

Samson {The Turkish). Ozdemir 
or the Iron Ogli (16th cent.) So called 
by Cantemir. 

^2i,ncho {The Crowned). Louis XYI. 
was so called by Camille Desmoulins, 
'because he was always thinking of his 
stomach, and at Varennes lost the time 
in which he might have escaped by stay- 
ing to eat pig's pettitoes.' So it is said. 

Sanchoni'atlio. In nine vols. A 
literary forgery by Wagenfeld of Han- 
over, published at Bremen in 1837. It 
was said that the MS. of this work had 
been discovered in the convent of St. 
Maria de Merinhao by a Colonel Pereira 
in the Portuguese army; but it was 
ascertained that there was no such con- 
vent nor any such colonel, and that the 
paper of the MS. bore the water-mark 
of Osnabriick paper-mills. See ' Literary 
Forgeries.' 

There was a 'history' said to be by Sancho- 
niatho published bv Herennius Philon Byblius, a 
translation from the original Phcunician work, 
fragments of which are preserved in Eusebius ; 
but considerable doubt exists as to the authen- 
ticity of this work also. 

Sancy Diamond {The). Picked 
up on the field of battle near Granson. 
It belonged to Charles le Te'me'raire of 
Burgundy, who was routed there and fled. 
Sixteen years after the battle it was sold 
at Lucerne for 1,250Z. It fell into the 
hands of the house of Braganza; was 
subsequently purchased by Nicholas de 
Sancy [Sahn-se\ and under the name of 
the Sancy diamond was set in the crown 
of France. During the Revolution it 
was sold, but Napoleon I. rebought it. In 
1825 it was sold to Prince Paul Demidoff 
for 80,000?. The prince sold it in 1830 to 
M. Levrat, administrator of the Mining 
Society, but, Levrat being unable to pay 
the money, it was returned in 1832 to 
the prince. We next hear of it in Bom- 
bay. In 1867 it was transmitted to Eng- 
land by the firm of Forbes & Co. In 
1873 it formed part of the crown necklace 
worn by Mary of Sachsen-Altenburg on 
her marriage with Albert of Prussia. In 
1876 it was worn as a pendant by the 
Maharajah of Puttiala; but in 1877 it 
belonged to the Czar of Russia. 

Sandal -wood Gates {The), or 
Sandal Gates ' of the temple of the great 



idol Somnat in Somnauth, in Guzerat. 
This temple was built in the 5th cent., 
and in 1024 the city of Somnauth was 
stormed, the idol was broken by the 
Sultan Mahmud, and the Sandal Gates 
were sent to Ghuznee. In 1842 the gates 
were carried off by the British. Lord 
Ellenborough, governor-general of India, 
wanted to restore them to Somnauth, 
but the British Government would not 
allow it to be done for fear of provoking 
religious strife between Mahrattas and 
Moslems. So they were taken to Agra, 
where they still are (1890). 

The stone idol, Somnat, an avatar of Siva or 
Mahades, was fifteen feet in height, six of which 
were sunk in the ground. When Mahmud took 
the town of Somnauth and entered the temple 
he knocked off the nose of the idol with his mace, 
and ordered two pieces of the idol to be sent to 
Ghuznee, whore they still are. His next stroke 
was against the belly of the idol, and the opening 
revealed an enormous quantity of diamonds, 
rubies, and pearls. Som-nat=Somalord. Soma 
■was the sacred drink of the gods. 

%* The old belief or prophecy was that when 
the gates should leave Ghuznee the Sikh rule 
would cease. This proved true. 

Sandema'nians, 1728, or Glassists, 
from Mr. John Glass, the founder, ex- 
pelled from the Church of Scotland for 
maintaining that national churches are 
' kingdoms of this world,' and therefore 
unlawful. The word Sandemanian is 
from Robert Sandeman, who published a 
series of letters on the subject in 1755. 

San-kou-e, or ' San-Kou,' (221-317). 
Three states of China, collectively so 
called. The source of Chinese romance, 
and the fount from which they draw 
their historical plays. In 265 the three 
states (after being divided for forty-five 
years) were united under one ruler, who 
lived at Honan, and the Salic law was 
introduced ; in 416 the Honan state 
merged again into the Chinese empire. 

The ' Three states ' were (1) the sixth imperial 
dynasty ; (2) the kingdom of Oey or Wei ; and (3) 
the kingdom of Ou or Woo. 

Sanquhar Declaration {The), 

1680. A deed renouncing the authority 
of Charles II., drawn up by Richard 
Cameron, Cargill, Douglas, and others. 
So called from Sanquhar, a town in 
Dumfries. 

Sanquhar, pronounce Sang -her. 

Sans-culottes {Les). A name of 
contempt given to the democrats in the 
French Revolution ; as much as to say, 
they were only the tag-rags or raga- 
muffins of society. Subsequently, like 
the Gueux {q.v.), they gloried in the name, 



SANS-CULOTTE 



SANTONS 



and even affected negligence of dress, 
goin;;? about in a blouse, red cap, and 
wooden shoes. The red nightcap adorned 
with a tricoloured cockade was called the 
'bonnet-rouge.' Blouse = blooze. 

The San-- culottes had a host of songs and a 
dance (called the Carmagnole) of their own. Pro- 
nounce L.iy Sahn' ku-lot'. 

Sans-culotte Cabinet {The), 1792. 
Consisting of Duranthon (minister of 
justice), De Grave (minister of war), 
Clavieres,adeaf man (minister of finance), 
Lacoste (minister of marine), Koland 
(minister of the interior), and Diimouriez 
(minister of foreign affairs). None of 
these men, except Dumouriez, was dis- 
tinguished, and the court called them 
the Sans-culotte Cabinet from their total 
insignificance. Pronounce Sahn' ku-lot'. 
When Roland presented himself at court, the 
master of the ceremonies refused to admit him 
till Roland explained that he was minister of the 
interior. The astonished master observed to 
Dumouriez, who entered next, ' Ah, sir, no buckles 
in his shoes ! ' To which Dumouriez in affected 
amazement replied, ' Bon Dieu ! then all is lost ! ' 

Sans-culottides, 1793. The five 
supernumerary days of the Kevolutionary 
Calendar. Romnie divided the year into 
12 equal months of 30 days, beginning 
22 Sept., 1792. This gives only 360 
days. The 5 days over were festival 
days — 1 to Genius, 2 to Labour, 3 to 
Actions, 4 to Rewards, 5 to Opinion. In 
leap year a sixth Sans-culottide was 
added and called the Festival of the 
Revolution. The Convention Calendar 
ceased 1 Jan., 1805. The months, begin- 
ning with September, were called — 
(Autumn) Vende'miaire, Brumaire, Fri- 
maire (wine-ary, fog-ary, f rost-ary) ; 
(Winter) Nivose, Pluviose, VentOse 
(snow-ous, rain-ous, wind-ous) ; (Spring) 
Germinal, Floreal, Prairial (bud-all, 
bloom-all, mead-all) ; (Summer) Messidor, 
Thermidor, Fructidor (reap-time, heat- 
time, fruit-time). 

No one, however, was allowed to hold any 
opinion on politics, theology, sociology, or indeed 
any other subject of public interest not in accord- 
ance with the Convention. Such is liberty ! 

The ancient Irish calendar contained only 360 
days, the of ler five or six were days in which they 
celebrated their Taltine games, i.e. to the sun and 
moon. 

Sans Peur et sans Reproche. 

Chevalier Bayard is called the knight 

sans peur et sans reproche (1476-1524). 

Pronounce Sahn Puh'r a sahn R'prosh', 

Santa Casa (The). The reputed 
house of Joseph and Mary in Nazareth 



where Jesus was brought up. It was 
transported first in l'.i91 by angels to 
Fiume, in Dahnatia, but in 1294 angels 
removed it to Loreto at midnight 10 Dec. 
In eight months' time it shifted its place 
from the laurel grove, which was infested 
by brigands, to the hill, and in four 
months more (1295) it again shifted its 
place from the hill to a heap of stones 
near the high road leading to Recanati, 
near the sea-coast, where it is still. >St\; 
p. 149, ' Casa, &c.' 

Pronounce Sahn'-tah Kah'-sah. 

Santa Fedis, 1799. Members of the 
Secret Association of the Holy Faith, 
organised by Cardinal Ruffo to extermi- 
nate all Jansenists, Molinists, Economists, 
Illuminists, Freemasons, and Carbona'ri. 
A deadly hatred existed between those 
societies and the Fedists [Fa-dists] ; and 
the Fedists, in 1816, committed most 
frightful slaughter, especially on the Car- 
bona'ri and their families. 

Santa Hermandad {The), or 
' Holy Brotherhood.' An association 
which executed summary justice on all 
offenders without distinction of rank. It 
was established in Spain by Ferdinand 
the Catholic (1481-1516). 

Santo Ben'ito. The robe worn by 
those who were punished by the inquisi- 
tors. It was a straight yellow coat with- 
out sleeves, with sundry devices. If it 
contained only a St. Andrew's cross, the 
wearer paid a fine and was discharged. 
If it was decorated with flames made of 
red serge, but without a cross, the wearer 
was discharged, but warned if ever he 
relapsed that he would be delivered to 
the flames. If besides the ' flames ' it was 
decorated with devils, the wearer was 
condemned to die. 

Santons. A mendicant tribe of 
Moslems which profess poverty and the 
complete sacrifice of all temporal interests 
to devote themselves to spiritual matters. 
Yet they have not unfrequently filled the 
chief offices of the state. When acting 
simply as ' pi'ophets ' they live in retired 
grottoes, like hermits, or in tents. The 
Osmanli consider Abdal, called 'San- 
tone Kalenderi,' contemporary with Ma- 
homet, as the founder. He never pro- 
nounced the name of God, but sounded 
it on his pipe. See p. 136, ' Calenders.' 



794 



SAPPHO 



SAVIOUR 



Sa,p-pho {The English). Mrs. Mary 
D. Eobinson (1758-1800). 

Sappho {The French). Mdlle. Scu- 
deri (1607-1701). 

Sappho {The Scotch). Catherine 
Cockbum (1679-1749). 

Sappho of Toulouse. Cle'mence 
Isaure (2 syl.), who instituted in 1490 Les 
Jeux Floraux. She is the authoress of 
a beautiful ' Ode to Spring ' (14G3-1513). 

Saraba'ites. Monks who live two 
or three together in one ceU. 

Hermits or Eremites live alone, Cenohii^^s (3 syl.) 
live socially in common, in a monastery, or con- 
vent, &c. All are Ascetics. 

Sarace'nic Empire {The Golden 
Age of the). That of Haroun al Raschid, 
i.e. Haroun the Just (786-809). 

Sardanapa'lus of China {The). 

Cheou-sin, the last of the Chang dynasty 
(B.C. 1154-1122). Like Sardanapalus, he 
burnt himself and his queen to death in 
his palace to escape falling into the 
hands of Woo-wong. Chopsticks were 
first used in this reign. 

Sardanapa'lus of Germany 

{The). Wenceslas VI. (or IV.) king of 
Bohemia and kaiser of Oermany (1359, 
1378-1419). 

Sardinians for Sale. 'Sardi 
venales ' (Livy, xl. 19), rubbish for sale. 
The Sardinians rose against Rome in the 
Second Punic War, and again B.C. 181. 
Tiberius Gracchus checked the insurrec- 
tion, and so numerous were the prisoners 
that the market was glutted, and slaves 
were an unsaleable drug. 

Sargon was originally only a high 
priest for the year B.C. 721, but was after- 
wards king of Assyria. His name was 
Sarru-gina, and he was father of Sen- 
nacherib or Sin-akhi-erba, who began 
to reign B.C. 707. 

Sarma'tia. Russia in Europe. 
Russia in Asia was called Scythia. 

Sarum Missal {The), or 'Use of 
Sarum,' compUed by Osmund, 1085. 
Printed at Paris 1487, and at Rouen 1492. 
Only one perfect copy is known to exist, 
and that is in the British Museum. 

IMr. Blades gives a description of the Sarum 
Missal printed at Paris in 1487 (' Atheneeum,' 21 
March, 1874). There is an imperfect copy of the 
edition of 1492 in the Bodleian Library. 



Sassan'ian Dynasty {The), or the 

* Sas'sanides ' (3 syl.). A Persian dynasty 
which succeeded the Arsacides (3 syl.), 
and was itself succeeded by the Sama- 
nides (3 syl.). So named from Sassan, 
father of Ardeshir [Babegan], called by the 
Greeks Artaxerxes, the first of the line. 
It lasted 426 years, and terminated with 
Yezdijird or Yezdedjerd III. (226-653). 
Title : Shah-an-Shah (king of kings). 
Capital: Madan. 

This was the most glorious of the Persian 
dynasties. Artaxerxes or Ardeshir the founder, 
Shapur I. and II., Baharam I. and V., Khosroo 
(Chosroes), Noorshirwan, were kings equal to any 
that history records. 

Satire {Father of). Archilochos of 
Paros (B.C. 7th cent.). 

Ssitire {Father of French). Mathurin 
Regnier (1573-1613). 

Satire {Father of Boman). Lucilius 
(B.C. 148-103). 

Satisfaction. In the Scotch Church 
is about equal to penance in the Roman 
Catholic Church, any disgrace suffered, 
or bodily distress inflicted, or sum of 
money paid, to obtain absolution of sin. 
Thus in Scotland the ' Stool of Repent- 
ance ' was called a satisfaction ; sackcloth 
and ashes, money paid ad pios usus, and 
so on, were satisfactions or atonements 
for misdeeds. 

Saturday Review {The). A Lon- 
don weekly journal, commenced 3 Nov., 

1855. 

Savage {Richard) claimed to be the 

son of the wife of Lord Brandon [after- 
wards Earl of Macclesfield] and Richard 
Savage earl of Rivers. His mother dis- 
owned him, had him baptized ' Richard 
Smith,' and then committed to the charge 
of a Mrs. Portlock, a baker's wife (1698- 
1743). 

Savil'ian Professorship of 
Geometry in Oxford University. 
Open to all nations. Stipend 675 i. a 
year.j Founded by Sir Henry Savile 
(Warden of Merton) in 1619. Remodelled 
in 1857. 

Saviour of the Nation {The). 
So Cromwell was called after the second 
battle of Newbury, 27 Oct., 1644, where 
his valour and military genius were most 
distinguished. 

Saviour of the People {The), 
or ' King of the Poor.' William Fitz- 



SAVOY 



SCEPTICS 



795 



Osbert, sumamed Longbeard, executed 
with great barbarity in 1199. 

Savoy Conference {The), 1661, 
between the Episcopalian and Presby- 
terian divines of England respecting the 
Liturgy. There were twelve bishops and 
twelve Presbytei'ian ministers, with nine 
assistants on each side. It was held in 
the Savoy, London, the residence of the 
Bishop of London. Richard Baxter was 
chief of the Nonconformists and Dr. 
Gunning his chief opponent. The Pres- 
byterians objected to (1) the use of the 
surplice ; (2) the cross in baptism ; (3) to 
calling the baptized regenerate; (4) to 
the posture of kneeling at the Lord's 
Supper ; (5) to the administration of the 
eucharist to the sick ; (6) to the absolu- 
tion ; (7) to the words sure and certain 
hope in the burial service; and (8) to 
subscription to the ' Book of Common 
Prayer ' and the * Thirty-nine Articles.' 
The conference ended in nothing. 

Saxo Grrammaticus, died 1204. 
He was a Danish chronicler, and wrote 
in Latin a ' history of the Danish kings 
and heroes,' beginning from the founda- 
tion of the Danish monarchy, B.C. 1038. 
It is based on the Scaldic lays, Icelandic 
sagas, and local traditions. Much of it, 
historically, is about equal in value to 
Geolrey of Monmouth's ' British His- 
tory.' 

Saxon Line of Kings. The first 
dynasty of Germany, 919-1024. It gave 
five kings — Heinrich I. (Henry the 
Fowler) ; Otto I., the Great ; Otto II., the 
Red King ; Otto III., the Wisdom of the 
World ; and St. Heinrich II., the Lame. 
The Saxon dynasty was succeeded by 
the House of Franconia. In 1133-1137 
reigned Lothair 11., also of the House of 
Saxony. 

Saxon Mirror {The), or ' Sachsen 
Spiegel,' between 1215 and 1218. The local 
laws of Saxony compiled into a digest. 
In the 15th cent, it had the same autho- 
rity in Germany as the common law 
has in our own country. See * Suabian 
Mirror.' 

Saxony, in Scotch history, means 
the Lowlands, between the Forth and 
the Tweed. Hence we read of ' the Picts 
making raids upon Saxony,' the Picts 
being the Highlanders south of the Forth. 



Saxony {House of). See 'Saxon 
Line,' &c. 

Scalds. Scandinavian poets who 
wrote about gods, kings, and heroes. 
Each prince had his scald, who followed 
him to war to celebrate his deeds of fight. 
These chants were collected into the 
Edda and the Sagas. 

Scan'dina'via. A name given by 
the ancients to Norway, Sweden, Den- 
mark, Lapland, Finland, &rc., supposed 
to constitute an island (Plin. iv. 13). 

So called from the ancient province of Scandia 
in the south of Sweden. 

Scandinavian Alps {The). The 
Dofrine mountains, a chain running be- 
tween Norway and Sweden. The Snee- 
haettan {Snow-cap) is the highest. 

Scan'dina'vian Semir'amis 

{The). Margaret, daughter of Valdemar 
III., king of Denmark (1353, 1388-1412). 

Scarlet and Blue. The colours 
of the Scotch covenant. 

Scarlet Days. Christmas Day, 
Easter Day, Ascension Day, Whit Sunday, 
Trinity Sunday, All Saints' Day, the first 
Sunday in November (the day for the 
commemoration of benefactors), Com- 
mencement Tuesday (the Tuesday next 
prepeding 24 June), and any other days 
for which the Vice-Chancellor gives 
notice, are so called in the University of 
Cambridge, because on those days all 
doctors wear their scarlet robes. 

On all Litany days the doctors and noblemen 
wear their robes, and the proctors their congre- 
gation rulfs. 

Searpine (A). An iron shoe, an in- 
strument of torture, heated red-hot. Also 
a boot made of wood, torture being in- 
flicted by driving wedges between the 
leg of the victim and the walls of the boot. 

French escarpin, Ital. Scarpa. 

1 was put to the scarpines. 

KiNGSLEY, Westward Ho! chap. vii. 

Sceptics, i.e. men of thought, 
searchers or examiners into the truth or 
falsehood of a statement. The Bereans, 
who searched the Scriptures to see if what 
was said by Christians was genuine and 
worthy of credit, were true ' sceptics.' 
The disciples of Pyrrho are called Pyr- 
rhonists or Sceptics. The most famous 
sceptics of antiquity were Protagoras, 
Gorgias, Pyrrho, Timon, Enesidemos, 
Sextus Empiricus, and, of the New Aca- 



796 



SCEPTKE 



SCHISM 



demy, Arcesilas and Cameades. The 
most famous sceptics of modern times 
are Montaigne, Lamothe-Levaj'er, Bayle, 
Sanchez, Huet, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, 
Schulze, &c. 

Sceptre depart from Judah 

{The). 'The sceptre shall not depart 
from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between 
her feet, imtil Shiloh [the Messiah] 
come.' 

The Asmonaean dynasty terminated 
with Aristobulus II., whose daughter 
Mariam'ne was married to Herod the 
Great, an Idumsean; and in this reign 
Jesus was born. 

Every Jewish ruler up to this time had 
been of the race of Isaac. And Judah in 
the prophecy means a Jew, not a parti- 
cular tribe. Herod was the first Jewish 
ruler not a Jew. 

Herod was an Edomite, and therefore of the 
race of Esau. 

Scliainir. A magic stone used by 
Satan, when compelled to assist in build- 
ing the Temple. It cut the stones em- 
ployed in the edifice as a diaracnd cuts 
glass ; and in consequence ' no hammer, 
axe, or other instrument of iron ' was re- 
quired. 

Schiltrons, hollow squares. The 
Scotch infantry was disposed in schiltrons 
at Falkirk, their spears pointed obliquely 
outwards against the charging cavalry. 

Schism Bill {The), 10 June, 1714 
(13 Anne, c. 7). Kepealed 1718 (5 Geo. I. 
c. 4). Forbidding dissenters to educate 
their children. No person, unless he 
subscribed a declaration that he con- 
formed to the Church of England, and 
obtained a licence from the archbishop 
or bishop of the diocese, was allowed to 
keep a school or become a private tutor. 
The penalty was three years' imprison- 
ment ; and even if licensed, if a teacher 
of youth neglected to teach the Church 
Catechism he forfeited his licence, and 
made himself subject to three years' im- 
prisonment. 

ScMsm of the East, a.d. 862. The 
separation of the Western Church from 
communion with the Greek Church. It 
was provoked by Photius, and consum- 
mated in 1053 by the patriarch Cerularius. 
Photius patriarch of Constantinople anathema- 
tised Nicholas I. ' pope ' of Rome, and Nicholas 
anathematised the patriarch, who advised his 
clergy to separate from communion with Borne. 



Photius was a man of extraordinary erudition. 
Cerularius positively refused all Intercourse with 
the Western Church. 

Schism, of the Mohamm.edans 

{The), A.D. 632, after the death of Ma- 
homet. The question was whether Ali, the 
son-in-law, or Abou-bekr, the father-in- 
law, ought to succeed the prophet. Those 
who thought Ali the proper successor 
were called Shiites (factious) ; those 
who thought Abou-bekr the true Imaum 
were called Sunnites (traditionists). The 
Turks, Arabs and Egyptians are Sunnites ; 
the Persians are Shiites. The califs are 
Abou-bekr, 632-634; Omar, 634-644; 
Othman, 644-656 ; Ali, 656-661, &c. The 
Shiites reject the first three, and begin 
with Ali. 

In India the Moslems are partly Sunnite and 
partly Shiah. 

Schism of the Twelve Tribes 

{The), B.C. 962, when ten of the tribes re- 
volted from Rehoboam, son of Solomon, 
and formed the new kingdom of Israel. 
The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which 
remained under Rehoboam, then formed 
the kingdom of Judah. Each kingdom 
had its own kings. 

Schism of the 'West {The Great), 
1378-1449. A period of seventy-one years, 
during which time two popes, and some- 
times more than two, were elected — one 
at Rome, and one at Avignon in France, 
or somewhere else. It began by the 
Italian cardinals electing Urban VI. in 
opposition to the French cardinals, who 
had elected Clement VII. The Roman 
clergy called the popes who were not of 
their own election 'anti-popes.' 

This ' schism ' is not the same as the ' captivity ' 
of the popes, meaning the residence of the popes 
at Avignon instead of Rome. The ' captivity ' be- 
gan with Clement V., who in 1309 removed his 
court to Avignon, and ended in 1376 by Gre- 
gory XI. removing his court back to Rome. At the 
death of Gregory XI. the Italian cardinals chose 
Urban VI. and the French chose Clement VII., 
and for many years there were two simultaneous 
popes. See p. 81, ' Anti-Popes.' 

Schism of the Western Church 

{The), 324-334, in the reign of Constan- 
tine. The rivalry showed itself in 341. 

I. The two churches differed in respect 
to the doctrine of the Holy Ghost about 
400, and in 589 the Latin Church intro- 
duced into the creed the phrase ' filioque ' 
{q.V.). 

II. In 484, Felix 11. bishop of Rome 
and Acacius bishop of Constantinople 
excommunicated each other. In 648 
Pope Theodore pronounced the patriarch 



SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN 



SCHOLASTIC 



797 



Paul II. to be deposed. In 867 Photius 
and Pope Nicholas I. excommunicated 
each other. In 1054 the legates of Leo 
IX. went to Constantinople to excom- 
municate Michael Cerularius, and. then 
Cerularius excommunicated Leo IX. 

III. In 588 the Patriarch of Constanti- 
nople assumed the fitle of ' Ecumenical 
(or universal) Patriarch ' ; and in 835 the 
Pope of Kome, by the False Decretals, 
claimed the right of universal jurisdiction. 

Schleswig-Holstein Question 

{The), 1848. That is, did the two duchies 
laelong to Denmark or Germany ? They 
were at the time parts of the kingdom of 
Denmark. Holstein belonged to Den- 
mark only as a fief, and, though the duke 
owed homage to Denmark, he was an 
independent ruler. In 1846 the King of 
Denmark, who was then Duke of Hol- 
stein, declared the two duchies to be 
united to the crown of Denmark ; but 
Holstein objected, and appealed to the 
German Confederation, of which it was 
a member. In 1848 the king sent troops 
to put down a revolt in Holstein, and 
the German diet sent troops to defend 
the duchy. In 1852 the great powers of 
Europe signed in London a protocol 
guaranteeing to Denmark the possession 
of the duchies, but neither Holstein nor 
the German diet would consent to the 
protocol. The quarrel smouldered on 
till 1863, when Austria and Prussia sent 
troops into the duchies, and Demnark 
armed for war ; Denmark, of course, was 
powerless against these two great powers, 
was forced to crave peace and to give up 
tiie duchies. Prussia now quarrelled with 
Austria, conquered her in war, and the 
duchies fell to Prussia. 

Schleswig-Holstein "War (The). 

I. 1848-52. On the accession of Frede- 
rick VII. to the tlirone of Denmark, the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
volted, and declared their independence. 
Prussia entered Holstein, and Denmark 
defeated the Prussians and Holsteiners 
near Flensborg, 7 April, 1848. The war 
continued till the Treaty of London, 8 
May, 1852, when Holstein was transferred 
to the Danes, and Schleswig was declared 
independent. 

II. 1864-1866, Prussia and Austria de- 
manded that Denmark should evacuate 
Schleswig and abolish the constitution ; 
and Prince Frederick of Augustenburg 



was proclaimed Duke of Kiel, 30 Dec, 

1863. Austria and Prussia both interfered, 
and hostilities continued till 1864, when, 
by the Treaty of Vienna, Lunenberg, 
Schleswig, and Holstein were ceded by 
Denmark to the two powers. Austria 
evacuated Holstein 12 July, 1866. After 
the Seven Weeks' War, 23 Aug., 1866, 
Schleswig-Holstein was added to the 
kingdom of Prussia. 

No war was ever more fruitful of consequences 
than this petty Schleswig Holstein war. Out of it 
arose the war between Austria and Prussia called 
the ' Seven Weeks' War,' and the Franco Prussian 
war or ' Seven Months' War,' by which Austria 
was severed from Germany, and Prussia was 
made the head of the German states. In 1870 the 
King of Prussia was declared to be the ' German 
Emperor ' also. 

Schola Palati'na. The school es- 
tablished by Charlemagne in his own 
household. It accompanied the court 
wherever it went, and was attended by 
the king himself, his sons and daughters, 
and the high officers of the realm. 

Transcribing MSS. was a fashionable occupation 
of the day, both in the schola palatina and in pri- 
vate families. 

Scholars, in the universities of 
Cambridge and Oxford. Students elected 
for the most part by competitive exami- 
nations in their respective colleges. They 
enjoy certain emoluments from their col- 
lege from the time of their election. 

At Merton College, Oxford, the * scho- 
lars ' are called Postmasters. 

At Magdalen College, Oxford, the 
• scholars ' are called Demies [de-mize]. 

Scholastic Theology, * Scholastic 
Divinity,' or ' Scholastic Philosophy,' 
may be divided into four periods. 

I. The Preparatory period, from the 
9th to the 11th cent. This period in- 
cluded Gerbert of Aurillac (afterwards 
Pope Sylvester II.), Berengarius of Tours, 
and Lanfranc archbishop of Canterbury. 

II. The First period of Scholasticism 
proper, 12th cent., opened by Roscellnus, 
who broached the dispute concerning 
Nominalism and Realism. This period 
included Peter Lombard (* -1164) and 
Alexander Hales {* -1245). In this 
period it was pithy and logical. 

HI. The Second and Golden Age of 
Scholasticism, in which Aristotelian me- 
taphysics were applied to the elucidation 
of Christian doctrines. This period be- 
gan with Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), 
who was contemporary with one of the 
greatest of the Schoolmen, Thomas 



798 



SCHOLEFIELD 



SCOTISTS 



Aquinas (1224-1274). John Bonaventura 
died the same year as Aquinas. 

The great opponent of Thomas Aquinas 
was Duns Scotus, a reahst (1265-1308) ; 
the followers of Thomas Aquinas were 
called Thomists,and those of Duns Scotus 
were called Scotists. In this period the 
school was subtle and sophistical. 

IV. The Third period dates from Du- 
landus bishop of Meaux [Mo]. 

Called 'scholastic ' because it was taught in the 
schools established by Charlemagne. 

Seholefield Prize for knowledge of 
the Greek Testament and the Septuagint. 
Value about 15Z. Founded in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge by the friends of 
the Rev. James Seholefield \_Shole -field] 
regius professor of Greek, 1856. See 
* Regius Professor of Greek.' 

School Boards. The boards are 
due to the Elementary Education Act of 
1870; the object of which act is to bestow 
elementary education upon every child in 
England 'and Wales. Where there does 
not exist a sufficient supply for the pur- 
pose, ' a school board shall be formed to 
supply the deficiency.' The boards are 
elected every three years, and the ex- 
penses of the education provided by these 
boards are defrayed partly by rates and 
partly by government grants. 

The ratepayers appoint the board, but the 
directors are not paid. 

Schoolnieil. Those who taught in 
the schools established by Charlemagne. 
See ' Scholastic Divinity.' 

Schwarz-gelber [Ein). In 1848 
the Austrian Imperialists were called 
' Black-yellows,' because the imperial 
cockades, sentry-boxes, and boundary 
posts were all black and yellow. 

Sciences. The six sciences, accord- 
ing to Comte (1797-1857), are mathe- 
matics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, 
biology, and sociology; of these six, 
according to Comte, the last is the chief. 

Sclavonic Version {The) of the 
Scriptures, by Cyril of Thessalonica and 
his brother Methodius, in the 9th cent. 
Translated for the Sclavonians of Mora- 
via. It embraced the whole Bible. See 
' Scriptures.' 

Scorpion Stanley. So Daniel 
O'Connell designated Edward Geoffrey 
Smith Stanley, chief secretary for Ireland 
in 1830-1832, afterwards fourteenth earl 



of Derby. Very obnoxious to the Irish 
agitation from his great firmness in ad- 
ministering the law (1799-1864). 

No matter who the chief secretary may be, if 
he resists lawlessness, rebellion, and crime, he is 
bespattered as a ' scorpion Stanley,' a ' malignant 
Forster,' or a ' bloody Balfour.' Such dishonour 
is the proof and the reward of even-handed jus- 
tice. 

Scot and Lot include at the present 
day all parochial assessments for the 
poor, the church, lighting, cleansing, 
washing, roads, &c. Scot and lot are 
Swedish terms, both signifying tax, and 
originally were applied to assessments 
made for liquidating necessary debts of 
the crown, levied, not by an equal rate, 
but according to the capacity of the con- 
tributor. 

Scota. When the Scotch barons in 
1320 answered the bull of Pope John 
XXII., they began by stating that the 
Scots were lineal descendants of Scota, 
daughter of Pharaoh king of Egypt, 
and were converted to Christianity by 
St. Andrew the apostle. 

Scotch Guard. See p. 357, ' Gardes 
du corps.' 

Scotch Marriage [A). A consent 
to live together, without any legal or 
church ceremony. 

Consent makes marriage [in Scotland]. No form 
or ceremony, civil or religious, no notice before 
or publication after, no cohabitation, no writing, 
no witnesses even are essential to . . . this con- 
tract.— Lord Deas. 

Scoti {The). Prehistoric invaders of 
Ireland, from whom the island was called 
Scotia. They conquered the five pro- 
vincial kings and became their overlords. 
O'Connor (' History of the Irish People,' 
p. 30) says they were Scythi of the Scan- 
dinavian race. See ' Scots.' 

Scotia. Applied exclusively to Ire- 
land from the 4th to the 11th cent. The 
Scoti were a branch of the Teutons. 
North Britain was called Albany or 
Albania. It was not till the English, in 
the reign of Henry II., invaded Ireland 
that the island forces were called ' Irish.' 
See ' Scotland.' 

Finibus occiduis describitur optima tellus, 
Nomine et antiquis Scotia dicta libris. 

DONATCS. 

Far westward lies an isle of ancient fame 
By nature blest, and Scotia is her name. 

Scotists. A theological school so 
called from [John] Duns Scotus (' doctor 
S2ibtilissimus ' — 'most subtle doctor'). 
This school was opposed to the Thomists 



SCOTLAND 



SCOTTISH 



799 



or disciples of Thomas Aquinas. The 
Scotists were Realists, the Thomists were 
Nominalists [q-v.). Duns was a Fran- 
ciscan, and therefore the natural opponent 
of Aquinas, who was a Dominican. 



Scotland {Kings of). 
Caledonia.' 



See p. 135, 



In the 9th cent. Kenneth II. (MaoAlpin) united 
In his own person the two crowns of the Picts 
and Sco^s, and was, therefore, in reality the first 
king of Scotland ; but the Scotch annalists count 
sixty-six kings before Kenneth MacAlpin, and 
head the list with Fergus, B.C. 3J0. Omitting all 
the names up to Fergus II., the list runs thus : - 



Fergus II. 


410-427 


CONSTANTINE lY. 994-995 


Eugene I. 


4i7-449 


Grim 995-997 


DONGAKD 


449-453 


Malcolm II. ... 997-1033 


CONSTANTINE I. 


453-469 


Duncan ... 1033 1040 


CONGAL I. 


469 501 


Macbeth ... 1040-1057 


GONllAN 


501-535 


Malcolm III. 1057-1093 


EUGE.NE II. .. 


535-568 


Donald VII. .. 1093-1094 


CONGAL II. 


5G.S-57'2 


Duncan II. .1094-1095 


KINATHAL 


572-580 


(Donald VI. restored, 


AIDAN 


580-<>04 


1095 1098). 


(Colurriba converts the 


EDGAR 1098-1107 


Scots). 




Ale.xander .. 1107-1114 


Kenneth I. ... 


604-606 


David I. ... 1114-1143 


Eugene III. ... 


606-622 


Malcolm IV.. .. 1143-1157 


FerchardI. ... 


622-632 


William I. ...1157-1214 


Donald II. ... 


632-647 


Ale.xander II. 1214 1219 


FerchardII. ... 


647-668 


Alexander III. 1219-1286 


Maldwin 


<m-GSS 


IiHerreunum. 


Eugene IV. .. 


688 092 


JOHN P.ALIOL .. 1292-1306 


Eugene V. 


692 699 


EDWARD I. 


Amberchelet 


699-700 


Robert I. 


Eugene vi. .. 


700-702 


(Bruce) ... 1306-1329 


(Amberohelet restored, 


David II. 


702-704). 




(Bruce) ... 1329-1332 


Eugene VII. ... 


704 717 


Edward 


Mordac 


717 730 


Baliol ... 1.332-1333 


Erfinius 


730-761 


(David II. restored, 


Eugene VIII. .. 


761 764 


1333-1370). 


Fergus III. .. 


764-767 


Robert II. .. 1370-1390 


SOLVATIUS 


767-787 


Robert III. 


Anchaius 


787-809 


(called JOHN) 1,390-1406 


CONGAL III. .. 


809-814 


Eobert th.- Puyent, 


Dougal 


814 820 


1406-1409! 


Alpin 


820-823 


Duke MuicUjch, 


KENNETH U. 


823-854 


1409-1424. 


I>ONALD V. 


854-858 


James I. ... 1424-14.37 


CONSTANTINE II 


. &58-874 


James II. .. 1437-1460 


Etheus 


874-875 


James III. ... 146J 1488 


Gregory 


875-893 


James IV. ... 1488-1513 


Donald VI. 


893-904 


James V. .. 1513 1542 


CONSTANTINE III. 904-943 


Mary . 1642 1.507 


Malcolm I. ... 


943-958 


James VI. ... 1567 1607 


INDULPH 


958-968 


When he became 


Duff 


968 973 


JAMES I. of Great 


CULEN 


973 978 


Britain (by royal pro- 


Kenneth III. ... 


978-994 


clamation). 



Scotland. Till the 11th cent. North 
Britain was called Albany. The name 
Scotia from the 4th to the 11th cent, 
belonged exclusively to Ireland, a.d. 258 
a colony of Irish-Scots settled in Argyll- 
shire, and gave a line of Dalriadic kings. 
From the 11th cent, we read of Irish- 
Scots and Albanian-Scots. The Romans 
called the southern ]3art of Scotland 
Caledonia, a name which disappears in 
the 4th cent. 

Quod ut ante undecimum post Christi nativita- 
tem saeculum liaudquaquam factum, in fine prse- 
cedentis capitis declaravimus : ita neminem, qui 
toto antecedentium annorum spatio Bcripserit 



produci posse arbitramur qui ScotitE appellatione 
Albaniam unquam designaverit.— USHER, EccLes. 
Primord. cap. xvi. 

Scotland a Fief of England. 

During the reign of Malcolm I. (successor 
of Constantine III.), Edmund king of Eng- 
land bestowed on him part of the Cum- 
brian kingdom [Cumberland and part of 
Westmoreland]. It was this grant which 
was the foundation of the claim of homage 
made by the English kings on the Scot- 
tish sovereigns. 

Scots, i.e. Irish. A prehistoric colony 
of Scythians which settled in Ireland about 
B.C. 400. Subsequently a colony from 
Ireland went to Argyllshire and reigned 
there as a race of Scottish kings. The 
famous Milesians were Scots, and as the 
Scoti conquered the five provincial kings, 
and became overlords, Ireland was called 
Scotia. The Scoti of Caledonia (Scot- 
land) spoke Earish (Ersh), i.e. Irish or 
Western. 

Totam cum Scotus lernen 
Movitet infesto spumavit remige Tethys. 

Claudian, lul. Cons. Stiiich. Book I. 
When Scots came thundering from the Irish 

shores. 
The Atlantic trembled, struck with hostile oars. 

Scottish Crown (^7^e). 'Itcam'wi' 
a lass, and will gang wi' a lass.' So said 
James V. a few days before his death 
when informed of the birth of a daughter, 
afterwards Mary queen of Scots. The 
Stuarts descended from Margery (daugh- 
ter of Robert Bruce), who married Walter 
[the 6th] Steward or Seneschal of Scot- 
land. 

Malcolm IV. was the father of William the 
Lion (who succeeded him), and of David earl of 
Huntingdon. William the Lion had no issue. 

David earl of Huntingdon was the father of 
Margaret, Isabella (who married Robert Bruce), 
and Ada. 

First take Margaret; she was the mother of 
Devoirgoil, and John Baliol was the son of 
Devoirgoil (great-great-grandson of Malcolm IV.). 

Now take Isabella fwife of Robert Bruce) ; their 
son was The Bruce (Robert I.\ 

The Bruce iRobert) was the father of Margery 
Bruce (who married Walter the Steward or 
Seneschal), and their son was DAVID II. (Steward 
or Stuart in French spelling). 

Scottish Petitioners {The), Aug. 
1775, who prayed the Virginia conven- 
tion that they might be allowed to stand 
neutral in the war between America and 
Great Britain. The licence was first 
granted and then revoked, the Scots 
being largely enrolled in the royal militia. 



Scottish Plato 
Stewart (1753-1828). 



{The). Dugald 



800 



SCOTTISH 



SCRIPTORES 



Scottish Security Bill [The), 
1704, for the separation of Scotland and 
England. Authorising the Scotch on the 
death of Anne to set up a monarch of 
their own choice, independent of the 
English choice of a sovereign. The Bill 
was brought in by Godolphin. 

The English tories printed and circulated the 
Scottish Security Bill to show that the two 
countries were really separated in the most abso- 
lute manner.— Ho WITT, History of England (Anne, 
194). 

Scotus [John), entitled Erigena 
[Erin-gen a], an Irisliman by birth. Died 
875. North Britain was not called Scot- 
land [q.v.) till the 11th cent. 

Scourers. A set of dissolute young 
rips in London in the 18th cent., especi- 
ally in the reign of Queen Anne, opposed 
to the Mohocks, but quite as infamous 
and lawless. They were organised to 
' scour the streets of Mohocks,' but like 
other street bullies they considered it 
capital fun to break windows, upset 
sedan chairs, beat quiet citizens, rudely 
caress young women, and make older 
ones scream with terror. See ' Street 
Bullies.' 

Who has not heard the Scourers' midnight fame ? 
Who has not trembled at the ;\Iohocks' name ? 
Was there a watchman took hia hourly rounds, 
Safe from their blows and new-invented wounds ? 
Gay, Trivia, III. 

*,* The nephew of Prince Eugene, who accom- 
panied his uncle on an embassage to Queen Anne, 
was so savagely assaulted by these street bullies 
in 171'2 that he died from the treatment he re- 
ceived. 

Denham bottled up his wrath till he was out of 
Newgate ; but then, finding it no longer control- 
lable, he joined a band of Scourers, and spent the 
evening in wrenching off knockers, assaulting 
defenceless shop signs, frightening the chapmen 
into fits, and hustling everything that was 
capable of being hustled (1684).— Edna Lyall, In 
the Golden Days, xxxiv. 

Scourge [The) used at the Cruci- 
fixion, we are told by Alexis Comnenus, 
was preserved at Constantinople. See 
' Crucifixion, Belies of the.'' 

Scourge of Christians [The). 
Noureddm-Mahmud of Damascus (1116- 

1174). 

Scourge of Europe {The). Napo- 
leon Bonaparte (born 17fi8, foreign wars 
1796-1815, died 1821). 

Scourge of Germany {The). So 
the Swedes were called (1630-1635) for 
their extraordinary success in the Thirty 
Years' War. 

Scourge of God {The). 'Flagel- 
lum Dei.' So a Gaulish hermit called 



Attila, and the king delighted in the 
appellation (died 458). 
Genseric king of the Vandals was called ' Virga 

Dei ' (reigned 429-477). 

Scourge of Princes {The). Pietro 
Aretino of Arezzo, a merciless satirist of 
kings and princes (1492-1557). 

Thus Aretin of late got reputation 

By scourging kings, as Lucian did of old 

By scourging gods. 

Lord Brooke, Inquisition upon Fame. 

Scourge of Scotland {The). 
* Scotorum Malleus.' Edward I. (1239, 
1272-1307). 

Also called the ' Scourge of Wales.' 

Scourge of the Propagators 
of the Faith [The). The pastor, 
Charles Drelincourt, who, in his ' Abrege 
des Controverses,' refuted the arguments 
brought forward by the Converters {q.v.) 
to turn Huguenots to the Catholic Com- 
munion (1595-1669). 

Scriptores Decern. A collection 
of ten ancient chronicles of English 
history in one folio vol. 1652, edited by 
Roger Twysden and John Selden. 

1. Simeon Dunelmensis (of Durham). 
' Historia.' 

2. Johannes Hagustaldensis (John of 
Hexham). * Historia Continuata.' 

3. Richardus Hagustaldensis. ' De 
Gestis Regis Stephani.' 

4. Ailredus Rievallensis (Ailred of 
Rieval or Rievaulx). ' Historia,' being 
a genealogy of the kings. 

5. Radulphus de Diceto. 'Abbrevia- 
tiones Chronicorum ' and * Ymagines 
Historiarum.' 

6. Johannes Brompton. * Chronicon.' 

7. Gervasius Dorobornensis (Gervais 
of Dover). ' Chronica,' &c. : the burning 
and repairs of Dover Church ; lives of 
the Archbishops of Canterbury ; and con- 
tentions between the monks of Canter- 
bury and Archbishop Baldwin. 

8. Thomas Stubbs, a Dominican. 
' Chronica Pontificum Ecc. Eboraci ' 
(York). 

9. Guilielmus Thorn Cantuariensis (of 
Canterbury). ' Chronica.' 

10. Henricus Knighton Leicestrensis 
(of Leicester). ' Chronica.' 

8, 9, 10 are chronicles of pontiffs or archbishops. 

Scriptores Q,uinque, or * Scrip- 
tores post Bedam,' 1 fol. vol., contain- 
ing : — 

1. Willielmus Malmesburiensis, 'De 
Gestis Regum Anglorum,' 'Historic 



SCRIPTORES 



SCRIPTURES 



801 



NovelljB,' and ' De Gestis Pontificum 
Auglorum.' 

2. Henricus Huntindoniensis. ' His- 
toria.' 

8. Roger Hovedeni (Hoveden). ' An- 
nales.' 

4. Ethelwerd. * Chronica.' 

5. Ingulphus Croylandensis. ' His- 
toria.' 

Scriptores Tres, or in full thus: 
' Britannicarum Gentium Historiaa An- 
tiquae Scriptores tres.' Then follow the 
names : — 

1. Richardus Coriensis (of Cirencester). 
'De Situ Britanniae.' 

2. Gildas Badonicus (of Bath). 

3. Nennius Banchoriensis (of Bangor). 

Dr. Bertram professed to have dis- 
covered these MSS. between the years 
1747 and 1757 ; but J. E. Mayor, in his 
preface to ' Richardi de Cirencestria 
Speculum Historiale,' has laid bare this 
literary forgery. See ' Literary For- 
geries.' 

Scriptu'ra. A tax on cattle. So 
called because the collectors ' set down 
in writing ' a description of the number 
and kind of cattle on which the tax was 
levied. 

Scriptu'ra Thesauri Regis. 

The 'Record of the King's Treasury.' 
So Doomsday Book was anciently called, 
because it was kept, together with the 
king's seal, under three locks and keys 
in the royal treasury. 

Scripture Interpolations. Cri- 
tics say a ' reading is to be rejected as 
genuine when there is plain evidence 
that it has undergone a designed altera- 
tion,' such as the following : — 

1. From doctrinal reasons : Matt. i. 18; 
Mark viii. 31, xiii. 32, xvi. 14 to the end; 
and 1 John v. 7, 8. 

2. From moral and practical reasons : 
as Matt. V. 22. 

3. From historical and geographical 
doubts : Matt. viii. 28 ; compare Mark 
V. 1. 

4. From a desire of reconciling texts 
inconsistent with each other: as Mark 
viii. 31. 

5. From a desire to make a discourse 
more intensive. 

6. From the manifest amalgamation 
of different MSS. or parallel passages. 

See Ernesti, ' Principles of Interpreta- 



tion,' vol. ii. p. 114 ; Home's * Introduc- 
tion ' ; Davidson, Michaehs, &c. 

Scriptures. To the article ' Bible,' 
p. 90, add the following : — 

The Discharge Bible. 

,, Ears to ear Uible. 

„ Rebekahs Camels Bible. 

„ Rosin * Bible. 

„ Standing fishes Bible. 

,, To-remain Bible. 

„ Unrighteous Bible. 
*,* These are typographical errors which have 
occurred in different Bibles, all but one (marked*) 
printed in the 19th cent. See also ' Peschito Ver- 
sion ' (the Syriac Bible). 

Scriptures (Spurious). 
Part I. The Old Testament. 

1. Apocryphal Books received by 
some Christians and rejected by 
others : — 

land2E8dra8 . . in 9 -HG chapters. 

Tobit , 14 

Judith , 16 „ 

The rest of Esther . „ 6 

Wisdom . . . ,, 19 „ 

Ecclesiasticus . . „ 51 „ 

Baruch and \ „ 

Epistle of Jeremiah/ >< " »» 

Song of the Three Children. 
Story of Susanna. 
Bel and the Dragon. 
Prayer of Manalseh. 

1 Maccabees, in 16 chapters. 

2 „ „ 15 

•,* These and several others are canonical in 
the Abyssinian Church. Book of Enoch translated 
by Dr. Kenealy, set; p. 296. 

2. The following are not even accepted 
in the Apocrypha. They are called 
Pseudepigraphoe : — 

The 3 and 4 of Maccabees (in the Septuagint 
Bible). 

The Genealogy of Job and his Wife's speech (at 
the end of the Greek text of the Book of Job). 

CLI. Psalm (at the end of the Greek psalms). 

A discourse of King Solomon (at the end of tlie 
' Book of Wisdom '). 

The preface to the Book of Lamentations (in 
the Vulgate). 

8. The following, referred to in the Old 
Testament, form no part of our Canon : — 

The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 41). 
,, of the Acts of Uriah (2 Chron. xxvi. 22). 

of the Chronicles of David (1 Chron. 
xxvii. 24). 
„ of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel 
(often). 
Of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah 
(often). 
„ of the Covenant (Jos. x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18). 
„ of the Kings of Judah and Israel (often). 
„ of Gad the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 20). 
„ of Iddo the Seer (2 Chron. xii. 15). 

„ of Jasher (Joshua x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18). 
„ of Jehu (2 Chron. xx. 34). 

„ of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chron. xxix. 

29). 
„ of Samuel the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29 
2 Chron. ix. 29). 
of Shemaiah (2 Chron. xii. 15). 
The Books of Jason i2 Maccabees ii.). 

of the Wars (Numbers xxi. 14). 
The Memoirs of Hircanus (2 Mace. ii.). 
„ of Jeremiah (1 Mace. ii.). 

3F 



802 



SCEIPTURES 



SCRIPTURES 



The Prophecy about Babylon (Jer. ii.). 
of Ahijah (2 Chron. ix. 29). 
,, of Jeremiah (Jer. li.). 

„ of Jonah (Jonah). 

Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22). 
The Thousand and Five Songs of Solomon (1 Kings 

iv. 32). 
Three Thousand Proverbs of Solomon (1 Kings 

iv. 32). 
Visions of Iddo the Seer (2 Chron. ix. 29). 

3. The following are sometimes re- 
ferred to, but are no longer extant : — 

The Assumption of Abraham. 

„ ,, of Moses. 

„ ,, of the Twelve Patriarchs. 

„ Btooli of King Og. 

„ Creation of Adam. 

„ r)i«courscs of Jacob and Joseph. 

„ Generation of the Sons, &c., of Adam. 

„ Gospel of Eve. 

„ Ham s (or Cham's) Book of Magic. 

„ Jacob's Ladder. 

,, Jetsira. 

„ Prophecy of Eldad and Mcdad. 

,, Revelation of Adam. 

,, Secrets of Elias. 

,, Secrets of Jeremiah. 
Seth. 
Treatise of Jannes and Jambres. 

Part II. The New Testament. 

The Book of Acts (ascribed to Peter). 
The Gospel of Andrew, Apelles. Barnabas, Ce 
rinthus, James the Elder, Judas Iscariot, Lucia- 
nus, Lucius, Matthew {the false gospel of). Ma-tthnxs 
Marcion, Nicodemus, PeterlEiisebius yl. 12), Philip 
Tatian (The Didtessarou), Tnaddeus, Thomas, Va- 
lentinus, &c. 
The Gospel of Perfection. 

„ of the Ebionites (4 syl.). 

„ of the Infancy of Christ. 

„ of the Nativity of Mary. 

„ of the Twelve Apostles. 

„ according to the Egyptians. 

„ „ to the Hebrews. 

„ „ to the Syrians. 

The Everlasting Gospel (13th cent.). 
The Four Gospels of the Manich6ans. 
The Hebrew Gospel or Logia of Matthew, re- 
ferred to by Papias. 
The History of Joseph the Carpenter. 
The Preaching and llevelation of Peter. 
The Protevangelium of James. 
J>aul and Thekia. 

\* Irenseus (i. 17) speaks of the multitude of 
spurious books in the 2nd cent. In the 4th cent. 
th« re were at least eighty spurious gospels. 

Mahomet apparently derived his knowledge of 
Jesus from ' the Gospel of the Infancy,' ' the Book 
of the Nativity of Mary,' and the 'Protevange- 
lium of St. James." 

Part III. Books accepted by the Gnos- 
tics, which form no part of our canon. 

Book of Adam, Enoch, Moseh, Elijah, Isajah. 

Book of Armagil, Barbelon, Balsamum, Lensi- 
boras, Matthias, and Glaucias. 

Hymns of Blarcos. 

Prophecies of Barcobas, Barcoph, Cain, Ham, 
Parchor, &c. 

Psalms of Valentlnus, Bardesanes. 

*,* Basilides chiefly relied on some prophecies 
which bore the names of Ham, Parchor, Barcobas, 
and Barcoph, wilh an esoteric tradition which he 
professed to derive from St. Matthias and from 
Glaucias.— RoBEKTSON, History of the Church, vol. 
i. p. 72. 

Part IV. The following, though ad- 
mitted into our canon, are (on the autho- 
rity of Eusebius, iii. 2) disputable. 



Second and Third Epistles of John. 

Second Epistle of Peter. 

Tlie Epistle of James. 

The Epistle to the Hebrews. 

*,* The Book of the Revelation was long dis- 
puted. Jerome, Amphilochius and Sulpitius Se- 
verus tell us that in their time many churches did 
not accept it ; and certainly it is not in the cata- 
logue of the Council of Laodicea or in that of 
Cyril of Jerusalem ; nor in the Codex Vaticanus 
(q.o.). In more modern times Luther and Lucke 
deny its authenticity. (This is not the place to 
enter on the pros and cons of the subject, but 
simply to state a fact.) 

Part V. Parts of our Canonical Scrip- 
tures are not to be found in some of the 
best MSS. It would take up too much 
space to jot down omitted words and 
short clauses, and the entire New Testa- 
ment would be too wide a field. Con- 
fining ourselves to the four gospels 
(except in two cases), it may be re- 
marked : — 

I. The Apocalypse is omitted in the Codes 
Vaticanus, &c. 

II. 1 John V. 51, 52 (' the three witnesses ') are 
admitted by all scholars to be interpolated. 

III. The Ascension, as described by Mark xil., 
the last twelve verses, is admitted in the Revised 
Version to be at least doubtful ; and, what is more 
remarkable still, vv. 51, 52 of the last chapter of 
Luke are also omitted in many of the best MSS. 

IV. In John ix. 35 our version makes Jesus say 
to the man cured of his blindness, ' Dost tliou be- 
lieve on the Son of God ? ' but many MSS. read, 
' Dost thou believe on the Son of Man ? ' 

The following are omitted in many 

MSS.:— 

Matthew : vi. 15, the last clause of the ' Lord s 
Prayer'; xvi. 2, 3; xvii. 21; xviii. 11; xix. 9, the 
latter half. 

Mark : x. 44, 46 ; xi. 26 ; xv. 28. 

Luke : xvii. 36 ; xxii. 19, ' This is my body,' &c. ; 
xxii. 43, 44; xxiii. 34, 'Father forgive them, for 
they know not what they do '; xxiv. 6, 12, 51, 52. 

John : iii. 13, last clause ; iv. 9, last clause ; vii. 
53 ; viii. 2 11 (inserted in brackets in tlie Revised 
Edition) ; ix. 36, for ' God ' many read man. 

Every iota of information on the sub- 
ject is valuable and important, and the 
utmost candour should be encouraged. 
The Bereans were highly commended for 
searching to see how far the teaching of 
the Apostles accorded with the written 
word. Truth fears neither microscope, 
telescope, jjrobe, nor scalpel. 

Scriptures ( Versions of the). 
Oriental versions. 

Arabic. Memphitic (q.V.). 

Armenian. Persic (q.v.). 

Basmuric. Peschito. 

Coptic. See Memphitic, Sahidic (.q.v.). 

Thebaidic, Basmuric, Samaritan Pentateuch 

and Sahidic. (q.v.). 

Egyptian (^.i'.). Thebaidic (q.v.). 

Ethiopic (q.r.). 

ARABIC (Jhe) includes the Pentateuch and 
Isaiah. Translated by Rabbi Saadias in the 10th 
cent. 

ARMENIAN (The) made by Miesrob in the 5th 
cent. Somewhat interpolated from the Vulgate. 

Basmuric (The), a version in the dialect of 
Bashmur, &c., east of the Nile. 



SCKUTIN 



SEAL 



80a 



Western versions. See ' Codex,' &c. 

I. Greek : The Septuagint (-/.r.). 
IL Latin : Anglo-Saxon versions. 
Gothic version (q.v.). 
Slavonic version (q.v.). 
Vulgate iq.v.). 
Anglo-Saxon version. It is supposed that the 
Psalter was rendered into Saxon, in 709, by 
Aldhelm bishop of Sherborne. The Venerable Bede 
translated the whole Bible into Anglo-Saxon (died 
7o5\ and about 200 years later King Alfred trans- 
lated the Psalter. In 995 it is supposed that Ealfric 
archbishop of Canterbury translated the Penta- 
teuch, Joshua, Esther, and a part of Kings. 

Scrutin d'Arrondissement. 

Voting by districts. 

Scrutin de Liste. Voting in mass. 

Seullabogue Barn {Massacre at), 
1798, in the Great Irish RebelHon. This 
massacre by the rebels and that at Wex- 
ford Bridge were the most infamous of 
all the outrages in this fearful rebellion. 

Scurvy. At one time very common 
in England and Holland. It is described 
by Hippocrates as a ' tumour of the spleen 
produced by drinking cold water.' Pliny 
calls it stoniacace and prescribes the 
herb ' cochlearia ' [herba Britannica) as 
a remedy. It broke out in the army of 
Germanicus encamped on the Rhine, and 
is mentioned by Tacitus. It was accom- 
panied with the loss of the teeth and 
paralysis in the knees. In Thorstein's 
expedition to Greenland, in 1002, it 
carried off Thorstein himself and his 
twenty-five companions. It caused great 
ravages in the army of St. Louis. Its 
first appearance in Germany was in 1481, 
when it was called Schorbuck [i.e. in- 
flammation or tearing of the bowels). 
Freind says it was first introduced into 
Europe in the 15th cent, by the Portu- 
guese, and that it came from the East 
Indies. In the year 1498 it committed 
frightful ravages in the crew of Vasco da 
Gama, when he lost fifty-five of his 
men ; in 1535 it broke out in the crew of 
Cartier in his voyage to Canada ; and in 
Lord Anson's memorable voyage (account 
published in 1746) whole crews were 
prostrated by this scourge. 

Poupart the surgeon in lii99 says the plague of 
Athens described by Thucydides was the scurvy : 
BO also was that described by Lucretius, book xvi. 

Scutage, or * shield money,' a money 
payment in lieu of knight's service in the 
field. It consisted of one, two, or three 
marks (13s. Ad.) for each knight's fee {i.e. 
land to the value of 20Z., or as much more 
as the king chose to grant). The Great 



Scutage, 1159, was a reform passed in 
the reign of Henry II. soon after the 
death of Thomas Becket. It greatly 
diminished the military power of the 
nobles, and gave the king instead a mili- 
tary force of mercenary soldiers entirely 
under his control. 

As there were 60,000 knights' fees in England, 
scutage would amount to 180,000i.=at least 5> 
millions according to the present value of money. 

Scythia. Russia in Asia. Russia 
in Europe was called by the Romans 
' Sarmatia.' 

Sea of Darkness {The). The Black 
Sea. 

Silesia and Little Poland, thirty days' journey, 
according to the Greek computation, from the Sea 
of Darkness.— Gibbon, Iv. 

Sea-dogs, 1577. Seamen of the 
southern coast who accepted letters of 
marque from the Prince of Conde and 
the French Protestants. These bold 
freebooters took no heed of the complaints 
of the French court, nor of Elizabeth's 
efforts at repression, for the connivance 
of every man along the coast, even of the 
crown port-officers, insured them im- 
munity. Francis Drake was a sea-dog, 
and thought it a glory to sell negroes 
to the i)lanters, to kill Spaniards, and to 
sack their gold-ships. Philip of Spain 
demanded that the freebooter should be 
given up, but instead of so doing Eliza- 
beth knighted him. 

Seagreen Incorruptible {The). 
Robespierre is so called by Carljde in his 
' French Revolution.' 

Not even the Seagreen Incorruptible but shall 
have some pity.— Vol. iii. book iii. 1. 

There is in the incorruptible Seagreen himself 
.... a heartfelt knowledge of this latter fact.-— 
Vol. iii. book iii. 2. 

Seal of Confession {The). ' Sigil- 
lum Confessionis,' the obligation of a 
confessor not to divulge to any human 
being what is told him in the confessional. 
The custom can be traced to the 5th cent. ; 
but it was made binding by Innocent III. 
in the 12th cent. 

The confessional is the concealed seat on which 
the priest sits to hear confession in the Catholic 
church. 

Seal of the Three Lions (The). 
The Anglo-Norman ofiicial seal. 

A few years afterwards the archdeacon [Becket] 
was raised to the office of chancellor of England, 
or keeper of the seal of the three lions, the symbol 
of .A.nglo-Norman power.— Casseii's Hixl. of Kuq., 
vol. i. p. 183. 

S t' 2 



804 



SEALED 



SECOND 



Sealed Prayer Book (The). Both 

the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
and the crown printers are bound by the 
Act of Uniformity to print the ' Book of 
Common Prayer ' from a sealed prayer- 
book, a copy of which ought to be kept 
in each cathedral, and of course where 
the book is officially printed. 

Stance Royale {Une). A variety 
of the ' Lit de Justice ' (q.v.), in which 
the king of France took his seat and told 
the parlemerit what law or laws he re- 
quested them to pass. The parlement 
had no voice in the matter, but simply 
registered the royal edict. 

Seato'nian Prize {The), for an 
English poem on some sacred subject. 
Value 40/. ; given annually to an M.A. of 
the University of Cambridge. The same 
person is qualified to take the prize any 
number of times. Founded by the Rev. 
Thomas Seaton of Clare College in 1741. 

Seceders, 1730. Dissenters from 
the kirk of Scotland led by Ralph and 
Ebenezer Erskine of Stirling. They are 
divided into burghers and anti-burghers, 
that is, those who did not object to take 
the ' Burgess oath ' [q.v.), and those who 
refused to take it. 

Secession [The), 1733. The body 
of seceders from the General Assembly 
of Scotland. See ' Seceders.' 

Secession of :N"on- Jurors (The), 

5 March, 1689. Sancroft archbishop of 
Canterbury and the seven bishops of 
Bath and Wells, Chichester, Ely, Glou- 
cester, Norwich, Peterborough, and 
Worcester refused to take the oaths to 
William and Mary, and were suspended. 
On 1 Feb., 1691, they were all deprived of 
their sees. 

Secession Synod of Ireland 

[The], 1780. Formed by seceders from 
the Presbyterian Assembly of L:eland. 

Second Advent Brethren (T/je). 
A Protestant religious sect which keeps 
a watchful look-out for the second coming 
of the Messiah. 

Second Book {The). King Ed- 
ward's liturgies reformed under Queen 
Elizabeth. See p. 523, ' Liturgy.' 

Second Catechism of Edward 
VI. {The), 1553. Called 'The Larger 



Catechism ' ; ascribed to Poynet bishop of 
Winchester, but recommended to the 
young king by Cranmer. It was in Latin 
and English, in question and answer. It 
was afterwards revised and enlarged by 
Noel dean of St. Paul's, and published in 
1570. This is not the catechism inserted 
in our Book of Common Prayer. That 
formulary was drawn up by Dr. Nowell, 
afterwards bishop of Ely, and was enlarged 
by Dr. Overall, at the command of James 
I., and is based on Cranmer's Shorter 
Catechism. 

According to Canon Luckock (' On the Book of 
Common Prayer ') the greater part is by Nowell. 
Overall wrote the Explanation of the Sacraments. 

Second Founder of Rome {The). 
Sixtus v., who greatly embellished Rome 
with beautiful edifices, brought water to 
the city by an aqueduct 22 miles long, 
constructed the cupola of St. Peter's, 
enlarged the Vatican library, fixed the 
number of cardinals at 70, and recreated 
both the city and constitution of the 
Church (1521, 1585-1590). 

Second Grand Alliance {The), 
7 Sept., 1701, between the kaiser, Great 
Britain, Holland, Prussia, and Hanover, 
against Louis XIV. Signed at the Hague. 
The object was to prevent France suc- 
ceeding to Spain, and to secure Spain 
to Germany. If negotiations failed, the 
allies agreed to make war on France till 
they recovered Spanish Flanders, the 
kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, with all 
other Spanish territories in Italy. No 
peace was to be made till the absolute 
severance of Spain and France was 
effected. See p. 381, ' Grand Alliance.' 

Second Plebe'ian "War {The), 
A.D. 126, in Irish history, is the rising of 
the Attacots or proletariat of Ireland, 
aided by the sub-kings, to dethrone Tua- 
thal, son of Feredach the Just. Tuathal 
took refuge with the king of the Picts, but 
a famine induced the insurgents to invite 
him back, and he was called Tuathal the 
Acceptable. 

The first plebeian war was the Massacre at 
Magh-Cru (q.v.). 

Second Prayer Book of Ed- 
ward VI. {The), 1552. The second 
revision of the ' King's Primer ' {q.v.) ; the 
first revision was 1549. King Edward's 
Prayer Book was augmented and revised 
in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. 
In 1662 it assumed tfie present form of 
our * Book of Common Prayer.' 



SECOND 



SECRET 



805 



Second Probation. The dernier 
ressort of the prison governor to an incor- 
rigible offender. It consists of solitary 
confinement for 9 months, as at the com- 
mencement of a sentence, with deduction 
of one-third of the ordinary prison allow- 
ance of food and the loss of all remission 
marks. 

Secret Articles {The\ 1647. A 

secret treaty entered into by Charles I. 
with the Confederates or Catholics of Ire- 
land. Edward lord Herbert persuaded the 
Confederates to make a double treaty, one 
public and one private. In the private 
treaty the Catholics had large concessions 
made to them, but if they had been gene- 
rally known the king's cause would have 
been greatly prejudiced among Protes- 
tants. This secret treaty was accidentally 
discovered amongst the baggage of the 
Archbishop of Tuam and published. The 
king denied its authenticity, but no one 
believed him, and the documents are pre- 
served still in the public libraries of 
England. 

The secret treaty provided that the members of 
the Catholic Church should pay their fees to the 
Catholic clergy, and that the churches then in pos- 
session of Catholics should remain so, 

Secret Association of the Holy- 
Faith {The), 1799. Founded by Cardi- 
nal Ruffo, as a counterpoise to the 
Carbonari. This society was sworn to 
exterminate all Jansenists, Molinists, 
Economists, Illuminists, Freemasons, and 
Carbonari. The members were called 
' Santa Fedists.' 

Secret Chancery [The). A kind 
of ' Star Chamber ' introduced by Alexis 
Michailowitz czar of Russia. It was a 
species of state inquisition whereby the 
czar could get rid of all persons dangerous 
or obnoxious without any apparent inter, 
ference on his part. 

Karamsin says the Secret Chancery was founded 
by Peter I., and that the court founded by Alexis 
was only a private chancery. 

Secret Committee {The), 1721, 
See ' Committee of Secrecy.' 

Secret Device {The), 1 July, 1543. 
A private agreement between Henry VIII. 
and the Douglas faction to bamboozle the 
Scotch in regard to the projected alliance 
between the royal children Edward (son 
of Henry VIII.) and Mary (daughter of 
James V.). The promise was that Mary 
should remain iti Scotland till her 11th 
year, but that an English nobleman and 



his wife should form part of her suite. 
The secret device was that Douglas should 
throw Scotland virtually into the hands 
of Henry, to get possession of Mary, and 
to induce Scotland to repudiate her alle- 
giance to the pope. 

Secret Select {The), 1837. Persons 
who hired themselves out to the trades 
union of Glasgow to assassinate, muti- 
late, or injure persons obnoxious to the 
union. They belonged to what was called 
No. 61, and when the secret committee 
had resolved upon a deed of darkness the 
name of one of this No. 61 was written on 
paper and given to the secretary. The 
Secret Select being sent for was ushered 
into a dark room and told what he was 
appointed to do ; then stretching out his 
hand in the dark, a pui'se of money was 
put into it. After the deed of darkness 
he was smuggled out of the kingdom. 
See ' Nobs.' 

Secret Treaty {The), Jan. 1672, 
ratified in June, between Charles II. and 
Louis XIV. 

I. Charles should publicly profess 
himself a Catholic at such time as might 
appear most expedient. 

II. To enable Charles to quash insur- 
rections, Louis should grant him 2,000,000 
livres after the ratification of the treaty. 

III. Both agree to observe the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

IV. If any new rights on the Spanish 
monarchy should accrue to Louis, the 
King of England agrees to aid him in re- 
covering them. 

V. Both agree to make war on the 
United Provinces, and neither shall make 
peace without the other's consent. 

VI. Louis agrees to take on himself 
the whole expense of the war, but Eng- 
land shall furnish him with 6,000 men. 

VII. Charles shall equip fifty ships, 
and Louis thirty, and the united fleet shall 
be under the command of James duke of 
York. 

VIII. Charles to receive "Walcheren, 
Luys (2 syl.), and the island of Cadsand 
as his quota ; Louis all the rest. 

IX. A mutual treaty of commerce shall 
be concluded without delay. 

No ' right divine ' can palliate such infamy. 

Secret Tribunal {The). I. a.d. 
783, of Westphalia. A kind of inquisition 
established by Charlemagne to prevent a 
into paganism. 



SECULAB 



SEEKEKS 



II. The Vehm-Gericht of "Westphalia 
(12th cent.), recognised 1371 ; general in 
Germany 1400, suppressed 1438, but did 
not wholly cease to exist till 1811. 

Its judges and officers were all 
muffled, its summonses were delivered 
in secret, and everyone connected with 
the tribunal was sworn to secrecy. It 
exerted a wholesome restraint on the 
unruly barons, for anyone of them might 
at any time be dragged blindfold before 
the judges, and hung on the first tree. 
See ' Red Land.' 

It was no single court, but a society, which 
could hold a court in any place within the Red 
Land. 

Secular Abbots. Laymen who 

possessed monasteries ; their vicars, who 
discharged the duties of the abbey, were 
styled ' Regular Abbots.' 

Secular Canons. Canons not con- 
ventual. Laymen who out of honour or 
respect are admitted into some chapter 
of canons. They mixed more or less 
with the world, but observed the rules 
of the order to which they attached 
themselves. 

Secular Clergy [The). The clergy 
generally who live in private houses. 
Nearly all archbishops, bishops, deans, 
canons, and parochial clergymen are 
Seculars, in contradistinction to the Re- 
gulars, who, having vowed obedience, 
chastity, and poverty, live in some reli- 
gious house, dead to the world and the 
' civil law ' by their ' entrance into reli- 
gion.' Called ' Regulars ' because they 
live under the Begula or rule of some 
religious house. 

Secularism, 1846. A system of 
ethics which teaches that conduct should 
be based on reason and knowledge, 
wholly ignoring the Christian doctrine of 
divine guidance and interference. It 
regax-ds happiness as the proper aim of 
man, utility his highest duty, and pro- 
gress as the only gauge of right living. 
Of course it considtrs perfect liberty of 
thought as essential to progress, and 
therefore objects to creeds, and what is 
termed ' orthodoxy,' that is, certain set 
dogmas and doctrines enforced by the 
authority of a dominant party. It re- 
gards this present life as the main concern 
of man, experience his best guide, the 
promotion of the well-being of society 
his highest duty, the Book of Nature his 



only Bible, and science its best inter- 
preter. See ' Agnosticism.' 

Secularists. Freethinkers who be- 
lieve that the affairs of this world should 
be the chief concern of man. They are 
generally Agnostics, but some are Mate- 
rialists, and some few are Atheists. How- 
ever, religious views have no part nor 
lot in Secularism except indirectly. 

Sedan-day, 1 Sept. A school holiday 
in Hamburg in commemoration of the 
battle of Sedan in 1870, when Napoleon 
III. delivered up his sword to William 
king of Prussia. 

Sedantaire, or 'Man of Sedan,' a 
sobriquet of Napoleon III. after he re- 
signed his sword to the King of Prussia 
at Sedan, in the Franco-Prussian war, 
1870. The pun is Sedan-terre. 

Sede'runt {The Acts of). Acts 
whereby judges are empowered to make 
rules for the regulation of legal pro- 
cedure and the expedition of justice in 
the Scotch Court of Session. Scotch 
Act, 1540, c. 93. 

Sedgwick Prize [The), for geology. 
Given every third year to any graduate 
of the University of Cambridge who has 
resided sixty days during the year of his 
candidature. Value about 80Z. Founded 
in 1865 in honour of the Rev. Adam 
Sedgwick, Woodwardian Professor {q.v.). 

Sed'leyan Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in Oxford University. Sti- 
pend 570/. a year. Founded by Sir 
Wilham Sedley, 1621. 

Seekers, 1628. A religious sect in 
New England, which denied the churches 
and ordinances of Christ. — John Harvard. 

II. During the civil wars between 
Charles I. and his parliament the sect 
spread into England. They believed that 
no true church was in existence ; that a 
true church could be founded and ad- 
ministered only by men who had the 
supernatural gift conferred on the 
founders and members of the primitive 
churches. They were ' seeking and wait- 
ing ' for such manifestation of the Holy 
Ghost as would render it possible for 
true churches to be constituted. George 
Fox was at one time a ' Seeker,' believing, 
as he said, that ' those who sought the 
truth would surely find it.' See Barclay, 



SEGKETAKIO 



SELKIRK 



807 



•Inner Life,' which contains an excellent 
sketch of the Seekers. 

Under the head of Independents. . . . were the 
Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, 
Familists, Enthusiasts, Seekers. Perfectists, So- 
cinians, Arians, and others. — HowiTT, Hist, of 
Eng. (Charles I.), chap. vi. p. 273. 

Segretario {II). Machiavel is meant, 
if no proper name is added. 

Seiads {The Government of the), 
1414, succeeded in Delhi the ' House of 
Toghlak.' Khiza Khan expelled from 
the throne Doulat Khan Lodi. 

Seicentis'ti. The Italian worthies 
of the 17th cent., or in the decline of 
Italian poetry and art. It is applied to 
the men of note in any debased period. 
See p. 174, ' Cinque Centisti.' 

Se ■ gneur of Sark {The), 1565. Sir 
Helier de Carteret, appointed by Queen 
Elizabeth, was the first seigneur. In 
1721 Sark passed by sale into the hands 
of James Milner, and in 1730 passed into 
the possession of Susannah Le Pelley ; 
but in 1852 the seigneurie was transferred 
to Mr. T. G. Collings of Guernsey. The 
parliament or assembly of Sark is called 
the Chefs Plaids. 

Seja'nus of England {The). So 
Sir John Elliot styled the Duke of 
Buckingham when he was impeached in 
1627, and truly the resemblance between 
the favourite of Tiberius and the favou- 
rite of Charles I. is very striking. Both 
were equally unscrupulous, both equally 
licentious, both popular in a way for their 
dash, beauty, and extravagance ; both 
favourites of two princes : Sejanus of 
Caius Caesar and the Emperor Tiberius — 
Buckingham of James I. and Charles I. ; 
and both met an untimely end. 

Select Preachers (of our Univer- 
sities). Ten clergymen selected to supply 
the place of those who decline to preach 
in St. Mary's Church in their regular 
turn. Five of the preachers are nomi- 
nated annually by the Vice-Chancellor, 
the Regius and Margaret Professors of 
Divinity, and the two proctors. No sub- 
stitute is permitted except those thus 
selected. 

Select Vestry Act {The), 1663. 

By which a person was prohibited from 
being a vestryman unless he abjured the 
'Covenant,' swore not to take up anns 
against the King's majesty, and promised 
by oath to conform to the Liturgy. 



Seleucides (4 syl.), or ' Dynasty of 
the Seleucidae,' B.C. 312-64 (247 years). 
A Macedonian dynasty which reigned in 
Syria and Upper Asia after the death of 
Alexander the Great. So called from 
Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals, 
its founder. Six of the dynasty were 
named Seleucus, thirteen were named 
Antiochus, and three were named Deme- 
trius. It was succeeded by the Arsa- 
cides. 

The 'Era of the Seleucides' begins with this 
I dynasty. Seleukos I. is surnamed Nicdtor (the 
Conqueror). 

Self-denying Ordinance {The). 
See ' Self-renouncing Ordinance.' 

Self-renouncing Ordinance 

{The), or ' Self-denying Ordinance,' 3 
April, 1645. A measure moved by Zouch 
! Tate and seconded by Sir Harry Vane 
in the House of Commons for the removal 
of the Earl of Essex from the command 
of the parliamentary army. Tate said, 
I ' There is but one way of ending so many 
j evils, and that is for everyone freely to 
i renounce himself.' The ordinance was 
that no member of either house shall 
hold any office, civil or military, during 
the war. When the bill passed, Essex, 
Warwick, and Manchester resigned, and 
Fairfax was made commander. Crom- 
well ought to have been excluded as an 
M.P., but a special exception was made 
in his case 'for his brilliant achieve- 
ments.' Cromwell really introduced the 
measure to the attention of the parlia- 
ment, for he saw plainly that the aris- 
tocracy were only half-hearted in the 
war. On the death of Essex in 1647 
this ordinance fell into abeyance. 
Zouch, pronounce Zooteh. 

Selj Uks ( T^e) , or ' Selj ukian Dynasty .' 
An Oriental dynasty founded by Togi'ul 
Bey, grandson of Seljuk of Turkestan. 
He took possession of the empire of the 
Ghaznevides (3 syl.), and put an end to 
the Bowides (2 syl.) in Ispahan. The 
Seljiiks of Persia began with Togrul I. 
and went out with Togrul II. It gave 
twelve sovereigns, lasted 156 years (1038- 
1194), and was succeeded by the Gourides 
(2 syl.) or Khans of Kharizm (1155-1225). 

It will be seen that the Gourides were for thirtv- 
nine years contemporary with the Seljiiks. Togrul 
Bey, Alp Arslan, and Malek Shah are kings to be 
proud of in any nation. 

Selkirk Island. Juan Fernandez 
is so called from Alexander Selkirk, a 



SELWYN 



SEMPRONIAN 



buccaneer from tlie fishing town of Largs 
in Fifeshire, who resided there in soli- 
tude for four years (1704-1708). The 
story of Selkirk probably suggested to 
Defoe that of ' Robinson Crusoe.' 

Selwyn College, Cambridge, 1882. 
Built by public subscription in memory 
of George Augustus Selwyn, late bishop 
of Lichfield, to provide an economical 
education of ' high culture of the mind 
combined with Christian training based 
on the principles of the Church of Eng- 
land.' 

Belvryn Divinity School {The). 
Founded in 1856 by William Selwyn, 
D.D., of St. John's College, Cambridge. 
Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity. 

Sem'inarists, 1583 (Queen Eliza- 
beth). The name given to the Roman 
Catholic clergy who were trained at Dr. 
Allen's College at Douay for the purpose 
of being sent over to England as mis- 
sionaries of the Pope. These were after- 
wards treated by Elizabeth's officers as 
being on the same footing as Jesuits. 

Sem'ipela'gians, a.d.430. Pelagius 
denied the doctrine of original sin, or the 
taint of Adam. He maintained that all 
men can, if they choose, keep all the laws 
of God; that God gives grace to those 
who deserve it ; that good acts are due to 
the liberty of the will as well as bad 
acts. The Semipelagians agreed with 
Pelagius in the freedom of the will to 
choose either good or evil, but after 
having made the choice then they main- 
tained that God's grace is indispensable 
for justification and righteousness. Man 
can walk to the palace door, but must 
be ushered into the presence chamber. 

Semir'amis of the North (The). 

I. Margaret de Valdemar, queen of 
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. She 
was the daughter of Valdemar III. king 
of Denmark [l853-1412). 

II. Catharine of Russia, a powerful 
ambitious sovereign, but licentious, 
sensual, and immoral (1729, 1762-1796). 

Semitic Languages {The). An- 
cient Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Phcenician, 
Chaldaic, .^thiopic, and perhaps ancient 
Egyptian and Coptic. 

Semitic Nations {The). The 
Hebrews, Syrians, old Ethiopians, Ara- 



bians, and Phoenicians. See ' Turanian * 
and ' Aryan.' 

Sempach {Convention of ), 1393. An 
act of confederation between the Aus- 
trians and Swiss. 

* Semper sub Sextis perditaRoma 
fuit.' 

Nero was the sixth Caesar. (Julius, 
Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, 
Nero.) 

Stephen VI. (pope 896-897) was a 
monster. He caused the body of his 
predecessor to be exhmned; and then, 
cutting off the head of the dead body 
with a hatchet, threw it into the Tiber. 
The people, disgusted, seized him, cast 
him into prison, and there strangled him. 

Boniface VI. (pope 896) died within 
fifteen days. 

Benedict VI. (972-974) was confined 
in St. Angelo by Boniface, called ' Anti- 
pope,' and died there. 

Gregory VI. (1044-1046) had three 
rival claimants, and when he had bribed 
them to retire Kaiser Heinrich HI. and 
his cardinals obstructed all his reforms. 
Driven to despair, he abdicated. 

Clement VI. (1842-1352) resided at 
Avignon. It was in this pontificate that 
Rienzi the tribune troubled Rome. 

Urban VI. (1378-1389). With this 
pontificate began the ' Great Schism of 
the West ' {q.v.). 

Pius VI. (1775-1799) was ill-starred. 
In France the National Assembly con- 
fiscated the property of the church and 
suppressed all religious orders ; in Ger- 
many the Congress of Ems abolished 
the Nunciature; in Naples the papal 
tribute was withheld; and in 1791 
Avignon and Venaissin were added to 
France. France mvaded the papal 
dominions, Bonaparte attacked the 
Roman States, compelled Pius to sign 
the Treaty of Tolentino, by which he 
gave up the best pictures and statues of 
Rome, introduced his republic there, 
and the old pontiff, torn from his palace, 
was transferred successively to Sienna, 
Florence, Grenoble, and Valence, where 
he died at the age of eighty-two. 
To Rome if six hath always brought mischance, 
Three, without doubt, has fatal proved to France. 

See ' Three Fatal to France.' 

Sempro'nian Law {The), b.c. 123. 
That the state is to furnish corn at a 
low price to all Roman citizens (25 ases 



SENATE 



BISNATUS-CONSULTE 809 



per bushel). At one time it cost the 
state a million a year to make up this 
deficit. It was carried by Caius Sem- 
pronius Gracchus. 

There were several other Sempronian laws, the 
object of which was to lessen the power of the 
oli^'archy and make t^ie constitution more demo- 
cratic. 

Senate {The) of the University of 
Cambridge used to be divided into two 
Houses : (1) The regents or white-hoods, 
and (2) the non-regents or black-hoods. 
Tlie Upper or White-hood House con- 
sisted of masters of arts of less than five 
years' standing and doctors of less than 
two years' standing. The Lower or 
Black-hood House consisted of masters 
of arts of more than five years' standing 
and doctors of more than two years' 
standing. All doctors of the Upper 
House and the public orator could vote 
in either house. This arrangement was 
wholly changed in 1857-58. 

' Regents ' originally meant ' tutors, lecturers, 
and professors.' 'Non-regents' were those who 
had served their time and were exempt from 
these duties. Masters of arts took off the white 
lining of their hoods to show they were no longer 
regents or tutors and lecturers. The stripping of 
the white lining has long been discontinued. 

The Council of the Senate is called a ' Caput ' 
(g. !.'.). An assembly in term-time is called a ' Con- 
gregation,' but out of term-time it is a ' Convoca- 
tion.' By a 'Grace' a convocation may be con- 
verted into a congregation. 

*,* There is no senate in the Oxford University. 
See ' House of Convocation.' 

Senate {The Present). The legislative 
body of Cambridge University. Great 
changes were made in 1857 (19, 20 Vict. c. 
88), and in 1882 an entire new code of 
statutes was approved by Queen Victoria 
in council. Tlie senate now consists of 
one house only, which assembles in the 
senate-house. The members are the 
chancellor and vice-chancellor, and the 
following graduates, provided their names 
remain on the university register, viz. : 
All doctors of the five faculties {i.e. 
divinity, law, medicine, science, and 
letters). There is a Council of the Senate 
{q.v.), and there is also an Electoral Roll 
{q.v.). 

Bachelors of divinity are members of the senate 
only in virtue of their M.A. degree. 

Senate (r/i-e Conservative) of France, 
1799. ' Le Se'nat Conservateur ' created 
by the Constitvition of Year VIII. was 
not a legislative body. Its duties were 
to see the laws enforced, and to elect 
the future consuls. They appointed the 



tribunes and legislators, and even filled 
up vacancies in their own body. 

The original number of Conservative senators 
was 60, elected for life ; afterwards increased to 
137. Under the empire the senate was quite 
powerless, and in 1m14, on the restoration, the 
senate was replaced by the Cluimbre dcs Pairs. 

Senate {The Freyich). 'Le Se'nat 
Francjais ' (14 Jan., 1852) was composed 
of cardinals, marshals, and admirals, of 
princes over the age of eighteen, and of 
members nominated by the chef de 
VEtat. The number was 150, and the 
election for life. A decree of the senate 
was called a senatus-consulte (plu. 
senatus-consultes). 

Senate of Lilliput {The). In the 
reign of George II. (26 Feb., 1729), it 
was made illegal to print reports of the 
discussions of the House of Commons. 
To evade this law the debates were 
printed under initials, as debates of the 
' Senate of Lilliput.' 

Senate of Rome (T/ie). Instituted 
by Romulus to deliberate on peace and 
war, appoint the imposts, distribute the 
provinces, render justice, and enact the 
laws. In the empire it lost all indepen- 
dence, and at the partition of the empire 
there were two senates — one at Con- 
stantinople and the other at Rome. The 
Roman senate ceased in 552, during the 
domination of Theodoric. 

The original number was 100, called Patres. 
TuUus Hostilius doubled the number, and Tar- 
qulnius Priscus increased the number to 300. 
lirutus, on the expulsion of the kings, supplied 
the places of those senators who sided with 
Tarquin with new men whom he called Conscripti, 
and the body was addressed as Patres [et] Con- 
scnpti. Under tl»e republic the number generally 
mounted up to 600, and at the death of Julius 
Cajsar the number was 1,000. Augustus reduced 
the number to (iOO. All senators wore the toga, 
with a large band of purple called the laticldve, 
from its being embroidered with a wide stripe, or 
border, Clavus latus. 

Senate of Venice, 1173. A com- 
mittee of 60 chosen from the Great Council 
{q.v.), which numbered 480 members. In 
1435 the number was doubled, and later 
still it was increased to 300. It was de- 
liberative. The college was executive. 

The college consisted of 26 members : the Doge, 
the privy council of Slgnory (6), the 3 chief mem- 
bers of The Forty, and 10 representatives of the 
Senate. See ' Pregadi.' 

Sdnatus-consulte Organique 
de la Constitution (Year X.), 2 Aug., 
1802. A modification of the Constitu- 
tion of Year VIII. {q.v.), still less 
democratic. Instead of three consuls 



810 SENATUS-CONSULTE 



SEPAEATISTS 



Napoleon was appointed consul for life. 
In 1804 the consul was emperor. 

S^natus-consulte Organique 
de I'Empire Francais (Year XIL), 
18 May, 1804, conferring on Napoleon 
the power and title of emperor. 

From the Ancient Regime Ave constitutions 
brought the French back again to a monarchy. 
A constitutional monarchy, a pure democracy, a 
directory, three consuls and a conservative 
senate, a consulate, an Empiee. 

Seneca [The English). Joseph Hall 
bishop of Norwich (1574-1656). 

Seneca of the East (TA-e). Buzurg- 
Mihir, who imported into Persia the 
game of chess and the fables of Pilpay 
(6th cent.). 

S^neclial (The). A subaltern officer 
of France who acted as a crown judge ; 
the district over which he had jurisdic- 
tion was called a senechaussee. These 
sene'chaussees were established chiefly in 
the south of France ; they were called 
hailliages in the north. All France was 
subdivided into senechaussees or hailli- 
ages. 

Every grand feudatory had his senechal, who 
•was his major dome. In England a seneclial is 
temporarily created for a coronation ceremony, 
and when a peer is accused of a capital offence. 

S6n^chal [TJie Grarid) of France. 
He was master of the royal household, 
the chief lord of the treasury, commander- 
in-chief of the army, and lord chief 
justice. It was the highest rank in the 
Ifingdom, and in the lOtli cent, was made 
hereditary in the house of Anjou. Sup- 
pressed in 1191 by Philippe II. Auguste, 
who divided the dignity and duties be- 
tween the constable and grand master 
of the king's palace. See above, ' Sene- 
chal.' 

Senior Students of Christ Church, 
Oxford, correspond to fellows in other 
colleges. What in other colleges are 
called Scholars are termed Junior Stu- 
dents in Christ Church. The head of 
Christ Church is called the ' Dean.' 

Sennacherib, King of Assyria, was 
Sin-akhi-erba, son of Sarru-gina [Sargon]. 
He began to reign B.C. 707. He was 
high priest for eighteen years of his reign. 
His war with Hezekiah was not the third 
year of his reign, but his ' third expedi- 
tion,' and his son Esar Haddon — that is, 
Asshur-akhi-dinna — did not succeed till 
B.C. 683. 



Sensational School {The). I. A 
school oi philosophy in the latter half of 
the 18th cent. Condillac (1715-1780) was 
its chief exponent. This school taught ' 
that all the functions usually ascribed 
to the soul are mere exhibits of the 
senses. Knowledge is obtained by the 
senses only; intelligence, conscience, 
' mind,' and so on are from the brain. 
The disciples of this school were of course 
materialists. 

II. In French rotnance writers, fol- 
lowed the Romantic, The first of the 
sensational novels was ' Indiana,' by 
George Sand (Mme. Dudevant, 1804- 
1877). 

Bad as the sensual novels of the ' Sensational 
School ' of France undoubtedly are, the Realistic 
School is ten times worse. They pander to the 
most prurient passions of man, and uncover sen- 
suality in all its nastiness ; for, laid bare, it is 
both disgusting and revolting. 

Sensualists. In philosophy means 
those who believe that we depend on our 
senses for all our knowledge of the ma- 
terial world. These philosophers are also 
called ' Empirics,' from a Greek word 
meaning experience. The chief of these 
philosophers among the ancients were 
Democritus, Leucippos, Aristippos, Epi- 
ciiros, and Lucretius ; and among the 
moderns Hobbes, Gassendi, Condillac, 
Helvetius, Cabanis, De Tracy, Broussais, 
Hartley, and Priestley. Those who con- 
tend for intuitive ideas and an inner 
sense or perception are called Dogmatists. 
The system of Sensualists is called 
' Sensualism.' 

Some rank Aristotle, Bacon, and Locke among 
Sensualists, but they distinctly teach that the five 
senses are not of themselves sufficient to explain 
all ideas. 

Cabanis, pronounce Cah-hah-nee. 

Separatists [The). I. 1580. Those 
who withdrew from the Church of England 
in consequence of the tyranny and dog- 
matism of the Ecclesiastical Commission. 
They objected to an established church 
as contrary to the word of God ; to the 
use of the cross in baptism as a rag of 
popery ; to kneeling at the Lord's Supper 
as a semi-adoration of the elements ; and 
to the use of the surplice. Persecution 
greatly increased their number and con- 
firmed their opposition, so that they 
quickly mounted to 20,000 souls, and 
became a power in the state. 

II. Or ' Pietists ' [q.v.), 1689. Founded 
by Spener of Leipsic. 

III. In 1886, &c. Those in favour of 
giving the Irish a separate parliament, 



SEPOY 



SERBONIAN 



811 



supreme in Irish matters, but subordinate 
to the British parliament in all matters 
affecting the United Kingdom. The bill 
was brought in by Mr. Gladstone, the 
prime minister, but was thrown out, and 
led to the break-up of the Whig party, 
those Whigs and Radicals who opposed 
the bill being called Unionists. Lord 
Hartington was the leader of the Whig 
Unionists, and Mr. Chamberlain of the 
Radical Unionists. See ' Irish Associa- 
tions.' 

An imperium in imperio is proverbially dan- 
gerous, and would be especially so with the im- 
pulsive Irish, who are ready to follow any dema- 
gogue, and apply to foreign nations for support. 
What the Irish want is to be a ' separate nation,' 
and have its voice in the councils of Europe. To 
effect this it must have its consuls, ambassadors, 
and army. And fatal collision with England 
could not be long delayed. 

Sepoy "War {The), 1857-1858, or 
Indian Mutiny (q.v.). 

September Massacres (The). 

2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792, when between eight 
and ten thousand persons, chiefly noble- 
men and priests, were massacred in cold 
blood at the instigation of Marat. See 
'Septembrisers.' 

September 9. The day appointed 

for the National Thanksgiving for the 

king's escape from the Rye-house plot in 

favour of the Duke of Monmouth and 

the assassination of Charles II., 1683. 

Lord William Russell and others were 

executed as being implicated in this plot. 

You hypocrites, forbear your pranks. 

To murder men and then give thanks ; 

Forbear, your tricks pursue no further, 

For God accepts no thanks for murder. 

LUTTRELLS Journal. 
The ' murder ' referred to is that of Lord William 
Russell, &c. 

Septembrisers. I. * Septembri- 
seurs.' Those engaged in the massacres 
of September (q.v.), Sept. 1792. Three 
hundred hired assassins wearing tri- 
coloured scarfs round their waists went 
to Les Carmes, L'Abbaye, and La Force 
to assassinate those suspected of favour- 
ing the royal cause. Li Les Carmes 163 
ecclesiastics were executed without even 
a mockery trial. In the other two prisons 
a few questions were asked. If the 
judges said a Cohlentz the ' suspect ' was 
acquitted, but if the sentence was d VAh- 
baije, or a la Force, he was led into the 
yard and put to death. Truchat stated 
to the Legislative Assembly that the 
number which fell in the four days was 
4,000, but the real, number was double 
that or more. See above. 



Billaud-Varennes promised each of the assassins 
24 louis for his work (a total of about 5,000/.), bub 
money enough could not be raised, and the sum of 
1,463 livres (70L) is set down in the books of the Com- 
mune as still due. This surely is some blunder, 
for it is Incredible that the government should 
be unable to lay hands on such a paltry siun of 
money. 

II. The revolutionary mob of France 
in the first revolution was so called be- 
cause they began their annual calendar 
in September instead of January. 

Certainly it was most unscientific to begin the 
year in September, when its end is so near at 
hand for all nations north of the equator. 

Septennial Act [The), i Geo. I. 

c. 38, 7 May, 1716, extending the duration 
of parliament to seven years, instead of 
three, as it had been since 1641. By 
this act it was provided that the interval 
between two parliaments should in no 
wise exceed four years. 

Sep'tuagesima Sunday. Seventy 
days before Easter, Church way of reckon- 
ing, which gives ten days to the week. 
Thus: 1 eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 
3 Monday, 4 Tuesday, 5 Wednesday, 
6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Saturday, 9 eve 
of the Octave, 10 the Octave. See 
' Sunday.' 

So the entombment was 1 eve of Saturday, 
2 Saturday, 3 eve of Sunday. Septuagesima, often, 
but incorrectly, pronounced Sep'-t'a-jes'y-vyiy. 

Septuagint (T/te). A Greek version 
of the Scriptures, and called ' the Alex- 
andrian.' It was pi'oduced in the reign 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus (b.c. 284-247). 
The Pentateuch, which contains many 
Coptic words, was probably the work of 
Egyptian Jews. See ' Scriptures.' 

No one believes the tradition repeated by Philo, 
Justin, Clement of Alexandria, Epiphanius, and 
others : That Ptolemy, by the advice of his 
librarian, employed seventy-two men of learning 
to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. 
The seventy-two met in the Isle of Pharos, and in 
seventy-two days produced that translation. It is 
furthermore added that each of the seventy-two 
was shut up in a separate room, and when they 
delivered in their translations all most minutely 
agreed. Not a word, not a letter differed. 

Richard Simon informs us that it was called the 
Septuagint, because it was approved and autho- 
rised by the Jewish Sanhedrim. The language is 
Greek, but many of the words are Aramaic. Often, 
but Incorrectly, pronounced Sep'-t'a-jini, 

Seraphic Doctor {The). John 
Bonaventura (1221-1274). A Franciscan, 
chiefly distinguished for his adoration of 
the Virgin Mary. He distorted every- 
thing, by the help of allegory and 
analog)^ to Christian theology. This 
Doctor Seraphicus is placed by Dante 
among the samts in Paradise. 

Serbo'nian Bog {The). The lake 
Serbonis in Egypt, near the istlimus of 



812 



SEKENE 



SERVITOES 



Suez, and the border of Syria, which, 
when the south wind prevailed, was 
covered with sand, and looked hke dry 
land. Artaxerxes Ochus lost troop after 
troop in this bog, on his way to Egypt. 

Serene Highness (His Most). Tn 
Germany is the title of the collateral 
branches of the sovereign or emperor. 
In the reign of Louis XIV. the title was 
given to the Prince de Conde. 

Ser'geanty. Service rendered to 
the crown for lands. It was divided into 
Grand Sergeanty and Petit Sergeanty. 
The service in Grand Sergeanty was 
personal service, as following the king in 
battle. The service of Petit Sergeanty 
was some real or nominal payment by 
way of rent. 

Pronounce Sar'-jent-ty. 

Serpent, as a Standard [The). 
The kings of Assyria and of Babylon 
adopted as a standard a ' Great Red 
Dragon,' and Cyrus introduced a similar 
standard into the armies of the Medes 
and Persians. See Ezek. xxix. 3. 

One of the Roman standards was a 
serpent. The Tartars carried a serpent 
standard, and it will be remembered that 
a serpent was the standard of the tribe 
of Dan, allusion to which is made in 
Gen. xlix. 17. 

The ancient Britons adopted the dragon 
both as a crest and as a standard. 
Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us : ' When 
Aurelius was at Winchester there ap- 
peared to him . in the sky a star of 
wonderful magnitude and brilliancy, 
from which there darted forth a ray 
ending in a fiery dragon.' He adds that 
* Uther had two golden dragons made, 
one of which he presented to Winchester 
and the other he carried with him as a 
royal standard.' A rattlesnake flag, with 
the motto ' Don't tread on me,' was one 
of the first standards adopted in the 
American revolution. 

Probably this is a pure invention of the ro- 
mancing chronicler to account for the title of 
pendiogon given to King Uther. But dragon is the 
British word for 'leader,' and pen-dra(/o« means 
Biniply ' leader-in-chief.' 

The Greek SpaKuv is derived from Spaai, to be 
active, and the Welsh drniion is allied to the word 
draig, lightning. Both express the essential charac- 
teristics of a good general, quick-eyed and quick 
in execution. Probably the astronomical symbol 
of the planet Jupiter (a serpent on a cross), and 
the coiled dragon at the base of Satan, refer to 
similar vigilance and activity. 

Serpent Homer {The). A copy of 
Homer's * Iliad ' on a roll of serpent skin 



120 feet in length. This ancient MS. 
was kept in the royal college of Con- 
stantinople, but was lost in a fire which 
destroyed the library. See Gibbon, 
chap. liii. 

Serpent of Old Nile {The). Cleo- 
patra queen of Egypt (b.c. 69, 51-30). 

Serventese. A popular sort of me- 
diaeval ballad like ' Chevy Chase,' divided 
into stanzas. 

Poemata in quibus Servientium seu Militum 
facta et servitia referuntur.— Du Cange. 

Serve'tUS {Michael). The learned 
theologian, who embraced the Arian 
doctrine, persecuted to death by Calvin. 
He published a book anonymously, but 
Calvin ferreted out the author, and had 
the book burnt at the gallows. Not long 
afterwards, as he was passing through 
Geneva in disguise, Calvin had him 
arrested, and acted as informer, prose- 
cutor, and judge, and Servetus was burnt 
to death by a slow fire. No more in- 
famous act ever disgraced the memory 
of man (1509-1553). 

Service Book {The), 1637. So the 
Scotch called the Common Prayer Book, 
which Charles I. tried to force the 
people of Scotland to use in their places 
of worship. 

The term was common enough in England also, 
but they were more often called ' Uses ' (q.v.). 
These eleven were consulted by the Com- 
missioners who compiled our Common Prayer 
Book, viz. the Missal, the Graduale or Grayle, the 
Processionale, the Ordinale, the Portiforium or 
Breviary, the Legenda, the Pica or Pie, the 
Finale, the Antiphonarium, the Manuale, and 
Pontificale. Sec each of these words ?'» loco. 

Servile or Slave War {The). The 
first in Sicily, B.C. 133-131 ; the second 
in Sicily, B.C. 103. 

Ser'vites (2 syl.), or ' Servitors of 
the Virgin.' A religious order founded in 
Florence in 1232. Called ' White Mantles ' 
from their dress. The order still sub- 
sists in Italy, but was abolished in France 
11274. 

There are a few houses of Servites in the United 
States ; also some of Servite ladies (nuns). There 
is one house of Servites in England (Fulham Road, 
S.W.), one of Servite Sisters (St. Anne's Road, 
Stamford Hill, N.). 1890. 

Servitors. Students of Chirist 
Church College, Oxford University, re- 
ceived at reduced fees, like the ' Bible 
Clerks ' of Oriel College, Oxford, and the 
sizars of Cambridge. At one time each 
fellow had his servitor to wait on him 
at dinner, and these servitors dined on 
what was left at the fellows' table. 



SERVUS 



SEVEN 



813 



Servus servi. A slave's drudge, 
who helped him to cultivate his pecalium 
[q.v.). 

Since the time of Gregory the Great the pope 
has styled himself Servus servorum Dei (the drudge 
of God's ministers). 

Sessional School {The Edin- 
burgh), 29 April, 1813. A normal or 
training school to educate teachers in 
the principles and art of teaching. This 
was the first of the training colleges in 
Great Britain, but they had been estab- 
lished in France in 1795, and in Germany 
even earlier (1748). See ' Normal Schools.' 

The Sessional Schools were in 20 Feb., 1838, 
adopted as an appendage of the ecclesiastical 
establishment under the name of the General 
Assembly's Normal Institution. 

Sestiere {A) (plural Sestieri). A 
division of the city of Florence for legis- 
lative purposes. It was a sixth part, 
and each sestiere elected two anziani or 
seniors. In 1282 the city was divided 
into quarters, and the anziani were 
superseded by priors {q.v.). 

Sethos. King of Egypt, 19th dynasty, 
father of Sesostris, reigned five centuries 
before the Christian era. There is a 
statue of this king holding a rat in his 
hand, and containing this inscription : 
' Learn from my example to honour the 
gods.' 

The explanation given is this, according to 
Herodotus : His soldiers refused to contend with 
Sennacherib the Assyrian, and Sethos invoked 
the god whose minister he was to aid him. At 
night a crowd of rats invaded the Assyrian camp 
and gnawed the bowstrings of the sleeping men, 
BO that next morning Sennacherib was obliged to 
draw off his army. No doubt this account is 
■wholly mythical, and the rat held in the king's 
hand was the god he ' delighted to honour.' 

Settlement {The Act of). The 
statute 12, 13 William III. c. 2 whereby 
the crown was limited to the family of 
William. If William and his successor 
Anne died without issue the succession 
was to pass to the descendants of Prin- 
cess Sophia, a daughter of James I., 
provided they were Protestants (1702). 
This, of course, is the ground of the 
Hanoverian Succession. See ' Act of 
Settlement.' 

Settling Day. The day on which 
stockbrokers settle or balance time 
bargains {q.v.). Once a fortnight. 

Seven. A magic number in Brussels. 
Seven noble families, springing from 
seven ancient castles, supplied the stock 
from which was selected the seven 



senators who composed the upper council 
of the city. There were seven great 
squares and seven gates (Motley, ' Dutch 
Republic,' chap. i.). 

Seven a Sacred Number. 

Pythagoras, 500 years before the 
Christian era, tells us that the number 
7 belongs especially to sacred things. 

Hippocrates (b.c. 460-357) divided the 
life of man into 7 ages, a division adopted 
by Shakespeare. 

The Egyptian priests enjoined rest on 
the 7th day, because it was held to be a 
dies infaustus. In Egyptian astronomy 
there were 7 planets, and hence 7 days 
in the week, each day ruled by its own 
special planet. The people of Peru had 
also a 7-day week. 

The Persians and Mexicans have a 
tradition of a flood from which 7 persons 
saved themselves in a cave, and by whom 
the world was subsequently repeopled. 

The Jews considered 7 the perfect 
number: hence we have the 7 days of 
the creative week ; 7 day's' respite before 
the flood came ; 7 of all clean animals 
saved in the ark ; the years of famine 
and plenty were in cycles of 7 ; every 
7th year, like every 7th day, was a sab- 
bath ; the feasts of unleavened bread and 
of tabernacles lasted 7 days ; the golden 
candlestick had 7 branches ; 7 priests 
blew with their trumpets when the walls 
of Jericho fell down, after being encom- 
passed for 7 days, and 7 times on the 7th 
day; Jacob served 7 years for each of 
his wives; Samson kept his nuptials 7 
days, was bound with 7 green withes, and 
7 locks of his hair were cut off ; Nebu- 
chadnezzar was a 'beast' for 7 years; 
and the furnace for the three Jews was 
heated 7 times more than it was wont ; 
the righteous are like gold 7 times puri- 
fied in the furnace. 

In the New Testament nearly every- 
thing occurs by sevens : there were 7 
churches in Asia; 7 spirits symbolised 
by 7 candlesticks ; 7 stars ; 7 seals ; 7 
vials. 

3X7 is an important factor among ourselves: 
thus, 3x7 constitutes a royal salute; 3x7 is the 
time that man ' comes of age,' kc. The 7th son of 
a 7th son was at one time supposed to possess 
wonderful powers. Man consists of 7 parts (2 legs, 
2 arms, a stomach, chest, and head), and his head 
has 7 apertures (2 for the eyes, 2 for the ears, 2 for 
the nose, and one for the mouth). 

Seven Articles of Isl&,m {The). 
1, There is one only God ; 2, Mohammed 
is his prophet ; 3, Prayer is the key of 



814 



SEVEN 



SEVEN 



paradise; 4, almsgiving; 5, fasting the 
whole month of Ramada'n ; 6, a pilgrim- 
age to Mecca ; and, 7, observance of the 
festivals, viz. the first three days of 
Shawal (which immediately follow the 
month of Eamadan) and the three or 
four days beginning on the tenth of Dsu'l 
Heggeh. 

Friday is the sabbath, but, service being over, 
the rest of the day is at every man's disposal. 

Seven Bibles {The). 1, The Chris- 
tian's Bible ; 2, the Koran or Mahome- 
tan's Bible ; 8, the Eddas of the Scandi- 
navians ; 4, the Try Pitikes or Tripitaka, 
i.e. ' Triple basket ' (viz. the Soutras or 
discourses (literally ' strings *), Vinaya 
or discipline, and Abhidharma or meta- 
physics) ; 5, the Chinese five kings (viz. 
Yih-king, cosmogony, Shu-king, or deli- 
berations of the ' ancient kings,' the Shi- 
king, or book of psalms, the Le-king, or 
book of rites, the Chun-tsien, or history 
of China) ; 6, the Three Vedas of the 
Hindus ; and, 7, the Zendavesta of the 
Persians. Of these the Koran is the most 
modem. 

The five kings do not mean five monarchs, but 
five webs of cloth or five warps. 

Seven Bishops {The), committed 
to the Tower by Chief Justice Jeffreys, 
10 June, 1688, were Sancroft archbishop 
of Canterbury, Lloyd bishop of St. Asaph, 
Ken bishop of Bath and Wells, Turner 
bishop of Ely, Lake bishop of Chichester, 
White bishop of Peterborough, and 
Trelawney bishop of Bristol. These 
seven bishops were deputed to wait on 
James II. and inform him that the bishops 
of the diocese declined to read the king's 
Declaration of Indulgence according to 
his command, or to instruct their clergy 
so to do. The object of the declaration 
was the removal of all disqualifications 
from Roman Catholics in church and 
state offices. The bishops, when brought 
to trial, were acquitted, and this tyranni- 
cal proceeding was the last offence which 
brought about the overthrow of James II. 
The declaration was to be read in London 
20 May and elsewhere 27 May, 1688. 

Seven Bodies in Alchemy 

{The). 1, the sun is gold] 2, the moon 
is silver ; 8, Mars is iron ; 4, Mercury is 
quicksilver ; 5, Saturn is lead', 6, Jupiter 
is tin ; and, 7, Venus is copper. 

The bodies seven, eel£, lo hem heer anoon: 
Sol gold is, and Luna silver we threpe, 
Mars yren, Mercurie quyksilver we clepe, 



Saturnus leed, and Jubitur is tyn. 
And Venus coper, by my fader liyn. 
Chaucer, Conterhurii Tales (Prologue to the 
' Chanounes Yemanes Tale '). 

Seven Champions of Chris- 
tendom {The). 1, St. George of Eng- 
land', 2, St. Andrew of Scotland', 8, St. 
Patrick of Ireland ; 4, St. David of 
Wales ; 5, St. Denys of France ; 6, St. 
James of Spain ; and, 7, St. Anthony of 
Italy. 

Seven Clerical Orders {The), 
Ostiarii, lectors, exorcists, acolytes, sub- 
deacons, deacons, and priests. Bishops 
are dignified priests. 

Docendum igitur erit hosce omn6s ordinea 
septenario numero contineri, semperque ita a 
CatholicaEccleslatraditumesse ; quorum nomina 
hfec sunt : Ostiarius, Lector, Exorcista, Acolytus, 
Subdiaconus, Diaconus, Sacerdos.— Cat. Concil. 
Trident., pt. ii. c. 24. 

St. Caius, who succeeded Eutychianus in 283, 
made it a law of the church that all clerici should 
pass through the seven inferior orders before they 
were capable of being ordained bishops.— Prince, 
Parallel History. 

Seven Corporal "Works of 

Mercy (T/ie). l, to bury the dead; 2, 
to clothe the naked; 3, to feed the 
hungry ; 4, to give drink to the thirsty ; 
5, to harbour the houseless ; 6, to visit 
those in prison ; and, 7, to administer to 
the sick. See ' Seven Spiritual,' &c. 

Seven Crosses {The). Seven 
crosses mark the tomb of a bishop, five 
of a priest, and one of an ordinary 
Christian. 

There are also seven forms of the ecclesiastical 
cross. 

_!_ The Greek cross, the oldest form. Symbol of 
^^ the word LVX., lux (light). 



The Latin cross. 



^ 



The Maltese cross. 



X St. Andrew's cross, or reliquary cross. 

j. The Lorrainese cross, or cardinal's cross, 
"T" carried before a cardinal. The pope's cross 

has three transoms. 
T The Tau or Egyptian cross, or the marking 

cross. 
jP Constantino's cross j^ , i.e. XP, for ChrListos]. 

Some other forms are occasionally seen, as the 
' Lambeaux,' which is a Maltese cross on a Latin 
stem, standing on a lambel with three pendants. 
The rectoral cross consists of two spears crossed ; 
the Agnus Dei cross is a spear ^ 'rmounted with a 
Maltese cross ; and the heralcUc crosses. 

Seven Days' King {The). Masa- 
niello {i.e. Tommaso Aniello), born 1622. 
Headed a revolt against the Duke of 
Arcos, at Naples, 7 July, 1647, forced 
him to abolish the tax on provisions, and 



SEVEN 



SEVEN 



815 



for seven days was master of Naples. 
He was most arrogant and bloodthirsty, 
and was assassinated 16 July. 

He is the hero of two operas : one by Caraffa 
called ' Masaniello,' and the other by Auber (li- 
bretto by Scribe) called ' La Muette de Portici.' 

Seven Deadly Sins {The). Covet- 

ousness, envy, gluttony, lechery or lust, 
pride, sloth, wrath. See ' Seven Virtues.' 

Seven Deposed Ministers of 
S Gotland ( The), 1843. A Mr. Edwards 
was presented to a church in Scotland, 
and, being refused ordination by the pres- 
bytery of Strathbogie, he appealed to the 
civil court and gained the verdict ; where- 
upon seven ministers united in ordaining 
him, contrary to the principle of the 
'veto' {q.v.) adopted in 1834. These 
seven ministers were now deposed by 
the presbytery, their churches declared 
vacant, and Mr. Edwards was deprived 
of his licence as a minister. The seven 
ministers petitioned the House of Lords, 
which justified them, and insisted on 
their restoration. This split up the 
Church of Scotland, and the seceding 
members formed what is called the ' Free 
Church of Scotland ' {q.v.). 

Seven Dolours {The), 1725. * The 

seven dolours, or sorrows, of the Blessed 
Virgin ' is a modern festival of the Ca- 
tholic Church celebrated on the Friday 
preceding Palm Sunday. They refer to : 
1, the prediction of St. Luke (ii. 34) ; 2, 
the flight into Egypt ; 3, the loss of Jesus 
in Jerusalem ; 4, the sight of Jesus bear- 
ing his cross ; 5, the sight of Jesus on 
the cross ; 6, the piercing of his side 
with the lance ; and, 7, the burial. The 
festival was instituted by Pope Benedict 
XIII. See ' Seven Joys,' &c. 

Instead of piercing the side we have the betrayal 
In the right place in some lists ; and instead of 
the burial is given the Ascension, ' Let not your 
hearts be sorrowful, &c.' No. 1 was not a sorrow, 
but a prediction only ; the ' sorrows ' were the in- 
cidents which fulfilled it. 

Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost 

(The). 1, counsel ; 2, the fear of the 
Lord ; 8, fortitude ; 4, piety ; 5, under- 
standing ; 6, wisdom ; and, 7, knowledge. 

Philip said to the eunuch, ' Understandest thou 
what thou readest,' this is the first step to a know- 
ledije of God. 

' The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,' 
this is understanding carried into practice. 

' I know whom I have believed,' this is the ex- 
perience of a ripe Christian. 

Seven-hilled City {The). 'Urbs 
Septicollis,' Rome, built on seven hills : 



1, the Palatlnus ; 2, the Capitollnus ; 3, 
the Quirinalis; 4, the Caslius; 5, the 
Aventlnus ; 6, the Viminalis ; and, 7, the 
Esquillnus. 

Seven Joys of Mary {The). 1, 

the annunciation ; 2, the visitation ; 3, 
the nativity ; 4, the adoration of the 
wise men; 5, the presentation in the 
temple; 6, finding Christ among the 
doctors ; and, 7, the assumption. See 
' Seven Dolours,' &c. 

strange that the ' resurrection ' should be 
omitted. One wou Id have supposed it would have 
been the joy of joys next to the nativity. 

Seven Liberal Sciences {The). 
Divinity, astronomy, geometry, music, 
law, physic, and rhetoric. 

Seven Men of Moidart {The), 
1745. The seven persons who accom- 
panied Charles Edward, the young pre- 
tender, on his expedition to conquer Great 
Britain and win back the crown aban- 
doned by his grandfather James II. So 
called because their first muster in Scot- 
land was at Kinloch Moidart, Inverness- 
shire. They were the old marquess of 
Tullibardine (called by the Jacobites the 
duke of Athol), Sir Thomas Sheridan 
(Charles Edward's tutor). Sir John Mac- 
donald, Kelly (the nonjuring clergyman), 
Francis Strickland, JEne&s Macdonald 
(banker in Paris), and Buchanan. 

Seven Months' War {The), the 

Franco-Prussian War. War was de- 
clared by Napoleon III. against Prussia 
19 July, 1870, and peace was signed at 
Frankfort 10 May, 1871. The first half 
consisted of a series of battles won by 
Prussia; the second half consisted of 
a series of sieges, ending with the siege 
of Paris, in all of which Prussia was 
successful. 

The day after the battle of Sedan, Sept. 1, Napo- 
leon III. surrendered his sword to the king of 
Prussia. On 18 January. 1H71, Wilhelm I. king of 
Prussia was created emperor of Germany, and on 
28 January Paris surrendered to the conquerors. 

Seven Mortal Sins {The). Pride, 
wrath, envy, lust, gluttony, avarice, and 
sloth. 

Seven Nations of Canaan {The). 
The Hittites, the Girgashites, the Amo- 
rites, the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the 
Hivites, and the Jebusites. 

The Canaanites were also called the Philistines, 
and by the Hebrews ' Cherethites,' because they 
were supposed to be a colony from Cherith (Crete) 
The people called themselves Palisthinea, and 



816 



SEVEN 



SEVEN 



their country Palisthan (whence Philistines and 
Palestine). 

Seven Orders of the Anglo- 
Saxon Churcli. 

1. The ostiary, a kind of sexton, whose 
duty it was to ring the bells and keep the 
church doors. 

2. The exorcist, whose function was to 
exorcise those possessed. 

3. The lector, or ' reader,' who read the 
lessons at church. 

4. The acolyth, or ' acolythist,' who 
held the candles while the priest read the 
Gospel in the celebration of the mass. 

5. The subdeacon, who prepared the 
holy vessels, and attended on the deacon 
at the altar. 

6. The deacon, who assisted the priest, 
laid the oblations on the altar, baptized 
children, and gave the eucharist to the 
laity. 

7. The priest, or 'presbyter,' who 
preached, consecrated and administered 
the elements, &c. Bishops and arch- 
bishops are merely grades of the priest- 
hood. 

The Catholic Church has the same seven orders. 

Seven Preexistences(T;ie). Sub- 
scribed to by the Daruschists. They are 
Law and Throne of Glory, which existed 
before the creation of the world. The 
other five existed in contemplation only, 
viz. the Fathers, Israel, the Sanctuary, 
the Messiah, and Repentance. 

Seven Religions {The), according 
to the Ismaelites, are these : (1) that of 
Adam and his companion Soos (beth) ; 
(2) Noah, with Shem ; (3) Abraham, with 
Ismael ; (4) Moses, with Aaron ; (5) Jesus, 
with Simon ; (6) Mahomet, with Ali ; (7) 
the Chief, or Master, in whom culminated 
' the Sciences of the Primeval Ones.' 

Seven Sacraments (The), of the 

Roman Catholic Church : (1) Baptism ; 
(2) Confirmation ; (3) the Lord's Supper ; 
(4) Penance ; (5) Holy Orders ; (6) Matri- 
mony; and (7) Extreriie Unction. Of 
these. Confirmation and Orders can be 
administered only by bishops. 

Baptism, Matt. xxviii.l9; Eucharist, Matt. xxvi. 
26 ; Conflrmation, Acts vi ji. 17 ; Penance. Matt. xvi. 
19 ; Orders, Tim. iv. 4, 22 ; Matrimony, Eph. v. 32 ; 
Extreme Unction, Mark vi. 13, James v. 14. 

Seven Sciences (The). The Tri- 
vium and Quadrivium — viz. grammar, 
rhetoric, and logic, music, arithmetic, 
geometry, and astronomy. Called by 



mine host of the Black Bear the ' seven 
damnable sciences ' ; theology being held 
by the church the one and only true 
science (' Kenilworth,' chap. iii.). 

Seven kinds of Sectaries {The), 
in New England in the 17th cent. GoB- 
TONiSTS (who, it is said, denied the hu- 
manity of Christ) ; Papists (who consider 
their own merits and works equal with 
Christ's invaluable death and suffering) ; 
Familists (looking for rare revelations, 
and forsaking the sure revealed word) ; 
Seekeks (who deny the churches and 
ordinance of Christ) ; Antinomians (who 
deny the moral law to be the rule of 
Christ) ; Anabaptists (who deny the civil 
government to be proved of Christ) ; Pbe- 
LATiSTS (who will have their own injunc- 
tions submitted unto in the churches of 
Christ) (John Harvard, 1G28). 

Seven Sisters {The). I. The old 
yew-trees, close to Fountain Abbey, at 
least 1,200 years old. Only two now re- 
main, one of which is 25 feet in circuit. 

II. 1513. Seven cannons cast by Robert 
Borthwick, master of artillery, and em- 
ployed by the Scotch in the battle of 
Flodden Field. An official report says 
they were ' the neatest, the soundest, the 
best fashioned, the smallest in the touch- 
hole, and the most beautiful of their size 
and length ever seen.' Borthwick fell on 
the field while directing their operations. 

Seven Sleepers (T^e). Noircarmes 
and his six officers in the siege of Valen- 
ciennes (1566) were so called, on account 
of the sleepy way in which they conducted 
the siege (Motley, ' The Dutch Republic,' 
pt. ii. 9). 

Of course, the legendary seven sleepers referred 
to in the Koran XVIII., the Golden Legends, and 
Gregory's ' De Gloria Martyrum ' were seven 
noble youths of Ephesus who fled in the Decian 
persecution to a cave in Mount Celion, and slept 
for 230 years. Their names are differently given. 

Seven Spiritual Works of 
Mercy {The). (1) to admonish sinners; 
(2) to bear wrongs patiently ; (3) to com- 
fort the afflicted; (4) to counsel the 
doubtful ; (5) to forgive offences ; (6) to 
instruct the ignorant ; and (7) to pray for 
the living and the dead. See 'Seven 
Corporal, &c.' 

Seven times Christ spoke on 
the Cross. 

1. Father forgive them, for they know 
not what they do. 



SEVEN 



SEVEN 



817 



2. To day shalt thou be with me in 
paradise. 

3. Woman, behold thy son. 

4. My God, my God, why hast thou for- 
saken me ? 

5. I thirst. 

6. It is finished. 

7. Father, into thy hands I commend 
my spirit. 

Seven Towers {The), or ' Hepta- 
pyrgium,' of Constantinople, clustered in 
the southern end of the wall, not far from 
the gate of Marmora. Within these Seven 
Towers is the Golden Gate. The Seven 
Towers were used as a state prison. 

Supposing the top margin of this page to repre- 
sent the port of Constantinople, the bottom of the 
page would be the site of th-? Tower of Marmora, 
and a little higher up would stand in a cluster (on 
the right hand side) the Seven Towers and Golden 
Qate. And about as far from the top margin as 
the Seven Gates would be from the bottom mar- 
gin would stand the palace of Constantine. The 
wall connecting these is called the Western Wall. 

Seven United Provinces (The). 
Seven provinces of the Netherlands under 
the yoke of Spain, leagued in 1579 under 
the leadership of William the Silent 
(prince of Orange-Nassau), aided by 
Count Hoorn and Count Egmont, to 
throw off their subjugation. In 1609 they 
succeeded in establishing themselves into 
a republic, by an armistice for twelve 
years. The struggle was renewed and 
carried on till 164:8, when all the powers 
acknowledged the independence of the 
provinces by the Treaty of Miinster. 

The seven provinces were (1) Holland ; (2) Zee- 
land; (3) Utrecht; (4) Guelderland, with Zutphen ; 
(5) Over-Yssel ; (6) Friesland ; and (7) Groningeu, 
with Drenthe. In 17^5 the United Provinces be- 
came the Batavian Republic, paying 81 millions 
sterling for a French army of 2o,000 men, and in 
1806 Louis Bonaparte was made king of Holland. 
In 1830 Belgium was broken off and the Nether- 
lands became an independent kingdom. 

Seven Virtue s(r7te). Faith, hope, 
charity, prudence, justice, fortitude, and 
temperance. 
The first three are called the ' Holy Virtues.' 

Seven Weeks' "War (The). Prom 
8 June to 26 July, 1866, between Prussia 
and Austria for German supremacy. 
Italy was allied to Prussia. Prussia de- 
clared the Gastein Convention invalidated 
4 June, and the Prussian troops entered 
Holstein 8 June. Hostilities between 
Austria and Italy ceased 25 July, but the 
Bavarians were defeated 26 July, and a 
preliminary treaty was agreed to by the 
belligerents. The Treaty of Prague was 
.35 



signed 23 Aug., 1866, and tlie Treaty of 
Vienna between Italy and Austria on 
3 Oct. By these treaties, Austria was 
entirely excluded from Germany ; Prussia 
was placed at the head of the German 
states ; and Venetia was added to the 
new-formed kingdom of Italy. 

The battles were (I) Custozza (24 June), won by 
Victor Emmanuel; (2) Langeiisalza (27 June), in 
which Hanover, an ally of Austria, was defeated : 

(3) Nachod, same day, won by the Crown Prince ; 

(4) Trautenau, same day, won by Prince Friedrich 
Karl ; (5) Munchengrat, won 28 June : (6) Skalitz, 
same day ; (7) Sadowa, won 3 July ; (8) Olmiitz, won 
15 July ; (9) Lissa, won 20 July ; and (10) the defeat 
of the Bavarians, 26 July. 

Seven Whistlers (The). The ' Ga- 
briel Hounds,' a yelping or whistling sound 
heard in the air, and supposed to forebode 
bad luck. Called ' Gabriel Hounds ' from 
the notion that they are the souls of the 
unsaved hunted by Gabriel, and shrieking 
from the smart of his whip as he lashes 
them along. 

N.B. — The cry really arises from birds, 
such as teal, widgeons, and wild geese, 
flying by night to new feeding grounds. 

Seven Years* War (The), or 
'Third Silesian War,' the third period 
of the War of the Austrian Succession 
between Maria Theresa of Austria and 
Friedrich II. of Prussia. The object was 
to determine to which of these two 
crowns should Silesia belong. It was 
divided into seven campaigns. 

First campaign, 1756. Dresden cap- 
tured by Friedrich II. Battle of Lobositz 
indecisive. The Saxons surrendered. 

Second campaign, 1757. Three battles 
won by Friedrich ; those of Prague, Eos- 
bach, and Leithen; one lost, that of 
Kolin. 

Third campaign, 1758. Battle of 
Zorndorf won by Friedrich ; that of Hoch- 
kirchen lost by him. 

Fourth campaign, 1759. Both Kuners- 
dorf and Maxen were won by the 
Austrians. 

Fifth campaigii, 1760. Both battles 
(Leignitz and Torgau) won by Fried- 
rich II. 

Sixth ca7npaign, 1761. In which the 
French allies of Austria were defeated. 

Seventh campaign, 1762. The Prus- 
sians victorious throughout. Peace of 
Hubertsburg, and end of the war (15 Feb., 
1763). 

The Seven Years' War began because 
Prussia claimed Silesia. After seven 
years' fighting, and the loss of a millioa 
8G 



818 



SEVEN 



SEX 



lives, Silesia was handed over to Prussia; 
but what was far more important is 
this: at the beginning of the war Prussia 
was only an insignificant kingdom ; at the 
close of it, it was one of the great powers, 
and the rival of Austria. 

In 186(i another contest arose between the two 
rival powers. This contest did not last seven 
years, but only seven weeks, and Austria yielded 
the palm to Prussia. After the Franco-Prussian 
war. in 1870-1871, the King of Prussia was univer- 
sally acknowledged to be ' the German Emperor ' 
also, and Austria was a separate dominion. 

Seven Years' War with Swe- 
den [The), 1563-1570. Erik XIV. of 
Sweden remonstrated with Frederick II. 
of Denmark for continuing in the national 
arms ' The Three Crowns,' commemora- 
tive of the Calmar Union. As Frederick 
gave no satisfactory answer, Erik retali- 
ated by inserting the arms of Denmark 
in the royal banner of Sweden. The 
King of Poland and the city of Liibeck 
made common cause with Denmark. The 
Swedes, weary of the useless war and dis- 
gusted with their king, deprived him of 
his crown (1568) and confined him in 
prison, where he was poisoned by his 
brother and successor John, Feb. 1577. 
The first act of the new sovereign was to 
put an end to the war, but negotiations 
drawled on till 1570, when a treaty of 
peace was signed at Stettin by the belli- 
gerents. 

Seventeen Provinces [The) of 
Karl V. (Charles-quint) : Franche-Comte, 
Flanders, Artois, Malines (Mechlin), An- 
vers (Antwerp), Hainaut, Namur, Bra- 
bant, Limbourg, Luxemburg, Holland, 
Zeeland, Gueldre-with-Zutphen, Utrecht, 
Over-Yssel, Friesland, Groningen. After- 
wards Cambray was added. In 1609 
these provinces were divided into two 
parts, one of which was called the seven 
provinces of Holland, or the ' United 
Provinces,' and the other ten formed the 
Spanish Netherlands. 

Seventh Day Baptists {The). A 

section of the Christian Baptist sect 
founded for the express purpose of re- 
storing the Jewish sabbath, or making 
Saturday 'the Lord's Day.' There are 
also ' Seventh Day Adventists ' both in 
America and in Europe. 

Seventy {The). 1. The Jewish San- 
hedrim or national council, which con- 
sisted of a president called Nasi, a 
deputy, sub-deputy, and seventy ordinary 
members. Their place of meeting was 



called The Pavement. The seventy sat 
in the form of a crescent, thirty-five on 
each side of the throne. 

II. A.D. 32. The seventy sent forth by 
Jesus to spread his mission. They were 
to go two by two, without purse, scrip, or 
change of shoes, but were endowed with 
the power of working miracles. 

III. The seventy elders who were ap- 
pointed to assist Moses in the wilderness 
(Num. xi. 16, 17). 

Seventy Years' Captivity (T/ie). 

I. B.C. 584-515. Thecaptivity of the Jews 
in Babylon, which lasted seventy years. 
They were carried into captivity by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and released by Cyrus. Also 
called ' The Babylonish Captivity.' 

n. 1305-1376. The time when the 
popes fixed their chair at Avignon, in 
France. It began with Clement V., and 
led to the Great Schism of the West 
(1378-1429). 

Seventy Weeks {Daniel's). Sup- 
posing it to begin with the decree of 
Darius given to Ezra B.C. 491, and 
seventy weeks to mean 70 times 7 years 
{i.e. 490), this would bring us to the 
birth of Christ, ' when a finish was made 
to transgression, and an end put to sins 
by the reconciliation of the Messiah, the 
prince.' 

Several Lands, lands enclosed, 
and separate from common lands. ' Nos 
pascua et campos seorsim ab aliis sepa- 
ratos Severels dicimus' (Minsheu, Dic- 
tionary, 1617). 

My lips are no common, though several they be 
(i.e. My lips are not common property, though they 
are not inclosed or hedged in).— SHAKESPEARE, 
Love's Labour's Lost, ii. 1. 

Severians, a religious sect of the 
2nd Christian cent. So named from 
Severus their leader. They were exag- 
gerated Encratites (3 syl.) who abstained 
from marriage, animal food, and wine; 
denied the salvation of Adam and Eve, 
and taught the existence of seons 
(Eusebius, book iv. 29). 

Seville {Treaty of), 9 Nov., 1729, 
between Great Britain, France, Holland, 
and Spain. In 1731 the kaiser joined, 
and the five powers coalesced in the 
Treaty of Vienna. 

Sex Vir i ( The) . In the University of 
Cambridge. There are two courts, one 
to hear accusations against members of 



SEXAGESIMA 



SHAKESPEAKE 



819 



the University not in statu pupillari ; 
and the other a court of discipHne for 
those who are in statu pupillari. The 
latter court consists of the chancellor 
and six heads of houses appointed by 
grace of the Senate. The former, also 
elected by grace, held office for two years. 
The Sex Viri can deprive of a degree, but 
there is the liberty of appeal to the Senate. 

Sexages'ima Sunday, 60 days 
before Easter. In all such ecclesiastical 
terms as Septuagesima, Sexagesima, 
Quinquagesima, and Quadrigesima (Sun- 
day), the week is reckoned as a ten-day 
week, because the octave and the two 
eves equal ten. See ' Sunday.' Thus : 

1 eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 3 Monday, 4 Tues- 
day, 5 Wednesday, 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Satur- 
day, 9 Octave Eve, and 10 Octave. So in music, 
7 notes with the octave of the first note we call 
an 'Octave,' and the 3 days of the entombment 
were 1 eve of Saturday, 2 Saturday, 3 eve of 
Sunday. 

Sext {The). A continuation of the 
Decretals of Raymond de Penafort. 
Like the Decretals, the Sext is in 5 
books. It - was compiled by order of 
Boniface VIII., and contains the rescripts 
from Gregory IX. to Boniface VIII. See 
* Decretum.' 

The 3rd part of the Corpus Juris Canonici is 
the Extravagantes Communes, containing the 
Clementines and Extravagantes Joannis (i.e. 
Clement V. and John XXII.). 

Sforza the More, or 'Moor.' 
Ludovico Sforza was called ' the More,' 
from morus, a mulberry. Either from a 
mulberry-spot or stain on his right arm, 
or from his armorial bearing (1451-1508). 

Sforzes'chi (The), 1409. The parti- 
Bans or company of Sforza, formed after 
the death of Barbiano. See ' Bracces'- 
chi.' 

Shado"wer {The). ApoUodoms, the 
Athenian painter ( * -440 B.C.). Zeuxis 
was his pupil. 

Shah {The). A diamond about half 
the size of the Orloff, given to the Empe- 
ror of Russia by Prince Cosroes, younger 
son of the Abbas Mirza, when he was in 
St. Petersburg. It weighs 86 carats, but 
is withojit a flaw or cloud. 

Shah-zada, a king's son (Afghani- 
Btan). 

Shakers, 1747. Reformed Quakers, 
led by James Wardley and his wife. 
They believe that the second coming of 
Christ is at hand. They are Unitarians, 



deny the doctrine of original sin, and 
the eternity of punishment. They say 
that baptism is the resurrection, and 
after baptism there is no marriage or 
giving in marriage, hence the married 
are then divorced, and the single must 
remain so. Anne Lee was their apostle, 
whom they called * Mother ' — that is, the 
mother of all living in the new creation. 
They are called Shakers from the shaking 
of their bodies in religious exercises. 
' The fundamental principles of Shaker- 
ism are virgin purity, non-resistance, 
peace, equality in inheritance, and un- 
spottedness from the world.' 

The Lord promised He would shake the earth 
with terror (Iso. ii. 19). ' In that day there shall 
be a great shaking in the land of Israel ' (.Ezek. 
xxxviii. 19, 20). 'I will shake the heavens and 
the earth.' 'I will shake all nations, and the 
desire of all nations [.J?(hc Lee] shall come." 'Yet 
once more I will shake not the earth only, but 
also heaven ' {Hcb. xii. 26). 

Shakespeare {The Spanish). Cal- 
deron [de la Barca], 1601-1687. 

Shakespeare Cipher {The), in 
1886 Mr. Donnelly, of Hastings, Minne- 
sota, U.S., gave out that he had dis- 
covered by ciphers that Lord Francis 
Bacon was the author of the plays attri- 
buted to Shakespeare. The ' cipher ' he 
referred to consisted of the blunders in 
pagination, hyphenation, bracketing of 
the great Folio edition of 1623, to which 
must be added capitalling words without 
any ostensible reason (thus the word 
Bacon is capitalised even in such com- 
pounds as ' Bacon-fed '), and in the use 
of italics. In regard to italics he says : 
In ' 1 Henry IV.' there are 7 italic words 
in the first column, p. 53 ; by multiplying 
these 2 ciphers we get 53 x 7 = 371, and 
the 371st word is 'Bacon.' Again. On p. 
67 of the same play the first column con- 
tains 6 words in italics, and 67 x 6 = 402, 
which word is ' St. Albans.' In this sort 
of way Mr. Donnelly reads a minute 
history of Lord Bacon in cipher, and 
afiirms that all the blunders and irregu- 
larities of the printed plays were designed. 
The secret writing was adopted out of 
fear of the jealousy of Queen Elizabeth, 
who looked on some of the plays, as for 
example ' Richard II.,' as no better than 
high treason. 

Shakespeare du Boulevard, 

Guilbert de Pixere'court (1773-1844). 

Shakespeare of Divines {The). 
Jeremy Taylor, bishop of Down (1633- 
3 r, 2 



820 



SHAKESPEARE 



SHEEPSHANKS 



1667). So called by Emerson from the 
fertility of his mind and the extent of his 
imagination. 

Shakespeare of Eloquence 

(The), the Comte de Mirabeau (1749- 
1791). So called by Barnave. 

Shakespeare of Germany (T7ie). 
August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotze- 
bue (1761-1819). 

We may parody the words of Coleridge on 
Klopstock, the German Milton, 'Avery German 
Milton indeed.' Certainly Kotzebue is a very 
German Shakespeare indeed. 

Shakespeare of Harmony 

{The). Eichard Wagner (1813-1864). 
This is a very exaggerated comparison. 

Shakespeare of Painting {The). 

Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). So called 
by Garrick. 

Shakespeare of Prose Fiction 

{The). Richardson the novelist (1689- 
1761). So called by D'lsraeli. 

Shaking Hands. 

To confirm a bargain, mentioned 
2 Kings X. 15. 

As a salutation, mentioned by Homer, 
by Aristophanes (' Nubes,' 18), and by 
Virgil ('/^n.'i. 403). 

In modern times the custom is English ; 
most continental nations salute with 
kisses. 

Shalmaneser, that is, Shalman of 
Assyria, son and successor of Tiglath 
Pileser. He reigned 14 years (a.m. 3276- 
3290, i.e. B.C. 724-710). 

Sham'anism. The religious doc- 
trines of the ancient Hungarians, and 
of many modern North Asiatics. The 
Shaman worshippers adored one supreme 
god called Isten with sundry inferior 
spirits, as the gods of the mountains, the 
woods, the springs, the rivers, fire, thun- 
der, and so on. They offered sacrifice, 
especially white horses. Their priests 
were called Tdltos, Kam, or Shaman, 
who were like the Roman augurs. 

Shan'avests and Car'avats, 1808, 

the Ribbon-men of Tipperary, Kilkenny, 
Cork, and Limerick. They were rival 
factions. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Neither the persons executed for these outrages 
nor anyone else could tell what was the dispute. 
It was notorious who were Caravats and who 
were Shanavests, and this was all. — Arnold. 

Sh^ng Dynasty. See ' Chang.' 



* Sharp Knife.' So General Jack- 
son was called by the Indians against 
whom he fought in 1813 (1767-1845). 

Shas'tras. A compilation of books 
in Sanskrit, containing the Upa-Vedas, 
the Up-Angas, and the Ved-Angas [q.v.), 
books upon the religious tenets of the 
Hindis, their laws, the sciences, and the 
Sanskrit language, with two heroic 
poems. The Shastras teach that there 
is one supreme god called Brahm, but a 
triad deity consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, 
and Shiva. 

She - majesty - generalissimo 

{The). Marie Henrietta, wife of Charles I., 
so called herself in 1643. At the death 
of Charles she married Lord Jermyn, 
and died 1669, at Colombo Castle, near 
Paris. 

It is said she had a child by Lord Jermyn while 
Charles was alive. 

She-wolf of France. I. Isabelle, 
wife of Edward IL. who, according to a 
tradition, being in love with Mortimer, 
murdered her husband by thrusting a 
red-hot iron into his body. Hence Gray 
says, ' She-wolf of France, who tear'st the 
bowels of thy mangled mate.' She was 
the daughter of Philippe IV, of France. 

II. Margaret wife of Henry VI. is so 
called by Shakespeare, '3 Hen. VI.' act i. 
sc. 4. She was the daughter of Ren^ 
le Bon, titular king of Sicily, but was 
brought up in the French court. In the 
war of the Two Roses she sided with the 
Lancastrians or Red- Rose faction. She 
is generally called Marguerite d'Anjou. 

As a rule the French wives of our English 
sovereigns have not turned out well. 

Sheb'sen. A. Jewish sect founded 
by Sabathai Sevi of Smyrna (1625- 
1076). He proclaimed himself to be 
the Messiah, and found numerous fol- 
lowers in Germany, Poland, Italy, and 
Holland; but Sultan Mohammed IV. 
cast him into prison. They put a mys- 
tical meaning on the Bible and rejected 
wholly the Talmud. The last of the 
sect died in 1791. 

Sheepshanks Exhibition. As- 
tronomy. For undergraduate^ in the 
University of Cambridge. Value about 
50Z. a year, tenable for three years. The 
successful candidate must be or must 
become a student of Trinity College. 
Founded by the Rev. Richard Sheep- 
shanks, fellow of Trinity, 1858. 



SHEFFIELD 



SHERIFF 



821 



Shefaeld Trade Outrages, 1866- 

1867. Mainly connected with the Saw- 
grinders', Saw-makers', and Saw-handle- 
makers' Unions, and brought to a head 
in Oct. 1866 by the murder of one Fearne- 
hough of Hereford Street, whose house 
was blown up with gunpowder because 
he refused to conform to the rules of the 
union of his trade. A reward of 1240Z. 
was offered for the discovery of the per- 
petrator of this outrage, but without 
effect. At length the government sent 
down three Royal Commissioners to in- 
quire into the matter, and they sat for 
twenty-five days, from 3 June to 8 July, 
1867. Their report states that there 
were sixty unions in Sheffield, thirteen 
of which encouraged outrages. 

Several centuries ago the artisans of Sheffield 
had their trade laws, which in 1624 were revised. 
By these laws — 
Every artisan was bound to contribute to the 

union of his trade. 
The number of men allowed to be employed was 

stated, their wages fixed, and the masters 

allowed to be employers were named. 
The enforced holidays were every Monday, a 

month at Christmas time, and twenty-eight 

days from 8 Aug. 
No person was allowed to work without serving 

a seven-years' apprenticeship. 
The chief of the gang of outragers was William 
Broadhead, an innkeeper, at whose house the 
committee met, and his tools were Samuel Crookes 
(employed to shoot people and throw gunpowder 
into obnoxious houses) and James Hallam, who 
revealed the whole matter. 

Charles Reade, in his novel ' Put Yourself in his 
Place,' gives a most powerful and graphic descrip- 
tion of the organisation, management, and doings 
of these unions. 

Sheik ul Gebel {The). Hussun 
Subah, called the 'Old Man of the 
Mountain ' (q.v.). 

Sheldo'nian Theatre (The), IG69. 
Erected by Gilbert Sheldon, archbishop 
of Canterbury and chancellor of the 
University of Oxford. It corresponds 
with the Cambridge Senate-house (q.v.). 

Shemham-phorasch (The). A 
talisman made of parchment on which 
the sacred names were written, 

A juggler came to Albert duke of Saxony and 
offered to Impart to him the gift of infallibility. 
' Well,' quoth the duke, ' that I may make sure of 
It, I will make the first trial on you.' So saying, 
he drew his sword and so hacked the impostor 
that not even the Shemham-phorasch could cure 
him. 

Shepherd Earl of Cumberland 

(TJie). Henry de Clifford, the tenth 
baron by writ (died 1523). His mother, 
to save him from the Yorkists, sent him 
to be brought up by a shepherd ; but in 
1-185 Henry VII. 'restored him in blood 
and honours,' and he was summoned to 



Parliament the same year (15 Sept.). 
His son and successor was the first to 
discontinue the de before the name. 

Henry de Clifford was not earl of Cumberland 
The first Clifford who bore that title was Henry 
Clifford his son, created earl of Cumberland 18 
July, 1525, 'uppon the joyefuU newes of the 
Emperours victorie at Pavie, in Italy.' 

Shepherdess of Dauphiny 

(The). Isabeau Vincent, who was only 
sixteen when she first appeared as a 
Camisard prophetess. Slie could neither 
write nor read, but was believed to be 
a worker of miracles, and prophesied 
' without the slightest appearance of 
convulsion, and with a scarcely per- 
ceptible movement of the lips.' 

Shere or Sheer Thursday. 

Maundy Thursday, or day preceding 
Good Friday. The Northern ' Skyre 
Thursday,' Icelandic ' Skfri-J)(5rsdagr,' 
Maundy Thursday, Anglo-Saxon scir, 
sheer ; Icelandic skira, to cleanse. See 
Skeat, 'Etymological Dictionary,' ar- 
ticle Sheer. Miles Phillips (1583) quaintly 
says : ' In olde fader's dayes the people 
wolde that day shere theyr hedes, and 
clyppe theyr berdes, and polle theyr 
hedes, and so make theym honest ayenst 
Ester day.' 

Sheridan's Begums Speech, 

1787. One of the impeachments of 
Warren Hastings, governor-general of 
India (1774-1785). This speech lasted 
five hours, and produced such an effect 
that the house arose and adjourned tiU 
the next day. It is said that Sheridan 
wrote the best comedy (' The School for 
Scandal'), made the best speech (the 
third charge against Warren Hastings), 
and composed the best convivial song 
(' Here's to the Maiden of Bashful 
Fifteen ') in the language. See ' Hast- 
ings ' and ' Begums,' 

Sheriff is a ' shire-reve ' and the 
chief officer of the county, who does all 
the crown business thereof. The judges, 
on the morrow of St. Martin (12 Nov.), 
meet in the Exchequer and propose 
three persons for each county, whose 
names are presented to the sovereign, 
who pricks one of them, and the person 
selected remains in office for one year or 
till a successor is appointed. The sheriff 
superintends the election of knights of 
the shire, coroners, and verderers. He 
is in the commission of the peace, and is 
ex-officio the first man in the county. 



822 



SHEEIFF-TOOTH 



SHIP 



Every sheriff appoints a deputy or under- 
sheriff. It is customary for the high 
sheriff to receive and escort the judges 
to the assize court ; and in cases of dis- 
turbance it is his duty to summon the 
posse comitatus {i.e. all the people of 
the county) to assist him in keeping the 
peace. 

Some cities (like Norwich) are both cities and 
cowntles, and then the borough sheriff is part of 
the municipal corporation (addressed as Mr. 
Sheriff Soand-so). The county sheriff Is termed 
the 'high sheriff.' 

Sheriff-tooth. A tenure by the 
service of providing entertainment for 
the sheriff at his county court. A tax 
for the sheriff's diet. Obsolete. 

Sherrardian Professorship 

(The) of Botany in Oxford University. 
Stipend 200Z. a year. Founded by Dr. 
Sherrard in 1728. 

Sher^;s^ood Forester (TJie). Dr. 
Spencer T. Hall. 

Shibboleth. When the Ephraimites, 
after their defeat by Jephthah, tried to 
pass the Jordan, a guard stationed on 
the banks of the river tested everyone 
who came to the ford by asking him to 
pronounce the word ' Shibboleth,' which 
the men of Ephraim called sibboleth. 
Everyone who said ' sibboleth ' was 
immediately cut down by the guard, and 
there fell in one day 42,000 Ephraimites 
(Judges xii. 1-6). 

Shield of Rome (The). Quintus 
Fabius Maximus, died 203, called the 
Lingerer (Cunctator), and the Lamb 
(Ovicula) for his mild apathetic dis- 
position. 

Shi'ites (2 syl.), or ' Shiahs.' A 
Musnlnian sect opposed to the Sunnites. 
They recognise Ali as the real successor 
of Mahomet, and his descendants as the 
true imams. The word means heretics, 
and of course was given to them by the 
Sunnites, who call themselves the Ortho- 
dox party. The Musulmans of Persia, 
and some of those in India, Mesopotamia, 
Syria, and north of Asia are Shiites ; 
but those of the Ottoman empire, Arabia, 
Egypt, Afghanistan, Malaya, &c., are 
Sunnites. 

In India the majority are Sunnites. 

Shin'toism. A religious system 
which prevails, side by side with Buddh- 
ism, in Japan. It is a 'religion of 
reason,' rec^uiring no temples, but having 



a sanctuary into which nobody but the 
Mika'do and his priests ever enter. The 
Shintos profess to worship nature, an- 
cestors, and the Mikado. Their code of 
duty is to obey natural instincts and the 
laws of the state. Since 18G8 Shintoism 
has been restored in Japan, and now 
overpowers Buddhism. 

Shintoism is a sort of Agnosticism, which it 
resembles in many respects. Neither doctrine 
nor dogma can find place in eitlier system, nor 
anything that does not commend itself to reason. 

Ship Money. A tax to supply and 
fit out ships to protect our coast and our 
merchant vessels from corsairs and 
hostile states. In 1007 all proprietors of 
810 hides of land were taxed to equip a 
fleet against the Danes. Queen Eliza- 
beth required various ports to fit out a 
certain number of ships against the 
armada. Charles I. levied ship money 
to restore the palsgrave to his throne. 
The attorney-general Noye put the king 
up to the dodge, and it was given out 
that our commerce needed protection 
from pirates, Turkish corsairs, and the 
French and Dutch mariners ; so all the 
counties were taxed without consent of 
parliament, and the king was furnished 
with 218,500Z. for his personal use, the 
tax being a money nayment of 3,300Z. per 
ship, instead of t ps themselves. It 
was first levied on London in May, 1634 ; 
in the spring following on other maritime 
counties ; later on it was demanded from 
the inland counties. In 1636 the judges 
determined it was legal, but so great was 
the outcry that it was abolished (17 Car, 
I. c. 14). 

Ship of Fools {The), or ' Naren- 
scliiff,' 1494, by Sebastian Brandt, a Stras- 
burg lawyer (1458-1520). An allegorical 
satire in verse, in the Suabian dialect, 
and divided into 110 chapters, immensely 
popular at the time. It does not attack 
religious and moral delinquencies so 
much as social gaucheries. The tale is, 
a transport- ship of this world, laden with 
fools, and bound for Fools' Paradise 
{Narrgonia), was capsized by Anti- 
christ. The voyagers, tossed on the sur- 
face of the waves, sought safety, some by 
prayer, some by scrambling into a crazy 
boat, and sonae by clinging to parts of 
the wreck. The sea was also strewn 
with books of an heretical character. 
The moral to be drawn from this allegory 
is that the abuse of printing will wreck 
the earth. The superstitious, he says, 



SHIREMEN 



SIBYLLINE 



823 



waste their lives watching the jumps of 
grasshoppers, knights enter church with 
hawk and hound, tradesmen have no 
honesty, manners at table are most 
gauche — carvers choose the best parts 
for themselves, some eat too fast, some 
talk too loud, and some engross the 
general conversation. 

In I860 an English translation by R. H. Mac- 
kenzie was publislied, with illustrations by Crow- 
quill, and in 1880 another by Thomas lloscoe. 

Shire'inen (2 syl.)., now called earls. 
In Saxon times they had shires com- 
mitted to their supervision. 

Shire-mote was an assembly in 
Anglo-Saxon England of the county or 
shire, held twice a year, and presided 
over by the shire-reeve or sheriff. In 
this court all the rights of the crown and 
church, connected with the shire, were 
settled, and all disputes about land were 
adjudicated. Our county courts are shire- 
motes, and the judge or presiding magis- 
trate of these courts is a shire-man. 
The shire-motes were often held under a 
tree in the open air. In these motes the 
king's writs were published ; demands 
of aid were announced, the presentment 
of criminals was received, local jurors 
were priclced, the taxes of each district 
were adjusted, and appeals from the 
* soke,' or lesser courts of the hundred, 
were heard. It was inferior to the 
Witenagemote, but superior to the Folk- 
mote iq.v.). 

Shorn Moss {The), in Weardale, 
Scotland. A pathway cut through a 
great bog, which was filled with fagots, 
over which the Scotch army made a 
backward movement when they wished 
to retreat from the army of Edward III. 
in 1327. 

Short Parliament (The), or the 
Tliree-week Parliament. From 13 April 
to 3 May, 1640. There were three shorter 
ones, but this Three-week Parliament 
was called the ' Short Parliament ' be- 
cause it was followed by the ' Long 
Parliament.' See ' Parliaments, the 
Six Short.' 

The Scots had made demands for triennial 
parliaments and for freedom both of elections 
and of debate, but the Earl of Strafford advised 
that the rogues should be whipped back into their 
senses, and the king summoned a parliament to 
raise money to stamp out 'the Scotch treason.' 
The new parliament distinctly declared that 
redress of grievances must precede a grant of 
supplies, and the parliament was summarily dis- 
solved. It was the last that Charles I. dissolved. 



Short Swords of Livonia (The), 

or ' Order of Christ,' 1205. Instituted 
in Livonia by Albert bishop of Riga, and 
incorporated with the Teutonic Knights 
in 1237. 

Shortest Parliament {The). 

7 days, from 21 to 28 March, 1681. The 
fifth and last of Charles II. It was held 
at Oxford. See ' Parliaments.' 

Shrove Tuesday. The day before 
Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent. 
So called because Catholics confess on 
that day and obtain absolution. To 
shrive is to absolve from sin. 

Sibylline Prophecies. Twelve in 

number, manifestly a clumsy forgery of 
the 16th cent. They are as follows : — 

1. The Agrippinan, Sibylla Agripplna : 
'Jesus Christ shall be outraged and 
scourged.' 

Emblem, a whip. 

2. The CumcBan, Sibylla Cumasa : 
' God shall be born of a pure virgin, and 
commune with sinners.' 

Emblem, a cradle. 

3. The Cumdnian, Sibylla Cumana: 
' Jesus Christ shall descend from heaven, 
and live in poverty on earth.' 

Emblem, a crown. 

4. The Delphic, Sibylla Delphica: 
' The projjhet born of the virgin shall be 
crowned with thorns.' 

Emblem, a crown of thorns. 

5. The Erythrcean, Sibylla Ery three a : 
' Jesus Christ, son of God, the Saviour 
of the world.' 

Emblem, a horn. 

6. The Europcean, Sibylla Europaea: 
'A virgin and her son shall flee into 
Egypt.' 

Emblem, a sword. 

7. The Hellespontic, Sibylla Helles- 
pontlca : ' Jesus Christ shall suffer shame 
upon the cross.' 

Emblem, a T (tau). 

8. The Libyan, Sibylla Libyca : ' The 
day shall come when men shall see the 
universal king.' 

Emblem, a lighted taper. 

9. The Persian, Sibylla PersTca : 
* Satan shall be subdued by the true 
prophet.' 

Emblem, a lantern, and a dragon under tha 
sibyl's feet. 



824 



SIBYLLINE 



SICYONIAN 



10. Phrygian, Sibylla PhrygTca : ' Our 
Lord shall rise again.' 

Eviblem, a cross and a banner. 

11. The Samian, Sibylla Samia: 'The 
rich one shall be born of a pure virgin.' 

Emblem, a rose. 

12. The Tiburtine, Sibylla Tiburtina : 
* The Highest shall descend from heaven, 
and a virgin shall be shown in the valleys 
of the desert.' 

Emblem, a dove. See below. 

Sibylline Verses. These go back 

probably to the 2nd cent., when enthusi- 
asts of Alexandria ' prophesied ' oracu- 
larly. Whatever merit might be attached 
to the originals, it is quite certain the 
' prophecies ' were interpolated and falsi- 
fied to assist the views of those interested 
in the propagation of the Christian faith. 
The utterances of these sibyllists form a 
special department of early ecclesiastical 
literature, and are a mixture of Jewish, 
Pagan and Christian doctrines. 

Sibyllists. Those Christians who 
corroborated the Christian religion by 
references to what they termed ' Sibylline 
prophecies.' These verses were the for- 
geries of a Jew of Alexandria, added to 
from time to time by Christians, as they 
wanted to corroborate certain doctrines. 

It is most regretable that for many centuries 
the Catholic clergy and their learned adherents 
thought it no shame to interpolate, mutilate, and 
falsify books at pleasure, in order to make them in- 
Btruments of ecclesiastical dogmas and traditions. 
But so it was, and they actually defended the 
practice, as it 'caught men by guile,' as St. Paul did. 

Sicilian Expedition {The), b.c. 
415-410. In the seventeenth year of the 
Peioponnesian War, Alcibiadcs induced 
the Athenians to send a powerful arma- 
ment to Sicily in order to re-establish 
the Ionian interest in the island. A 
magnificent fleet was equipped, and a 
large land force prepared, but the expe- 
dition was most disastrous ; the fleet was 
ruined, and most of the land forces were 
either slain or taken prisoners. The 
Lacedaemonians joined the Syracusians 
against the Athenians. This terrible 
affair was the Moscow of Athenian great- 
ness. 

Sicilian Ox (TTie). Thomas Aquinas 
(1224-1274). Called ox from his great size, 
and Sicilian because he was a native of 
Naples and allied to the Sicilian kings. 

Sicilian Table [A). A table spread 
with aldermanic luxuries. Mithsecos tells 



us that the Sicilians were as remarkable 
for their luxurious living as the Spartans 
for their simplicity of diet. 

Sicilian ST'espers (The), 30 March, 
1282 (Easter Monday). The massacre of 
the French in Sicily out of hatred to 
Charles of Anjou, king of the Two Sicilies. 
A Sicilian bride, going to vespers, hap- 
pened to pass with her train by a house 
where some Frenchmen were holding the 
festival of Easter. One of them, named 
Drouet, advanced towards the bride 
under pretence of seeking for arms 
(which no Sicilian was allowed to carry), 
and in so doing behaved rudely to her. 
A young Sicilian instantly stabbed him 
with his sword. This led to a riot, in 
which the Sicilians put to death 8,000 of 
the French. A war ensued in which 
Charles of Anjou wo.s over and over again 
defeated, and he died in 1285. 

It is somewhat remarkable that a similar outrage 
occurred on the 4th of April, the same year, at 
Catania. In this case the young Frenchman was 
Jean Viglemada. the young lady was .Julia Villa- 
melli, whose husband was slain by the libertine. 

Sicilies {The Two). The island of 
Sicily is one, and the kingdom of Naples 
is the other. United under Koger II. 
1130. In 10G2 Robert Guiscard and his 
brother Roger commenced the subjuga- 
tion of Sicily, and in ten years drove the 
Saracens out of the island, when Roger 
was made count of Sicily (1072). He 
died 1102, and was succeeded by his son 
Roger II. Meantime Robert Guiscard, 
as sovereign of Naples, Puglia, and Ca- 
labria, added Corfu and a great part of 
Romania to his dominions. He died 
1185, leaving his son, Roger Bursa, his 
successor. Roger Bursa died 1130 without 
issue, when his cousin Roger II., count 
and king of Sicily, succeeded to the king- 
dom of Naples, and called himself king 
of the Two Sicilies. 

After the Sicilian Vespers In 1282 Sicily was 
severed for a time from Naples; but the kingdom 
of the Two Sicilies was restored, and was at last 
destroyed by Garibaldi in 1860. 

Corfu, pronounce Kor-foo. 

Sicyon'ian School of Painting 

{The). Chief representatives were Eu- 
pompos, Pamphilos, and Apelles. 

Sicyon'ian School of Sculpture 

{The). Chief representatives were Eu- 
phranon and Lysippos. The characteris- 
tics of this school were the representa- 
tion of heroic strength and the forms of 



SIDETES 



SIKHS 



825 



athletes. Alexander allowed only Lysip- 
pos and Apelles to represent him. 

Side'tes (3 syl.). Antlochus VII., so 
called from Side in Pamphylia, where he 
was brought up (b.c. 137-128). 

Sidmouth's and Castlereagh*s 
Five Acts, Nov. and Dec. 1819. I. An 
Act to prevent the training of persons to 
the use of arms ; II. An Act to punish 
blasphemous and pernicious libels ; III. 
An Act to authorise magistrates to seize 
arms collected and kept for purposes 
dangerous to the public peace ; IV. An 
Act to prevent seditious assemblies ; V. 
Castlereagh's bill for stamps on news- 
papers. Called ' The Five Acts ' by the 
partisans of Sir F. Burdett, William 
Hunt, and William Hone, because they 
aimed especially to cripple them in their 
proceedings. • 

Castlereagh, pronounce Castle-ray. 

Sidney Sussex College, in Cam- 
bridge University. Founded by Lady 
Frances Sidney, countess dowager of 
Sussex, in 1594. 

Sidonian Era {The). This era 
began Oct. b.c. 110. See ' Era.' 

Siege or Obsidional Pieces. 

Coins for the nonce issued by Charles I. 
during the parliamentary wars. They 
were, for the most part, articles of silver 
clipped into pieces, and stamped with 
some rude device of a castle the letters 
O B S, the date, and the nominal value 
of the piece. 

Siete Partidas {Las), 1260. A code 
of Alfonso X. which in 1501 became the 
universal law of the land. 

No deputies were present from the kingdom of 
Leon in the cortes of Alcala in 1348 where the code 
of the Siste Partidas first obtained a legislative 
recognition.— Hallam, Middle Ages, vol. ii. p. 30. 

Sigillum Confessionis. • The 

Seal of Confession,' the obligation of a, 
confessor under no condition whatsoever 
to divulge to any living creature the 
secrets of the confessional. This rule of 
secresy may be traced back to the ith 
cent., but was not rendered obligatory 
till the 12th, when Innocent III. made 
its violation the most heinous of offences, 
and he who was proved guilty was 
punished by the severest penalties which 
the church could inflict. 

Sigismund, properly • Siegmund.' 
'The Light of the World,' last of the 



promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany 
(1368, 1410-1437). In this reign Huss 
and Jerome of Prague were burnt alive 
as 'heretics.' The house of Habsburg 
succeeded him. 

Father, Karl IV. (the pope's kaiser) ; Mother, Anne 
of Schweidnitz; Wiven, (1) Maria of Anjou, queen 
of Hungary, (2) Barbara called the Messalina of 
Germany. Contemporary with Henry V. and Henry 

W^nceslaus the Worthless was his brother. 

*,* Sigismund was called ' Supra Grammaticam,' 
from his bad Latinity. Being one day reminded 
of a solecism, he replied: 'Ego sum Imperator 
Bomanorum et supra grammaticam.' 

Signory {The), or 'Signoria,' of 
Venice, 1173. The privy council of the 
doge ; it consisted of six members, one 
for each district or sestiere. The college 
consisted of twenty-six mexnbers, viz. 
the Doge, the Signory, the three Capi dei 
Quaranta (chief members of the Forty), 
and sixteen Savii chosen by the Senate. 

In Florence it consisted of eight prioi's 
with a Gonfalonier 3f Justice, who dwelt 
at the public charge in the palazzo, and 
held office for only two months. 

Signs removed, 1766. Shop signs 
projecting over the footpaths were 
ordered to be removed from the streets 
of London, because their dripping in 
rainy weather and thaws was a nuisance 
to passengers. 

Si-Han, or Western Han. The first 
sixteen kings of the Han ijTiasty of 
China (b.c. 202-25). These were about 
the best of the Chinese emperors. The 
second half of the dynasty was the Tong 
or Eastern Han. 

* Si j'avance, suivez-moi; ai je re- 
cule, tuez-moi ; si je tombe, vengez-moi.' 
The address of Henri de Larochejaque- 
lein in the Vendean war 1794. 

Sikhism. A compromise between 
Brahmanism xnd Mahometanism, advo- 
cated by Nanak (1469-1539) of Lahore. To 
him succeeded nine pontiffs called gurus 
(or teachers), the last of whom was Go vind, 
who was issassinated in 1708. See 
' Sikhs.' 

It was Govind who called the Sikhs ' singhs,' or 
lions. 

Sikhs, 1494, i.e. disciples [of Nanak 
the Neo-BrahmanJ. Nanak of Lahore 
(1469-1539) was their first pontiff, or 
• guru,' and was succeeded by nine others. 
The sixth, named Har-govind, rebelled 
against the Great Mogul and the tenth, 



826 



SILENT 



SILKEN 



or last guru, named Govind, taught that 
the duty of a sikh is ' to be humble and 
sincere, to eschew superstition, to practise 
strict morality, and to live by the sword.' 
On the decline of the Mogul empire, the 
power of the sikhs rapidly increased, and 
in 1764 they assumed the state of a dis- 
tinct nation, or rather federation cf twelve 
states. In 1805 Runjit Singh became 
head of the federation. After the death 
of Runjit Singh, a series of battles 
occurred against the British — as that of 
Moodkee, 18 Dec, 1845 ; that of Feroze- 
shah, 21, 22 Dec, 1845 ; Aliwal, 28 Jan., 
1846; Sobraon, 10 Feb., 1846; Chillian- 
wallah, 13 June, 1846; Goojerat,21 Feb., 
1849, when the Punjab was annexed to 
British India. 

The Sikhs worship one God, without 
image or mediator ; they eat all kinds of 
meat except beef, the ox being too useful 
to be eaten. They dress in blue, even to 
their turbans ; but other Hindus consider 
blue to be unlucky. Their sacred book is 
called ' Pothi,' which means ' Bible.' 

Silent {The). Wilham L the stadt- 
holder of the United Provinces. 

Our own king, William III., like his father and 
grandfather, was noted for his silence. After the 
battle of Wierden,in 1(172, one of his officers asked 
him what next. ' Can vou keep a secret ? ' asked 
William. 'Yes,' said the ofilcer. 'And so can I,' 
replied the Prince, drily. 

Silent Week, or ' Holy Week '—that 
is, the week beginning with Palm Sunday 
and ending with Holy Saturday. So 
called because no bells are rung in 
churches during the Hebdomada Muta. 

Silent'iary {The). Anastasius I., 
emperor of the east (491-518), was so 
called because he had been the chief 
officer whose duty it was to maintain 
peace and silence in the precincts of the 
palace. 

Sile'sia was divided into three govern- 
ments — viz. Liegnitz, Breslau, and Op- 
peln. At the death of Kaiser Karl VI. 
numerous claimants put in claims for 
parts of the empire. Prussia demanded 
Silesia; Sardinia demanded Milan ; Spain 
demanded Bohemia and Hungary; and 
Bavaria claimed the whole empire. 

Maria Theresa, daughter of Karl VI., was Queen 
of Hungary, and nominally Kaiserin. It was from 
this sovereign that Friedrich the Great claimed 
Silesia, and, after seven years' war it was added 
to the kingdom of Prussia. 

In 15H7 the Duke of Leignitz made an agreement 
with the Elector of Brandenburg that If either 
died without issue, the survivor should have both 



realms. In 1675 the Duke of Leignitz died without 
issue, but Kaiser Leopold I. claimed the dukedom 
as a forfeited fief. At the death of Karl VI., the 
Elector of Brandenburg (then Friedrich II. the 
Great, king of Prussia) claimed Silesia as his right, 
and this led to the three Silesian wars (1740-17(>3). 

Sile'sian Poets {The), of the 17th 
cent. Martin Opitz (1597-1639), 'the 
father of modern German poetry ' ; Paul 
Flemming (1609-1640), the 'German 
Herrick ' ; Andrew Gryph (1616-1664), the 
' f atlier of the modern German drama ' ; 
and Gaspar Lohenstein (1635-1683), the 
' blood and thunder ' dramatist. 

Sile'sian Wars {The). Three wars 
between Maria Theresa of Austria and 
Friedrich II. the Great of Prussia, for the 
possession of Silesia. First war 1740-1742, 
when, by the treaty of Berlin, Silesia was 
handed over to Prussia. Second war : 
Prussia having made alliance with France 
broke the treaty, and a second war broke 
out in 1744. This was concluded by the 
treaty of Dresden, 25 Dec, 1745, when 
Silesia was again confirmed to Prussia. 
The Third was the Seven Years' "War, and 
consisted of seven campaigns (1756-1763). 
By the Peace of Hubertsburg Silesia was 
finally confirmed to Prussia. 

Field-Marshal Daun was by far the best general 
on the Austrian side, and Friedrich II. the Great 
on the Prussian side. 

Silk Armour. A sort of armour 
worn by timid magistrates in the troub- 
lous times of Charles II. It consisted of 
a doublet and breeches of quilted silk, so 
closely stitched, and of such thickness, 
as to be proof against either bullet or 
steel ; while a thick bonnet of the same 
materials, with ear-flaps attached to it, 
and resembling a nightcap in shape, com- 
pleted the equipment, and assured the 
wearer security from head to knee. Roger 
North describes this sort of armour, and 
Sir W. Scott avails himself of North's 
description in 'Peveril of the Peak,' 
chap, xxxii. 

Silken Lord {The). Lord Thomas 
Fitzgerald (1513-1536), son of the Earl of 
Kildare. So called from the richness 
of his caparisons. He threw up his office 
of vice-deputy of Ireland in 1534, and was 
hanged at Tyburn for treason 3 Feb., 1535. 
Also called ' Silken Thomas.' 

During his confinement he was lacking in the 
commonest necessaries of life ; and the ' silken 
lord,' bare-footed and bare-legged, was indebted to 
the charity of his fellow-prisoners for the few 
tattered garments that hardly covered him. 'I 
have never had since I came into pryson eny other 
garment but a syngyll f ryse gowne, nothyr hosyn, 



SILLY 



SILVER 



dublet, shoys, nor shyrt but on— and so I go bare- 
foote and barelegyd, and shuld have don styll, 
but that som pore prysoners have geven me old 
hosyn and shoys and Bhyttes.'— Letter to liothe, 
S.P. clviii. 

Silly. Nickname of the Duke of 
Marlborough, from his constant use of 
this word when he disapproved of a sug- 
gestion: as 'Will your Grace besiege 
Lisle ? ' ' Oh, silly.' ' Will you besiege 
Ypres ? ' • No ! silly, silly ! ' (1650-1722). 

Silly Billy. I. The nickname of 
William IV. of Great Britain, sometimes 
called The Sailor King, because he was 
lord high admiral of the navy (1765, 
1830-1837). 

II. William Frederick duke of Glou- 
cester, chancellor of the university of 
Cambridge. He was the son of William 
Henry, a younger brother of George III., 
and died 1834. He married his cousin 
Mary, a daughter of George III. 

It is said that William duke of Gloucester was 
shown one day over an asylum, and one of the in- 
mates said 'Why, here is Silly Billy.' The duke 
in amazement said to the keeper, ' The man 
knows me.' 'Yes,' said the keeper, 'like all 
lunatics he has his lucid intervals.' 

Silver Book {The). The MS. of the 
four gospels in Mseso-Gothic by Ulfilas 
bishop of the Goths in the 4th cent., pre- 
served in the library of Upsala, in Sweden. 
All the letters are silver except the 
initials, which are gold. The leaves are 
vellum; some purple, and others of a 
violet colour. 

Silver Captain {The). Admiral 
Sir Henry Digby, who, 14 Oct., 1790, fell 
in with a Spanish vessel while shaping 
his course for Cape St. Vincent. It is said 
that each captain received 40,000Z., and 
each seamen 2001. as his share of this 
prize, and 63 artillery wagons were 
employed to convey the treasure to Ply- 
mouth citadel. 

Another account states that each midshipman 
received 10,000i. as his share of this rich prize. 

Silver Casket {The), 1568. A casket 
found in Edinburgh Castle after Mary 
(queen of Scots) delivered it up to Murray 
and Sir John Balfour. This casket con- 
tained letters of the queen to Balfour, and 
love sonnets. When Mary fled to Eng- 
land, and was in the hands of Elizabeth, 
connnissioners were appointed to examine 
into the recent murder of Lord Daruley 
(Mary's husband), and this casket with 
its contents was laid before them. The 
originals have disappeared, but copies of 



the letters and sonnets are still extant. 
Whether these copies have been tampered 
with is a question subjudice, but they 
certainly are most discreditable to Mary. 

Silver Code {The), or 'Codex Ar- 
genteus ' {q.v.). See ' Silver Book.' 

Silver Crown {The). The crown of 
the King of Germany. As king of Lom- 
bardy, he was crowned with the iron crown 
{q.v.), and as kaiser of the Holy Roman 
Empire he was crowned with the imperial 
crown, which was a small episcopal mitre 
cleft in the front and not at the sides. 
He was crowned with the silver crown at 
Aix-la-Chapelle ; with the iron crown at 
Monza ; and with the imperial crown at 
Rome. 

The kings of Germany did not go to Rome to be 
crowned latterly. Karl V. was the last kaiser who 
received his imperial crown from the hands of the 
pope. 

Silver Hand. I. Nuad, the chief- 
tain who led back the tribe of the Da- 
naans from Scotland to Ireland, from 
which they had migrated. Nuad of the 
Silver Hand had an artificial hand made 
of silver by Cred the goldsmith, to sup- 
ply the loss sustained from a wound 
received in the battle of Moytura. Miach 
son of Dian Kect set it on the wrist. 
So says O'Flaherty, ' Ogygia,' part iii. 
chap. X. 

The battle of Moytura was long a favourite 
theme of Irish song. In the library of Stowe are 
live metrical clironicles of this famous fight. 

II. An order instituted by Abd-el-Kader 
for 'the most worthy.' The hand was 
fastened to the camel's bridle. The order 
contained three ranks or degrees, the 
highest having seven fingers, and the 
lowest five. See * Golden Hand.' 

Silver People {The). So the Arabs 
call the inhabitants of the Tell, or culti- 
vated lands of the northern slope from 
the Mediterranean to the Atlas moun- 
tains ; the inhabitants of the towns they 
term the Gold people ; and those of the 
Sahara they call the Camel people. 

Silver Stick. An officer of the 
Second Life Guards, who carries an 
ebony staff surmounted by a silver head, 
and relieves Gold Stick when on duty in 
attendance on the royal person. For 
particulars see p. 371, ' Gold Stick.' 

Silver Tongue. Daniel Finch 2nd 
earl of Nottingham (1647-1730). 



828 



SILVEE-TONGUED 



SINGH 



Silver-tongued {The). Spranger 
Barry, the Irish Roscius (1719-1777). 

Simcha Thora (joy for the law). 
Last of the eight days of Succoth, or 
Feast of Tabernacles, held by the Jews 
in the month Tisri (Sept.). This day 
was, and still is, a day of joy. 

Simeons ofVan or Ormia {The). 
One of the three branches of the Nes- 
torians. The other two are the ' Elijahs 
of Mosul,' and the ' Josephs of Amida.' 

Simmes' Hole. See ' Symmes' 
Hole.' 

Simnel Conspiracy {The), i486. 

A plot concocted by Richard Simons, a 
priest of Oxford, to palm off his ward, 
Lambert Simnel, a lad of about 11 years 
of age, and the son of an Oxford joiner, 
as Edward earl of Warwick, son of George 
duke of Clarence, and heir to the throne 
of England. Supported by many of the 
Anglo- Irish lords in the Pale, he was 
crowned in St. Mary's Abbey by the 
Bishop of Meath, with a diadem bor- 
rowed for the occasion from a statue of 
the Virgin Mary, as ' Edward VI., king 
of England and France, and lord of Ire- 
land.' He invaded England, and was 
made prisoner by Henry VII. at the 
battle of Sfcoke near Newark ; but, instead 
of being put to death, he was made turn- 
spit boy in the royal kitchen, and after- 
wards falconer. 

Simon the Righteous {Sir). 
Simon de Montfort earl of Leicester, and 
brother-in-law of Henry III. (1200-1265). 
He was very popular, and his death was 
deemed ahnost a martyrdom, for few 
kings have been more detested than 
Henry III. and his father John, 

Simo'nians {The), So called from 
Simon Magus, who believed that the 
body of Jesus Christ was not a real body, 
but a mere phantom, like any other 
visible form of God or angel spoken of in 
the Old Testament. 

Simoiii'ides {Co7istantine L. Philip). 
A Hterary impostor (1824-1867). While 
on a visit in the monastery of Khosos in 
Mount Athos, he fell in with some Greek 
MSS. greatly damaged by mildew, and 
taught himself Greek manuscript writing. 
He soon afterwards succeeded in imposing 
spurious MSS. on the learned of Athens 



and Constantinople, but, being detected, 
he fled to England. In 1854 he offered 
some genuine MSS. to the British Mu- 
seum, and then tried to pass off his 
forgeries; but was found out by Sir 
Frederick Madden, and of course foiled. 
However, Sir T. Phillips bought of him a 
spurious MS. of Homer on serpent's skin, 
which he professed to have belonged to 
Chios Hipparchos, son of Pisistratos. He 
then sold some genuine MSS. to the Bod- 
leian, -but was again detected when he 
offered his forgeries. Some time after he 
sent to Berlin a palimpsest MS. in Greek 
of Egyptian kings, said by him to be the 
work of Uranios of Alexandria. Profes- 
sor Dindorf began to publish this worlc, 
but Ehrenberg discovered that it was only 
a ba-d translation of the writings of Bun- 
sen and Lepsius. Simonides was now 
imprisoned, but, being released, retired 
to Alexandria, where he died of leprosy. 
See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Si'nait'ic MS. {The) of the Bible. 
So called from the place where it was 
discovered by Dr. Tischendorf, at St. 
Catherine Convent, foot of Mount Sinai, 
in May 1844. On his first visit the monks 
allowed hun to take away eleven sheets. 
At his second visit only one sheet re- 
mained, the rest having been used for 
lighting fires. Fifteen years later he 
was shown a bundle of waste paper, 
which to his delight contained parts of 
the Old Testament and all the New. 
This MS. is now preserved in the library 
of St. Petersburg. The date is supposed 
to be the middle of the 4th cent. See 
'Vatican MS.' and 'Alexandrine MS.' 

Singeing the King of Spain's 
Beard, 1587. So Sir Francis Drake 
called his raid upon Spain when the Ar- 
mada was in active preparation. On 
18 April he entered the road of Cadiz 
and destroyed upwards of 80 vessels ; he 
then ran over to Cape St. Vincent, and 
demolished above 100 more, with 4 forts ; 
and he next captured in the Tagus the 
magnificent ship called ' St. Philip.' All 
these vessels were designed to take part 
in the invasion. 

Singh (a lion). An Indian title of 
royalty. In 1695 Govind abolished the 
system of castes, and changed the title 
of sikh {deist) into 'singh,' as Rimjeet 
Singh of Lahore. 



SINGLE 



SIX 



Single Bill Session (A). The 
autumn session of the British parliament 
in 1884, called by Mr. Gladstone to pass 
his Franchise Bill, rejected by the House 
of Lords in the preceding session the 
same year. 

Single-speech Hamilton, 1755. 

This speech was delivered by William 
Gerald Hamilton upon the king's (George 
II.) speech demanding subsidies for Hesse 
and Kussia, Legge and Pitt ranged 
themselves against the king, and even 
against their colleagues in the ministry. 
In the Commons the debate began at 2 
and continued till 5 next morning (15 
hours), the longest except one up to that 
period. The longest was on the West- 
minster election in 1741. Hamilton 
spoke in favour of the subsidies, and in 
1761 was made Secretary of State (Ire- 
land), and in 1753 Chancellor of the 
Exchequer in Ireland. 

His speech in 176fi against Lord Townshend's 
proposal to tax America by import duties was both 
far-seeing and eloquent. 

Singular and Invincible Doc- 
tor {The). William of Ockham or 
Occam, who died 1347. 

Sinking Fund {The), 1716. Es- 
tablished by Sir Robert Walpole. It was 
to consist of the surpluses of the other 
funds, and to be employed in reducing 
the national debt. 

The other funds -were the South Sea Fund, 
established in 1711 ; the Aggregate Fund, estab- 
lished in 1714, and the General Fund, established 
In 1716. 

Sino'pe (3 syl.), 30 Nov., 1853. The 
Russian admiral Nachimoff signalled to 
the Ottoman squadron to surrender. 
The Russian force was ten times as 
strong as the Turkish, and, as the Turks 
did not surrender, Nachimoff set the 
whole fleet on fire, and then, entering 
Sinope, set that on fire also. This 
butchery was called by the Russians a 
'brilliant victory,' for which they 'thanked 
the Lord of battles ' in solemn religious 
thanksgiving, 

Sintu'ism. The primitive religion 
of Japan. It recognises a supreme deity 
(Tien) — i.e. heaven or the sun — and a 
host of inferior gods ; deifies great men, 
and renders divine homage to virtue. 
The priests abstain from animal food. 
The Sintu religion teaches that there 
is a supreme god from whom issued two 
creator gods. Then succeed seven gods, 



the last of- which created a part of 
Japan by dipping his spear m the ocean. 
Sintuism existed 600 years, at least, 
before the advent of Christ. 

The word Sin means a 'hero,' and SintA-ism 
means ' hero-worship.' 

Sir Bullface Doubleface. Sir 

Norton Fletcher, for eleven years Speaker 
of the House of Commons. 

Sir Dynamite, 1885. The signature 
of threatening letters issued by the Irish 
Land League. See ' Irish Associations.' 

Sirdar (India). A general, a chief. 
The generalissimo is the Sirdar-i-sirdar. 

Sirventes (2 syl.). Lays of war and 
chivalry by the Provencals or troubadours. 
The erotic poems were called ' Chanzos.' 

Sister Reform Association, 

5 July, 1819. A society of women at 
Blackburn to co-operate with the men 
in bringing about parliamentary reform. 
These associated women took upon 
themselves to instil into the minds of 
children what we now call radical ideas. 

Sisters of Charity {The), 1634, 

Unmarried Christian women associated 
to nurse the sick, and relieve the suffer- 
ings of all inmates of hospitals. The 
society was founded in France by Vin- 
cent de Paul and the widow Legras. It 
was suppressed at the revolution, but 
restored by Napoleon in 1807, under the 
presidency of the empress-mother. 

Si'vanism. The religion of the 
votaries of Siva. One of the three great 
divisions of the Hindu sects. 

Six Acts {The), Nov. and Dec, 1819. 
The first by Lord Eldon, the last by 
Castlereagh, and the others by Lord 
Sidmouth. [Castle-ray.] 

1. 29 Nov. An act to prevent delay 
in the administration of justice in cases 
of misdemeanour. {Eldon.) 

2. An act to prevent the training 
of persons to the use of arms. (To con- 
tinue till 1822.) 

3. An act to punish blasphemous and 
pernicious libels. {Sidmouth. Aimed 
at W. Hone. To continue till 1822.) 

4. An act to authorise magistrates to 
seize arms collected and kept for pur- 
poses dangerous to the public peace. 
{Sidmouth. To continue till 1822.) 

5. 17 Dec. An act to prevent seditious 
asseijiblies (Uke those in St. Peter's 



830 



SIX 



SIXTEEN 



Field, Manchester — see ' Peterloo '). (To 
continue for five years.) 

6. An act for stamping newspapers. 

Six Articles [The). A statute 
enacted in 1541 (33 Henry VIII.) com- 
monly called ' The Bloody Statute.' Its 
object was to compel all British subjects 
to a uniform profession of six church 
dogmas, viz. : (1) The real presence of 
Christ in the eucharist ; (2) the all-suf- 
ficiency of communion in one kind only ; 
(3) the unlawfulness of the marriage of 
priests; (4) the indissoluble obligation 
of vows of chastity ; (5) the propriety of 
retaining private masses ; and (6) the 
obligation of auricular confession. Ee- 
fusal to subscribe to these six articles 
was punished by death or imprisonment 
at the king's pleasure. Repealed in 
1549. See p. 48, 'Articles on Theology.' 

Six Articles of the People's 
Charter {The), 1838. (1) Manhood 
suffrage; (2) voting by ballot ; (3) equal 
electoral districts; (4) annual parlia- 
ments ; (5) no money qualification for 
members ; (6) paid members. 

Six Chroniclers {The). Dr. Giles 
compiled and edited six Old English 
Chronicles for Bohn's series in 1848. 

1. Ethelwerd's ' Chronicle.' 

2. Asser's ' Life of Alfred.' 

3. Geoffrey of Monmouth's ' British 
History.' 

4. Nennius's ' History of the Britons.' 

5. Gildas Badonicus {i.e. of Bath). 

6. Richard of Cirencester, 'On the 
Ancient State of Britain.' 

The last three belong to Dr. Bertram's ' Scrip- 
tores Tres ' (q.v.). 

Six Days' Battle, a.d. 327. The 
Jbattle between Colla usurper of Ulster 
and Muredach Tiry the rightful successor. 
' Six successive suns went down on this 
fight.' Muredach was the conqueror. 

Six Errors, 1418. The ' Six Errors ' 
ascribed to John Huss, and exposed to 
public view at the chapel of Bethlehem. 
(1) That he denies to the priesthood the 
power of absolution; (2) he condemns 
the doctrine of absolute obedience in all 
things to a superior ; (3) he maintains 
that an unjust excommunication is not 
binding ; (4) he condemns as heretical 
all simony, of which offence he charges 
many of the clergy ; (5) he asserts that 
prayers for the dead are useless ; and (6) 



that money charged for ransoming souls 
from purgatory, for prayers for the dead, 
and for the sale of p.rdons are simply 
devices invented by the avarice of the 
clergy. 

Six Nations {The), or * The Indians 
of the Six Confederated Nations on the 
South-East of the Great Lakes,' called 
by the French the ' Iroquois,' viz. : The 
Mohawks, Oneidas, Onandagos, Cayugas, 
Sennekas, and Tuscaroras. In 1783 the 
flight of the Mohawks and Cayugas to 
Canada broke up the conlederacy, and 
rendered the name no longer applicable. 

The British, after the battle of Bunker s Hill, 
secured the Six Nations as allies.— GREEN, Hist, 

of the English Pe,oplc. 

Six Sages of Venice {The). The 
doge's privy council. Every matter was 
first submitted to this grand jury, and, if 
approved, was next sent to the Forty, 
who were the council of state ; and was 
finally sent to the 450 representatives 
who formed the legislative assembly, the 
members of which were annually chosen 
in the six quarters of the city. 

Six-stringed "Whip {The). The 
Six Articles {q.v.) were so called from 
their severity. Penalties were imposed 
for writing or even speaking against 
them. 

Six unlucky to Rome. See 

p. 808, ' Semijer sub Sextis, &c.' 

Three is the French Fatal Number. See p. 313, 
' Fatal Three.' To which might be added : 

Louis III. the Blind. Had his eyes put out by 
Berenger, who usurped the crown (880-923). 

Charles III. le Simple. Was deposed in 887; 
reigned a short time with Eudes, but at the 
death of that prince had to abandon Normandy 
(Neustria) to Eollo ; was imprisoned in the 
Chateau de Peronne, and died there (879-929). 

Philippe III. le Hardi. Went to Sicily to 
avenge the Sicilian Massacre (q.v.), was attacked 
by an epidemic, and died (1245-1285). 

Henei III. le Mignon. Beneath contempt, was 
assassinated by J. Clement (1551-1589). 

Napoleon III. Being utterly vanquished by 
the allied Germans, resigned his sword, died in 
England, and with him ended the French empire. 

There was neither a Jean III, nor a Francois III. 

Si dicitur semper sub sextis perdita Roma, 
Francia sub tribus indubitanter perdita semper. 

Old Rome found 6 her number of mischance. 
But 3 tlie fatal numeral of France. 

Sixteen {The). The standard- 
bearers of Florence. See under ' Gon- 
falons.' 

Sixteen {The). 'La faction des 
Seize.' An insurrectional committee 
formed at Paris during the League {q.v.) 
consisting of 16 members, one to each of 



SIXTY 



SLAVE 



881 



the 16 ' quartiers de Paris,' Bussy-Leclerc 
being the principal. In 1587 to 1588 the 
Sixteen drove Henri from Paris and 
prepared the Day of the Barricades. In 
1590 they offered great resistance to 
Henri IV. In 1591 they declared for 
Charles due de Guise (son of Henri, 
'Balafre'); but Mayenne sent Bussy- 
Leclerc to the Bastille, and the power of 
the Sixteen ceased. 

Sixty Club {The). An Athenian 
club containing 60 members, who held 
their weekly meetings in the Temple 
of Hercules, in the time of Philip of 
Macedon. 

Sizars, in Cambridge and Durham 
Universities, are students similar to the 
* Servitors ' of Christ Church, Oxford, 
and the ' Bible-clerks ' of Oriel, Oxford, 
received at reduced fees. They are gene- 
rally sons of the poorer clergy. 

Sizings, in University parlance, means an 
allowance of food. Sizars have this allowance 
free. There are other privileges allowed them. 
Sometimes their rooms are free. There used to 
be duties attached to these sizarships, such as 
waiting on the Fellows, whence they dined at the 
Fellows' table (free) after the Fellows had left. 
In some cases they had to read the Bible lessons 
at chapel. The duties are now iM, but in some 
colleges they still dine as before. 

Ski' Thursday. Maundy Thursday, 
that is, the day before Good Friday, 
meaning pure, clean, in allusion to the 
words of Christ when he washed the feet 
of his disciples. ' Ye are clean, but not 
all ' (John xiii.). The Icelandic skir- 
dagr, 'clean day,' our Anglo-Saxon seine, 
brightness, splendour, our modern sky 
and shine. Corrupt for ' Skire Thursday.' 

Skinless Prince of "Wales 

(The). Richard, afterwards Richard II., 
son of Edward the Black Prince, was 
born absolutely skinless, according to a 
volume in French and Latin on ' Magna 
Charta ' (1556). Under the head Notnina 
Begum et eorum coronatio we read this 
observation : ' Richardus II., filius Ed. 
principis Walliae, natus sine pelle, et 
nutritus in pellibus caprarum, incepit 
regnare xxiii Junii, anno domini 
MCCCLXXVn.' 

Skioldungs {The). A semi-histori- 
cal race of kings in Denmark, so called 
from Skiold, son of Odin, who, at the 
death of his father, established a colony 
of Goths at Ledra, in Zealand, and ruled 
there as a chief, B.C. 40-23. From 
Skiold descended the Skioldungs, which 



furnished Denmark with 35 kings, the 
last of whom was Horda Knut II. {Harde 
Canute), 1047. The Skioldungs were 
succeeded by the Estrithides. 

Magnus king of Norway laid claim to the 
crown of Denmark ; but it was agreed between 
him and Horda Knut that whichever survived 
the other should have both kingdoms. Horda 
Knut died first, but the right of Magnus was 
disputed by Svend Estrithson, founder of the 
second dynasty. See ' Ynglings." 

Skirmishing Fund [The), for the 
use of the Fenian organisation. Michael 
Davitt was charged with appropriating 
this money for the purpose of outrage 
and crime in Ireland. The verdict of the 
three Royal Commissioners in 1889 was — 

We have shown . . . that Mr. I>avitt was a 
member of the Fenian organisation and was con- 
victed as such— that he received money from a 
fund which had been contributed for the purpose 
of outrage and crime, namely the Skirmishing 
Fund It was not, however, for the formation of 
the Land League (q.v.) this fund was raised, but 
for the promotion of the agitation which led up 
to it. 

Skotkonung, i.e. the tax-king. 
Olaus II. of Sweden was so called, 
because of his grant of an annual tribute 
to the pope, called Romskot or Rome- 
tax. He was also called ' the Fat ' and 
' the Saint ' (992, 1000-1030). 

Slade Professorship of Fine Art. 
I. Founded 1869, in the University of 
Camhridge, by Felix Slade. The pro- 
fessor must give 12 lectures a term free 
of charge. 

II. Founded 1869, in the University of 
Oxford, by Felix Slade, who bequeathed 
for the purpose the sum of 12,000Z. 
Chair held for three years, but the holder 
is eligible for re-election. 

Slaughter of the Innocents 

{The). The murder of the children of 
Bethlehem and its coasts from two years 
old and under by order of Herod the 
Great, in order to cut oif Jesus, who was 
born in Bethlehem about the same time 
Jesus escaped the slaughter because 
Joseph, from a warning dream, fled with 
him and his mother into Egypt. See 
p. 572, ' Massacre of the Innocents.' 

Slave-carrying Act (TAe). Com- 
manding that a certain given space 
between decks shall be allowed for each 
slave, and a certain stated supply of food 
and water shall be compulsory. 

Slave Emancipation Act {The\ 
1807 (47 Geo. III. c. 36). African slavery 
abolished by the United States in 1808; 



SLAVE 



SLAVEEY 



in France, 1815. Traffic in slaves de- 
clared to be felony by 51 Geo. III. c. 23 
(1811) ; declared to be piracy by the 
United States in 1820 ; by Venezuela in 
1825 ; by Brazil in 1850. 

Slave Kings of Delhi {The), 
A.D. 1186. This was ' The First Gaurian 
Dynasty ' (q.v.). 

Slave Ship. The first English 
slave ship in 1562 commanded by Sir 
John Hawkins was named the ' Jesus,' and 
Queen Elizabeth allowed Sir John to 
wear as his crest a manacled negro slave. 

In heraldic language ' a demy Moor in his proper 
colour, bound with a cord.' 

Slave Trade {Aholition of the), 
47 Geo. III. c. 36 (25 March, 1807) ; de- 
clared felony 14 May, 1811. 

Slavery has existed from the earliest 
ages. It spread from Chaldea into Egypt, 
Arabia, and all over the East. 

It existed in Greece in Homeric times, 
and Lacedfemonian lads were trained to 
ill-treat, deceive, and murder slaves. On 
one occasion as many as 8,000 slaves were 
massacred in one night by way of amuse- 
ment. 

Alexander, when he destroyed Thebes, 
sold the entire population, old and young 
of both sexes, for slaves. This was B.C. 
335. 

Among the Jews slavery was recog- 
nised by the Mosaic laws. Abraham had 
his slaves, and so probably had the ante- 
diluvians. Among the Jews slaves were 
either captives taken in war, or purchased 
as Joseph was, or born slaves, or men re- 
duced to slavery for debt, theft, or some 
other offence. Masters had full power 
over their slaves, to scourge them, or 
even put them to death ; but a bought 
Hebrew slave had to serve for only six 
years, when he became free (Exod. xxi.). 
If, however, he wished to remain in ser- 
vitude, the master bored his ear with an 
awl (Deut. xv. 17), and he continued in 
his service till the year of Jubilee. Girls 
were sold for concubines ; a man might 
sell himself or his children, and kidnap- 
ping was not uncommon among the Jews. 

Slavery abolished in the 
United States, 31 July, 1865, the 
close of the American Civil War. Dis- 
putes respecting slavery gave rise to the 
secession of the Southern States in 1860. 
In 1861 President Lincoln allowed each 
state to maintain and regulate its own 



laws about slavery, but 6 March, 1862, he 
proposed the entire abolition of slavery 
in all the United States. The northern 
states ultimately prevailed, and slavery 
was abolished by proclamation of the 
President, January 1863. At the close 
of the civil war it was wholly abolished. 

No compensation was given to the slave-holders, 
but it cost them 400 millions sterling ; it cost the 
Federals in war against the Union 940 millions 
sterling. Total, 1,400 millions sterling. 

It was abolished in Vermont in 1777, in New 
York 4 July, 1827. 

Slavery in Ancient Greece. 

I. Athens. If they lived under the 
government of a master slaves in Athens 
were called olKirai (domestics) ; but after 
their freedom was granted them they 
were called ZovXot, and sometimes voQoi 
(bastards, i.e. not genuine free-born 
citizens). 

Slaves in Argos were called Gymnitae. 

,, Crete were called Clarotse and Mnoitee. 
,, Sicyon were called Corynephori (.Kopwrj. 

^opoi) club-bearers in battle. 
,, Sparta were called Helots (EtXcoref). See 

' Slavery,' not^. 
„ Thessaly were called Penestse (Trevcarai), 

Thessalian serfs, said to be from Penestia, a dis- 
trict of Macedonia, but more likely from rrfvo/xai, 
to work for ones living, whence wtt^t, a day la- 
bourer. 

*,* Our English word 'slave,' we are told, means 
Slavonian, and comes to mean a bondman because 
the Italians at one time bought Slavonians for 
serfs. Vossius derives the word from Slaef, now 
Sklave, one of the Slavonic tribes reduced to 
slavery by Charlemagne. Probably, however, it 
is connected with the Latin sei-vus (one who 
serves), Ital. schiavo, French escUive. 

II. Sparta. Slaves in Sparta were 
called ' Helots.' The tale is that the 
people of Helos, B.C. 883, refused to pay 
the Spartans tribute, so the Spartans in 
vengeance destroyed their city, reduced 
all the inhabitants to abject slavery, and 
degraded their name by calling all slaves 
' Helots.' 

This is most improbable. The town was called 
EXof, which could not possibly be perverted into 
EiXoiTtc, Helots. The verb iXeiv (an infinitive of 
alp(aj) means to seize, to Uike captive, and the tale 
referred to is most likely an etymological myth. 
There are thousands of such like etymologies. 

*«* In the Peloponnesian War the Helots be- 
haved with such bravery that they were rewarded 
with liberty, B.C. 424. But, alas! for the villainy 
of the Spartans, 2,000 of the bravest and best were 
murdered. See p. 572, ' Massacre of the Helots.' 

Slavery in Ancient Rome. 

Men became slaves among the Romans 
in three ways : (1) being taken captives 
in war ; (2) by sale and purchase ; and 
(3) by way of punishment. The children 
of slaves were all born slaves. 

Slaves were always sold naked. Those not 
warranted sound wore a cap, and were called 
pileati. Those from beyond seas bad their feet 



SLAVERY 



SMALLEST 



833 



chalked and ears bored. Some slaves were do- 
mestic servants, some followed trades, and some 
■were instructed in literature and the arts. Masters 
had absolute power over their slaves ; they might 
scourge them, and even put them to death. We 
are told that C. Pollio threw such slaves as 
offended him into his fishponds, to his lampreys, 
B.C. 4'2. They were extremely numerous. Indeed 
Csecilius Isidorus left 4,11C slaves to his eldest son, 
B.C. 12. 

Slavery in England. Captain [Sir] 
John Hawkins was the first EngHslunan 
who made a traffic of slaves. He procured 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and sold 
them in the West Indies, Oct. 1563. 

In 1786 England employed 130 slave 
ships, and carried off annually some 
40,000 slaves, and in 1833 the number 
of slaves in British colonies exceeded 
770,000. 

European avarice has been glutted with the 
murder of 180 millions of our fellow creatures. 
For every slave procured 10 are slaughtered in 
their own land by war, a fifth die on the passage, 
and a third in the seasoning.— Cooper, Letters on 
the Slave Trade. 

Lord Mansfield's Judgment. The 
famous judgment of Lord Mansfield, 
22 June, 1772, that ' slavery cannot exist 
in England.' 

The case tried in the court of King's Bench was 
this : a poor slave named Somerset, brought to 
England, was, from ill-health, turned adrift by his 
master. Mr. Granville Sharpe took pity on him, 
fed him, housed him, and restored him to health. 

His old master now came forward, and claimed 
his slave as his own, but Mr. Sharpe resisted the 
claim, and law proceedings were taken by the 
master for the recovery of his property. Lord 
Mansfield was the judge, and gave judgment in 
favour of the slave, as English law does not recog- 
nise such a status. 

Abolished in the British Colonies, 
28 Aug., 1833 (3, 4 Will. IV.). By this 
Act slavery was abolished in British 
colonies, and the slave-owners were com- 
pensated for their loss by a grant of 30 
millions sterling voted by the British 
Parliament. 

1 Aug., 1831, as many as 770,280 slaves were 
bought oft and set free. 

Slavery in France. The holding 
of negro slaves was regulated in the reign 
of Louis XIV., 1685, by Colbert's ' Black 
Code.' 

Abolished in the French Colonies. 
Slavery was abolished in French colonies 
by the National Assembly, 15 May, 1791. 
It was restored by Napoleon I. in all 
French colonies except Hayti, 1804 ; but 
was again abolished by the Provisional 
Government, 1848. 

Slavery abolished in other 
Colonies. 
In Danish colonies in 1848. 



In Dutch colonies in 1860. 
In Swedish colonies in 1746. 
The trade in slaves was abolished by Austria in 

1782. 

Slavon'ic Liturgy [The). The 
Liturgy used in the Russian and Russo- 
Greek Church. It is also called the 
Liturgy of Constantinople. 

Slavon'ic Nations (T/ie). Poland, 
Russia, and Bohemia. See ' Celtic 
Nations,' ' Teutonic Nations.' 

Slingsby La-wrence. The pseu- 
donym adopted by G. H. Lewes in his 
play called ' Speculation ' (or the ' Game 
of Speculation '). 

Sloane Collection {The), in the 
British Museum Library, consists of 
4,100 volumes, chiefly MSS., on natural 
history, voyages, travels, and medicine. 
Also thirty volumes of Dr. Sloane's corre- 
spondence. Some of the drawings of 
animals are both rich and accurate, and 
two volumes of the insects of Surinam are 
from the pencil of Maria Sibylla Me'rian, 
the great Swiss artist and naturalist. 
Collected by Dr. Hans Sloane. 

Slobodisza {Battle of), 1665. Won 
by Sobieski, the Polish general, over the 
Cossacks. 

Smalkal'dic League {The), 1530. 
A league signed at Schmalkald in Ger- 
many by the Protestant princes, by which 
they bound themselves and their heirs, 
for ten years, to assist each other by arms 
and money in defence of the reformed re- 
ligion, and to act unitedly in all religious 
questions and movements. 

Smalkaldic "War {The), 1546-1547. 
Charles V., being threatened by the Turks, 
tried to win over the Protestant states to 
support him in the war, but they thought 
this a ripe time to stand at bay, and I'aise 
the standard of revolt. Charles put the 
Smalkaldic League to the ban of the 
empire, raised a new army, and marched 
against the revolters. In April 1547 was 
fought the battle of Miihlberg, in which 
the Protestants were defeated, and the 
Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of 
Hesse were taken prisoners. This is called 
' Tiie First Religious War of Germany.' 

Smallest Bible {The) in the world 
was one printed 1875. 

In "1880 was printed at the Oxford Press the 
' Finger Prayerbook,' weighingonly three-quarters 

3H 



884 



SMALLPOX 



SNEEZING 



of an ounce. A ' Finger New Testament ' was pub- 
lished in 1890. 

Smallpox, called by the French 
'la petite verole,' is said to have ap- 
peared in Europe in the lOtlicent., being 
introduced from the East by the Saracens ; 
but it was not common till the 16th cent., 
when it was introduced by a negro slave 
in the suite of Panfilo de Narvaez, 
who commanded the expedition against 
Cortez in Mexico. Robertson reports 
that it proved fatal to fifty per cent, 
of those attacked. Dr. Guy, 'Public 
Health,' p. 197, says, ' Smallpox certainly 
attacked the Arabian army at the siege of 
Mecca in 569, and soon after reached 
Alexandria. By the 8th cent, all Europe 
was infected by it. . . . Anglada proves 
that the disease had shown itself in 
France and Italy as early as 570.' 

It appeared in England and in Rouen 
in 1521. In Normandy four men called 
marquers were employed to look after 
the sick of each house. They wore a 
blue gown with a white cross. In 1520 
and 1528 it broke out afresh in Italy, and 
was especially fatal in Rome. Paul Jove 
and Theodor Zwinger tell us that a 
Greek, named Demetrius, authorised by 
the magistrates, had an ox led through 
the streets, one horn being cut off, and a 
filet hung on the other horn. After it 
had promenaded the town, it was slain, 
and the smallpox disappeared. See 
* Plague,' &c. . 

This wasevidently a parodyof the Jewish scape- 
goat. 

Severe attacks occurred in 1174, 1365, 
1440, 1556, 1564, and 1613. 

In 1720tliere died in Paris of smallpox 20,000 per- 
sons ; in 1733 the inliabitants of Greenland were 
reduced by it from 30,000 to 7,000 ; in 1788 it com- 
mitted great ravages in Bussia ; in 1743 as many as 
75,000 died of it in Messina (Sicily). Baldwin liing 
of Jerusalem died of it, 

*«* The Chinese tried Inoculation in the llth 
cent. ; and Timotheus, a Greek, in 1713 communi- 
cated this safeguard to the Universities of Oxford 
and Padua. It was first tried in England in 1721. 

Smectyni'iiuus, 1641. An anagram 
of the five Puritan divines who contro- 
verted Bishop Hall's two books, entitled 
' Episcopacy by Divine Right,' and ' An 
Humble Remonstrance.' Their names 
are Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, 
Thomas Young, Matthew KTewcome, 
"William Spurstow. 

Smith [King). Louis Philippe of 
France, who assumed the name of Smith 
when he fled to England. 

* Mr. Smith ! ' exclaimed the king. ' That is 
curious indeed, and very remarkable that the first 



to welcome me to England should be a Mr. Smith, 
since the assumed name by which I escaped from 
France was Smith ; and look ! this is my passport 
made out in the name ol Smith.'— X^e Timet, 
6 March, 1848. 

Smith's Prizes for mathematics. 
Two of 23Z, each for commencing bachelors 
of arts in the University of Cambridge. 
Pounded by the Rev. Robert Smith, D.D., 
master of Trinity, 1768. 

Sm.iths and Artists {Patron Saint 
of). St. Eloi (588-659), master of the 
mint in the reign of Clotaire II. Eloi = 
Eligius. 

There was also a Nonne, a prioresse, 
That of hire smylyng was ful symple and coy, 
Hire grettest ooth nas but by Seynt Eloy. 
Chaucer, Canterbury Tales (Prologue, 118, &o.). 

Sm.oek Marriages. Marriages in 
which the bride divested herself in church 
of all her clothes except her 'smock,' 
under the notion that the husband would 
not then be responsible for any of her 
debts. 

WTien a man designs to marry a woman who is 
in debt, if he take her from the hands of the priest 
clothed only in her shift, it is supposed he will not 
be liable to her engagements.— BKAND, Popular 
Antiquities (Vulgar Errors). 

Sneakers, 1741. Those lords who 
refused to vote on the motion for the re- 
moval of Walpole from the ministry and 
counsel of the king. The motion was 
made in the Commons by Pulteney, and 
in the Upper House by Carteret, sup- 
ported by the Dukes of Argyll and Bed- 
ford, the Earls of Sandwich, Westmore- 
land, Berkshire, Carlisle, Abingdon, and 
Halifax ; and the Lords Haversham and 
Bathurst. 

Sneezing and Yawning. The 

European custom of saying ' God bless 
you ' when a person sneezes, and the 
Catholic custom of making the mark of 
the cross on the mouth when a person 
yawns, dates from a.d .589, when a plague 
broke out in which people expired either 
sneezing or yawning. Pelagius died of 
the affection in 590. 

The Catholic custom of making the sign of the 
cross when a person sneezes or yawns is attri- 
buted to Gregory of Tours (544 595). The ancient 
Bomans considered sneezing a bad omen, and to 
avert the threatened evil cried Absil omen. Ari- 
stotle tells us that sneezing was accounted sacred 
among the Greeks (tov -nTapfMov Seov lyyov/xc^a) ; and 
Casaubon proves out of Xenophon that the Greek 
soldiers worshipped sneezing as a god, and 
averted evil consequences with the prayer, 'in 
awaov (God bless me). Ammlan, in an epigram 
upon a man who had a very long nose, says : 
Oiidi Xeyci, Zet? a<£jov, Srav Trrap^ ov yap ditoiSu 
T<f« itvoc, voXh yap rlji aKonc dir^tt. 



SNOW 



SOCIALISM 



835 



He never says ' God bless me ! ' when he 
Because his ear so far Is from his nose 
It cannot catch the sound. 

Several of the native Indian tribes look on 
sneezlnE* as ominous, and utter their Absit omen 
or z»t? <r&<rov also. The Germans say ' Gesundheit ' 
(' health ') when one sneezes. 

Snow King {The). So the German 
Catholic party named G-ustavus Adolphus 
king of Sweden, who in 1630 interfered in 
the Thirty Years' War. They called him 
the ' Snow King ' because he came from 
Sweden, the land of snow, and they 
thought he would melt away like Frede- 
rick V. of Bohemia, nicknamed the 
' Winter King ' {q.v.). 

At Vienna he (Gustavus Adolphus) was called 
' The Snow King,' who was kept together by the 
cold, but would melt and disappear as he ap- 
proached a warmer soil.— Dr. Crichton, Scandi- 
navia iGustavus Adolphus II., 61). 

Snow Queen {The). 1. Christina 
queen of Sweden (1626, 1633-1689). 

II. Elizabeth queen of Bohemia. She 
was crowned with her husband Fried- 
rich V. elector palatine, 25 Oct., 1619, but 
fled in Nov. 1620. She was queen during 
the winter 1619-20. 

Soapy Sam. Samuel Wilberforce, 
bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Win- 
chester (1805-1873). It is somewhat re- 
markable that the floral decorations above 
the stalls of the bishop and principal of 
Cuddesdon were S, O. A. P. (the initials 
of Sam. Oxon and Alfred Pott). When 
Soapy Sam went to inspect the building 
he was dismayed at seeing his sobriquet 
thus perpetuated. 

Someone asking why the Bishop of Oxford was 
so called, the bishop himself replied: 'Because I 
am often in hot water, and always come out with 
clean hands.' 

Socage. Tenure by fixed and deter- 
minate service. Almost all free lands in 
England are held by socage tenure. 

Soccolanti {The). An order in the 
Catholic Church akin to the Franciscans. 
It was established by St. Paulet de 
Foligny (Foligno) in 1568. St. Paulet 
was a hermit who, seeing that the moun- 
taineers in his neighbourhood wore 
wooden sandals or sabots (Ital. socco), 
adopted them himself, and hence his 
followers were called the Soccolanti. 

Social Circle {The), 1790. A society 
founded by the Abbe Fauchet, having 
for its object the establishment of ' truth, 
liberty, and happiness.' Fauchet was 
elected ' Attorney- General of Truth ' ; 



Paris was appointed the centre of civili- 
sation, and the Palais Koyal was to be 
the place of assembly. At the inaugural 
address, 13 Oct., some 5,000 persons at- 
tended, and nearly double that number 
on 22 Oct., the day of the second meeting. 
This society soon gave way to the Theo- 
philanthropists {q.v.). 

Social Democratic Federation 

{The), 1886. The heads of which were 
Hyndman, Burns, Champion, and Wil- 
liams. They inaugurated their society by 
riots, and frightful destx'uction of London 
club and shop property in the second 
week of February. 

Social ReformCommittee (T^e), 
17 May, 1888. To push forward social 
reforms. 

Social Science {The National As- 
sociation of), 1857. For the promotion of 
cheap popular literature, called Sixpenny 
Science, because that was the price of 
the treatises produced once a fortnight. 

Social'War(r;ie). L b.c. 358-853. A 
war between Athens and her allies. Arta- 
xerxes supported the allies, and Athens 
was compelled to make a disadvantageous 
peace. 

Another (b.c. 220-217) between Philip 
of Macedonia and the ^tolians. A peace 
was patched up by Philip, who was the 
conqueror. 

Social = confederate, and social war means war 
of several confederate or associated states. 

II. B.C. 90-89, between the eight allied 
nations called the Italian Confederation 
and the Romans. The complaint was 
that they furnished two-thirds of the 
army, and were yet treated as aliens. 

This war is also called Bellum Italicum and Bcllum 
M(ii!iicum from Pompagdius the brave Marsian 
general. It is said that 300,000 men in the vigour 
of life fell in this war. 

Socialism. A system for the regu- 
lation of labour by co-oi)eration without 
competition. Louis Blanc was the father 
of the system, and his ' Organisation du 
Travail ' was published in 18iO. In this 
book he denounces the plan of ' indi- 
vidualism,' and advocates ' solidarity,' in 
which each workman is to be paid accord- 
ing to his need — a bachelor 2 francs a 
day, a married man 2^, and a man with a 
family 3 francs. In 1848 national work- 
shops were tried in Paris on the Louis 
Blanc principle. Government was the 
employer of labour, and private enter- 
Sh2 



836 



SOCIETA 



SOCIETY 



prise was abolished as far as possible. 
It was soon found that the national work- 
shops were overcrowded, work was ill- 
done, idle hands multiplied, and profitless 
work had to be invented to keep the men 
out of mischief. Some 1,500 tailors were 
set to work in the Hotel Clichy at 2 francs 
a day, but the scheme was a total failure. 

Plato's 'Republic' is an ideal communism. 
Minos and Lycurgos were communists. The early 
Christians had 'all things in common,' but the 
notion of government being the sole employer of 
labour, and paying each, not according to the work 
done, but according to individual necessity, was 
left to the device of Louis Blanc. 

Bellamy's novel entitled ' Looking Backward ' 
is based somewhat on the same idea. 

Societa degli Arcadi, or the 

* Arcadians,' 1690. A literary society of 
Rome in which each member was called 
a shepherd of Arcady. Founded by J. M, 
Crescimbeni with the view of introducing 
'good taste.' A history of the Arcadians 
was published by the society. 

Society des Egalitaires {La). 
See ' Society of the Rights of Man.' 
Pronounce So-ce'a-tay days a-gaV -e-tare' , 

Soci^td des Families (Jjo). See 

* Society of the Rights of Man.' 

Pronounce So-ce'-a-tay day fah-meeV, 

Soc'^te des Saisons {La). See 
' Society of the Rights of Man.' 

Pronounce So-ce'-a-tay day Say'-zon (« nasal). 

Soci^t6 des Travailleurs {La), 
1825. The 'Industrialists' {q.v.), after 
the death of St. -Simon. The foundation 
departed from its original principles, and 
became communistic, advocating the 
absolute equality of man, the community 
of property, and the aristocracy of toil. 
Abolished by law in 1833. 

Soci^t^ en Commandite. A 

limited liability partnership. A sleeping 
partner puts money in a concei'n, and is 
responsible only to the amount he agrees 
to be responsible for. 

Society for Constitutional In- 
formation in London {The), 1792. 
A corresponding society with the Jaco- 
bins of Paris. Its real object was to 
establish a republic in Great Britain. It 
numbered among its members several 
red-hot Americans. 

Society for Constitutional In- 
formation in Sheffield {The), 1792. 
A society in strong sympathy with the 
French Revolutionists. In May it called 



on the ' Society of the Friends of the 
People ' {q.v.) to establish a convention 
in London ; but the latter society an- 
nounced that they had no other object in 
view except parliamentary reform by 
strictly legal means, and that this end 
once secured they should forthwith dis- 
solve themselves. 

Society for Promoting Chris- 
tian Knowledge {The), 1699. In 
1701 a branch called the ' Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
Parts ' was established. These societies 
distribute bibles and common prayer- 
books at very cheap rates, and sometimes 
gratuitously. The original society limits 
its operations to home, the branch society 
extends to the colonies. 

Society for Pl-omoting the 
Education of the Poor {The), 
2 Dec, 1811, in Ireland. Commonly 
called the Kildare Place Society. A 
voluntary institution for the instruction 
of children, the instruction to be un- 
influenced by religious distinctions. The 
Bible was not to be made a class book 
for teaching reading and spelling, and 
when read by pupils sufficiently ad- 
vanced was to be without either note 
or comment. No religious catechism 
was to be taught, and no book introduced 
of a controversial character, that ' the 
religious tenets of the pupils might not 
be disturbed or interfered with.' A 
public grant was given in 1819, but with- 
drawn in 1830. 

Society of G-riitli(T7ie). Mentioned 
in the report of the government of Ziirich, 
1844, as then existing in Switzerland. 
Its object was the abolition of the federa- 
tion principle in the Swiss constitution. 

Griitli is a meadow in the canton of Uri, at tho 
foot of the Seelisberg, and is famous for the oath 
sworn on the night of 7 Nov., 1307, by Werner, 
Stauffacher, Walter Furst, and Arnold Melchthal 
to liberate Switzerland from the Austrian yoke. 

Society of Jesus {The). The title 
under which the Jesuits were originally 
enrolled by Paul IV. in 1540. See 
' Jesuits.' 

Society of Progress {The). A 
secret democratic society of France in 
the reign of Louis Philippe. By the 
decree of 10 April, 1834, secret societies 
were forbidden, and therefore when a 
particular society was povmced upon and 
declared illegal, it changed its name and 



SOCIETY 



SODOR 



837 



was reorganised. The interdiction of 
these secret societies led to the riots of 
Lyons and Paris (9, 10, 11 April, 1834), 
and prepared the way of the revolution 
of 1848. 

Society of United Irishmen 

[The), 1793-1800. This egg was hatched 
by the French Revolution, and the Irish 
came nigh to rival the French in savagery 
and lawlessness. The ostensible object 
of the society was parliamentary reform, 
but its real design was anarchy. The 
soldier was taught to betray the king, 
the servant to rebel against his master, 
and the tenant to cheat his landlord. 
Magistrates, witnesses, jurors, all who 
attempted to support the laws were 
marked for destruction. Assassins spared 
neither sex nor age, and spread terror 
and dismay throughout the island. In 
1796 a communication was opened with 
the French Directory, who promised in- 
vasion, and in December a French fleet 
anchored in Bantry Bay, but was forced 
to retire ; a second attempt was equally 
abortive ; at last by vigorous measures 
the rebellion was stamped out, and in 
1800 the Irish parliament was abolished. 
See ' Irish Associations.' 

Society of the Black Pin {The), 
or ' Conjuration de I'Epingle Noire.' A 
French secret society which arose from 
the Carbonari after the unsuccessful out- 
break of 24 June, 1817. 

Conspiration qui se forma sur la Restauration, 
et dans laquelle les conjures avaient pris pour 
Eigne de ralliement une epingle noire. — Littke, 
vol. ii. p. 14G3, col. 2. 

*,,* There was another secret society at the 
same period called ' The Society of the Bed Pin, 
or La Conjuration de lEpingle Rose.' 

Society of the Friends of the 
People [The). 

I. 28 April, 1792. An English parlia- 
mentary reform society, supported by 
the Lords Lauderdale, John Russell, 
Dare, Stanhope, and Fitzgerald. Many 
of the members were enthusiastic ad- 
mirers of the French Revolution. 

II. 1793. A society organized in 
Scotland in sympathy with the French 
revolutionists. Their standing toast was 
' George the Third and Last, and damna- 
tion to all crowned heads.' 

Society of the Rights of Man 

{The). 'La Societe des Droits de 
I'Homme.' A secret political society 
formed in France during the reign of 



Louis Philippe. By the decree of 10 
April, 1834, secret societies were inter- 
dicted in France, and therefore when a 
society was dissolved by the government 
it was soon re-oi'ganised under another 
name. Thus we have 'La Societe des 
Families,' ' La Socie'te' des Saisons,' * La 
Societe des Travailleurs,' ' La Societe 
des Egalitaires,' and so on, all of repub- 
lican or communistic tendencies. The 
prohibition of secret societies led to the 
revolution of 1848 and the expulsion of 
Louis Philippe from the throne. 

Socinians. The followers of Faustus 
Socinus, an Italian (1539-1604), nephew 
of Leelius Socinus. He taught that God 
is one person, and denied the divinity of 
the Word and Holy Ghost, which he 
called ' expressions ' and not ' persons ' ; 
he also taught that Jesus is no mediator, 
but only a perfect example of. holy life ; 
he furthermore taught that the punish- 
ment of hell is not eternal. 

Socinians and Unitarians differ considerably in 
their views of Jesus Christ. The Socinians say 
he ought to be worshipped not as God, but as the 
Saviour of the world ; and though a man, yet was 
He born through the operation of the Holy Ghost. 
The Unitarians admit neither of tliese dogmas. 
There are many Unitarians in England, but pro- 
bably no Socinians. Trinitarians believe in the 
triple personality of the One God ; Socinians and 
Unitarians both believe in the single personality 
of the One God. 

Socrates {The English). Dr. John- 
son is so called by Boswell (1709-1784). 

Mr. South s amiable manners and attachment 
to our Socrates at once united me to him. — Life of 
Johnson. 

Socrates {The Mad). So Plato de- 
nominated Diogenes the cynic (b.c. 419- 
324). 

Socrates of the Musulmans 

{The). Abou-Hanifa, born at Cousa, 
died in prison at Bagdad in a.d. 757. He 
was chief of the Han'ifites (3 syl.). 

Sodality of the Blessed Sacra- 
ment {Brothers of the). Certain 
fanatics which sprang up at Caen, in 
1659, and gave out that their smell was 
so nice they could distinguish a Jansenist 
by the mere scent, and that all the clergy 
in Caen, except two, were Jansenists. 

Sodor. A small village in lona or St. 
Columba's Isle, corruptly called ' Icolm- 
kill.' Magnus king of Norway, in 1098, 
obtained possession of this isle, with the 
rest of the Hebrides, and united it to the 
Isle of Man under one bishop. In 1333 



838 



SODOR 



SOLOMON 



England took possession of the Isle of 
Man. 

Sodor and Man. The Hebrides 
were called by the Norsemen the ' Sudre- 
jar,' i.e. ' Southern Islands,' corrupted 
and shortened into ' Sud'ar,' * Sodor.' 
The bishop of Sodor and Man is (titulary) 
bishop of the Hebrides and the Isle of 
Man. See ' Orkney Islands.' 

Soeur Louise de la Mis^ricorde. 

Mdlle. de la Valliere, the mistress of 
Louis XIV., was so called in her retire- 
ment (born 1644, mistress of the king 
1661, retired 1674, died 1710). 

SofFa'rian Kings {The), or 'Sof- 
farides' (3 syl.). A Persian dynasty 
which supplanted the Ta'herides (3 syl.) 
in many of their possessions. The 
founder was the brigand Yacoub the 
Soffar (or 'blacksmith). Yacoub reigned 
thirty years (872-902), and was succeeded 
by the Samanides (3 syl.). 

The Ta'herides (3 syl.), Sof'farides (3 syl.), Sam'- 
anides (3 syl.), and Bou'ides (2 syl.), were concur- 
rent with the Califs, and reigned only over parts 
of Persia, as Seistan, Khorasan, Balk, and Tabar- 
istan. 

Sof'farides (3 syl.). See above. 

Soft or SofFee Dynasty {The). 
See ' Suffavean.' 

Soissons {Flot of the Comte de), 
1641. Louis de Bourbon, comte de Sois- 
sons, had been proscribed by Richelieu 
for rebellion, and had taken refuge at 
Sedan, then the principality of the Due 
de Bouillon. Here he entered into a 
plot with Spain, assembled troops, and 
assumed a defiant position. Richelieu 
sent an army against him ; gave him a 
crushing defeat at Marfee, near Sedan ; 
Louis de Bourbon was shot, and the 
plot fell through. See p. 752, * Remem- 
ber the Vase of Soissons.' 

Soke or Soc. A privilege of ad- 
ministering justice and of executing laws 
m Anglo-Saxon times. The lord had 
the liberty of holding a court or mote of 
his ' soc-men ' or tenants, who held under 
him by a fixed determinate service called 
' soccage.' 

Soldier. About 1214 Philippe II. 
Auguste of France kept a large standing 
army, and the pay was called their solde ; 
hence * sold-at,' and ' sold-ier,' a military 
servant who receives government pay. 



Soldiers' Friend (T^e). Frederick 
duke of York and Albany (1763-1827), 
second son of George III., made colonel 
in the British army 1780 ; commander-in- 
chief in Flanders 1793; commander-in- 
chief 1798. 

Sorecism. An impropriety in lan- 
guage, either of syntax or idiom. The 
Athenian colonists of Soloi, by their long 
expatriation, forgot their pure native 
language (Suidas, ' Soloi '). 

Solemn League and Covenant 

{The). I. 3 Dec, 1557, whereby the 
Scotch reformers bound themselves to 
stand unflinchingly to the Calvinistic 
reform, and to fight, if necessary, in its 
defence. The bond was signed by the 
Earls of Glencairn, Argyll, and Morton, 
Lord Lorn, Erskine of Dun, and many 
others, who assumed the title of ' Lords 
of the Congregation.' And from this 
hour to flinch or fall from the covenant 
was an unpardonable sin in Scotland. 

II. 1 March, 1638, the Scotch agreed 
to join the parliamentary army against 
the king (Charles I.) provided both popery 
and episcopacy in the two kingdoms were 
extirpated. The league was modified 
25 Sept., 1643, by Sir Harry Vane, and 
the terms were ' the kirk should preserve 
its purity and freedom, and the church 
of England should be reformed accord- 
ing to the Word of God.' Charles I. in 
1647 coquetted with the league, promis- 
ing to establish presbytery and to concur 
in the extirpation ' of the sectaries ' ; but 
he dallied too long and disgusted the 
league. Charles II. subscribed to the 
league 16 June, 1650 ; but it was declared 
to be illegal by 14 Car. II. c. 4. 

The Solemn League and Covenant, the Magna 
Charta of the Presbyterian Church.— Sir W. ScoTT, 
Old Mortality, ch. xxxvii. 

III. 1774, a confederation entered into 
at Philadelphia to abstain from the use 
of English goods. This was in abhor- 
rence of the Boston Port Bill {q.v.), 
which the colonists described as ' a bar- 
barous, cruel, bloody, and inhuman 
murder.' 

'Solicitudo Omnium Ecelesi- 
arum,' 7 Aug., 1814. A bull issued by 
Pius VII. for the rehabilitation of the 
Jesuit order. 

Solomon Avon, 3 November, 
meaning the Eve of the Summer-close. 



SOLOMON 



SOPHIVEAN 



839 



'Avon' a corruption of even or eve, 
and ' Solomon ' a corruption of the Irish 
samhuin = end of summer. 

Solomon of China (The). Tae- 
tsong ( * , 62(3-650), one of the most 
enlightened monarchs that ever reigned. 
He was the son of Kao-tsou, founder of 
the Tang djTiasty {q.v.). This reign was 
the Augustan age of China. His wife 
was a lady also of singular wisdom and 
virtue. 

Tae-tsong may be favourably compared with 
Antoninus the Roman emperor. 

Solomon of his Age (The). 

Robert I. of Naples, 1309-1343. Pious, 
generous, and just ; a great patron of 
learning and promoter of science. He 
died at the age of 64. 

Solon of French Prose {The). 

Balzac (1596-1655), famous for his 

'Letters.' 

Solon of Parnassus. Boileau 
(1636-1711) was so called by Voltaire. 
He was the Alexander Pope of France, 
and his * Art of Poetry ' obtained for him 
Voltaire's cognomen. 

Somnauth Proclamation (The), 
1843, by Lord EUenborough, governor- 
general of India. A pompous and foolish 
declaration that he restored to the 
Temple of Somnauth the sandal-wood 
gates which had been taken away 800 
years ago. Now these gates were in 
ruins, and the people to whom they were 
promised had become Mahometans, who 
hated the Hindi! religion of the Temple 
of Somnauth. So that the gates were 
worthless, and the Mahometans to whom 
they were promised would feel insulted, 
not honoured, by the gift. Again, the 
Hindfis, being a subjected race, the re- 
stored trophy of their subjection would 
be no more acceptable to them than to 
their conquerors. 

Besides, it had been foretold that the restoration 
of the gates would be a forerunner of the end of 
the Sikh dominion. This prophecy proved true. 

Son of Heaven [The) and 'The 
Ten Thousand Years' are the titles of the 
emperor of China. 

Sons of Freedom (The). A Fenian 
organisation in North America opposed 
to Donovan Rossa. These ' Sons of Free- 
dom,' also called ' The Robert Emmett,' 
have their head centre resident in Phil- 
adelphia. See ' Irish Associations.' 



Sons of Liberty (The), 1765. An 
association of the colonists of North 
America, called into existence by Lord 
Grenville's Stamp Act. They combined 
to throw off allegiance to Great Britain 
and make North America independent. 
The association began in New York and 
Connecticut. The term ' Sons of Liberty ' 
was suggested by a speech of Colonel 
Barrd's. 

The 'Daughters of Liberty' mutually bound 
themselves to drink no tea and wear no article 
of apparel imported from England while the 
import duties were unrepealed. 

Sons of the Precept. Jewish 
children, who at the age of 13, having 
learnt the law and their daily prayers, 
were made answerable for their sins; 
for which, up to that time, their fathers 
had been held responsible. This evi- 
dently is the fons et origooi the Christian 
rite of confirmation. 

Son'derbund {The), 1846. A league 
of the seven Catholic cantons of Switzer- 
land [Friburg, Lucerne, Schwytz, Unter- 
walden, Uri, Valais, and Zug] to resist 
the federal diet, which had proclaimed 
the Jesuits, the Liguorians {q.v.), and 
other religious congregations. Sonder- 
bund means ' separate league.' 

Sonna {The), or ' Suna,' i.e. tradition. 
A collection of the Mahometan traditions, 
forming a supplement to the Koran. 
Those who accept these traditions are 
called Sonnites. 

At the end of 200 years the Sonna or oral law 
was fixed by the labours of Al Bochazi, who had 
discriminated 7,275 genuine traditions from a mass 
of 300,000 reports.— Gibbon, chap. 1. 

Sophis {The), or ' Sophees,' i.e. 
Mystics. A Moslem sect inclined to 
pantheism. They look on the Koran 
only as a book of morals. The sect was 
founded in the 8th cent, by Abu Said 
Abul Cheir. The system is called So- 
phiism or Sopheeism. The four stages 
are (1) Humanity or obedience to the 
established religion ; (2) the Path, i.e. 
of piety, virtue, and fortitude ; (3) Know- 
ledge, when man is equal to the angels ; 
and (4) Truth or union with deity. 

To a Mahometan the word Sophi is about equal 
to 'infidel.' 

So'phive'an (or Safawi) Dsmasty 
{The), 1499-1736. Founded in Persia by 
Ismail grandson of Sheik Sophi u Dien 
Izhak, a lineal descendant of Ali. These 
kings were called saints. 

' Saints ' applied to these 13 kings seems like » 



840 



SORBONNB 



SOUTHCOTT 



mockery. (2) Tamaspwas poisoned ; (3) Ismail II. 
his fourth son murdered all the princes of the 
blood royal and died of intoxication or poison ; (5) 
Mohammed Murza was deposed ; (6) Mir Hamzah 
■was assassinated ; (7) Ismail III. was assassinated ; 
(9) Sefl, the Nero of Persia, had not one redeeming 
point;' (11) Soliman was dethroned; (12) Tamasp 
was deposed and murdered ; (13) Abbas III. was an 
infant set aside by the Affshars. 

Sorbonne {The), 1252. The college 
founded in Paris by Robert de Sorbon 
(in the reign of St. Louis) for secular 
ecclesiastics (q.v.), who lived together in 
common, and devoted all their time to 
the study of theology. From the 14th 
to the close of the 17th cent, this college 
enjoyed a European reputation; its de- 
cisions on religious questions were 
deemed final ; and it went by the flatter- 
ing name of the Perpetual Cou7icil of 
the Gallic Nation. It is now used as a 
university, where the course in instruc- 
tion includes, .besides theology, science 
and general literature. 

Soro'res de Poenitentia. The 

same as the Beginse {q.v.). They are 
spoken of in the bull of John XXII. 
(7 Kal. Martii, anno 3). 

Sort^S Bib'licaB, introduced during 
the reign of Charlemagne, was a method 
of telling fortunes by opening a book con- 
taining the Four Evangelists and the 
Psalms. The book was opened at ran- 
dom, and the finger laid promiscuously 
upon a passage, which was supposed to 
be prophetic. In the age of Clovis the 
book of the Acts of the Apostles was 
similarly employed. The Greeks used 
the poems of Homer and the Latins the 
*^neid' of Virgil as books of fate. 

Sortds Sancto'rum. Consulting 
the Bible to know whether or not to do 
some stated thing, or how it will turn 
out if done. The Bible is opened at 
random, and the finger laid at random 
on any point. The passage pointed out 
is the answer. Mr. Berridge consulted 
the Bible on the question whether he 
should marry, and his finger touched 
Jer. xvi. 2 : ' Thou shalt not take thee a 
wife.' I myself in a fit of curiosity con- 
sulted the oracle as to whether or not I 
should publish my ' Dictionary of Mira- 
cles,' and my finger touched Ezra iv. 22, 
* Take heed now that ye fail not to do 
this.' 

In the reign of Charlemagne, the Sortes Sanc- 
torum was confined to the Four Evangelists and 
the Psalms. In the reign of Clovis the Acts of the 
Apostles. 



Sortes Virgilia'nse. Consulting 
the iEneid of Virgil in the manner de- 
scribed in Sortes Sanctorum {q.v.). 

In Persia the works of the poet Haflz are 
employed in a similar way. The Greeks used the 
Epics of Homer. 

Sosii {The), the publishers. The 
Sosii were two brothers, booksellers and 
publishers of Rome in the time of Horace. 

He [Carlyle] could not throw his thoughts into 
a shape for which the Sosii of the day would 
give him money.— J. A. FROUDE, Thomas Carlyle, 
vol. ii. p. 114. 

Soter (Preserver). Ptolemy I. king 
of Egypt was so called by the Rhodians 
B.C. 304, because he rescued them from 
Demetrios, surnamed Poliorketes, king of 
Macedonia, by whom they were besieged. 

Poliorketes means the taker of cities by sieges. 
Demetrios the besieger. It is rather remarkable 
that this very Demetrios was called Soter (Preser- 
ver) by the Athenians. ' Soter,' pronounce So-teer, 

Sothic Period {A), 1461. Egyptian 
years. So called from Sothis, the Egj^- 
tian word for the Dog-star, and the Sothic 
or Canicular period began with the helia- 
cal rising of the Dog-star. 

Soulouque (2 syl.). A nickname 
givento Louis Napoleon at the coiip d'etat 
of 1851. Soulouque was the negro who 
was president of St. Domingo, called 
himself emperor, and established in that 
island (1849) a parody of Napoleon and 
his empire in France. By ' Soulouque ' 
was meant that Louis Napoleon was 
making a burlesque imitation of his 
uncle; but the coup d'etat proved a 
reality, and the second empire is not to 
be despised either in its duration, its 
power in Europe, or its influence on 
France. Certainly Napoleon III. was an 
Augustus of Paris, for he beautified it 
more than any of its crowned heads, and 
kept it tolerably in hand. 

Soul-shot, 'Peciinia Sepulchralis,' 
or ' Symbol am Animse,' a mortuary or 
oblation made at a person's death. In 
Saxon times it was a funeral fee, and be- 
came a right settled on the church. It 
differed from a ' corse-present,' which 
was an oblation made at funerals. 

Southcott {Joanna), 1810, declared 
herself about to be the mother of the 
promised Shiloh. She wrote a vast 
quantity of ' prophecy,' and sold seals 
which were to secure salvation to the 
purchasers. We are told that more than 



SOUTH-SEA 



SPAIN 



641 



100,000 persons believed in her, and a 

cradle of most costly materials was made 
for the expected babe, but in 1814 she 
died. Some, however, believed that she 
would rise from the grave and restore all 
things. 

South-sea Bubble (The), 1720. 
The scheme of Sir John Blount, a lead- 
ing director of the South Sea Company, 
to pay off the national debt (about 31 
millions sterling) within twenty-six years. 
The proposal was accepted by the House 
of Commons 1 Feb., 1720, when lOOl. 
stock rose to about 1,000Z. By August 
l,000,OOOZ.of the new stock was subscribed 
for, but by the close of the month the 
stock began to fall. 22 Jan., 1721, Knight, 
the cashier, absconded, carrying the re- 
gister of the company with him. The 
conduct of the company was inquired 
into by the House of Lords in June 1721. 
See ' South Sea Company.' 

Blount's scheme was to buy up the unredeem- 
able annuities, which amounted to 800,000?., and 
reduce all the different public securities into one 
uniform fund, making the best arrangements he 
could with the present holders. Set" ' Committee 
of Secresy,' ' Assiento,' and ' Mississippi Bubble.' 

South-sea Company (The), 9 
Anne c. 21, 6 May, 1710. A company 
projected by Robert Harley for the pur- 
pose of relieving the nation of its floating 
debt, which amounted at the time to ten 
millions. The plan was to sell this debt 
to a number of merchants, who were to 
be guaranteed 6% interest, and to have a 
monopoly of the South-sea trade. The 
buyers of the debt were incorporated by 
royal charter as the ' South-sea Company,' 
and certain taxes were set aside to pay 
the annual interest, which amounted to 
600,000Z. 27 June, 1711, a capital of four 
millions was raised for the company 
under a royal commission. 18 Feb., 1715, 
the Prince of Wales was made a governor, 
and 3 Feb., 1718, the king himself, George 
I., was a governor. 7 April, 1720, the com- 
pany offered to parliament to take into 
its hands the whole national debt, amount- 
ing to nearly 31 millions. See ' South 
Sea Scheme.' 

South-feea Fund (The). Esta- 
blished in 1711 to pay the interest of that 
part of the National Floating Debt ad- 
vanced by the South-sea Company and 
its annuitants. The debt was 10 millions 
sterling, and the interest at 6 per cent, 
amounted to 600,000^. a year. 
36 



South-sea Year (The), 1720. See 
' South-sea Bubble.' 

Sow has farrowed (The), 1819. 
When the English besieged Berwick 
they sent a testudo against the walls to 
undermine them. This movable pent- 
house was called a sow, because its roof 
resembled a sow's back. John Crab, a 
Fleming, erected a huge catapult, and 
one of the stones discilaarged from it 
smashed the wooden shed, and the soldiers 
under it ran as fast as they could to save 
themselves. 'The English sow has far- 
rowed ! ' shouted the besieged, and by 
hurling lighted torches from the walls 
they set fire to the sundry machines of 
assault. 

This jest was repeated, 7 Oct., 1337, by Black 
Agnes of Dunbar. Edward III. sent the Earl of 
Salisbury to besiege the castle of Dunbar, and a 
* sow ' was driven to the walls, when Agnes called 
out, ' Beware Monta^ow, for farrow shall thy sow,' 
and a huge rock falling on it, dashed it to pieces. 

Sowars, native Indian troopers. In 
the Indian mutiny, 1857, the sowars were 
conspicuous for their bloodthirstiness. 

Spa Fields {The Affair of), 2 Dec, 
1816. A great crowd, led by Orator Hunt 
and Mr. Watson, met in Spa Fields. 
They called themselves Spencean Phi- 
lanthropists or Spenceans (q.v.), and 
rushed to the Tower, demanding its sur- 
render. The sentinel laughed at them, 
when they followed Watson to Snow Hill 
and rtinsacked a gunsmith's shop. The 
Lord Mayor and Sir James Shaw dis- 
persed the mob, making several prisoners, 
but only one was executed. Capital was 
made of this riot in the House of Com- 
mons to urge the necessity of parlia- 
mentary reform. 

Spahees, holders of military fiefs in 
Turkey. In war they are bound to arm 
at their own cost. 

Spahis (The). The Arab cavalry 
in Algiers. The infantry are called 
Turcos. 

Spain (Kings and Queens of). Fer- 
dinand [Fernando] of Aragon and Isabel 
of Castile, 1479. 

Then the house of Austria gives five 
kings, 1516-1700. Then follows the house 
of Bourbon. 

House of Austria: Karl V., called Carlos I. (151f?- 
ISoi.) ; Felipe II., his son (lo5()-loy8) ; Felipe III., his 
son (1598- 1U21) ; Felipe IV., his son (1621-1005) ; Carlos 
II., his son (1005 1700), no issue. 

House of Ilouibon: Felipe V., son of Louis the 



842 



SPALDING 



SPANISH 



Dauphin grandson of Louis XIV. (1700-1724) : 
I. ; Fernando VI. ; Carlos IV. ; [Joseph Bon 



Louis 

Bonaparte 
■|«08 181H] ; Fernando VII. ; Isabel (deposed 1KI«) ; 
^'^adeus 1870; Alfons? XII.; Alfonso XIII. (born 
1386). 

Spalding MS. (The). A MS. 
romance written by the Rev. Solomon 
Spalding, who died in 1816. The 'Book 
of Mormon' {q.v.)is said to be a verbatim 
'"T>v of this romance, first published in 
1830. 

cJpan-COUrfter. Strutt (p. 384) in- 
forms us that this was a game similar to 
our chuck-penny. One of the players 
throws a counter and another tries to hit 
it, or to place his counter so near as to 
be able to span both (as in marbles), and 
in either case he wins both counters. In 
French : ' Jouer au tapper,' and in Italian, 
' Meglio al muro. See ' Blow-point.' 

Shortly boys shall not play 
At span-counter or blow-point, but shall pay 



Toll to some courtier. 



Dr. DoNNB, Satire, iv. 



Spanish Donkey {The), or * Equi- 
leus,' an instrument of torture employed 
by the Inquisitors. It consisted of a 
saddle mounted on a post, but the saddle 
was sharpened to a point. The victim was 
seated on this point, and heavy weights 
being attached to his feet, the point was 
slowly and gradually driven into the 
victim's body. 

Spanish Era {The). This era begins 
with 1 Jan. B.C. 38. See ' Era.' 

Spanish Fury {The), 1576. The 
Spanish soldiers under the Duke of 
Parma garrisoned in Antwerp mutinied 
in 1576 on account of their pay, joined 
the rebels, surprised the city, and made 
dreadful havoc of the inhabitants. The 
town-house and many other magnificent 
buildings, with 600 houses, were burnt to 
the ground, and upwards of 6,000 persons 
were killed or severely wounded. The 
' fury,' which lasted three days, began 
4 Nov. See p. 348, ' French Fury.' 

Spanish Inquisition (T/ie). In- 
stituted by Ferdmand and Isabella in 
1480 and suppressed in 1820. There had 
existed an Inquisition ever since 1203, 
when Innocent III. appointed a commis- 
sion to ' convert ' the Albigenses. Even 
in 382 Theodosius appointed inquisitors 
to search out and punish heretics; but 
what is generally understood by the Holy 
Office of the Inquisition is the modern 
Spanish Inquisition. 



Spanish Liturgy {The). A Greek 
liturgy altered by Isidore of Seville (570- 
636). It remained in use till the 11th 
cent. 

Spanish Liturgy {The Old), or 
'Mozarabic Liturgy,' consists of the 
liturgy of Rome, mingled with the oriental 
liturgies of the Arian Goths. Its use 
was suspended by the council of Braga ; 
and it was only saved from oblivion by 
Cardinal Ximenes, who reprinted it in 
1500, and endowed a chapel and canons 
to use it daily in Toledo. 

Spanish Main {The). The coast 
along the north part of South America, 

There was a loud demand upon Walpole (1733) to 
insist on plain terms for throwing open the trade 
to the Spanish main, and for satisfaction for past 
damages, but Walpole knew that such a course 
rendered a war hazardous. — HowiTT, Hist, of Eng ■ 
land (Geo. II. p. 418). 

Spanish Marriages {The). I. 
That of Isabella II., who came of age in 
1843 and who married against her will 
her imbecile cousin Don Francisco d'Assis 
10 Oct., 1846. 

II. The marriage of Louis Philippe's 
youngest son (the Duke de Montpensier) 
with the Infanta Luisa Maria, sister of 
Queen Isabella, also 10 Oct., 1846. These 
marriages were brought about by the in- 
trigues of Louis Philippe under the hope 
of securing to his son the Spanish throne. 

Spanish Phoenix {The). Lope de 
Vega (1562-1635) is so called by G. H. 
Lewis. 

Spanish Shakespeare {The). 
Calderon is so called by the brothers 
Schlegel. Sismondi calls him the ' Poet 
of the Inquisition.' 

Spanish Succession (1700). A 
question which led to a war of thirteen 
years' duration. Carlos II. had no child, 
and four crowned heads of Europe had 
pretty nearly equal claims to the succes- 
sion, viz. the King of France, the Kaiser- 
King of Germany, the Elector of Bavaria, 
and the King of Savoy. The last two re- 
tired, and left the field to France and 
Germany. Louis XIV. was the cousin of 
Carlos and son-in-law of Felipe IV. 
(whose eldest daughter he had married), 
and Carlos left the crown to Philippe 
d'Anjou, second son of the dauphin. The 
kaiser argued that France could not 
accept the Spanish crown, as she had re- 
nounced all claim to it by the treaty of 



SPANISH 



SPINOZAISM 



843 



the Pyrenees, and Karl, a grandson of 
Felipe IV., was the rightful heir. Louis 
XIV. pi-Qclaimed his grandson ' Felipe V.' 
of Spain, and Leopold proclaimed his 
second son ' Carlos III.' of Spain. War 
ensued, and England joined Germany. 
After a long contest, the French claimant 
was acknowledged by all parties. See 
' War of the Spanish Succession.' 

Spanish Tyrtaeus {The). Manuel 
Jose' Quintana (1772-1857). 

Spear (TAe), or ' Lance ' which pierced 
the side of Jesus on the cross, is thus 
accounted for. St. Andrew of Crete 
affirms that it was found by the Empress 
Helena in the cave of the temple of Venus 
at Jerusalem, with the cross and other 
relics. The shaft is in the basilica of 
St. Peter's at Rome; but Baldwin 11. 
king of Jerusalem sent the head of it to 
Venice, and St. Louis (IX.) took it thence 
to Paris, where it was carefully preserved 
in the Holy Chapel till the French Revo- 
lution. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 

St. Andrew of Crete died In 722, and he speaks of 
the spear in his ' De Exaltatione Crucis ' ; but cer- 
tainly it is not included in any of the early lists of 
the relics discovered by the Empress Helena. 

SpecialPurposes and Sanitary 
Committee {The Metropolitan). Re- 
sponsible for the inspection and control of 
the 15,403 premises in which animals are 
slaughtered, or offensive trades are car- 
ried on ; where petroleum and other ex- 
plosives are stored ; where cows are kept 
and milk sold ; and where babies are 
farmed out. The committee has an in- 
specting staff of ten persons. It also pre- 
sides over the testing of gas and gas- 
meters, for which it employs fifty chemists, 
examiners, and inspectors. Every alter- 
nate Tuesday it acts as the Contagious 
Diseases Act Committee. 

Speculum {Br. Dee's). A mirror 
which Dr. John Dee asserted was brought 
to him by the angels Raphael and Gabriel. 
At the Doctor's death it passed into the 
possession of the Earl of Peterborough at 
Drayton ; then to Lady Betty Germaine, 
who gave it to John duke of ArgyU. The 
duke's grandson (Lord Frederick Camp- 
bell) gave it to Horace Walpole ; and in 
1842 it was sold, at the dispersion of 
the curiosities of Strawberry Hill, to 
Mr. Smythe Pigott. At the sale of 
Pigott's library in 1853 it passed into the 



possession of Lord Londesborough, and is 
now in the British Museum. 

It is a flat polished mineral, like cannel coal, of 
a circular form, and fitted with a handle. 

Speculum Hu'manae Salva- 

tio'nis. A sacred picture book in 
rhyme. This book and the ' Biblia Pau- 
perum' {q.v.) were immensely popular 
before the Reformation. 

Speculum Majus {The). A kind 
of encyclopaedia in four parts by Vincent 
de Beauvais, who died 1264. Part i. 
containing a description of nature ; part 
ii. containing philosophy, rhetoric, gram- 
mar, law, medicine, and theology; part 
iii. containing history, and part iv. moral 
philosophy. 

Spencean Philanthropists 

{The), or ' Spenceans,' 1816. A society 
established in London by a Mr. Spence, a 
Yorkshire schoolmaster, assisted by Pres. 
ton (a workman), Watson (father and 
son, surgeons), and Castles, who turned 
out to be an informer against them. Their 
platform was a common property in aU 
land, the destruction of all machinery, 
and parliamentary reform. On 2 Dec. 
they met in Spa Fields, and went in a 
crowd to the Tower, when Preston sum- 
moned the sentinel to surrender, at which 
he laughed. The mob was dispersed, and 
one man was tried and condemned to 
death. Hunt made capital of this silly 
affair towards reform in parliament. The 
Spenceans were connected with the Green 
Bag Plot (g.v.). 

Spenerism, 1690. A prototype of 
Methodism, or the establishment of ' col- 
legia pietatis,' that is leavening confra- 
ternities. The whole community was 
divided into sections, each section had a 
centre of life, an earnest leader whom the 
section was to obey. There were exhorters 
to stir up the flagging, converts were 
placed under the eye of trusty overseers, 
and sections were vitalised by class meet- 
ings. So named from Philippe Jacques 
Spener, of Alsace, the founder of the sect 
(1635-1705). 

Sphinx (The Egyptian) at Gizeh is 
attributed to tlip third Egyptian dynasty, 
but there are several of later date. 

Spino'zaism. The philosophical 
system of Baruch de Spinoza, of Amster- 
dam (1622-1677), who taught that the 
universe is aU ou j with a mundane soul. 



844 



SPIEES 



SP"X 



That there is only one substance which is 
infinite, with two essential attributes — 
thought and extension. This substance 
is, in fact, Spinoza's deity, and all finite 
beings are merely parts or modifications 
of this one eternal whole. Spinoza died 
1677, aged 45. 

According to this system, the universe was not 
created by God, but the universe is God. God is 
everything, and everything is God ; that is to say, 
God is ' the all in all.' 

Spires, or 'Speyer' {Diet of ). See 
under ' Diet.' 

Spiritualists, or ' Spiritists ' {The). 
Those who believe that men and women 
have intercourse with the spirits of the 
other world. Roman Catholics believe 
that holy men and women have com- 
munion with the spirits of the just, made 
perfect ; but spiritualists believe that 
any spirit may be invoked, and ques- 
tioned by the living. Originated in Ame- 
rica in 1848. 

Splendour of Keason or Wis- 
dom {The). Mian-ning emperor of 
China, son of Kia-king. In 1840 he de- 
clared war with England for importing 
opium into his empire. In 1842 the war 
terminated, and five ports were thrown 
open to English traders. 

Spoilt Child of Fortune {The). 
Andre Massena, who, next to Napoleon, 
was the greatest of the French generals 
in the first empire. It was Napoleon who 
called him ' the Spoilt Child of Fortune ' 
and made him prince of Eslingen, for 
his distinguished valour at Eslingen in 
1809 (1758-1817). 

Spolia Opi'ma. Spoils taken by a 
Roman general from an enemy slain in 
single combat. Only thrice obtained : 
(1) by Romulus from Acron king of the 
Caeninenses ; (2) by Cossus from Tolum- 
nius king of the Veientes, B.C. 318 ; and 
(3) by Marcellus from Virodomarus king 
of the Gauls, B.C. 222. 

Sponge {The), filled with vinegar and 
presented to Jesus on the cross, when He 
cried ' I thirst,' is said to be in the basilica 
of St. John de Lateran of Rome. The 
Venerable Bede assures us that he saw 
it in the silver tankard used by our Lord 
in the Last Supper. See 'Crucifixion, 
Relics of the.' 

A part of the sponge is said to be preserved 
at St. James of Compiegne, another piece at St. 
Sylvester, another piece at St. Maria Maggiore, 
another at St. Mary in Trastevere, another at 



St. Mark's, another at St. Mary's in Campitelli. 
St. Louis (IX.) we are told bought a part of the 
sponge of Baldwin with other ' sacred relics.' 

Spot "Ward. Joshua Ward, one of 
the physicians who attended the court of 
George II. So called from a claret spot 
{ncevus maternus) on his cheek. He was 
famous for his blue, red, and purple pills 
containing antimony or arsenic. 

Of late, without the least pretence to skill, 
Ward's grown a famed physician by a pill. 

Spread-eagleism in America cor- 
responds to chauvinism in France, and 
jingoism in England. 

Spring Captains are officers of the 
militia summoned for duty in their re- 
spective regiments for about six weeks in 
the spring of the year. Also young officera 
who come to London in the spring to 
attend the Epsom and Ascot races, where 
they go 'to cut a dash,' and risk their 
money in bets. All well-dressed fast men 
were, at onetime, called ' captain ' by book- 
makers, and ai'e so still to a great extent. 
See p. 858, ' Summer Lieutenants.' 

Spring-heeled Jack (1837-1838). 
Some one or party of confederates who 
assumed sundry diabolical shapes, and for 
six months kept London and its suburbs 
in perpetual fright. Robbery was not their 
game, but simply to scare. Spring-heeled 
Jack first appeared at Barnes as a white 
bull ; then at East Sheen as a white bear ; 
then at Richmond, Ham, Kingston, and 
Hampton as a man in brass armour ; then 
at Teddington, Twickenham, Hounslow, 
and Sion Park. Afterwards at Uxbridge, 
Hanwell, and Brentford ; then at Ealing, 
in steel armour ; then at Hammersmith, 
as a gigantic baboon, (fee. He attacked 
travellers and caused them bodily injuries, 
then with a somersault disappeared over a 
wall or hedge. Rumour said that the ring- 
leader of this gang was the Marquis of 
Waterford, but no proof was ever adduced 
in support of this surmise. In the spring 
of 1838 these silly pranks ceased. 

Even so late as 1877-78 an officer of her Majesty's 
service caused no little excitement at Colchester, 
Aldershot, and other garrison towns, by springing 
suddenly on passers-by. 

Spurious Scriptures {The). See 
p. 801, ' Scriptures, Spurious.' 

Spy "Wednesday. The Wednes- 
day of Holy Week, or the day before 
Maundy Thursday. The sanhedrim first 
sent a deputation to pry into the creden- 
tials of Jesus ; then wily hypocrites to 



SQUARE 



STADTHOLDER 



845 



put questions to entrap him ; at last they 
agreed with Judas to betray his private 
haunts during the hours of the night, and 
sent with the faithless disciple officers to 
apprehend his master. 

Square Caps, in French ' Bonnets 
Carre's' (15th cent.). First made in 
France by Patrouillet, but used in Eng- 
land by ecclesiastics long before. The 
familiar name of a university cap is a 
mortar-board, which some affirm to be a 
playful corruption of the French mortier. 
This is doubtful, as the viortier is a 
round velvet cap, still worn in France by 
the pre'sidents des cours de justice. It 
has not a flat square board, like a mortar- 
board, but resembles an inverted mortar 
used by chemists and druggists. As a 
rule tnortier means a velvet cap, bonnet a 
woollen one. 

still the French mortar-cap may have suggested 
the playful name. St. Louis (1'215-1270), in a window 
of Sainte Chapelle, is represented with a mo?-(icr on 
his head, and numerous MSS. and miniatures re- 
present Louis XI. with the same sort of cap. All 
members of the French parlement wore scarlet 
robes and mortars. 

Square the Circle (To). To find 
a square exactly equal to the area of a 
given circle, or (which is probably the 
same thing) to find the exact proportion be- 
tween the diameter and the circumference 
of a circle. Roughly speaking, three 
times the diameter = the circumference, 
but the exact measure has never been 
discovered. 

Anaxagoras died in prison while attempting to 
square the circle. B.C. 428. 

Squares of a Right-angled 
Triangle (Euclid, i. 47). 'The square 
of the greatest side = the sum of the 
squares of the other two sides. This 
famous proposition is attributed to Pytha- 
goras ; but the Chinese have had from 
time immemorial a somewhat similar 
one. If the three sides are respectively 
equal to 3, 4, 5 (or their multiples), then 
the square of the greatest side will equal 
the sum of the 
squares of the other 
two sides. 

This is obvious 
from the diagram. 
The square of 5 con- 
tains 25 equal parts, 
the square of 3 con- 
tains 9, and the 
square of 4 contains 
16. As 9 + 16 = 25, 
the sum of the squares of the two smaller 




sides = the square of the greatest side of 
the right-angled triangle. 

Squire Letters {The). Thirty-five 
letters sent to Carlyle in 1847 respecting 
Oliver Cromwell, purporting to have been 
written by Samuel Squire, a subaltern in 
the Ironsides. This Squire had served 
with OUver from the ' first mount ' of 
that indomitable corps, and had kept a 
journal (1642-1643). Carlyle requested 
to see the originals of these letters or 
this journal, and received for answer 
that the correspondent had ' gathered all 
the old Puritan papers, the Ironside 
Journal, and all Cromwell's autographs 
together, and burnt them,' adding ' Much 
evil hereby lies buried.' See p. 524, 
' Literary Forgeries.' 

Squitti'no {The) of Florence. A 
corruption of Scrutinio, a special council 
for the appointment of magistrates. The 
act of election was termed squittinare, 
i.e. scrutinimn, because minute investi- 
gation was made into the quaUties of the 
eligible burghers. 

Sse-ki {The), or 'Book of Annals,' in 
five parts, begins the history of China 
from B.C. 2697, but no dates are given to 
the annals till B.C. 827, the reign of 
Siuen-wang. It was the work of Sse-ma- 
Thsian, the Herodotus of China, who 
lived in the reign of HanHo-lee (89-106). 

The Shu-king, a book of morals and history, is 
said to have been written in the mythical reign 
of Ya-u, who reigned 102 years (B.C. 2357-2255). 

Stabat Mater Doloro'sa. This 

Latin hymn is sometimes attributed to 
Innocent III., but with greater proba- 
bility was composed by Jacopone of 
Todi. 

It has been set to music by Pergolese (4 syl.), 
Haydn, Handel, Rossini, and others. 

Stable-stand (in forest law) is when 
a person is found at his stand in a forest 
with a bow in his hand, or close to a tree 
with a greyhound ready to slip. It is 
one of the four presumptive evidences of 
deer-stealing. The other three are — 

Back-berond, or back-berind; that is, 
having a deer on his back. 

Bloody-hand, when his hands or clothes 
are stained with blood. 

Dog- draw, drawing after a deer by the 
scent of a hound led in hand. 

Stadtholder. A high functionary 
in the republic of the Seven United 



846 



STAFF 



STAND AED 



Provinces of the Netherlands. Originally 
the word was given to the commander of 
the forces, then to the governor of a 
province, and to the general governor of 
the united provinces called his stadt- 
holderate. The office was abolished at 
the death of William II., in 1650, but was 
restored in 1672 in favour of William III. 
(who received the crown of Great Britain). 
It was again abolished at the death of 
William III. in 1702, but was reconstituted 
in 1747 in favour of William IV. of Nas- 
sau, who was created ' General and Here- 
ditary Stadtholder.' This continued till 
1795, when France conquered Holland. 

Staff of Jesus {The). Said to have 
belonged to St. Patrick. It was covered 
with gold and set with precious stones. 
It was kept in the Cathedral of Armagh 
till Fitz-Aldelm, the English governor of 
Ireland, removed it to the church in 
Dublin, in 1178. 

Stagi'rite {The). Greek arrayeipiTri^. 
Aristotle, born in Stagira, in Macedonia 
(B.C. 384-322). 

Staircase {The) of Pilate's judgment 
hall, up which Jesus ascended, was sent 
by the Empress Helena to Rome in 856, 
and it was deposited in St. John de 
Lateran. It consists of twenty-eight 
stairs of white marble, now cased in wood 
for preservation. See p. 231, ' Crucifixion 
(Belies of the).' 

Pope Leo IV., in 850, established the practice of 
mounting these stairs on one s knees. If they had 
not been cased with wood they would assuredly 
have been worn through. 

Stalwarts {The), 1889. The new 
Radical party in the House of Commons. 
In the U.S. the more out-and-out mem- 
bers of the Republican party have been 
called ' Stalwarts ' for fourteen or fifteen 
years (1890). 

Stambool, i.e. Constantinople, is a 
corruption of eis rr/v iroKiv (Greek, 'to 
the city'), pronounced by the Turks 
Stan-bolin, shortened into Stambool. 

Is it not rather a corrupt abbreviation of Con- 
Btantinople into Stanti-pol, Stan-pol, Stanabool ? 

Stamp Act {The), 17G4, by Lord 
Grenville. The imposition of stamp 
duties on our American colonies. Re- 
pealed, after several riots in Boston and 
other parts of North America, in 1766. 

All that Grenville expected to obtain by this 
act was barely 1*. a head from the North Ameri- 
cans, which would have produced at the utmost 
only 100,000/. a year.— HowiTT, Hist, of Eug. (Geo, 
111. chap. iii. p. 38). 



*;,,* The principal Stamp Acts since 
are 55 Geo. III. c. 184 ; 13, 14 Vict. c. 
97 ; 16, 17 Vict. cc. 59, 63 ; and the 17, 
18 Vict. c. 83. The acts provide that a 
tax be imposed on all papers on which 
legal proceedings or private instruments 
are written, and also upon licences for 
retailing wines, letting horses on hire, 
cards, dice, cheques, receipts, and nume- 
rous other purposes. 

Standard {Battle of the), 22 Aug., 
1183, won by Stephen over the Scotch. 

Standard {The) of the ' Battle of the 
Standard ' consisted of the banners of St. 
Cuthbert of Durham, St. John of Bever- 
ley, and St. Wilfrid of Ripon, brought 
from their churches. This combination 
banner, raised on a tall mast, was set on 
a four-wheeled car. The mast was sur- 
mounted with a cross, attached to which 
was a pyx containing the sacramental 
wafer. This standard was erected by the 
English army which fought for Stephen 
against the Scotch, who took the part of 
Matilda daughter of Henry I., and niece 
of David king of Scotland at the time. 
The battle was fought at Northallerton 
22 Aug., 1138. See above. 

Standard {The Black). That of 
the Abbaside califs. 

The dress, the turbans, and the standards of the 
Abbaside califs were aU black.— Dr. Herbelot. 

Standard {The Celestial). The 
great green silk flag of the Turks, said to 
have been given to Mohammed by the 
angel Gabriel. It is now preserved in 
four coverings of green taffeta, enclosed 
in a case of green cloth. It is twelve 
feet in height, and the golden hand 
which surmounts the pole holds a copy 
of the Koran. In times of peace this 
palladium is guarded in the ' hall of the 
noble vestments,' in which hall are pre- 
served relics of the 'prophet,' as his 
teeth, beard, stirrup, sabre, and bow. 

Standard Doctrines {The) of the 
Wesleyans, imposed by the Conference 
on every minister in the connexion, are 
contained in Wesley's four volumes of 
sermons, and his ' Notes on the New 
Testament.' 

Standard of Augustus {The). A 
globe, to indicate his empire of the world. 

Standard of Cheap (opposite 
Honey Lane). A substantial building 



STANDARD 



STANDARD 



847 



for the supply of water, in existence in 
the reign of Edward I. Stow, in his 
'Survey,' tells us it was made in the 
mayoralty of John Wells, grocer. 

In the reign of Edward III. two fishmongers 
■were beheaded at the Cheapside Standard for 
riot. And Henry IV. caused ' the blank charter ' 
of Richard II. to be burnt at the same standard. 

Standard of Constant ine {The) 

was called the ' Labarum,' and the 
bearers were denominated Labariferi. 
It was purple, with a gold fringe, and 
only unfurled when the emperor himself 
was in the field. This standard was 
decorated with the sacred monogram X P 
(Chr-istos). See Gibbon, ' Decline and 
FaU,' XX., 7iote (1788). 

Standard of Cornhill (TAe), 1582. 
A water conduit with four spouts made 
by Peter Morris, a German, and supplied 
with Thames water conveyed by leaden 
pipes over the steeple of St. Magnus's 
Church. It stood at the east end of 
Cornhill, at its junction with Gracechurch 
Street, Bishopsgatc Street, and Leaden- 
hall Street. The water ceased to run 
batween 1598-1G03, but the standard 
itself remained long after. Distances 
from London were measured from this 
spot. 

Standard of Great Britain 

{The Boyal). A red banner with the 
national arms covering the entire field. 

The standard of Edward I. was a flag with the 
arms of England, St. George, St. Edmond, and St. 
Edward. 

Standard of the ancient Danes : A 
flag fringed, and bearing a raven. 
Som.etimes mounted on a stand with 
wheels. Since the 13tb cent, the Danne- 
hrog has been the Danit^h standard. 

EgijjJtians: An eagle stripped of its 
feathers. 

Franks : A tiger or wolf on a pole. 
After they became Romanized they 
adopted the Roman eagle, and later 
still a large flag with fleurs-de-lis. 

Gauls ; A lion, bull, or bear on a pole. 

Greeks : See lower doivn. 

Jews : See lower down. 

Persians: In the time of Cyrus, a 
golden eagle with outspread wings. 
The blacksmith's apron ; said to be 
the apron of Kawah, or Gao, who 
headed a rebellion against Biver, 
and used his apron for a standard 
(B.C. 800). 

Romans : See lower down. 



Standard of the Anglo-Saxons 

{The) was an ensign. It was a white 
horse on a pole. Later on it was a flag 
bearing a white horse. 

Standard of the Greeks {The). 
The ancient Greeks had no national 
banners, but they had ensigns, called 
semeia [se-ml-ah]. 

The Athenian ensign was an owl on 
the top of a pole, in honour of Athene 
[Minerva], their protector. 

The Corinthian ensign was a pegasus 
or winged horse. 

The Messenian ensign was the letter M. 

The Lacedemonian ensign was a 
Greek L [A]. 

The Thehan ensign was a sphinx, in 
commemoration of the monster overcome 
by ffidipus. 

The signal for battle was hoisting on a spear a 
purple coat or white cloth. Polybius tells us that 
the Illyrians received orders to begin the fight by 
the hoisting of a uhite flag ; the Megalopolitans 
by hoisting a imrple coat. And Homer says that 
Agamemnon hoisted a purple cloth as a telegraph 
to begin fighting. When the ensign was taken 
down the fighting was to cease. 

Standard of the Jews {The). 

1. Of Judah : A Hon. 

2. „ Reuben : A man. 

3. „ Ephraim : A bicll. 

4. „ Dan : The cheruhini (Gen. xlix. 
3-22). Seep. 300, 'Evangelical Symbols.' 

(Jahn, ' Archeologia Biblica,' No. 287.) 

There are three words — degel, oth, and nes — 
meaning a standard. The nes was not borne 
from place to place, but the pole of the flag was 
fixed in the earth (Jer. iv. G. 21 : li. 12, 27 ; Ezek. 
xxvii. 7). It seems to have been used as a call to 
arms. The oth appears to have been a long pole 
■with a bunch of leaves fastened on the top. 

Standard of the Prophet {The), 
A.D. 682. When Mahomet was dying, at 
Medina, on the eve preceding the con- 
quest of Syria, the chief officers entered 
to hear his last orders. Ayesha, to save 
the prophet from further exhaustion, 
tore down the green curtain which 
screened one end, threw it to the officers, 
and told them to preserve it as a rallying- 
point for Islam. This standard floated 
over the walls of Vienna in 1683, but 
is never unfurled except at times of grave 
emergency. In battle it is borne to the 
front, where all may see it. 

Standard of the Romans {The) 
was not a flag, but a pole surmounted 
with an eagle, horse, or some other 
device. A flag was always the proper 
and only ensign of the Roman cavalry. 
Under the empire a distinct body of 



848 



STANDAED 



STAR 



soldiers, called ' Vexillarii ' (flag-bearers), 
were embodied, to render assistance to 
the army if required and guard the 
frontiers. They were mounted, and car- 
ried a special flag or ' vexillum.* 

Neither the Romans nor the Greeks had 
standards — i.e. large flags— but only ensigns. 

Standard of the Turks. 

The Sanjak Cherif of green silk. See 
above, ' Standard of the Prophet.' 

The Sanjak Cherif of red silk. 

The Tug, consisting of one, two, or 
three horse-tails fastened to the end of 
a gilt lance. Beys have one horse-tail 
carried before them. Pachas have three 
horse-tails. 

The Alem, a broad standard with a 
silver crescent in the middle. 

See ' Flags.' 

Standards of Royalty, &c., in 
the Middle Ages. 

The great standarde to be sett before the kinpe's 
pavilion [not to be borne in battle] is to be of ithe 
length of eleven yardes, [but] the standarde to be 
borne [to battle] is to be slitte at the end, and vii. 
yardes long. 

The erle's standarde is to be vi. yardes long. 

The baron's standarde v. yardes long. 

The bannereU's standarde iiij. yardes and the 
haulfe long. 

The knicihtc's standarde iv. yardes longe. 

Every standarde to have inthechiefe thecrosse 
of St. George, to be slitte at the end, and to con- 
tayne the creast wyth the posy and device of 
the owner. 

Standing Council of the 
Church {The), 1596. A permanent 
Scotch committee of Presbyterians, with 
supreme authority in the Presbyterian 
Church, whenever it was thought there 
was any danger to the ecclesiastical 
establishment. They were very dog- 
matical and most rancorous against 
Catholics. 

Standing-fishes Bible (The), 
1806. ' And it shall come to pass that the 
fishes [flshers] shall stand upon it from 
Engedi.' See ' Bible ' and ' Scriptures.' 

Stanhope Historical Essay 

(The), Oxford University. Value 201. in 
books. The range is limited to the dates, 
1800-1815. Founded by Lord Stanhope 
in 1855. 

Stapleton College, 1315. The 
original name of Exeter College, Oxford. 
Founded by Walter Stapleton, bishop of 
Exeter. 

Star {The Order of the), 1350. A 
French military order, established by 
Jean le Bon. It consisted of warriors 



who had received wounds in battle. The 
knights of the Star vowed never to retreat 
before an enemy more than one mile, 
after which they had to make a stand and 
either conquer, be taken prisoners, or be 
cut down. Extinct about 1460. 

Star and Luminary of La-w 
and Lantern of Equity {The). 
BartoH the Italian civilian (1312-135G). 

Star Chamber {The). Chamhre 
des Estoylles. In Latin, 'Camera 
Stellata,' 3 Henry VII. c. 1 (1486). 
Abolished 16 Car. I, c. 10 (1641). Green 
sa,ys, in his 'History of the English 
People,' 'the bonds of the Jews were 
deposited for greater security in a cham- 
ber of the royal palace at Westminster, 
which, from their Hebrew name of 
* Starrs,' gained the title of the Star Cham- 
ber.' The Latin equivalent, ' Camera 
Stellata,' does not support this hypothesis, 
but seems to refer to some ' starry de- 
coration ' of the chamber. We have the 
Painted Chamber, the Wliite Chamber, 
&c., and, if Mr. Green's suggestion were 
correct, the Latin phrase would be ' Ca- 
mera Stellarum,' not ' Camera Stellata.* 
We are told that part of the decorations 
of the Star Chamber may still be seen in 
Leasowe Castle, West Cheshire, the seat 
of Sir Edward Cust, baronet. 

The jurisdiction of this court was without 
appeal in the hands of the treasurer and the 
keeper of the privy seal, assisted by a bishop, a 
temporal lord of the privy council, the chief 
justice, and two other justices. 

The reason why the Court of the Star Chamber 

was so hated in Charles I.'s time is because Charles 

used it as a general law court to exact fines for 

his own exchequer. Amongst other cases were 

the following : A gentleman who had married his 

I niece was fined 12,000/. Brawlers were fined 

j 4,000;. or 0,0001. John Hampden was prosecuted 

I in this court for refusing to pay ship-money. 

Chambers, an alderman of London, was fined 

2,000/. for saying that men in England were worse 

off than those in Turkey. The judges in the court 

of the Star Chamber were the king s privy council. 

It was held in the palace of Westminster without 

jury. 

The Star Chamber took cognizance of forgery, 
perjury, riots, frauds, libels, conspiracies, mis- 
conduct of judges and of other ofQcers connected 
with the law-courts, contempt of the king's 
authority, and even treason, felony, and murder ; 
but capital punishinent could not be awarded 
by this court. Its power was restricted to fines, 
pillory, torture, mutilation, and incarceration 
for a term of years or for life. It dated back to 
very ancient times, but its powers were abridged 
by Edward III., and it was wholly abolished by 
16 Car. I. c. 10. 

Star of India {The), 1869. For 
distinguished merit or service in our 
colonial possessions. Originally it con- 
sisted of 25 knights of the grand cross, 



STAR 



STATES-GENERAL 



849 



60 knights commanders, and 100 com- 
panions ; but in 1880 the numbers were 
increased to 35, 120, and 200. 

Star of South Africa (The). A 
South African diamond, weighing in the 
rough 83^ carats, and after being cut 
46^ carats. 

Star of the North {The). Gus- 
tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was so 
called after his great victory at Leipzig, 
7 Sept., 1631, over Tilly and the Catholic 
League. This was the first great battle 
of the Thirty Years' War. 

The other two great battles of this war were 
Liltzen (1()32), also won by Gustavus ; and Nord- 
lingen, in 1034, won by the kaiser s son over the 
Protestants. This son was afterwards Frledrich 
III. of Germany. 

Star of the South (The) weighs 

254 carats, and is the largest diamond 
hitherto found in Brazil. It is a brilliant 
of purest water, and was found in July 
1853 by a poor negress working in the 
mines of Bogagen. 

Star-spangled Banner {The). 

The national banner of the United 
States of America. First applied to the 
American flag by Francis S. Key on the 
morning after the British attack on Fort 
McHenry, at Baltimore, in 1814. 

Oh ! say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the 
brave ? 

Star Tables {The), 1437. Compiled 
by Ulugh Begh, sultan of Samarcand 
and astronomer. They are still highly 
esteemed and referred to. See p. 284, 
* Eelkhanee Tables.' 

Starch. It is said that Mrs. Anne 
Turner invented the yellow starch which 
stiffened the ruffs so fashionable at 
one time in the haiit monde. This Mrs. 
Turner also compounded love-philters, 
and was condemned to death 15 Nov., 
1615, for poisoning Sir Thomas Overbury. 
On the day of execution Mrs. Turner 
wore a ruff stiffened with yellow starch, 
and the fashion went out of vogue. 

The legend that Mrs. Turner was hanged by her 
collar is, of course, nonsense. She might appear 
on the scaffold in such a collar, that is, wearing 
one, but that is a very different thing from being 
suspended hii it to the gallows. 

In 13 Nov!, 1840, Maria Manning wore a black 
satin dress when she was executed on the roof of 
Horsemonger Lane Gaol, and black satin gowns 
instantly disappeared from society. 

Star'keyltes (3 syl.). Faith-healers 
so called from Mr. Starkey, a clergyman, 



who joined James Prince, the founder of 
the Agapemone at Charlynch, near 
Bridgewater. 

Starosts (2 syl.). Dignitaries of 
Poland who held in the name of the king 
either a fort or royal domain. They 
taxed their own people, but paid one- 
fourth to the king. 

Stars and Bars. The flag of the 
Confederate States of North America 
(1861-65). 

Stars and Stripes. The national 

banner of the North American United 
States. The stars are white on a blue can- 
ton ; the stripes are alternately red and 
white running horizontally. Said to re- 
present the mullets and bars of the Wash- 
ington coat of arms. 

Start {The), 1650. The escape of 
Charles II. from Perth, during a hawking 
expedition, after the battle of Dunbar. 
He rode forty-two miles and passed the 
night in a miserable hovel at Clova, 
a village in Forfarshire, in the braes of 
Angus. Next day Colonel Montgomery 
induced him to return, and he was 
crowned by the Scotch parliament 1 Jan., 
1651. 
First the officers refused to serve under Leslie. 
. . . Next, they hinted doubts of the lawfulness 
of the war. . . . Then came the accident of ' The 
Start ' which embittered and emboldened the zeal 
of the fanatics.— Dr. Lingard, Hist, of Eng., viii. i. 

State Services {The), 1661. Four 
services annexed to the Book of Common 
Prayer after the Restoration : viz. one 
for Gunpowder Treason, 5 Nov. ; one for 
King Charles's Martyrdom, 30 Jan. ; one 
for the Restoration, 29 May ; and one 
for the King's Accession. The first three 
were expunged from the book by order of 
council given by Queen Victoria. 

Stately Sunday. Trinity Sunday 
is so called, because the mystery of the 
Trinity is the most stately of all. See 
' Sunday.' 

States-General {The). I. In 
French history was a deliberative as- 
sembly, consisting of deputies from the 
nobility, clergy, and commonalty. The 
first was convoked by Philippe IV. on 
10 April, 1302, and the last by Louis XVI. 
in May, 1789, when the number of deputies 
was 1,145. 

There was a states-general under Louis XIII., 
'27 Sept.,lG14. 

81 



850 



STATESMEN 



STATUTUM 



II. Of the united provinces. The 
legish\tive body consistmg at first of only- 
five members, but subsequently increased 
to seven. The states-general of Holland 
ceased to exist in 1795 when the republic 
was broken up. 

The legislative body of the present kingdom ol 
the Netherlands is so called. 

Statesmen {The), in the Common- 
wealth of England were the civilians of 
the House of Parliament in contradis- 
tinction to the ' Grandees of the Army ' 
{q.v.). 

The grandees of the army felt that they no 
longer [in 1653] possessed the chief sway of the 
government. War had called them away to their 
commands in Scotland and Ireland; and during 
their absence the conduct of affairs had devolved 
on those who, in contradistinction, were denomi- 
nated the statesmen.— Dr. LiNGARD, Hist, of Eng., 
viii. 5. 

Statics {Father of). Archimedes of 
Syracuse, slain B.C. 212, aged 75. 

statics is the science of forces in (equilihrio, 
•which produce rest. Dynamics is the science of 
forces which produce motion. To Archimedes we 
owe also the principal laws of hydrostatics. 

Statue of "William III. This 
equestrian statue on College Green, 
Dubhn, was inaugurated in 1701, in com- 
m.emoration of the battle of the Boyne 
in 1690. Twice a year, viz. 1 July, the 
anniversary of the battle, and 4 Nov., the 
birthday of William (the Orangemen's 
festivals), the statue used to be white- 
washed, the king being decorated with a 
scarlet coat and orange sash, while a 
bunch of green ribbons and shamrocks 
was placed under the uplifted left foot of 
the horse. Garlands of orange lilies, 
and streamers of orange ribbons decked 
the horse, and any person passing the 
statue who neglected to take off his 
hat was knocked down, and then kicked 
for presuming to fall in the presence of 
the hero. In 3 822 these biennial decora- 
tions were prohibited by law, and in 1836 
the statue was blown to pieces by gun- 
powder. Daniel O'Connell, during his 
year of mayoralty, had the statue re- 
paired and bronzed. The original statue 
was of iron, faced with lead. 

Statuesque School of French 
artists. The school of painting founded 
by David (1748-1825). 

David, pronounced Dah-rerd. 

Statu'ta Gui'gonis, 1134. The 
iVritten rules of the Carthusians made 
by the fifth prior Guigo. Also called 
Consuetudlnes CartusicB. 



Statu'ta Sabau'diae. The code of 
laws by Amadeus III. of Savoy (1391- 
1451). 

Statute Caps. Cloth caps enjoined 
by statute (13 Eliz. c. 19) to be worn by 
all apprentices. Similar to the caps of 
the Bluecoat boys. James I. had the 
size, shape, colour, and price of such caps 
fixed by Act of Parliament. 

Better wits have worn plain statute caps. 

Love's Labour's Lost, Act v. 8. 

Statute-merchant, 12 Oct., 1283. 
A bond of record under the hand and seal 
of the debtor, authenticated by the king's 
seal. If the debtor failed to pay on the 
date assigned, execution was summarily 
awarded. See p. 8, ' Acton Burnel, &c.' 

Statute of Labourers (T7ie), 1349, 

fixing the wages to be given ; and another 
1360 which enacted that labourers, who 
absented themselves from their work or 
quitted their place of abode without per- 
mission, should be imprisoned for fifteen 
days and branded on their forehead with 
a hot iron. Trades unions were decreed 
to be unlawful. Every labourer was to 
work at a rate of wages fixed by statute. 

Statute 6 George I. {The). En- 
acted that ' the crown of Ireland be in- 
separably annexed to that of Great Bri- 
tain ; that Ireland be bound by British 
acts of Parliament, if named therein ; 
that the Irish House of Lords have no 
appellate jurisdiction ; and that final 
appeals, in all cases of law and equity, 
be to the British House of Peers.' In 
1782 Henry Grattan induced the British 
legislature to reijeal this act, and the 
Irish parliament voted him a donation of 
50,000Z. 

Statutes of lo'na {The), 1603 
(James I. of England). The object of 
these laws was to bring the Hebrideans 
in line with the rest of Scotland. 

The principal men of the M'Leods, the Mac- 
donalds, Jlacleans, and Macneils (also Mac- 
kinnons, &c.) were Hebridean chiefs. 

Statutum de Milit'ibus, 1307 

(1 Edw. II.), defining and regulating the 
obligation to receive knighthood in Eng- 
land. It is now a coveted honour, but in 
the middle ages it was shirked, and laws 
were passed to compel those qualified to 
assume the honour. The compulsory 
obligation was abolished in 1642 (16, 17 
Car. I. c. 80). 



STEEL 



STENKILL 



851 



Steel Boys {The), 1760. Irish rebels 
who went about armed to rescue from 
the constables those taken up for refusing 
to pay rent, or who committed acts of 
violence in opposing the law. See ' Irish 
Associations.' 

The cause of this armed rebellion was this: 
The estates of Lord Donegal (an absentee Irish 
landlord) being out of lease, he proposed to accept 
fines from his tenants in the place of rent. Many 
tenants were unable to pay the fine Imposed, and 
some did not choose to do so. Evictions fol- 
lowed, the vacant estates were let to merchants 
of Belfast, whole districts were partly depopu- 
lated, and insurrection followed insurrection. 
When these upritings were put down by the mili- 
tary, thousands of Irish migrated to America. 
Ireland continued in a state of turbulence more 
or less to the* close of the century, the great 
grievance being the restrictions imposed by the 
British parliament on Irish commerce. 

*,* During the ' Home Kule ' trouble there was 
a gang of Irish robbers called Steelboys in the 
county of Mayo, but they had no connection with 
the agrarian agitators. See p. 428, ' Home Rule.' 

Steel Hand. The founder of the 
race of Clephane of Carslogie was so 
called because, when he lost one of his 
hands, his feudal lord supplied him with 
a liand made of steel (Scott, ' Border 
Antiquities,' vol. ii. p. 206). See * Duke 
with the silver hand,' ' Golden Hand,' 
and ' Iron Hand.' 

Steelyard {The). The English 
branch and depot of the Hanseatic 
League, on the banks of the Thames, 
and near London Bridge. It was a solid 
imposing structure, surrounded by a 
strong waD, and with three massive gates. 
There was a large garden, orchard, and 
vineyard attached for the delectation of 
the merchants and their api)rentices. 

Stee'nie (2 syl.). George Villiers 
(subsequently duke of Buckingham). 
When first introduced to James I. as 
cupbearer, at a supper entertainment at 
Baynard's Castle, the king (weary of 
Carr, who had grown spiritless) was much 
struck with the looks of the youth, and 
pointed out his imagined likeness to a 
beautiful head of St. Stephen at White- 
hall, whence he gave him the pet name 
of ' Steenie,' which he ever after retained. 
He was furthermore called by the king 
' his dog Steenie,' because the queen said 
he must be her watchdog, and whenever 
the king was about to make a fool of 
himself he was to pull the old sow by 
the ear. I fear his office was no sinecure. 

Steenkirk {A). I. A wig. We have 
also a Ramillies wig. The battle of 
Steenkirk was in 1694. See * Wigs.' 



I hope yonr lordship is pleased with your 
Steenkirk ?— Vanbrugh, The Relapse (1697). 

II, A cravat or neckcloth carelessly 
tied and worn, 1692, by French ladies, 
in imitation of the lace cravats worn by 
the young French nobles surprised by 
William III. in the Netherlands. These 
young nobles, not having time to change 
their dress, rushed to battle just as they 
were, ' with lace era Vats loosely tied.' As 
William was repulsed by Marshal de 
Luxembourg in the battle of Steenkirk 
in the Netherlands, 3 August, 1692, the 
furore in France was boundless, and every 
sort of article was called a Steenkirk 
something. There were Steenkirk collars, 
bracelets, and chains, Steenkirk perfumes, 
confections, and sauces. In short, ' Steen- 
kirk ' was the slang of the day. Wil- 
liam III. is usually represented with a 
Steenkirk cravat round his neck. 

Good chance saved me from this extremity of 
wretchedness. For just as I had yielded up my 
cravat (a smart Steinkirk, by the way, richly 
laced) enter Dougal, and the scene was changed. 
—Sir W. Scott, Hob Roy. 

Stella, the pen-name of Mrs. Bowen- 
Graves, authoress of ' My Queen.' 

Stella {Sir Philip Sidney's), Lady 
Penelope Devereux. Edmund Spenser 
called Sir Philip ' Astrophel,' ' lover of 
Stella ' — formed from Phil (Greek <|>cAo?, 
lover), and aa-rpop ( = Latin s^eZZa), a star. 
Hence Astro-philos, Astrophel. 

' Stella * {Swiff s) was Esther daughter 
of W. Johnson, steward to Sir William 
Temple. Some say she was Sir William's 
natural daughter. Swift was her tutor, 
and in 1716 privately married her, but 
she went by the name of Mrs. Johnson, 
and never lived under the same roof as 
Swift. In 1728 she died ' of a broken 
heart ' at the age of 44. 

While the husband of Stella he be- 
came an admirer of Miss Vanhomrigh 
(' Vanessa '), leading her to suppose that 
he was unmarried. In 1717 she dis- 
covered the fact, and soon after died. 
Swift died 1745, aged 78. 

Stella is Latin for a star =the Greek AarrtD, phone- 
tically near enough to Esther for a lover s pun. It 
is ratlier strange that Miss Vanhomrigh's name 
was also Esther, which Swift fondled into ' Essa,' 
and adding Van[homrigh] before it, made the 
poetical name Van-essa. A third flame of his was 
' Varina,' a Miss Waring. Esther, in old Persian, 
means a star. 

Stenkill {The Dynashj of). A dy- 
nasty of Sweden. It succeeded the 
Ivarian, gave five kings, and was followed 
3 I'i 



852 



STEPHEN 



STEWARD 



by the race of Sverker. Stenkill race 
1056-1129. 

The Swedes chose Stenkill, but the Goths chose 
Hako the Red. The rival monarchs came to an 
amicable arrangement, stipulating that Hako 
should reign during his life, but that Gothland 
should revert to Sweden when he died. 

Stephen, King of England, usurped 
the crown which by regular descent 
should have gone to Maud, daughter of 
the last king (Henry I.), wife of Geoffrey, 
Count of Anjou (Plantagenet). Maud was 
actually crowned in 1141, but Stephen 
was the recognised sovereign till his 
death, when the crown descended to 
the son of Maud (Henry II.). Stephen 
was the grandson of William the Con- 
queror by Adela, who married the Count 
of Blois (1104, 1135-1154). 

Father: Stephen count of Blois ; Mother: Adela, 
daughter of William I. ; Wife : Matilda or Maud, 
daughter of Eustace count of Boulogne. (His 
son William inherited his estates and his title 
'count of Blois.) 

Style and TtWe;.— Stephanus rex Anglorum. 

Stephen {Order of St.), 1764. A 
military order of Hungary revived by 
Queen Maria Theresa, the decoration 
being an Hungarian cross hung on a 
cerise-coloured ribbon edged with green. 
The legend is ' Sancto Stephano regi 
Apostolico.' 

Stephen I. (St.), king of Hungary 
(979, 997-1038). His name was Vayik, 
and he was the son of Duke Geyza. St. 
Adalbert, in 993, on the baptism of Vayik 
changed his name to Stephen. He was 
called ' the Apostle of Hungary ' and ' S. 
Stephanus rex Apostolicus.' His day is 
20 Aug., still held sacred, and his em- 
balmed right hand is carried in proces- 
sion through the streets of Buda. The 
crown given him by Gregory V. is still 
called St. Stephen's crown, and with it 
the emperor of Austria is still crowned 
as king of Hungary. 

He died and was crowned on Ascension Day, 
and five centuries after his death was canonised. 

Stephen's Crown {St.). The 
crown of Hungary presented by Pope 
Gregory V. to King Stephen of Hungary. 
The present crown consists of two parts, 
but it is the upper part which was pre- 
tsented by the pope. 

Sterco'rians. Those Christians who 
believe that the Eucharistic elements 
are digested and turn to corruption like 
otlier food. Of course, with those who 
believe in the dogma of tran substantia- 



tion, the difficulty is the promise : ' Thou 
wilt not suffer thy Holy One to see cor- 
ruption.' 

Stercorianism. The dogma that 
the Eucharistic elements are digested 
i like other food. (Latin stercus, dung.) 

I Sterling GrOld consists of 22 parts 
] (called carats) of pure gold and two parts 
1 of alloy, either silver or copper. But 
j fancy gold articles may be manufactured 
I with only 15, 12, or even 9 carats of 

gold and the rest alloy. 1 lb. Troy of 

standard gold is coined into 46 sovereigns. 

There remains a small fraction over; 

but 46 sovereigns will do for a pound 

Troy weight. 

A sovereign weighs 5 dwts. 3"27447 

grains ; but 5 dwts. 2^ grains is a legal 

tender. 

The Bank of England gives 46L 14s. 6d. 

a pound for gold, and 31. 17s. lO^d. per 

ounce. 

Sterling Silver consists of 37 parts 
of silver and three of copper. 1 lb. Troy 
of silver is coined into 66 shillings. 

A shilling from the mint weighs 3 
dwts. 15-27272 grains. 

The standard value of silver is very 
variable. In 1870 it was 5s. an ounce. 
In 1875 about 4s. In 1878 it was 4s. 2d. 
In 1890 it varied from 4s. to 4s. id. 

Stettin, in Prussia {Treaty of), 
13 Dec, 1570. A treaty of peace after 
the Seven Years' War. 

Ste^Arard of the Household 

{Lord). An officer in the royal household 
of England, head of the ' Board of Green 
Cloth.' He has no formal grant of office, 
but receives his charge from the sove- 
reign, who presents him with a white 
wand, saying : ' Seneschal, tenez le baton 
de notre maison.' The salary is 2,000Z. 
a year. 

These tags of French put into the mouth of our 
English monarchs are quite out of date, and ought 
to be abolished. Surely an English sovereign 
ought to speak the English language. English 
is fifty times a better language than French, 
and quite able to express the mystic phrase 
' tenez le baton de notre maison.' 

Steward of the Marshalsea 

{Court of the). For the trial of treason, 
murder, manslaughter, and blows by 
which blood was shed in any of the 
palaces or houses of the king during his 
residence there (Henry VIII.). 



STEWART 



STONEWALL 



853 



Stewart Diamond {The). A South 
African diamond discovered in 1872, and 
weighing 288| carats (nearly 2 ounces 
Troy). It is of a light yellow colour. 
See ' Diamonds.' 

* Stir-up' Sunday. The last or 
25th Sunday after Trinity. So called 
from the first two words of the collect. 
See p. 858, ' Sunday.' 

Still Christmas, 1525. The fes- 
tivities of this Christmastide were for- 
bidden on account of the illness of the 
king (Henry VHI.). 

Stockholm {Treaties of). I. 11 
Sept., 1640, of alliance between Sweden 
and the States-General. 

II. 20 Nov., 1719, an accommodation 
between Sweden and George I., in right 
of his Hanoverian dominions. George 
agreed to pay a million crowns on con- 
dition that Bremen and Verden were 
ceded to him in perpetuity. 

Bremen and Verden had been ceded to Sweden 
by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). 

III. 21 Jan., 1720. By this treaty, 
enforced by Great Britain, the King of 
Prussia got the town of Stettin, with the 
Isles of Usedom and Wollin, and a part 
of Pomerania. 

Stettin was occupied by the Swedes 1630-1648, 
and after much contention was restored to 
Sweden in 1679. 

Stoic Sect {The) of ancient Greece. 
Founded by Zeno of Cyprus (b.c. 358- 
260). He lectured in the ' Stoa Poecile ' 
of Athens, whence his disciples were 
called stoics, or frequenters of the porch. 
The main doctrines of this sect were 
fatalism, perfect subjection of the pas- 
sions, and the freedom of the will. Zeno 
considered the earth to be a sentient 
animal, of which God is the living soul. 
His contemporaries were Persteos, Aristo, 
Herillos, and Sphseros. Their successors 
were Cleanthes, Chrysippos, Zeno and 
Athenod5ios of Tarsus, Panaelios, Dio- 
genes the Babylonian, and Posidonios. 

The New School consisted of Epictetos 
of Phrygia (a.d. 50-120), Arrian the his- 
torian (a.d. 90-182), and Marcus Aurelius 
the Roman emperor (a.d. 130-180), author 
of ' Meditations ' written in Greek, and 
for style, humility, and piety unrivalled 
among heathen writers. The poet 
Seneca was a Stoic. 

Stolbowa {Peace of), Feb. 27, 1617, 
between Sweden and Russia, by which 



Russia gave up Carelia, Ingria, Novgorod, 
and Narva to Sweden ; renounced all 
pretensions on Livonia ; and paid Sweden 
£00,000 roubles (8,000^.). 

Stone Age {The). The period of 
stone implements, preceding the bronze 
age. See p. 14, 'Ages.' 

Stone Staircase {The), Venice. A 
flight of forty-five stone steps leading 
up to the doge's palace. See p. 366, 
' Giant's Stairs.' 

Stone of Destiny {The). The Lia 
Fail of Ireland, better known as the 
Scone Stone, removed by Edward I. from 
Scotland and enclosed in our coronation 
chair, in Westminster Abbey, where it 
still remains. It was called the ' Fatale 
Marmor,' or ' Stone of Destiny,' from the 
notion, inscribed on it, that wherever 
this stone is, the Scots shall be the 
dominant power ; and the succession of 
the Stuarts is thought to be sufficient to 
justify the prophecy. See ' Lia Fail.' 

Ni fallat fatum, Scoti, quocunque locatum 
Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem. 
Where'er this stone may be, such is the Fates 

decree, 
There the Scottish race will fill the highest 
place. 

It is a great pity it was not sent back 
again, for a worse dynasty than that of 
the Stuarts could not be easily found. 

Stone of Infamy {The). A large 
flagstone on which bankrupts were 
bumped on Shrove Tuesday. There is 
still one to be seen in Venice near St, 
Mark's church, another in Verona, a 
third in Florence in the old market place. 
One by one the bankrupts were brought 
to the stone, partially stripped, and then, 
being lifted mto the air by two or three 
stout men, bumped twelve times ' in 
honour of the twelve apostles.' At each 
bump the creditors crowed like cocks. 

Stone of the Swede {The). Gus- 
tavus Adolphus was slain at Liitzen 
16 ^hov., 1632. His body was found the 
next day not far from the great stone 
between Liitzen and the canal. This 
stone has ever since been called ' The 
Stone of the Swede.' 

In 1832 the German nation erected a noble 
monument to the memory of the Swedish king. 

Stone^vall Jackson. Thomas 

Jefferson Jackson, general of the southern 
or confederate army in the great Ameri- 
can Civil War. He contributed to the 



854 



STONY 



STORTHING 



defeat of the federals at Bull Run 21 
July, 1861 ; distinguished himself in the 
battles of Chickahominy June, 1862 ; de- 
feated General Banks at Cedar Mountain 
9 Aug., 1862 ; captured Harper's Ferry 
15 Sept., 1862 ; fought in the battle of 
Antietam 17 Sept,, 1862 ; contributed to 
the defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville 
2 May, 1863, and here he rectived his 
death wound. It was General Bee who 
said, in the battle of Bull Run, ' There is 
Jackson, standing like a stone-wall.' See 
p. 119, ' Brazen Wall,' 

Stony "Waste {The). Between Mar- 
seilles and the mouths of the Rhone, 
' about 100 furlongs from the sea.' Here 
Hercules, passing through Gallia, en- 
countered Albion and Bergion, who had 
united their powers near the mouth of 
the river Rhosne (Rhone), and a great 
battle was fought. Hercules, seeing that 
his men were worsted, commanded them, 
to pick up stones and cast them against 
the foe. This did they, and gained the 
victory, leaving Albion and his brother 
dead on the field. 

Stool of Repentance (TAe). An 

ecclesiastical punishment in which the 
offender was placed ' directly over against 
the pulpit, there to stand bareheaded with 
a sheet, or other accustomed note of 
difference, on a board raised a foot and a 
half at least above the church floor, that 
they may be in loco editiore, et eniinen- 
tiores onini populo. This was repeated 
somt times for 'six preaching days,' or 
even more, and the preacher spoke at 
the ' penitent ' or to the penitent as he 
thought proper. The satisfaction being 
finished, the offender put on his usual 
clothes and entered the church purified 
and absolved. 

Storm (The Great), 26 Nov., 1703. 
The most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
land. It was this storm which supplied 
Addison with the celebrated lines — 

So when an angel by divine command 
With rising tempests shakes a guilty land, 
Such as of late o er pale Britannia past, 
Calm and serene he drives the furious blast ; 
And pleased the Almighty's orders to perform, 
Rides on the whirlwind and directs the storm. 

Storm of Nov. 14 {The Memor- \ 
able), 1854, in the Black Sea, where an ! 
English fleet was moored during the | 
Crimean War. It blew down six of the | 
minarets of the Grand Mosque, tore off 



many roofs, blew down almost all the 
tents, dispersed the men's clothes in all 
directions — blankets, hats, great-coats, 
tables, chairs, tubs, bed-clothes, flew 
through the air like autumn leaves. 
Several ships were wrecked, and all the 
fleet more or less injured. 

In the ' Prince ' were lost 2,500 watch-coats, 
16.000 blankets, 3,700 rugs, 53 000 woollen frocks, 
19.000 lambswool drawers, 36,700 socks, 12,880 pairs 
of boots, 1,800 pairs of shoes, besides drugs of all 
Borts. 

In 14 wrecked transports were lost 359,714 lbs. 
Of biscuit, 74,880 lbs, of salt meat, 157 head of 
cattle. 645 sheep, 8,000 gallons of rum, 73.986 lbs. of 
rice, 11,200 lbs. of cotfee, 1,116,172 lbs of forage corn, 
800,000 lbs, of pressed hay. 

With the ' Resolute ' were lost several million 
rounds of ball cartridge, and all the reserve 
ammunition for the artillery. 

Stormy Petrel {The), John Scott, 
Earl of Eldon (1751-1838). So called 
because he was in the habit of hastening 
up to London, when any rumour of a 
dissolution of the cabinet reached him. 
He did so at the death of Lord Liverpool, 
under the expectation that the king 
would call on him to form a ministry, but 
the task was assigned to Canning. Again, 
when Canning died,- he was in full ex- 
pectation of being sent for, but the 
king applied to Lord Goderich, Again, 
when Goderich I'esigned, Eldon felt sure 
of being sent for, but the king asked 
Wellington to form a ministry, 

Stormy Petrel of Polities {The). 

Lord Brougham. In a H.B. sketch. No. 
691, 22 June, 1841, Lord Brougham is 
represented as a stormy pet'rel flying 
over the Channel. The words ' France ' 
and ' England ' appear on opposite sides 
of the picture, and his lordship's flight is 
towards England. 

Stormy Petrel of European 

Polities {The). Giuseppe Mazzini 

(1808-1872). 

Storthing, or Storting {The). The 
two legislative houses of Norway com- 
bined. It is elected once in three years, 
and for business purposes divides itself 
into two chambers — the Lagthing -and 
the Odelsthing (the legislative house and 
' house of commons '). All bills originate 
in the Odelsthing, and are sent up to the 
Lagthing for approval or disapproval. 
If assented to they are submitted to the 
king. If the king dissents, they are re- 
turned to the Storthing (or combined 
house), and whatever passes the Stor- 



STRABO 



STRUCK 



855 



thing thrice becomes law, whether the 
king approves it or not. 

Thinq, or ting, a diet ; Stor-thinp, the great diet ; 

Lag-thing, the law diet ; Odt'ls-thing, the landed diet. 

Storthing, pronounce Stoor-ting. 

Strabo of Germany (The). Se- 
bastian Munster (1489-1552). 

StradiotS. A kind of light cavalry- 
raised by the Venetians in their Dalma- 
tian possessions. They dressed in a semi- 
European and semi-Eastern fashion. 
They wore short hauberks, but over the 
hauberks a parti-coloured tunic of rich 
stuff ; their legs were clad in wide panta- 
loons and half-boots. On their head 
they wore a straight upright cap, like a 
Greek cap, and their weapons were a 
target, a bow and arrows, a scimitar, and 
a poniard. Their horses were the best 
obtainable, being employed for skirmish- 
ing. Greek, crTpaTc(6ri)s, a soldier. 

Scarcely had Charles (YIII.) dismounted at 
Fornovo when his quarters were beaten up by the 
Stradiots, who retired as soon as the French took 
to arms. — History of Venice, vol. ii. p. 144 (Murray, 
1630). 

StrafEbr'dians, 1641. The fifty- 
nine members of the House of Commons 
who voted against the bill of Strafford's 
attainder. In fact Strafford was not guilty 
of treason against the king, that is quite 
certain, and treason against the sove- 
reignty of the people was a crime hitherto 
unheard of. 

Strangers from Rome. So Augus- 
tine and his party announced themselves 
when they landed in England, at Ebbs- 
fleet, about 596. 

The ' Strangers of Rome,' spoiien of in Acts ii. 10, 
means Jews who had taken up a temporary resi- 
dence in Rome. It was to these ' Strangers of 
Rome ' that the ' Epistle to the Romans ' was 
written. 

Strate'gi. The Board of generals in 
the Athenian republic, consisting of ten 
officers, who in war took the command of 
the army alternately, each for one day. 
Later on a chairman, called the Pole- 
march, was added, who had the casting 
vote in tlie board. 

Towards the decline of Roman greatness the 
chief magistrate of Athens was called Strategos 
(rfii'.c). Constantine the Great honoured him with 
the title of ' Megas Strategos ' (Grand Diikr). 

*«* Before the battle of Marathon ' The Ten 
Strategi ' met in council, and the opinion was 
divided. The casting vote was given by the pole- 
march. Kallimachos. in favour of battle. 

Strawberry Leaves {The). Em- 
blem of a duke's crown. To ' desire the 
strawberry leaves ' means to wish to be 
created a duke. The duke's coronet is I 



adorned with eight strawberry leaves. 
The coronet of a marquis has only four 
leaves (either strawberry or oak) and four 
pearls, alternating. 

The queen offered Lord Salisbury a dukedom, 
but he does not desire the strawberry leaves.— 
rraWt, 11 Feb., 1886. 

Strawberry Preachers. So La- 
timer called those clergymen who strayed 
from their parishes. Some stray as 
stars, some for pleasure, some from idle- 
ness and indifference. The strawberry 
is the plant which strays (Anglo-Saxoii 
streowan, to stray, whence streow-herie). 

Street Bullies, in London. At the 
Restoration they were called Muns and 
Tityre Tus [pronounce tuze]. 

They were next called Hectors and 
Scourers. 

Later still they were called Nickers 
and Hawcabites. 

Then Mohocks. 

The last of this ill-famed notoriety was 
Spring-heeled Jack. 

See each of these words in loco. 

Street of Trip'ods {The), in ancient 
Athens. These tripods had been won 
by musical competitions between differ- 
ent tribes. The choragos, or leader, re- 
ceived a tripod for prize, but was expected 
to build a shrine over it. The best 
known is that of Lysicrates, popularly 
known as the ' Lantern of Demosthenes.' 

Strelitzes {The), that is, Russian 
musketeers. A militia raised by Ivan IV., 
and armed with muskets, instead of bows 
and arrows. The word strelitz means 
* one who fires a musket.' The militia 
ceased to exist in the reign of Peter the 
Great. Ivan = our English name John. 

Strict Communionists. See 

p. 180, ' Close Communionists,' 

Strongbow. Richard de Clare earl 
of Pembroke, to whom Dermot [M'Mur- 
rough] king of Leinster gave in marriage 
his daughter Eva and the succession to 
the crown, for having recovered the king- 
dom from which he had been driven by 
Tiernan O'Ruarc lord of Breffny, whose 
wife Dermot had abducted. Strongbow 
was brave, munificent, and of ruined 
fortune. His father Gilbert (who died 
1149) was also called Strongbow, Died 
1176. 

Struck Bruce. Midnight, Lord 
Aberdare (whose family name was 



856 



STUAKT 



SUAD^ 



Brjace), as Home Minister, was the 
father of the bill for the closing of public 
houses at midnight. So when the clock 
; I as struck twelve, publicans say it has 
' struck Bruce.' 

Stuart Dynasty (T^e), in England, 
gave James I., Charles I., Charles II., 
James II., Mary wife of William III., and 
Anne. (With the two Pretenders, James 
and Charles Edward.) 

Henry Vll. was the father of Margaret, who 
married James IV. of Scotland, and their son was 
•T lines V. of Scotland. James V. was the father of 
Mary queen of Scobs, and Mary queen of Scots was 
the mother of James I. of England. 

*j,* The Scotch as a nation are radicals, but no 
kings could possibly be less democratic than the 
Stuarts. The Scots are Presbyterians and puri- 
tans, but the Stuart kings were Catholics, in 
heart, at least, and anything but puritans either 
in morals or religion. Perhaps Charles I. was the 
best of the bad lot, the worst of all our dynasties. 

Stuart Papers {The), 1712. Nego- 
tiations carried on between the British 
ministry and the Old Pretender respect- 
ing his succession to the throne, on the 
death of Queen Anne. The chief corre- 
spondent was St. John lord Bolingbroke. 
These papers were obtained by George 
IV. from Rome, and are now preserved 
in Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, 

Stuarts (The). The old Scottish way 
of spelling stewards. The royal Stuarts 
of Scotland were descended from Walter, 
the 6th steward or seneschal of Scotland. 
The first of the dynasty was David II., 
son of Margery and Walter, and grandson 
of ' The Bruce.' 

KOBERT I. (The Bruce) was the father of 
''largery, who married Walter the Steward or 
Ssneschal, and their son was David II. 

Stuarts {The). Ill-starred for 400 
years. The house of Stuart was as un- 
lucky as the house of the Theban Laius. 

Robert III. died of grief because his eldest son 
Robert had been starved to death, and his younger 
Bon James was taken captive by Henry IV. 

James I. (his son), after spending his youth in 
imprisonment, was assassinated by his uncle. 

James II. was struck dead by the plug of a 
bursting cannon. 

James III., flying from the field of battle, was 
thrown from his horse, and murdered in a cottage 
into which he had been conveyed. 

James IV. fell at Flodden Field. 

James V. died of grief for the ruin of his army 
at Solway Moss. 

Mary his daughter was beheaded by Queen 
Elizabeth. 

Henry Stuart lord Darnley, her cousin and 
husband (the titular king), was blown up in his 
own lodging-house. 

James I. of England died, not without suspicion 
of being poisoned by Lord Buckingham. 

(His I aughter Elizibeth Stuart was the ill- 
starred ' Winter Queen of Bohemia.) 

(His cousin Arabella died insane in the Tower of 
London) 



Charles I. was beheaded. 

Charles II. passed many years in exile after 
the fatal battle of Worcester. (The slave of Louis 
XIV.) 

James II., being driven from his throne, died in 
a foreign land, a pensioner of Louis XIV. 

The two Pretenders, James and Charles Edward 
Stuart, vainly tried to recover the throne, and 
both died in ex'le. 

Mary, daughter of James II., died childless. 

Anne, sister of Mary, lost all her seventeen child- 
ren in infancy. 

Henry the cardinal called himself Henry IX. 
' by the grace of God, but not by the grace of 
man.' 

It has been facetiously said that 'a cousin of 
Queen Anne ' may be found in every family of 
maiden ladies in every cathedral city of England. 

Sturm und Drang Period, 1750 
to 1800. The volcanic era of German 
literature, when French and Latin 
patches were banished from the language, 
and German was left unadulterated. 

The Sturm und Drang period of life is between 
20 and 25, all enthusiasm and cram full of radical 
reform. All abuses are to be swept away, and a 
Utopian millennium is to be introduced. So in this 
literary period the language was to be purified, 
and German literature was to be made the model 
literature of the world. Old things were to be 
done away, and all things to become new. 

Styli'tes (3 syl.). * Sancti Columna- 
res ' (Latin), ' Pillar-saints ' (English). 
Religious enthusiasts who followed the 
example of Simeon the Syrian, who lived 
47 years on the top of a pillar, and 
died 460, aged 69, of an ulcer. He first 
lived on a pillar only 12 feet high, then 
on one 22 feet high, then on a pillar S6 
feet high, and lastly on one 40 feet in 
height. This foolery continued in the 
East for 600 years. 

When Vulfilacius erected a pillar near Treves, 
the bishop had it pulled down. 

Suabian League {The). ' Schwab- 
ischer Bund,' 1376, opposed to the ' League 
of Marbach' (q-.v.). In 1384 it wasextended 
and converted into the Grand Union at 
Heidelberg. In 1499 Wiirtemberg joined, 
and thus formed the Great Suabian Con- 
federation. It was dissolved in 1533. 

At first it contained 82 towns, afterwards as 
many as 41. 

Suabian Mirror {The), or Schwab- 
enspiegel (13th cent.). The local laws of 
Suabia compiled into a digest. See 
' Saxon Mirror.' 

Suabian Poets {The). The Minne- 
singers (1150-1250). The modern school 
is headed by Uhland (17S7-1862), uni- 
versally known by his song called ' The 
Lad of the Mountain.' 

Su'adaB Medulla. The Marrow of 
Persuasion; irresistible persuasion. So 



SUBDEACON 



SUCCESSION 



857 



Ennius calls Marcus Cethegus, the 
curule, edile, and pontifex maximus, B.C. 
213. Persuasion is here personified. 

Subdeacon. He does not receive 
from the bishop imposition of hands, but 
receives from him the patera and cup 
empty, and from the archdeacon the 
cruises of wine, of water, and the towel. 
He must be 22 years of age. His duties 
are (1) the custody of the sacred vessels 
used in the mass ; (2) to pour out the 
wine and the water; (3) to intone the 
epistle; (4) to hold the book of the 
Gospels while the priest reads; (5) to 
cari-y the cross in solemn processions ; 
(G) to pour water for the priest's washing 
of his hands ; and (7) to assist the deacon 
in receiving the offerings of the congrega- 
tion. 

Subjectivity of Knowledge 

(The). The question whether our know- 
ledge of phenomena is merely subjective 
or mental. Does the outward world (in 
relation to any individual) really exist, 
except in the brain of that individual ? 
Protagoras (b.c. 480-411) said, ' Man is 
the measure of all things to himself ' ; 
Heraclltos believed the same ; so did 
Aristippos of Gyrene. This was the pre- 
vailing belief in old Rome at the close of 
the 2nd Christian cent., and has cropped 
up again in Germany, France, and 
England within the last few years. The 
argument is this : If man cannot get out 
of himself, all he knows must be in him- 
self. Even his thoughts can never be 
divorced from his ego, but must be al- 
ways a part of himself. 

Sublapsa'rians, Supralapsari- 

ans. The Supralapsarians maintain 
that God decreed the fall of Adam and 
its consequences before the creation of 
Adam {supra lapsuin, before the fall). 
The Sublapsarians maintain that God did 
not decree, but only permitted the fall, 
and after man had fallen, God's judg- 
ments against disobedient Adam were 
carried out [suh lapsum, after the fall). 

Illustrate thus. I lay a log over a rail, and the 
train Is smashed ; that is one thing. The passen- 
gers themselves lay a log over a rail, and 1 do not 
interfere to prevent it ; that is another thing. In 
both cases the train is smashed, but in one case 
I am the active agent of the mischief, in the 
other I am the passive permitter of it. 

Sublime Porte [The). French for 
the ' Lofty Gate.' Name given to the 
Turkish government. Bagdad, the capi- 



tal of the caliph, was called ' the Porte' 
iq-v.). Constantinople has 12 gates, and 
near one of these gates is a building with 
a lofty gateway (called ' Bab-i-humajun). 
In this building resides the vizier, and in 
the same are the offices of all the chief 
ministers of state. The French phrase 
has been adopted because French was, 
at the time, the language of European 
diplomacy. 

Sublime Society of Beefsteaks 

{The). Established in London 1735. 

Submission of the Clergy (TAe), 
1531. Henry VIII. insisted on being 
acknowledged supreme head of the 
Church and clergy of England, next 
immediately after Christ. Convocation 
objected, but at length submitted, with 
the limitation ' quantum per Christi leges 
licet.' The Convocation of York gave in, 
and offered a subsidy also. It was then 
agreed that no new canons or constitu- 
tions should be enacted without the king's 
authority. The king agreed to the limi- 
tation, and the clergy were restored to 
royal favour. The Submission of the 
Clergy was confirmed by Act of Parlia- 
ment in 1534 (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). 

Subtle Doctor [The Most). Doc- 
teur Subtil. So Duns Scotus was called 
by the French. He was regent of the 
theological schools of Paris from 1304 to 
1310, when he died of apoplexy in the 
34th year of his age. 

Succession {The Acts of). Acts of 
Parliament to authorise a change in the 
hereditary succession of the JBritish or 
English sovereigns. 

(1) Henry IV. who possessed himself 
of the crown to the prejudice of Lionel 
duke of Clarence (second son of Edward 
III.), declared the succession should run 
in his own son Henry [V.] and his de- 
scendants. 

(2) Henry VII. had no hereditary right 
to the crown, but Parliament passed an 
Act whereby his son Henry [VIII.J was 
made heir, and the succession was placed 
in his regular heirs. 

(3) Henry VIII. changed the succession 
first from Mary to Elizabeth and then 
from Elizabeth to Edward VI. 

(4) Charles II. was by parliament held 
to succeed Charles I., by which Act the 
Commonwealth was wholly ignored. 

(5) On the * abdication ' of James II. . 



858 



SUFFAVEAN 



SUNDAY 



the succession was settled on William 
and Mary; and if they died without 
issue, on the Protestant line, or issue of 
the Electress Soj)hia of Hanover. 

Suf'fave'an or Sofi dynasty 

(The), lasted 237 (1499-173(5). A Persian 
dynasty founded by Ismail, third son of 
Hyder, fifth in descent from Sheik Sofi 
or Suffee, a very holy man. It was over- 
thrown by Nadir Shah. 

Suffolk Resolutions (The), 9 Nov. 
177-1. That is the county of Suffolk in 
Massachusetts, of which Boston is the 
capital. They were made against the 
attempts of Great Britain ' to enslave 
America.' They enjoined officers who had 
public money in their hands to retain 
it till the wrongs of the people w-ere 
redressed ; and called on all public officers 
appointed by the British Government to 
resign before the 20th of Sept., or to be 
held as enemies of the American colonies. 
They called upon all Americans to attend 
military drill and prepare themselves for 
war. They advised the people to imprison 
all government servants if Government 
attempted to lay hands on the insurgents. 

SuJBFragan Bishops. Assistant 
bishops. Twenty-six were appointed by 
26 Hen. VIII. c. 14, a.d. 1534. So called 
because they were allowed the jus 
suffragii or right of suffrage in the 
synods. Discontinued and the Act re- 
pealed by 1, 2 Phil. & Mary c. 8, a.d. 
1554. Revived by 1 EUz. c. 1, a.d. 1559. 

Suliots. A number of families who 
fled from their Turkish oppressors to the 
mountains of Suli in the 17th cent. They 
were partly Hellenic and partly Albanian 
in origin. Their descendants mostly live 
in Greece. 

Sulpic'ians. The company of 
priests founded at Vaugirard by J. J. 
Olier, cure of St. Sulpice. The object of 
this college is the instruction of young 
ecclesiastics. 

The great seminary at Montreal, Canada, is 
conducted by the Sulpicians, but their main esta- 
blishment is in Paris. 

Summer King. When Robert 
Bruce was boasting of his sovereign rank 
and great success, his wife said to him, 
' You are, indeed, a summer king ; but 
you will scarcely be a winter one.' 

Summer Lieutenants. In the 
Prussian army are officers of the Land- 



wehr and reserves summoned for duty in 
their respective regiments for six weeks 
in summer. 

Summoned [The). Ferdinand IV. 

of Castile and Leon (1285, 1295-1312), 
so called because the brothers Peter and 
John Carvajal, being condemned to death 
without trial, ' summoned ' him to appear 
before the tribunal of God within thirty 
days. Ferdinand was quite well on the 
thirtieth day, but was found dead in his 
bed next morning. 

Sun of AusterlitZ {The). A pro- 
mise of success, a good omen. Napoleon 
I. remembered that the sun broke out 
just before the battle of Austerlitz (2 Dec. 
1805), which he won over the Emperors 
of Austria and Russia ; and in subsequent 
campaigns looked on sunshine as a good 
omen. 

Quelques Instants avant la bataille de la Mos- 
kowa, le soleil se montra dans son eclat : ' Soldats 
(s'ecrie Napoleon) c'est le soleil d'Austerlitz ! ' et 
ces seuls mots electriserent la grande armee.— 
La Rousse, Dictiomiaire Universel. 

Sunday. See under— 

Advfnt four weeks before Christmas. 

Second Sunday after the EPIPHANY, Festum 
Architricllni. 

riiini Sunday before Lent, Septdagesima Sun- 
day. 

Second Sunday before Lent, Sexagesima Sun- 
day. 

First Sunday before Lent, QUINQUAGESIMA Sun- 
day ; Dominica Brandonum ; Sunday next before 
Lent. 

1st Sunday of Lent^ Quadragesima Sunday, 
next to Ash Wednesday ; Day of the Burse. 

2nd Sunday of Lent, ReminiscSre Sunday. 

Srd Sunday of Lent, Oculi Sunday. 

4th Sunday of Lent, Laetare Sunday. Dominica 
de Rosa, Refreshment Sunday, Mothering Sunday, 
Mid-Lent. 

5th Sunday of Lent, Passion Sunday, Carl Sun- 
day, Sabbatum vacat. 

6th Sunday of Lent, Palm Sunday; Festum 
Broncherise; Festum Olivarum ; Sunday next 
before Easter. 

Easter Day. 

1st Sunday after Easter, Quasimodo Sunday, 
Low Sunday, Alb Sunday. 

2nd Sunday after Easter, Balaam's Ass Sunday 
(.q.r.). 

Srd Sunday after Easter, Fete du Patronage de 
St. Joseph. 

Sunday after ASCENSION, Expectation Sunday, 
the Sunday next before Whit Sunday. 

Sunday after the Octave of Ascension, Fete of 
the Holy Relics. 

Whit Sunday or Pentecost, 

Trinity Sunday, called Stately Sunday. 

Sunday next after Trinity Sunday, Fete Dieu, in 
France. 

25th, or Last Sunday of Trinity, called ' Stir up ' 
Sunday and Fiaf<ment Sunday. 

Sept. (Second Sunday in). Fete du saint nom de 
B. v. Marie. 

Oct. (Fifth Sunday in). Fete du Patronage de la 
Sainte Vierge. 

See also ' Panic Sunday," ' Precious Blood ' (Feast 
of the). 

*,* For explanation, see each word under its 
proper letter. 



SUNDAY 



SUPEEME 



859 



Sunday Fine {The). A fine of Is. 
levied upon all the Irish who neglected to 
attend the Protestant church. This levy- 
was made first in the reign of Elizabeth, 
and, with fees, amounted (says Hume) to 
20Z. a month. The shilling was supposed 
to go to the poor, but this was evaded, 
at least in the case of the Catholic poor, 
who (it was said) ought to pay and not 
receive the shilling. 

Sunday Sabbath, 321. It was 

Constantine who, by an imperial decree, 
consecrated the Sun-day [dies solis], as 
the Christian sabbath, to be observed 
throughout Christendom as a day of rest 
and religious observances. And from 
this decree it was called ' The Lord's 
Day.' See * Day of Rest.' 

Tr)v (TUiTTipLQV rjfxepav,^r Ka'i (^wto? cicai KO-i 
■f)\Cov iiru)vviJ.oi' crvjU^aiVei. — 'EvS'EBlVS, Life 

of Constantine, iv. 18. 

Sung or Song Dynasty. See 

* Tsong.' 

Sunnites (2 syl.), or * Sonnees ' or 
' Sunis.' A Musulman sect so called 
from the Arabic word sunnah (tradition), 
because they professed to preserve the 
true tradition. They recognised as the 
real descendants of Mahomet, the califs 
Aboubekr, Omar, and Othman, and were 
opposed to the Shiites or Shiahs who 
insisted that Ali was the legitimate de- 
scendant of Mahomet. The Sunnites now 
prevail in the Ottoman Empire, Arabia, 
Egypt, &c., while the Shiites prevail in 
Persia, exist to some extent in India, and 
to a much less extent in Syria. 

The Sunnites are divided into four sects, called 
the Hanbalites, the Shafeites, the MalekiteB, and 
the Hanefites, so called from their leaders, Han- 
bal, Hanefa, Shafei, and Malek. Hee 'Shiites.' 

Superior Person (T/ie). Edward 
Horsman, M.P. (1807-1876), was so called 
by Mr. Disraeli in his speech upon Den- 
mark and Germany, 8 July, 1804. 

We know in private life there is always in every 
circle some person who is regarded as a ' superior 
person.' They [xic] decide on everything, they 
lecture everybody, all acknowledge their trans- 
cendent qualities, but everyone gets out of their 
way. The right hon. member for Stroud is the 
■ superior person ' of the House of Commons. 

Su'perlapsa'rians, or ' Su'pralaps- 
a'rians.' Those who believe that God 
from all eternity decreed the fall of man. 
The Sublapsarians, on the other hand, 
maintain that God did not foreordain 
and predetermine the fall, but only per- 



mitted it — that Adam was free to stand 
and free to fall. 

Supplementary Act {The), 1 
June, 1815, added in the French Consti- 
tutional Charter to the Imperial Consti- 
tution as a codicil. This was done by 
Napoleon in the famous ' Hundred Days.' 

Supplicat (-4). In the University 
of Cambridge is a grace of the senate 
duly signed to confer a degree on the 
person signified in the writ. 

Supporters to an heraldic shield are, 
in England, confined to corporations and 
to peers and knights either of the Garter 
or of the Bath. In Scotland Lord Lyon 
{q.v.) has the privilege of granting this 
honour to others ; not so the Garter king 
of Arms {q.v.) in England. 

Supremacy {The Act of), 26 Hen. 
VIII. c. 1, A.D. 1534, constitutes the 
reigning monarch of England supreme 
head of the English church, and reduces 
the ' courts spiritual ' into king's courts. 
By this Act the bishops were virtually 
made responsible for the loyalty of their 
clergy ; the clergy were mere exponents 
of the Royal will ; and the king had the 
power of prescribing the form of faith, 
doctrine, and discipline, which should be 
taught throughout the land. 

Fisher bishop of Rochester, Sir Thomas More 
the ex-lord chancellor, and several others were 
beheaded in 1535, for denying the king s supre- 
macy. Before this Act was passed, the pope of 
Rome exercised supremacy in the churches of 
England and Scotland. 

Supreme Being {The), 7 May, 
1794. Robespierre proposed to the Con- 
vention that the republic should acknow- 
ledge Wisdom as the Supreme Being of all 
created things, not as a personal fact, but 
as a most useful political bogie. Accord- 
ingly, the painter David was employed 
to make in the garden of the Tuileries a 
suitable symbol of the Supreme Being. He 
made a mound surmounted with a tree 
of liberty. On the top of this mound 
Robespierre, as the high priest of the 
Supreme Being, was to set fire to the 
statues of Atheism and Deism, and to 
unveil the statue of Wisdom. Dressed 
in a sky-blue coat and most showy waist- 
coat, and carrying in his hand a monster 
bouquet, the ' Incorruptible ' headed the 
procession on 8 June. All Paris was 
mad with joy at this new change and 



SUPKEME 



SUSPENSION 



every church adopted the new motto TO 

THE SUPKEME BEING. 

The babyism of such foolery seems quite incon- 
sistent with the ' philosophy ' of the Encyclope- 
dists, and the many really wise and practical laws 
passed at the time. 

Supreme Father (The). The 
grand master or chief potentate of the 
St. Simonians. Barthelemy Prosper En- 
fantin, usually called Pere Enfantin, was 
elected Supreme Father in 1830. In 
1831 a split in the ' family ' was made by 
Bazard, chief of the dogma department, 
who wished to keep his wife to himself, 
and also that his daughter should marry ; 
but Enfantin insisted there was no such 
thing as marriage in the St. Simonian 
Family. The contest grew so high that 
Enfantin established ' a model com- 
munity' at Menilmontant, near Paris. 
Here he was arrested for social inde- 
cency, imprisoned for a year, fined 41., 
and the family at Menilmontant, which 
had lasted only two years, was dispersed. 
Enfantin, as Supreme Father of the world 
both in spiritual and temporal matters, 
summoned Louis Philippe, king of the 
French, to appear before him, and answer 
for his usurpation of the authority due 
to the ' Supreme Father ' only. The 
family wore a blue robe with a leather 
girdle, white trousers, and a red cap ; 
their neck was left bare, and they had 
long flowing beards. 

Supreme Governor of the 
Church. When the * Royal Supre- 
macy ' was restored (1 Eliz. c. 1), 1559, 
the queen insisted that the words ' Su- 
preme Governor of the Church, &c.' 
should be substituted for ' Supreme Head 
of the Church.' 

Surgery {Father of English). 
Richard Wiseman (17th cent.). He intro- 
duced ligatures in amputation instead of 
hot pitch, or strong acids, or branding 
the wound with burning iron. The liga- 
ture was invented by Ambroise Pare, a 
French surgeon in the 16th cent. 

Surgery {Father of French). Am- 
broise Pare' (1517-1590). 

Surintendant. A title of honour 
in the old French monarchy. 

I. Le surintendant cles finances was 
created in 1300 by Phihppe IV. le Bel 
for Enguerrant de Marigny ; but the office 
was suppressed in 1G61 on the disgrace 
of Fouquet. 



II. Le surintendant general de la 
navigation created by Louis XIII. for 
Cardinal de Richelieu, but suppressed in 
1669 on the death of the Duke of Beau- 
fort, the third holder of the office. 

III. Le surintendant des bdtiments de 
la couronne created by Louis XV. for the 
Marquis de Marigny, brother of Mme. de 
Pompadour. 

IV. In the empire there was a surin- 
tendante de la Tnaison imperiale. 

SurreniJer by a straw. Surren- 
ders are made in various forms. In some 
manors by a rod, in others by a straw, 
in others by glove, delivered by the sur- 
renderor to the steward or some other 
person taking the surrender in the name 
of seisin. In practice a pen or penholder, 
a walking-stick or . umbrella, or, more 
commonly still, an office ruler is employed 
for surrenders and admissions to copy- 
hold property. 

Surtees Forgeries {The), 180G. 
Mr. Surtees palmed off on Sir Walter 
Scott certain ballads of his own composi- 
tion as ancient ballads discovered by 
him, and Sir Walter Scott inserted them 
in his ' Border Minstrelsy.' One was 
' On a feud between the Ridleys and the 
Featherstones,' which Mr. Surtees says 
he took down from the recitation of an 
old woman on Alston Moor. Another was 
a ballad of ' Lord Ewrie,' which he says 
he took down from an old woman named 
Rose Smith of Bishop Middleham (aged 
91). A third was ' Barthram's Dirge,' 
obtained from Ann Douglas, ' a withered 
crone who weeded in his garden.' A 
whole series of legends were professedly 
obtained from a Mrs. Brown of Falkland, 
and another series from Mrs. Arnut of 
Arbroath. See ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Suspension of the Habeas 
Corpus. In old Rome the phrase was, 
Videant Consules, ne quid detrimenti 
cajnat Respuhlica (Let the Consuls see 
that the Commonwealth suffers no in- 
jury), by which the appeal to the Cen- 
turies (in the empire to Ccesar) was held 
in abeyance, and dictatorial power was 
vested in the consuls without appeal. 
This suspension of appeal was enforced 
against the Gracchi and against the Cati- 
line conspirators. 

When habeas corpus is suspended, 
suspected persons may be arrested 



SUSSEX 



SWING 



861 



without assigning any reason, and per- 
sons arrested are not allowed bail. 

Sussex (Kiyigdom of). Founded 
A.D. 491 by Ella, who came from Hol- 
stein, the land of the Saxoni, landed at 
West Wittering near Chichester (477), 
and in 491 took Anderida, the capital of 
the Regni. Chichester is a phonetic 
spelling of Cissa-ceaster, the camp- 
ground of Cissa, son of Ella. 

Sutin'ians. Same as Photin'ians 
iq.v.). 

Sutras. Aphoristic rules in Sanskrit. 
The word means sttning together, be- 
cause the leaves on which they were 
written were strung together on a thread. 

Suttee. The voluntary immolation 
of a Hindti widow on the funeral pile 
of her husband. Declared illegal by the 
governor-general of British India in 1829. 

S"Wan. * By heaven and the sivans,' 
an oath of Edward I.'s. On the day 
when King Edward I. conferred the 
dignity of knighthood on his son, the 
Prince of Wales, 300 others were also 
knighted. In the course of the high 
festiv^al two swans richly adorned with 
gold network were placed on the table, 
and the king made a vow to God and the 
swans that he would start forthwith to 
Scotland and never sheathe sword till he 
had avenged the death of John [Red] 
Comyn. 

Edward, In fulfilment of his romantic vow to 
heaven and the swans, advanced as far as Carlisle 
.... but was detained there by ... . dysentery. 
—Sir W. Scott, History of Scotland, viii. 

Sweating-sickness {The), in 1485 
(Henry VII.'s reign), first appeared in 
England. It lasted a month and carried 
ofif 20,000 persons in London. Persons 
died from extreme exhaustion caused 
by profuse perspiration. It appeared a 
second time in England during the year 
1506 (Henry VII.) ; again between July 
and Dec, 1517; for a fourth time in 1528 
(Henry VIII.), and lastly in April and 
Sept., 1551 (Edward VI.). It raged in 
Holland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, 
Poland, and Russia, 1525-1530. 

Swechat, near Vienna, is the place 
where in 1848 the Hungarian patriots 
were defeated by the Austrians, led on 
by JeUachich. 



S"wed.en. Nine dynasties. 

1. The race of Ivar and Sigurd, * — 
1056, gives twelve sovereigns. 

2. The race of Stenkill, 1056-1129, 
gives seven sovereigns. 

3. The races of Sverker and Eric, 
1129-1250, gives eight sovereigns. 

4. The Folkungians, 1250-1389, gives 
seven sovereigns. 

5. The period of the Union of Calmar. 

6. The dynasty of Vasa, 1523-1654, 
gives seven sovereigns. 

7. The dynasty of Deux-Ponts, 1654- 
1751, gives five sovereigns. 

8. The dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp, 
1751-1818, gives four sovereigns. 

9. The French dynasty, 1818- *. 

Swedenbor'gians, or ' The New 

J^usalem Church ' {Rev. xxi.lO), followers 
of Dr. Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772). 
They hold peculiar views respecting sal- 
vation, inspiration, and the Trinity. In 
regard to the Trinity, they believe it to be 
centred in the person of Jesus Christ. 

Swedes' Stone {The). A large 
stone placed by Jacob Erichsson on the 
night after the battle of Liitzeu (17 Nov., 
1632) to mark the spot where Gustavus 
Adolphus fell. In 1830 the German 
nation replaced the stone by a noble 
monument in memory of this ' Star of 
the North.' 

Sw^eet Singer of the Temple 

(The). George Herbert, the poet, who 
wrote 'The Temple' (1633) and 'The 
Priest to the Temple ' (1652). Bom 1593, 
died 1633. 

Swi or Sooy Dynasty {The). The 
twelfth imperial dynasty of China, in 
which China was again united, after being 
divided for 167 years (420-587). It gave 
three emperors, and lasted thirty-seven 
years (587-618). The city of the court 
was Ho-nan. It was succeeded by the 
Tang dynasty. 

Yang-kien, who assumed the name of Wentee, 
the founder of this dynasty, was prince of Swi. 

Swing {Captain). 1830-1833. A 
name assumed by certain persons who 
sent threatening letters to those who 
used threshing machines. The letters 
ran thus : ' Sir, if you do not lay by your 
threshing machine, you will hear from 
Swing.' 

Swing and his myrmidons were abroad in the 
counties, and could scarcely be kept down by the 



SWING-FIRES 



SYMBOLS 



yeomanry and poor-law guardians.— T. HUGHES, 
Tom Broun at Oxford, chap, xxxix. 

S'Wing-jS.res. Incendiary fires for 
the bui-ning of machinery. So called 
from ' Captain Swing ' {see above). 

He [Mr. Gladstone] quoted the Swing-fires as an 
example of an evil which may have averted 
greater evil.— r/ie World, 2 May, 1888. 

Swiss Blood, or * Sang des Suisses.' 
Wine of St. Jacques, near Basel, where 
1,600 Switzers resisted 22,000 French 
commanded by the Dauphin (afterwards 
Louis XI. of France). All the Swiss but 
ten were slain. This is called the ' Swiss 
Thermopylaj,' a.d. 1444. 

Swiss T]iermop''yl83 {The), 1444. 
See above. 

Sword, in the arms of the city of 
London. 

The usual hypothesis is that this 
emblem was adopted on the first quarter 
of the arms of this corporation to com- 
memorate the act of Sir William Wal- 
worth, who cut down with his sword the 
rebel Wat Tyler in the reign of Eichard 
n. We are told in ' Notes and Queries ' 
(23 July, 1887) it had been adopted some 

* few months previously.' 

Another solution is that it is the sword 
of St. Paul, the patron saint of London. 

A third is that Stow mistook the letter 
L in the first quarter for a sword. 

Sword {Order of the). 1. Created 
1522 in Sweden by Gustavus I. as the 

* Star of the North,' and reconstructed 
in 1748 by Frederick I. for ' fidelity to the 
king and the Lutheran faith.' The deco- 
ration is a St. Andrew's cross formed by 
two swords, &c. 

II. An order of chivalry instituted 
1449 by Alfonso V. of Portugal. 

Sword-bearers {Knights), or En- 
siferi, 1204. An order of knighthood in 
Livonia. Their habit was white, with 
two swords crossed, in red. They acquired 
sovereign power in Livonia. The order 
ceased in 1562. 

Also called ' Brothers of the Sword." 

Sword of God {The). Khaled, 
Mahomet's lieutenant (582-642); also 
called 'The Scourge of Infidels.' It was 
by the valour of Khaled that the empire 
of the califs was founded in Arabia and 
Syria. He used to say, 'As long as I 
wear this cap, which has been blessed 



by the prophet himself, I am in vulnerable 
to all the darts and swords of the infidel." 

Sword of Mars {The). Attila 
(died 453). 

Sword of Rome {The). Marcua 
Claudius Marcellus, B.C. 270-280, famous 
in the second Punic war. 

Sy dr ack. A pliilosopher and astrono- 
mer, who lived 847 years after Noah, of 
* whose book of astronomy he held pos- 
session.' He converted King Boccus to 
the Christian faith (! !) and was invited by 
him to build a mighty tower against the 
invasions of a rival king (' The History 
of Boccus and Sydrack '). 

Symbol {The Twelve Articles of 
the), i.e. the twelve articles of the 
Apostles' Creed, said, in legend, to have 
been suggested by the apostles themselves 
in a grotto of Mount Olivet, before their 
final separation. It was received into the 
Latin church, in its present form, in the 
11th cent., but there was a formula extant 
in the 2nd cent. ; items were added in the 
4th and 5th cent., and verbal alterations 
much later. It has as much right to be 
attributed to the apostles as the twelve 
sibylline ' prophecies ' to the ancient 
sibyls. Tradition assigns the items thus : 
To 

I. Peter: 'I believe in God the Father 
Almighty, maker of heaven and earth,' 

2, John : [And] ' in Jesus Christ, his only Son, 
our Lord.' 

3. James, the Greater : [who was] ' conceived of 
the Holy Ghost ; born of the Virgin Mary ;' 

4. Andrew : ' Suffered under Pontius Pilate;' 

5. Philip: 'Was crucified and buried." 

' Dead ' is a modern innovation, and is very shaky 
English. ' Mortmis est' means 'died,' and not ' was 
d^'od.' ' Wa^ a-ucified, was dfad, and was buned.' 
Was dead ? when ? We should hardly say ' Charles I. 
was beheaded, dead, and buried.' 

*,* 'Descended into Hell' is not in the older 
formulas. 

6. Thomas : ' The third day he rose again from 
the dead.' 

7. James the Less : ' He ascended into heaven, 
and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father 
Almighty.' 

8. Matthew : [From thence] ' He shall come to 
judge the quick and the dead.' 

9. Nathaniel ; ' I believe in the Holy Ghost ;' 

10. Simon : ' The Holy Catholic Church ;' 

' The Communion of Saints ' is not in the old 
formulas. 

II. Matthias : ' The forgiveness of sins ;' 
12. Jddb :' The resurrection of the dead.' 

' The life everlasting ' was added in the 4th cent. 

Symbols {The Four). 

I. The symbol of the apostles, called by 
us the ' Apostles' Creed,' because each of 
the twelve clauses is attributed by legend 
to one of the apostles. 

II. The Symbol of Nicaea, called by us 



SYMMES 



SYNOD 



the ' Nicene Creed,' because it was for- 
mulated in the Council of Mice a.d. 325. 

III, The Symbol of Constantinople, so 
called because it was formulated at the 
Council of Constantinople in 831. It is 
nearly the same as the original Nicene 
Creed. This is the creed recited by the 
priest in the mass. 

The phrase " and the Son ' (Jilioqu^) was added 
by a Council of Toledo in 5S9. 

N.B. The original creed has been condensed in 
Bome parts and expanded in others. 

IV. The Symbol of Athanasius, called 
by us the ' Athanasian Creed,' directed 
mainly against Arianism. It did not 
exist till 670, nearly three centuries after 
the death of Athanasius, who died in 
373, but it is supposed to express his 
teaching. 

Symmes* Hole. The hole about the 
poles. Captain John Cleves Symmes 
propounded the theory that the earth 
about the poles is hollow, and his theory 
in ridicule is spoken ot as Symmes' or 
Symmes's Hole. 

Sym'pathi'sers, 1837-1838. Fili- 
bustering citizens of the United States of 
North America who 'sympathised' with 
and joined the democrats of Canada in 
the rebellion. They issued proclamations 
in the name of the Provisional Govern- 
ment, oftering 100 dollars and 300 acres 
of the best land in Canada to everyone 
who joined the republicans. Their head- 
quarters were on Navy Island, in the 
Niagara river, about two miles above 
the ' falls.' 

Syncretists. I. In phUoso'phy. So 
the Eclectics are called in contempt. 

II. In theology. The Calixtines {q.v.) 
are so called. 

Syndics, of the Cambridge Uni- 
versity, are the members of special com- 
mittees. They must be members of the 
Senate and are appointed, when re- 
quired, by grace of the Senate. 

Synergists, in theology. Those 
* heretics ' who maintain that man co- 
operates with grace, as a ' fellow-worker 
together with God ' in salvation, and that 
good works must be joined to grace. 
Melanchthon was a Synergist, so was 
Pfeffinger, and so was Strigel. This 
dogma caused a schism in the Lutheran 
party. 

Synod {The), 1689, of the Scotch 
kirk, is a superior court to the Presby- 



tery, and consists of ministers and elders 
of contiguous presbyteries. It is a court 
ot review. 

The four ecclesiastical bodies are ; 1. The Kirk 
Session ; 2, The Presbytery ; 8. The Synod ; and 
i. The General Assembly. The first is iunited to 
one parish, the next extends to contiguous 
parishes, the third to contiguous presbyteries, 
and the fourth to the entire body in all Scotland. 

Synod convened by Pole {The), 
1555. A legatine synod convened in 
London by Cardinal Pole for the ' cor- 
rection of abuses and making of canons.' 

I. The Feast of Reconciliation {q.v.) 
was to be strictly observed. 

II. Instructions were to be issued to 
the clergy for the proper administration 
of the eucharist. 

III. Ecclesiastics were to resign all 
pluralities, and not engage in secular 
cares. 

IV. Bishops were to restrain their 
ostentation and luxurious living. 

V . Bishops were to examine candidates 
for holy orders personally. 

Simony was forbidden, schools were to 
be established, and visitations enforced. 

Synod of Dort {The), 1618-1619. 
A synod convened at Dort, to which 
James I. sent deputies to decide upon 
the five points of difference between 
Calvin ists and Arminians. As the synod 
excluded the Arminians their judgment 
was one-sided. See ' Five Articles of 
Dort.' 

Synod of Gap {The), 1603, is re- 
markable for giving out ' we believe and 
maintain that the pope of Rome is 
properly the Antichrist, and the " son of 
perdition " prophesied of in the Word of 
God, under the emblem of the scarlet 



Synod of Lambeth {The), 1281. 
Convened for the correction of eccle- 
siastical abuses. Canons were passed in 
this synod against pluralities and non- 
residence, for the better teaching of the 
people, for enforcing the doctrine of 
Transubstantiation, and for communion 
in one kind only. 

Synod of Merton {The), 1236. An 
assembly which attempted to introduce 
into England Roman Canon Law, in 
order to legitimise natural children by a 
subsequent marriage, and to prevent the 
interference of the secular power in 
ecclesiastical matters. The legitimation 



864 



SYNOD 



SYRIAN 



of children was warmly supported by the 
clergy, but was overruled by the barons. 

Synod of Presbyters. A general 

council composed of two or more pres- 
byteries, convened for religious purposes. 

1. Of Antrim, 1727. This ' presby- 
tery ' was an offshoot of the ' Synod of 
Munster.' 

2. Of Munster, 1660. The same as the 
' United Presbytery ' [q.v.). 

3. Of Ulster, l^^'l. Formed originally 
at Carrickfergus. This was the first pres- 
bytery of Ireland. 

A 'Presbytery' is a religious court formed ol 
the respective pastors of a given district, and a 
ruling elder, or tlie district itself so represented. 

Synod of Ulster \^The). See above. 

Synod of the Oak {The). A villa 
near Chalcedon, to which Theophilus 
summoned Chrysostom to appear. The 
president was the bishop of Heraclea, 
and a long list of charges was brought 
against the archbishop, relating to faulty 
administration of the church and its 
funds, his habits in private life, his ritual 
irregularities, and his heretical sermons. 
(Robertson, ' Hist, of the Christian 
Church,' vol. ii. p. 110.) 

Synods of the Church. There 
have been twenty-three altogether, or 
twenty-four if the apostolic one is 
reckoned in. Six are called Ecumenical 
Councils iq.v.), between 325 and 680. 
Seven other synods were held before the 
Eastern and Western Churches sepa- 
rated, and ten have been held since that 
division. 

The seven synods, not Ecumenical, 
before the severance of the Eastern and 
Western Churches, are : — 

1. Held at Sardica, in 347, to restore 
the bishops deposed by Arius. 

2. Held at Ariminium, in 360, to alter 
the wording of the Nicene Creed at the 
instance of the Arians. 

3. Held at Ephesus, in 449, to depose 
Flavianus for condemning Eutyches, 
who taught that the body of Christ was 
not strictly speaking human. 

4. Held at Constantinople, in 754, com- 
manding the disuse in churches of 
pictures and images. 

5. Held at Nicsea, in 787, to reverse 
the decision of the previous council 
(No. 4). 

6. Held at Constantinople, in 869, to 
depose Photius, the originator of the 



severance of the Eastern and Western 
churches. 

7. Held at Constantinople, m 879, to 
restore Photius. 

Synods of the Western Church 

(The). Since the separation. 

1. The first Lateran, summoned by 
Calixtus II. in 1123. ' To settle the 
question of investitures (g.v.). 

2. The second Lateran, summoned by 
Innocent II. in 1139. To condemn the 
Manicheans, who believed there are two 
principles, one of good and one of 
evil. 

3. The third Lateran, summoned by 
Alexander III. in 1179. To regulate the 
election of popes. 

4. The fourth LateraU; summoned by 
Innocent III. in 1215. To publish a 
profession of faith, specially condemna- 
tory of Manichaeism. 

5. Held at Lyons, summoned by Inno- 
cent IV. in 1245. To depose Kaiser 
Friederich II. 

6. Held at Lyons, summoned by 
Gregory X. in 1274. To declare that the 
Holy Ghost proceeds Paire Filio-que 
(not from the Father only). 

7. Held at Constance, summoned by 
John XXIII. in 1414. To condemn the 
doctrines of Wyclif, and enforce the one 
element to the laity in the eucharist. 

8. Held at Basle, summoned by Mar- 
tin V. in 1431. To declare the authority 
of a council paramount over that of a 
pope. 

9. Held at Florence, summoned by 
Eugenius IV. in 1437. To confirm the 
doctrine of purgatory, and the supremacy 
of the pope. 

10. Held at Trent, summoned by Paul 
III. in 1545. To fix the doctrines of the 
church, and condemn Protestantism. 
This synod sat for eighteen years. The 
first session was held 13 Dec, 1545, and 
the last 3 Dec, 1563. 

11. The Vatican Council, 1870, sum- 
moned by Pius IX. to render the * Im- 
maculate Conception ' an article of faith. 

Syrian War {The). I. b.c. 192-190, 
between the Romans and Antiochus, 
king of Syria. It was brought to an end 
by the battle of Magnesia, won by 
Scipio, who was now called Asiaticus. 

II. 1840. Mehemet Ah, pasha of 
Egypt, laid claim to Syria in 1889, but 
Great Britain, Russia, and Austria joined 



SYRO-MACEDONIAN 



TABLE-TURNING 



865 



forces with Turkey to wrest it from him. 
After tcaking Beyrout, Acre, and Sidon, 
the pacha came to terms, and by the 
Treaty of London, in 1841, Syria was 
restored to Turkey. 

Syro-Macedonian Era (The). 
This era began with 1 Sept., B.C. 312. 

Szatmas {The Compact of), 1711, 
whereby an amnesty was granted to the 
Rakoczy insurgents, who rose in arms 
against the Austrians in 1708, and con- 
stitutional and rehgious liberty was 
secured to Hungary. 

Szegedin {Treaty of), 12 July, 
1444, between Hunya'des, the Hungarian 
general, and the Sultan Amurath II. By 
this treaty of peace the sultan recognised 
the independence of Servia, and ceded 
Wallachia to Hungary. 

Tabardillo, 1627. A contagious 
pest which ravaged Mexico, the year 
after it had been visited by the plague 
of locusts. The fever lasted seven days, 
but most persons died between the third 
and fifth day. The mouth and tongue 
became black as a coal. It began in 
Mexico and spread to Guatemala and 
thence to all the regions round about. 
See p. 694, ' Plagues,' &c. 

Taberdarship. The rights and 
privileges of a Taberdar, a kind of scholar- 
ship in Queen's College, Oxford. So 
called from the taberds or tabards, or 
long gowns. 

Tabernacle Connexion {The), 

1770. A split from the Calvinistic Me- 
thodists after the death of George Whit- 
field. These Methodists hold that elec- 
tion has been from all eternity according 
to the sovereign will of God, and is not 
a choice on God's foreknowledge of the 
fitness of the elect to be numbered with 
the saints in light. 

Tabernacles {Feast of), or ' Festum 
Canabarum' (JDey. xxiii. 33-36). A He- 
brew feast lasting seven days. It began 
on the fifteenth day of the seventh month 
(Tishri), and commemorated the sojourn 
in the wilderness. 

Table. See also 

Alfonsine Tables. Theodosian Table. 

Kudolphine Tables. Twelve Tables. 

Table {The) used at the last supper 
is said to be preserved in St. Jolin de 

:^7 



Lateran of Rome. Nothing is known 
about it. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 

Table of Abydos {The). See 
* Tablet,' &c. 

Table of Emerald {The). The 
table on which Hermes engraved, before 
the flood, the secret of alchemy. It is 
said to be hid under the great pyramid. 

Table of Peutinger. 'Tabula 
Peutingeriana,' also called the * Theo- 
dosian Table,' one of the most valuable 
literary relics of the world. It traces all 
the military roads of the empire called 
'Theodosian,' because they were made 
in the reign of Theodosius the Great. The 
table was discovered at Speyer [Spires] 
in 1500 by Conrad Peutinger, who lived 
1465-1547. 

Tables. The Scotch committees 
established in 1637 to resist an imposition 
of the Anglican system of religion on 
Scotland. In the burghs were four tables, 
each of tour members, and each table 
sent one representative to a fifth table in 
the capital. All complaints were to be 
made to the tables. These tables soon 
spread through the length and breadth 
of the land, whereby a united decision 
was speedily come to, and the whole 
weight of the country was brought to 
bear on the unpopular measui'es of the 
king [Charles 1.]. For the provincial 
Fifth Tables, meeting in Edinburgh on 
a summons, made a committee of the 
whole soul, strength, and life of the reli- 
gious party of the entire country. 

They next elected as clerk-register Archibald 
Johnstone, clerk of the Edinburgh Tables.— 
HowiTT, Hist. ofEng. (Charles I., ch. iii. p. 178). 

Tables {Lunar). Tabular lists of 
the values of the elements of the moon's 
orbit. Also the tabulated angular dis- 
tances of the moon from certain stars at 
fixed epochs, as given in the ' Nautical 
Almanac' 

Tables {Planetary). Tabular lists 
of the elements of the planets' paths. 

Table - money. An allowance 
granted to general officers in the army, 
and to flag officers in the navy, to enable 
them to fulfil the duties of hospitality 
within their respective commands. It 
varies, but the maximum is three guineas 
a day. . 

Table-turning, 1848, with table- 
rapping, the card process of spelling, 
3K 



8G6 



TABLET 



TAKING 



spirit drawings, and other manifestations 
of the spirit world, originated in Ame-. 
rica. It is said Andrew Jackson Davis, 
the 'Seer of Poughkeepsie,' a cobbler, 
who professed to hear spirit verses in the 
air, was the^recursor of ' spiritism ' or 
spiritualism. 

Tablet of Aby'dos {The), b.c. 1355. 
A series of royal rings, each contammg 
the name of an Egyptian king. It was 
found on a wall in a temple of Abydos. 
Three rows of these rings remain still, 
and the names correspond with those 
given by Manetho. This valuable tablet, 
now in the British Museum, was disco- 
vered by W. Bankes, in 1818, on an inner 
wall of "the Temple of Osiris at Abydos 
in Upper Egypt. 

Similar lists (though not so extensive) have been 
found in Thebes (Egypt), and these names corre- 
spond with those on the tablet of Abydos, with 
some important additions. 

Another valuable source of ancient Egyptian his- 
tory is the list of names hewn in the solid rock in 
the Grottoes of Ben Hassan, on the east bank of 
the Nile. 

Tabor {Light of Mount). In the 
14th cent, a dispute of considerable 
acrimony arose respecting the Light of 
Mount Tabor, the scene of the Trans- 
figuration. The question was this : What 
was the nature of the Light there 
seen by the three apostles: was it tlie 
uncreated and eternal light in which the 
divine essence dwells, or was it created 
and temporal ? The monks of Mount 
Athos violently protested it was the light 
of God. Barlaam maintained the con- 
trary, and so gi'eat was the angry feeling 
he excited by this ' heresy,' that he was 
obliged to quit Constantinople ; and a 
synod, presided over by Cantacuzene, 
established the dogma as an article of 
faith, that the Light of Mount Tabor was 
uncreated and divine. 

Also called the ' Taboritic Light.' 

Ta'borites (3 syl.), 1419-1436. The 
insurgents of Bohemia after the treache- 
rous martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome 
of Prague. So called from Mount Tabor 
where they pitched their tents. Under 
the leadership of Zisca they often de- 
feated the armies of the church, inso- 
much that in 1433 the council of Basel 
called the leaders to a conference. Cer- 
tain concessions were made, which split 
up the party, and in 1436 the church 
and the kaiser succeeded in gaining the 
ascendency. 



Tac {Le), 1411. A pestilence which 
appeared in Paris of a very strange cha- 
racter. It was marked by loss of appetite 
and insomnia, a trembling of the limbs, 
and a violent cough night and day. It 
lasted three weeks, but no one died. At 
the end of three weeks the sufferer 
bled profusely, and then recovered. See 
p. 694, ' Plague,' &c. 

Ta'herides (3 syl.), or ' Ta'herites ' 
(3 syl.). A dynasty in Persia which 
reigned over Khorassan (813-872). So 
called from Taher, an Arabian general (in 
the service of Haroun al Raschid), who 
assassinated Amyn, and received this 
government in reward. This was the 
first of the contemporary kings, and was 
succeeded by the Soffarides. Persia was 
at the time a province of the califs. 

Tai-Ping Rebellion {The), 1850- 
1864. A schoolmaster named Hung, 
having renounced Buddhism, founded 
the society of the Tai-Pings (Universal 
Peace), which came into collision with 
the imperial army in 1850. Hung then 
gave out that he was an instrument sent 
by God to root out Buddhism and esta- 
blish the dynasty of Universal Peace. 
He also assumed the title of Tai'-ping 
Wang (Prince of Universal Peace). 
Nankin was made his capital in 1860. 
Colonel Gordon, since called Chinese 
Gordon, quelled the insurrection, and 
overthrew the armies of Hung. Hung 
himself committed suicide, and Gordon 
returned to England, having received the 
titles and privileges of the Ti-Tu, the 
Yellow Jacket, and the Peacock's Feather. 

Taking of the Covenant {The), 
1643. In the civil war Charles I. sought 
assistance from the Irish, who in 1641 
had massacred 50,000 Englishmen in a 
diabolical manner in the north of Ireland. 
This was so hateful to the English, that 
officer after officer in his army laid down 
his commission, and Scotland, to secure 
its own safety, hastened to take or sign 
the covenant. The covenant pledged 
them to ' bring the churches of God in 
the three kingdoms to a uniformity of 
faith, church government, and form of 
worship; to extirpate popery, prelacy, 
schism, and profaneness ; to preserve the 
rights and privileges of the parliament, 
and the liberties of the kingdom; to 
punish malignants ; to unite England 
and Scotland in peace and lasting union ; 



TALBOTYPE 



TANTIVIES 



867 



and to vow both in public and private to 
live as God-fearing Christians.' 

Talbotype {The), 1839. So called 
from W. H. Fox Talbot, who took per- 
manent pictures on papers, which he 
called calotypes, but his * instantaneous 
process' is more wonderful still. An 
image is formed in a camera, and a re- 
volving-wheel which turns 200 times in a 
second, being illuminated by an electric 
spark, records a legible impression of 
what is printed on a bill affixed to the 
wheel. 

Daguerre In 1S39 took impressions on copper; 
Talbot the same year took impressions on paper ; 
in 184« Joseph Nicephore Niepce de St. Victor took 
Impressions on glass coated with a film ol albu- 
men : Mons. le Gray in 1850 introduced the use of 
collodion. 

Talkmotes, places used by the old 
Saxons for conference. In these places 
they would also defend themselves when 
attacked unawares. In Ireland they are 
called Bannes ; some are square and some 
round. 

Tallage. Arbitrary impositions im- 
posed by the Anglo-Norman kings on the 
demesne lands of the crown and all royal 
towns. Abolished by Edward III. by his 
famous statute De tallagio cum conci- 
dendo. The tax called la taille prevailed 
in France also, but Turgot, the French 
minister, substituted for it a fixed tax 
towards the close of the 18th cent. 

Talmud {The). The code of the 
Jewish civil and canonical law. It is 
composed of the Mishna or decisions of 
the doctors, and the Gemara or the 
reasons thereof. The Mishna was com- 
piled in A.D. 180 by Jehuda the Saint. 
There are two Gemaras, that of Jerusalem 
completed a.d. 400 ; and that of Babylon 
a century later and four times the size of 
the former commentary. The language 
is Aramaic. See ' Targum.' 

The former is called ' The Jerusalem Talmud," 
and the latter ' The Babylonian Talmud.' 

Talmudists. Those Israelites who 
accept the Talmud as authority. Those 
who reject its authority are called 
Carai'tes or Karaites. 

* Talpra Magyar,* * Up, Hungari- 
ans,' 1848. The Marseillaise of Hungary, 
written impromptu by Petbfi. The first 
Terse runs thus : 

Magyars, obey your country's call, 
Be slaves, or break the Austrian thrall. 
We swear on our forefathers' graves, 
Magyars no longer shall be slaves. 



(Magyars pronounced Mah-yars, with a slight d 
sound in the first syllable.) 

Tamerlan h Lunettes. A nick- 
name of Mons. Thiers, the historian 
(1797-1877). See p. 57, ' Attila le Petit.' 

Tamerlane. A corruption of Timur 
leng {i.e. lame), 1336-1408. 

Tang Dynasty {The). The 13th 
imperial dynasty of China. It gave 22 
emperors and lasted 289 years (618-907). 
The court was held at Sia-gan-fu, in 
Shen-si. In no dynasty was China more 
prosperous than in this. It succeeded 
the Swi dynasty, and at its close the 
empire was again divided. 

This was the Augustan or Golden Age of China. 

Tanist. Heir presumptive of an 
Irish provincial or sub-king. He was 
chosen by the people from the blood 
royal (either son, brother, or cousin) for 
the most part in the lifetime of the king, 
and was ex officio head of the army and 
chief judge of the province. The heir 
presumptive of the monarch or over-king 
bore the title of Roydamna. 

Tanist Stone {The), or 'Heir- 
apparent's Stone.' A Celtic monolith 
used as a coronation seat. Thus we read 
in Judges ix. 6 of Abimelech, that * a 
pillar was erected in Shechem ' when he 
was made king. Again, in 2 Kings xi. 14 
it is said that a pillar was raised when 
Joash was made king, * as the manner 
was.' 

Tanlstry (in Ireland). A tenure of 
lands for life only, the successor being 
appointed from the family by election. 
The tenant of such a holding is called a 
tanist. By tanistry the ' inheritance of 
land was given to the most worthy,' and 
not to the next heir. The ' most worthy ' 
was virtually the strongest, and this led 
to endless family feuds. Abolished in 
1605. 

They were bound not to alienate their lands to 
the mere Irish. Tanistry and Gavelkind were 
abolished in the 5th year of James I.— O 'CONOR 
Hist, of the Irish People, p. 155. 

Tan'simas. The organic laws of 
the Turkish empire, published in 1844 
by the Sultan Abdul Medjid. Part 1 is 
the political organisation of the empire ; 
part 2, finance ; part 3, legal matters ; 
and part 4, military affairs. 

Tantivies {The), 1680. The Anti- 
Birmingham party, opposed to the Ex- 
3k2 



TANTRA 



TARLETON'S 



elusion Bill (q.v.). A royalist or cavalier, 
so called from tantivy, the note of a 
hunting-hoi'n, and therefore a fox-hunter." 
The country gentlemen were almost all 
tories and royalists. 

Those who took the king's side were Anti-Bir- 
minghams.Abhorrers, and Tantivies. — Macaulay, 
Hist, of England, ch. ii. 

Tantra. The Bible of the worship- 
pers of Siva. Its subjects are the crea- 
tion and destruction of the world; the 
worship of the gods ; magical rites ; and 
the modes of hypostatic union. There 
are several Tantras. 

Tantum Ergo. The most popular 
of all the Eucharistic hymns in the 
Catholic Church. It is sung at benedic- 
tion with the Holy Sacrament. 

It consists of the last two stanzas of the ' Pange 
Lingua.' The first runs thus : 

Tantum ergo sacramentum 

Veneremur cernui : 
Et antiquum documentum 

Novo cedat ritui ; 
Prsestat fides supplementum 
Sensuum defectui. 
(The second stanza is a mere Gloria Patri, &c.) 

Tao-tsee. A religious sect in China 
who adore Tao, founded by Lao-Tseu in 
the 6th cent. B.C. Their sacred book is 
called ' Tao-te-King.' 

Taouism [Tao-tse, primitive rea- 
son]. A religious system in China foun- 
ded by Lao-Tseu, who was born B.C. 604. 
It has degenerated into a sort of poly- 
theism. Its priests, who are looked on 
as magicians and astrologers, are con- 
sulted about the sites of houses, burial 
grounds, fortunate days, and other re- 
sponses of the fortune-teller's character. 

There are three religious systems in China. 
That of "i'u, restored by Koun-fou-tse (Confucius) ; 
the state religion, in which the emperor acts as 
the priest and intermediator; and the third is 
Buddhism. There are, however, Moslems, Chris- 
tians, and even a few Jews in China. The Chris- 
tians are, for the most part, disciples of the 
Jesuits. 

Tappent-durs (Strike-hards). A 
species of guard that Robespierre had 
always about his door, or guarding him 
through the streets. They were armed 
with clubs. or heavy sticks. 

Eobespierre went, surrounded by his Tappent- 
dtirs, first to the Jacobin club, and then to the 
convention.— HO'WITT, Hist, of England (Geo. III., 
1794. p. 122). 

Tara Meetings {The). Tara is a 
hill in the county of Wexford (Ireland) 



where the ancient Irish held assemblies. 
These musters were not popular meet- 
ings, but conventions of the kings and 
chiefs of the Milesian line. 

Taran'tism or Tarentism (16th 
cent.)^ The Dancing Mania. In 1374 a 
similar hysteria appeared in Germany. 
Probably the Bacchanalian orgies of the 
Greeks and Romans are to be attributed 
to similar hysteria. 

The epidemic called Tareniismus, from Tarentum 
or Taranto, in Naples, was said to be caused by a 
small spider, the Tarentula (in Italian tarantula). 
It provoked an irresistible desire to dance. Hence 
the dance called Tarantella. 

Tard-Venus {Les), 1361. Com- 
panies of adventurers who formed them- 
selves into gangs, in France, after the 
Peace of Bretigny (1360). They were 
composed of the offscouring of all 
nations and disbanded soldiers. The 
utter destruction of property was pre- 
vented only by the payment of black 
mail. They defied the army of Jean 
which was under the command of Jacques 
de la Marche, made themselves masters 
of the Pont St. E sprit, and made Urban V. 
tremble in Avignon. The Marquis of 
Monferrat enrolled them in the pope's 
army, and drilled them into discipline. 

Of course the word venus In this compound has 
nothing to do with, the goddess so called, but is 
the participle of venir. Tard-venu, pi. Tard-venus. 

Tar gums {The). Translations of 
the Hebrew Scriptures into Aramaic, 
made for the Jews because they had 
forgotten the Hebrew language by their 
long residence in Chaldea. The oldest 
dates between the 3rd and 4th cent. ; 
the latest iu the early part of the 11th 
cent. The most noted Targums are 
those of Onkelos, of Jonathan ben Uziel, 
and of Joseph the Blind. See ' Talmud.' 

A portion of Daniel and Ezra with verse 11 
chap. X. of Jeremiah have no Hebrew original. 
Aramaic, the language of the Jews in the time of 
Christ, was a mixture of Chaldee, Syriac, and 
Hebrew. 

There are three Targums of the Pentateuch, 
one on the prophets, two on Esther, one on 
Chronicles, one on Daniel, besides those on the 
Psalms, Job, the Proverbs, Solomon's Song, Ruth, 
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, &c. 

Tarleton's Dash at Char- 
lottesville, 4 June, 1781. During the 
American War of Independence, Colonel 
Tarleton at the head of his cavalry rode 
at a dash into this town of Virginia, took 
seven of the assembly prisoners, and 
destroyed a large quantity of stores. 



TASCODEUGIT^ 



TE DEUM 



Tascodrugi'tse, or'Tascod'rygites' 
(4 syL). Du Cange (vol. vi. p. 487, col. 1) 
Bays : ' Haeretici ita appellati a raax^s, 
quod illis j^dxillum sonabat, et Spovyyos, 
nasus, quod inter oranduni iudicem digi- 
tum naso apponerent, ut animi tristitiara 
et affectatam quandain sanctitatein prae 
se ferrent.' Also called ' Passalorin- 
chitee a Graeco irdacrdKos, paxiUus, et ^iv^ 
nasus, vel piyxos, rostrum, rictus.' 

Tatian. A name common to several 
persons, but especially noted in church 
history for two authors often confounded 
together. One was a Platonic philo- 
sopher, bom in Syria, converted to Chris- 
tianity by Justin the Martyr. He lived 
in the 2nd cent., and was the author of 
a ' Discourse to the Greeks.' In 172 he 
became a Gnostic, and was the founder 
of the Encratistes. 

The ' Discourse ' of this Tatian -was published In 
1545 by C. Gessner, and by Otto of Jena in 1851. 

The other Tatian was a native of Me- 
sopotamia, and lived a century or more 
after the Platonic philosopher. He wrote 
in very inferior Greek a book called 
' Diatessaron.' The original is lost, but 
there is extant a Latin translation by 
Victor of Capua, inserted in the ' Biblio- 
theque des Peres.' 

M. Bouillet says this latter Tatian 'vivait au 
Ve siecle,' but this is an error, as the ' Diates- 
Baron ' is mentioned by Eusebius. The ' Diates- 
saron ' is an heretical book supposed to be based 
on the Gospels. During the lifetime of the second 
Tatian Syria belonged to Persia ; and the Emperor 
Julian went thither to prepare for bis war against 
the Persians. 

Tavernier's Diamond. The 

first blue diamond known in Europe was 
bought by Tavemier in India, in 1642, 
and sold to Louis 
XIV. in 1668. It is 
described as d'un 
beau violet. It was 
at and ill formed. 
The cut given is from 
m^MONr''^ an old French en- 
2421 carats. (N.B. 151.V graving. It was ap- 
carats = i ounce.) parently cut after it 
came into the possession of ' Le Grand 
Monarque,' for we read of a blue diamond 
in the regalia of 67g carats. In August 
1792 this ' blue diamond ' was seized 
and deposited in the Garde Meuble. Of 
course it was abstracted and never heard 
of again. However, in 1830, a Daniel 
Eliason was in possession of a blue 
diamond weighing 44^ carats, without a 




history, which afterwards became the 
property of Henry Hope, and was called 
the ' Hope Diamond.' Probably the 
Great Table Diamond was made into two 
brilliants. A model of the blue diamond 
was shown in the first French Exhibition, 
1862. See p. 254, 'Diamonds.' 

The other part of the great diamond was sold 
at the sale of the Duke of Brunswick s jewels in 
1874, and is called the ' Brunswick Diamond.' Its 
weight is from 6 to 7 carats, and it was purchased 
In Geneva. 

Taylor Institution {The). In 
the University of Oxford, 1848, erected 
from the bequest of Sir R. Taylor. It 
consists of a library and reading-room 
supplied with the chief periodicals of 
France, Germany, and Italy, accessible 
to all members of the university. It ia 
well supplied with atlases, dictionaries, 
encyclopaedias, biographical dictionaries, 
and reviews. There is also a Taylorian 
scholarship, and Taylorian scholars have 
certain privileges similar to graduates. 

Taylor Scholarship and Ex- 
hibition, for modern languages. The 
Scholarship is worth 50Z. a year and the 
Exhibition 25Z. Called ' Taylor ' because 
the candidates will be examined accord- 
ing to what is taught in the Taylor 
Institution, Oxford. 

Tchew or Chow Dynasty {The\ 
B.C. 1122-256. The third imperial 
dynasty, and last of the semi-historic 
period. It was preceded by the Chang 
dynasty, and followed by the Tshin or 
first historical dynasty. It gave thirty- 
four emperors, and the seat of govern- 
ment was Yn. This was the dynasty of 
the ' kings combatant.' 

Tcin Dynasty (The). The seventh 
imperial dynasty of China. It gave fif- 
teen emperors, and lasted 155 years 
(from 265 to 420). The seat of govern- 
ment was Ho-nan. It followed the San 
Kuo (or three States) period, and was 
succeeded by the Woo-tae, or five races. 

Most of these rulers were bad emperors and 
met with violent deaths. 

Te Deum of Handel was composed 

to commemorate the wonderful escape of 
George II. at Dettingen 15 June, 1743. 
The Earl of Stair had led the English 
into a trap, in which there seemed no 
escape ; but George cut his way through 
the French, and ultimately drove them 



870 



TE IGITUE 



TEN 



across the Main. The whole affair 
seems more like romance than sober 
history. 

The 'Te Deum' is called the Ambrosian Hymn 
from a tradition that St. Ambrose composed it by 
sudden inspiration at the baptism of St. Augus- 
tine. 

Te igitur. One of the service- 
books of the Catholic Church, used by 
prelates and other church dignitaries. 
So called from the first words of the 
canon Te igitur, clementissitne Pater. 

Tearless Victory [The], b.c. 367. 
The victory of Archidamos III. king of 
Sparta, over the Arcadians and Argives. 
So called because not one of the Spartans 
fell in the battle. 

Not one of the British army fell in the Abys- 
sinian expedition under Sir Charles Napier, 1867- 
1868. 

Tellers. In the division lists of the 
House of Commons are a remnant of the 
old talUers, officers who kept one part 
of the tallies in the public archives, the 
corresponding part being given to the 
claimant. The tally system existed in 
England till 1826 in our public accounts. 
The tally was a wand cut with notches 
to represent certain sums. In 1834 the 
old tallies, of which there were two cart- 
loads, were burnt in the stores of the 
House of Lords, and it was this confla- 
gration which set fire to and destroyed 
both Houses of Parliament, with their 
offices and a large part of the old palace 
of Westminster. 

Temperance Movement {The). 
The movement in Scotland began 1828. 
John Dunlop J.P. formed the first tem- 
perance society in 1 829. The first E nglish 
total abstinence society was formed 1830. 
A temperance society was formed in Ire- 
land by the Rev. G. W. Carr in 1829. In 
England the first society was formed in 
1830 by Henry Forbes, a merchant of 
Bradford, and the first total abstinence so- 
ciety, at Preston, in 1832. In 1838 Father 
Mathew began his crusade at Cork. 

In 1808 a total altstinence society (which still 
exists (1890) was formed in Greenfield (New York). 
The American Temperance Society was founded in 
1826. 

Templars, or 'Knights Templars,' 
1118. A secret society founded by Hugues 
de Payens and eight other knights then 
in Syria, and uniting the monastic with 
the mihtary character. Its nominal ob- 
ject was to defend the Holy Sepulchre at 



Jerusalem, and the pilgrims who came to 
visit it. The red cross was assigned to 
them in 1146 by Pope Eugenius III. They 
were organised to defend the Holy Land 
and protect pilgrims ; but on the loss of 
Palestine, in 1192, they took refuge in 
Cyprus. Their dissolution in England, 
France, and other countries occurred in 
1312, when their lands were transferred 
to the Hospitallers, but in Spain to ' Our 
Lady of Montesa.' ' Le crime des Tem- 
pliers est encore un probleme.' Lejeune 
in 1789 wrote a history in their defence, 
but Raynouard, in 1813, wrote a history 
in their condemnation. 

Their dress was a white mantle with a red cross. 
In 1814 the master of the Order, James de Molay, 
was condemned to the stake. 

Temple of Glory (The). Paris. 
See p. 548, * Madeleine.' 

Temporalisti, 1870. Those who 
advocate the temporal power of the pope, 
like M. Thiers; and after Rome had 
been added to the kingdom of Italy be- 
lieved in the possibility of its being 
restored to the pope. 

M. Thiers to his last hour was unable to under- 
stand why the abolition of the pope's civil autho- 
rity should be an irrevocable fact : and he died 
belonging to the sect of the Temporalisti.— Mne- 
Uenih Century, Sept. 1889, p. 395. 

Temporary Relief Work, 1847. 
Ireland, during the potato famine. This 
relief was given in the spring to a large 
number of labourers employed on ' pub- 
lic works,' such as road-making, that 
they might go and cultivate their own 
plots of land for ensuing crops. 

Ten {The), or 'I Dieci,' 1810. A 
criminal court of Venice invested with 
plenary inquisitorial powers, and entire 
sovereignty over every individual in the 
State from the doge downwards. At 
first the tribunal was appointed for 10 
days, but was prolonged first for 3 
months, then a year, then for 5 years, 
then for 10 years, and in 1325 for per- 
petuity. They were called I Neri (the 
black), from the colour of their official 
robes- The ten controlled every branch 
of government, were despotic in peace 
and war, had sole control over all fiscal 
enactments, annulled at pleasure even 
the decrees of the Grand Council, and 
were in power for five centuries. Long 
before the invasion of Napoleon, in 1796, 



TEN 



TEN 



871 



the government of The Ten had become 
a veritable Reign of Terror. 

The actual number of this council was seven- 
teen, because the signoria (consisting of the doge 
and his six councillors) was associated with it. 

Ten Articles {The), 1536. Agreed 
to by the Convocation to settle the reli- 
gious differences of the Protestant party 
at the reformation : (1) The Christian 
faith as comprised in the Bible, the three 
creeds, and first four general council-s to 
be accepted ; (2) baptism is essential for 
salvation ; (3) penance is a sacrament ; 
(4) the real corporal presence in the 
eucharist is to be believed; (5) justifica- 
tion and remission of sins is a gift of 
God, through the merits of Christ ; (6) 
saints are to be honoured as examples of 
holy life ; (7) prayers may be addressed 
to saints as intercessors ; (8) vestments, 
holy water, candles, palms, ashes, &c., 
are excellent helps to devotion ; (9) 
images aid devotion ; (10) prayers for 
the dead are useful, though purgatory is 
uncertain. See p. 48, ' Articles.' 

Ten Kings of Darkness {The), 
or the She-ming-wang, the ten judges of 
hell in Buddhism. 

Ten Men's Tale, or ' Tenmentale.' 
So the freeborg was called in Yorkshire. 
Tenmentale consisted in the responsi- 
bility of ten men for the good conduct of 
each other. If one of the ten committed 
a fault, the other nine were bound to 
produce him, and stand bail for him. If 
he fled from justice, and his estate 
proved insufficient, the nine had to make 
good the penalty. 

Everyone above the age of twelve was required 
to be enrolled in some tything according to the 
laws of Canute. 

Ten Numerations {The). A 
cabalistic doctrine. Three are called the 
superior, and seven the inferior numera- 
tions. The three superior are the 
supreme diadem, wisdom, and under- 
standing. These existed from all 
etex'nity. The seven inferior numera- 
tions are mercy, severity or might, 
beauty, victory, glory, stability, and 
sovereignty. 

Ten per cent, and K"o Sur- 
render, 1854. The watchword of the 
trades-unions who commenced the great 
wages movement {q.v.). 



Ten Persecutions {The). Under 
the Roman emperors. ' The ten horns 
are ten kings which shall make war with 
the lamb ' (Rev. xvii. 12-14). 

First century. 

1. Under Nero 64-68, in which Peter 
and Paul are said to have been slain. 

2. Domitian, 81-96. 

Second century. 

3. Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus 
Pius, 107-161. 

4. Marcus Aurelius, 161-181, in which 
Justin Martyr, Polycarp, and Pothlnus 
were put to death. 

5. Septimus Severus, 202-211, in which 
Irenfeus was put to death, 

6. Decius, 250-251. 

8. Valerian, 257-260, in which Cyprian 
was put to death. 

9. Aurelian, 272-275. 

10. Diocletian, 298-305. 

Before the Roman persecutions were those — 

1. By the Zealots, a.d. 34, in which Stephen was 
stoned. 

2. By Herod Agrippa, A.i). 44, In which James 
eon of Zebedee was beheaded. 

3. By Annas the Hij;h Priest, A.D. 62, in which 
James the Less was put to death. See ' Persecu- 
tions,' and ' Milan, Edict of.' 

Ten Thousand {The), b.c. 370. A 
confederation of Arcadians, a synod of 
which met periodically at Megalopolis. 
See p. 756, ' Retreat of the 10,000.' 

Ten Virtues of the Virgin 

{The). In Catholic theology. 

(1) Chastity. Because she is the queen 
of virgins. 

(2) Prudence. Shown in the Annun- 
ciation. 

(3) Humility. Even when chosen for 
the mother of the Messiah, she called 
herself ' the handmaid of the Lord.' 

(4) Faith. She believed and doubted 
not what the angel announced. 

(5) Piety. Shown by her retirement, 
silence, and submission. 

(6) Obedience. She submitted to the 
will of God. 

(7) Poverty. She despised the gran- 
deur and wealth of the world. 

(8) Patience. In bearing the pain of 
her travail. 

(9) Charity. In offering her son a 
sacrifice for the salvation of man. 

(10) Compassion. In that a sword 
jDierced her own heart out of compassion 
to her son. 



872 



TEN 



TENTH 



Ten Years' "War (The), or ' Sacred 
War,' B.C. 356-346. This was the second 
of the sacred wars. The first, called 
the Cirrhsean War, was B.C. 595-586 ; 
and the third, or Amphissian War, was 
from Feb. to Aug. of 338 B.C. 

Tenaille {The). In fortification, a 
low work in the main ditch before the 
curtain {q.v.) and between the flanks of 
the half bastions of a front of fortifica- 
tion {q.v.). Usually about 16 yards in 
thickness, and riveted with masonry all 
round. 

Tenant at Will. One who occu- 
pies without a lease, whose occupancy 
may be terminated at any time the pro- 
prietor thinks fit. 

Proper time must be allowed lor removal, and 
If crops have been sown the outgoing tenant has 
a right to them or can claim compensation. 

Tenant in Fee Simple. An 

absolute owner, who by a fiction of law 
is a tenant of the crown. 

Tenant-right, in the north of Ire- 
land, was either the custom ensuring a 
permanence of tenure in the same occu- 
pier, without liability of any increase of 
rent, except such as might be sanctioned 
by the general community, — or else the 
right of the farm-tenant, on the transfer 
of his farm to another, to receive pur- 
chase-money, amounting to 101. or 12Z. 
an acre. In this latter case a schedule of 
the tenants' debts is made out. His back 
rent is first paid, and then the different 
creditors as far as the money goes. The 
reason of this custom is this. Large 
tracts of land, the property of absentees, 
were let, but the owner did nothing 
whatever either for the land or for the 
tenant ; so the tenant claimed the right 
of selling his tenancy. 

The legality of tenant-right in Ulster -was 
established by 33. 34 Vict. c. 46 (1870). 

Tenants' Defence Association 

{The), 1885. A society in connection 
with the anti-landlord platform and the 
' Plan of Campaign ' {q.v.). As the banks 
refused to renew the bills which the 
Irish tenants had taken out to pay their 
rents, the tenants formed themselves 
into a society, each contributing to a 
fund for defence of the whole tenantry. 
See ' Irish Associations.' 

Tenants' Defence League {The), 
July 1889. An Irish League the object 
of which is ' by litigation and other con- 



stitutional methods to make the lives of 
Irish landlords as miserable as possible.' 
It is a tenants' protection league and an 
agrarian trade-union with an executive 
and sustentation fund. See p. 455, ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Tenants'-right, in Ireland. The 
right of a tenant to his improvements, 
and giving him a property in his holding 
and a saleable interest. A provision of 
the Land Act. 

This was a deadly blow to professional agitators, 
who did all they could to thwart the sale and 
purchase by denouncing the transaction as 'land- 
grabbing.' 

Tenants in Socage. Tenants by 
hereditary right. 

Tennessee (U.S. America) means a 
' Curved Spoon,' an Indian name for its 
river. The state "received its name in 
1796. The inhabitants were at one time 
nicknamed Whelps (a nickname now 
seldom heard). 

Tennis-ball of Fortune {The). 
Pertinax, the Koman emperdr. He was 
first a charcoal-seller, then a school- 
master, then a soldier, then emperor of 
Rome. Within three months he was 
dethroned and murdered (126-193). 

Tenson (meaning a contention). A 
poetical dialogue, not unlike those 
eclogues of Virgil in which two or more 
shepherds contend in song. Spenser, in 
his eclogues, has several tensons. The 
word is applied to a class of Troubadour 
poetry. 

Tenth Mazarine {The). One of 
the twelve diamonds set in the French 
crown. It was a brilliant, and was so 
called because Cardinal Mazarin in 1660 
was the first person who had the diamond 
polished. 

Tenth Muse {The). 

I. Sappho of Lesbos, who flourished 
B.C. 600. 

II. Margaret queen of Navarre, sister 
of Francois I. of France. 

Tenth of April {The), 1848. The 
day when the Chartists determined to 
present their monster petition to parlia- 
ment, and carry it to the house by a 
procession. The Chartists met on Ken- 
nington Common under the leadership 
of Feargus O'Connor, but the idea of a 
procession was abandoned, and the peti- 



TEPHILIM 



TERTIARIES 



873 



tioii was sent in three cabs. The term 
* Tenth of April ' became proverbial of 
an apprehended danger averted by 
judicious forethought. 

The 10th of April, 1848, has Deen a beneficial 
crisis, not merely in the temper of the working 
men, so called, but in the minds of those who 
are denominated by them ' the Aristocracy. 
— C. KiNGSLEY, A lion Locke (Preface addressed in 
1854 to the Working-men of Great Britain). 

Tephilim (The) or Frontlet. Four 
pieces of parcliment containing four 
texts of scripture, worn by the ancient 
Jews on the left wrist or middle of the 
forehead. The texts are Exod. xiii. 10 ; 
Exod. xiii. 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9; and 
Deut. xi. 13-21. 

The Tephilim which these old pedants wore on 
their left wrists, and the Mezuzah which they 
fixed on the right side of their doors to keep ofl 
devils.— KiNGSLEY, Hypatia, ch. xxi. 

Ter Sex, aut Tres Tesserae. 

Three sixes or three aces. The Romans 
played dice with three tesserae, marked 
like our dico, and the highest throw was 
three sixes, the lowest throw was three 
aces. Technically the highest throw was 
called ' Venus ' or ' king ' {basilicics), and 
the lowest canes, caniculce, vulturii, 
or * tres tesserae.' 

There was another game played with four Uili, 
in which the highest throw was when all four of 
the dice came different, and the lowest thirow 
was when they all came alike. 

Terminable Annuities. Sums 

of money borrowed and so paid back that 
both interest and principal are cancelled 
in a certain number of years, and the obli- 
gation terminates. Suppose I buy 1,000/. 
3 per cent, of the Treasury Stock. If the 
government pays me only 30Z. a year, it 
merely pays the Interest, and the capital 
sum (1,000/.) remains unreduced ; but 
suppose the government pays 60/. a year 
instead of 30/., then it pays back every 
year both interest and part of the prin- 
cipal, and in about twenty years it would 
have paid back the entire interest and 
principal, so that the obligation would 
terminate. 

Between 1889 and 1904 more than 70 millions ol 
our National Debt will be thus cancelled. 

Termors. Persons having only a 
chattel interest in their estates. 

Terra F^rma, applied to the former 
territories of Venice, means those pos- 
sessions in Italy not in the Lagune, as 
the provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, 
Verona, Vicenza, and so on. 



Terreur Blanche (La), 1815. The 
bloody reaction of the Royalists. Marshal 
Bi'une was massacred by a Royalist mob 
at Avignon ; Marshal Berthier committed 
suicide ; Labedoyere was executed ; 
Fouche and Talleyrand were dismissed; 
Marshal Ney was shot ; Murat was shot ; 
and 4,556,000 Frenchmen were slain in 
battle. 

Terrible Tenth of May (The), 
1857, when the British in India were 
fearfully massacred in Delhi during the 
Indian Mutiny. 

Terror (The). A period in French 
history between the extirpation of the 
Girondists and the death of Robespierre, 
1793-1794. 

Terror of the G-reeks (The), 

Dominico Michieli, or Micheli, the 36th 
doge of Venice (died 1130). His tomb 
bears this inscription : ' Terror Graecorum 
jacet hie' 

Terrorists. 

1.1793. The party headed by Robes 
pierre after the death of Marie Antoinette. 
Those who tried to check the sanguinary 
fury were nicknamed the ' Moderates.' 

II. 1879. Revolutionists of Russia 
who in 1881 assassinated Czar Alexander 
II. See ' Decembrists,' ' Propagandists,' 
and * Nihilists.' 

Terry Alts, in Ireland. Insurgents 
of Clare, who appeared after the Union, 
and committed great outrages. They were 
similar to the ' Thrashers ' of Con- 
naught, the 'Carders,' the ' Rockites,' the 
' Fenians,' &c. They made themselves 
very conspicuous in the sanguinary tithe 
war 1830-1835 (q.v.). See p. 455, ' Irish 
Associations.' 

Tertiaries, or Tiers Ordre. Seculars 
who followed their ordinary caUings, and 
lived the ordinary life, but promised to 
conform to certain religious and moral 
rules drawn out by the order under 
which they lived. 

The Tertiaries of St. Francis were 
founded in 1221, 

Those of St. Augustine were founded 
in 1401. 

Those of St. Dominic were founded in 
1422. 

Others have been founded since, such 
as the Carmelites, Servites, &c. 

At present many tertiaries live in convents. 



874 



TERTIABY 



TETRARCHY 



Tertiary Canons. Such as re- 
ceived only a third part of the revenue of 
the canonate. 

Tertium Quid, which Abelard 
called ' Conceptualism.' The realists, like 
Plato, insisted that there is a real some- 
thing in abstract ideas ; thus beauty is 
not a mere notion, but a reality. No- 
minalists, like Aristotle, insist that 
abstract words are merely names of 
abstract ideas, that beauty is nothing 
perse, but simply expresses our general 
idea of the beautiful in objects. Abelard 
held a third or intervening theory, that 
after our conception has been formed, 
then there is reality in abstract ideas, 
but not before. Thus w^hen we have 
tnade up our mind on what makes 
beauty, that conception of beauty is a 
reality, a reality post rem (after the 
conception), and not ante rem. It is a 
* conceptual ' reality, or tertium quid. 

Teschen, in Silesia {Peace of), 13 
May, 1779, between Prussia, Austria, and 
Saxony, terminating the war of Bavarian 
succession. 

Test Act {The). I. 1562. The first 
of a series of penal statutes which 
weighed on the Roman Catholics of 
England for about 200 years. By these 
acts the oath of allegiance and the abju- 
ration of the temporal authority of the 
pope was exacted of all persons holding 
office, whether lay or spiritual, with the 
exception of peers. 

What is popularly known as the Test Act is 
not this statute of Elizabeth, but the one below. 

II. 25 Car. II. cc. 1, 2 (1673), an en- 
largement of the Corporation Act {q.v.), 
obliging all persons whatsoever, before 
being allowed to accept any place of 
trust under the crown, to take the oaths 
of allegiance and supremacy, to subscribe 
a declaration against transubstantiation, 
and to receive the sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper in a parish church. Repealed 

828. 

After 'The Popish Plot' (Oct., 1676) another 
Test Act was passed to exclude all Roman 
Catholics from the House of Lords as well as from 
the House of Commons, and to declare the Church 
of iiome to be idolatrous. 

Testament {King Boberfs), in 
Latin leonines. Thus given by Mr. 
Tyler ;— 

On foot should be all Scottish weire [war] 
l!y hill and moss themselves to bear : 
Let wood for walls be ;— Bow and spear 



And battle-axe their fighting-gear. — 
That enemies do them no drear [harm]. 
In strait place cause to keep all store, 
And burn the plain land them before ; 
Then shall they pass away in haste 
When that they nothing find but waste; 
With wiles and wakening of the night. 
And mickle noises made on height, 
Them shall they turn with great affray. 
As they were chased with sword away.— 
This is the council and intent 
Of good King Roberts testament. 
The Scots kept King Robert s [Bruce] testament 
in recollection, and lurking among the woods 
and valleys they fell upon such English as sepa- 
rated themselves from the main body.— Sir W. 
Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xiii. 

Tete Morte of WUrtemberg 

{Order of the), 1806. Established by 
Frederick William duke of Brunswick, 
on the death of his father, at Jena, in 
1806. When the duke's father had re- 
ceived his death- wound Napoleon refused 
to allow the dying man to be conveyed 
to Brunswick, to die there. He wrote 
these words in reply to the request: 
* Qu'il s'en aille en Angleterre, y chercher 
son salut. Je veux I'e'craser lui et toute 
sa f amille.' The young duke then arrayed 
all his soldiers in mourning, as members 
of the order of the Tete Morte. He 
placed on their military caps, in front, 
the device of a skull and cross-bones, 
and instead of a feather adopted flowing 
black horse-hair. This gloomy costume 
was to be continued till the death of 
Napoleon. It was called ' The Black 
Legion.' 

Tetrad, according to Pythagoras, is 
the fourth mathematical quantity, viz. 
depth. The monad is the indivisible and 
impartible point ; length is the duad, 
and breadth the triad. Physically, in- 
tellectual capacity is the monad, scientific 
knowledge the duad, opinion the triad, 
and perception through the senses the 
tetrad. 

Tetrapolitan Confession (The), 
1531. The confession of faith of the 
four cities, Strasburg, Constance, Lin- 
dau, and Memmingen. This was the 
Sacramentarian confession presented in 
the diet of Augsburg, 1530. See p. 785, 
' Sacramentarian.' 

Tetrarcliy {A). An independent 
fourth part of a kingdom. Thus at the 
death of Herod the Great the kingdom 
of Judsea was divided into four parts, of 
which Judaea, Galilee, and Iturea were 
given to his three sons, Archelaus, Anti- 
pas, and Philip. Samaria was the re- 



TETRARCHY 



THANES 



875 



maining part. In 56 the division was 
abolished again, and Herod II. (Agrippa) 
was made sole king of Judaea. 

Herod II. was great-grandson of Herod the 
Great. His father, Herod Agrippa. ruled over 
three of the tetrarchies, Judeei, Galilee, and 
Samaria, but resided at Rome. 

Herod the Great and Mariamne the Asmonsean 

Aristobulus tetrarch of Judaea 

Agrippa, who put James to death 

Herod II. (Agrippa), who heard Paul make his 
defence. 

Tetrarchy {The Boman), 304-311. 
Constantius Chlorus (the pale) was 
maximus imperator, and died at York 
A.D. 306. The four then were Constan- 
tius, Galerius, Severus, and Maximinus. 

Severus put an end to his life in 307, 
and Maxentius became a tetrarch. 

Constantine put an end to the te- 
trarchy, and became sole emperor a.d. 311. 
Maximinus killed himself 313. He dispossessed 
Galerius in 308. 

Teutonic Knights {The), or 

'Order of Teutonic Knights,' 1190, 

JL_ confirmed by Celestine III. in 1192. 

I They wore white robes with a black 

I cross of eight points. Suppressed 

by Napoleon I. in 1809. 

Called the ' Knights of the Virgin Mary,' or 
' Brothers of the Teutonic House of Our Lady of 
Jerusalem,' or the ' Teutonic Knights of St. Mary 
of Jerusalem,' or 'German Knights of the Cross. 

Teutonic Knights {The), 1190. 
Organised by Frederick duke of Suabia, 
in Palestine, and invested in 1192 with 
the privileges of the Hospitallers and 
Templars. In 1237 incorporated with 
the Short-swords of Livonia. Prussia 
was given to them in 1243 by Innocent 
IV., and in 1255 they founded Konigsberg. 
They lost Prussia in 1525, which was 
given to Albert of Brandenburg by the 
peace of Cracow. The order was abolished 
by Napoleon in 1809 ; but still subsists 
in Austria as an honour. 

Teutonic Nations {The). The 
Germans, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, 
Frisians, Dutch, Jutes, and Normans. 
England was Celtic, but after the Saxon 
and Danish invasions it became largely 
Teutonic, and the Normans (after the 
conquest) added to this predominance. 
See p. 154, ' Celts.' 

Wales and Ireland are Celtic, and the north of 
Scotland, and Cornwall largely so. 

Teutons. So the German races are 
called, from the Teutones or Teutoni, an 



ancient horde of Germany which, with 
the Cimbri, invaded the Roman do- 
minions B.C. 113. 

Tewkesbury Mustard Pills. 

Seven hundred fire-balls, which Titus 
Oates asserted the Roman Catholics had 
employed to set fire to London. Oates 
furthermore asserted that these Roman 
Catholics had made a good thing out of 
the conflagi'ation by carrying off dia- 
monds to the value of 14,000Z. Ten 
years afterwards, in 1676, said Oates, the 
same persons had set fire to Southwark, 
by which they gained 2,000Z. above their 
expenses. 

Texas (U.S. America). It was so 
called (it is believed) from an Indian 
confederation called Texas, Tejas, or 
Friends. The inhabitants were once 
nicknamed Beef-heads. 

Texerans or Tesserands (weav- 
ers). So the Waldenses {q.v.) in the 
south of France were called, because 
they were for the most part weavers. 

Thaborit'ic Light {The). A 
heavenly light supposed to emanate from 
the ' navel soul.' Certain quietists seat 
themselves on the ground and fix their 
eyes on their navel (the seat of the soul). 
After a time a light beams forth upon 
them which fills them with rapture and 
ecstasy. This is the Thaborit'ic Light. 

See ' Tabor, Light of,' because it was believed to 
be identical with the light seen on Mount Tabor 
at the Transfiguration. 

Thalami'tae. The lowest bank of 
rowers in a Greek galley ; the uppermost 
bank were the Thranltce, and the middle 
bank the Zeugltce. 

Thames Tunnel {The), 1824-1841. 
Constructed by Marc Isambard Brunei 
to connect Rotherhithe with Wapping. 
A bridge was not practicable, not so 
much on account of the width of the 
river as the obstruction it would offer to 
our shipping. The Tunnel is 1,200 feet 
long, and 63 feet below the bed of the 
Thames. It has two arched ways and 
two footways, one for those going from 
Wapping and Rotherhithe, and one for 
those going in the opposite direction. 

Thanes (l syl.) were of two sorts, 
Messe Thegnes and World Thsgnes. 
Bishops were ' Messe Thanes,' and by 



876 



THANNAIM 



THAUMATUEGISTS 



the laws of King Athelstan ranked with 
earls or secular Thanes. Other priests 
were ' World Thanes,' and hence were 
subsequently entitled ' Sir.' The bishop 
still retains the title of Lord, but the 
wife of a bishop has no title, not even 
that of a common knight's wife. 

Thannaim {The). Jewish doctors, 
authors of the ' Mishnah.' They lived 
from the time of Malachi to B.C. 21. See 
p. 291, ' Emoraim.' 

The 'Mishnah' was closed by Rabbi Judah the 
Nachi four years before. The annotations, &c., 
form the ' Gemara,' and both together the 
'Talmud.' 

Thaumaturga of the Nine- 
teenth Century {The). Filumena, 
of whom nothing is known except that 
three tiles were disinterred in 1802 in the 
cemetery of Priscilla, inscribed thus : 



PAXTE 



CVMTI 



By changing the position of the tiles we 
get PAXTE cuarpi lumena, and by dividing 
the words Pax tecum Filumena, The 
miracles, of course, were those attributed 
to the disinterred body. 

We are gravely told as an historic fact that the 
' Virgin Martyr ' took the trouble to reveal to a 



priest and a nun in a dream that her name waa 
really Filumena. because she was Fi[lia] Liimena, 
the daughter of the ' Light of the World.' In con- 
firmation of this revelation, when her bones were 
taken to Magnano, she repaired her own skeleton, 
made her hair grow, and performed many other 
wonderful works ! This silly stuff is told as an 
historic fact in the 19th cent., and is actually be- 
lieved by many. Filumena is duly registered iu 
the hagiography of the Petits Bollandistes. 

Thaumaturgists. Workers of 
miracles. (Greek Oavixarovpyeui, to work 
wonders, or perform tricks of jugglery.) 

From the Old Testament the greatest 
wonder-workers were Moses, Jannes and 
Jambres (Pharaoh's magicians), and 
EUsha. 

Dositheus, who taught Simon Magus, 
was a great thaumaturgist. 

Simon Magus was called ' The Great 
Power of God ' (Acts viii. 10). 

A most graphic account of the ascent of Simon 
Magus, in imitation of that of Elijah, is given in 
' Notes and Queries,' 8 Dec, 1883, pp. 441-2. It was 
in the presence of Nero and an immense crowd. 
Simon Magus applied to himself many of the 
words uttered by Christ, such as ' Behold I go to 
the Father. . . I will prepare a seat for you at the 
foot of my throne. ... I will pour out upon my 
elect people my celestial treasures.' And again, 
' Verily, verily, I say unto you, whoso believeth 
in me shall not see death ; for in me is eternal 
life.' .\nd again, 'Remember that your eyes 
have seen the Word of God. I am the Beautiful 
One, the Paraclete, the Omnipotent, the great 
Pan, the divine All.' 



Fete Day. 



I. Apollonius of Tyana. * Life ' by Philostratos in 8 books 

Philostratos says : ' He raised the dead, healed the sick, cast out devils, 
uttered prophecies, and saw at Ephesus the assassination of Do- 
mitian. 

Plotlnus, the Neo-Platonic philosopher. * Life ' by Porphyry — 

Gregory, bishop of Neocsesarea, in Cappadocia. Called em- 
phatically ' The Thaumaturgus ' 17 Nov. 

Dionysius, or Denys, patron saint of France .... 9 Oct. 

Quintus of .lEolia, in Asia Minor ...... 2 March 

Homdnus of Antioch, martyr ,9 Feb. 

Asclepias, the Sabine. Martyred at Antinoe, in Egypt . . 23 Jan. 

Nicolas, bishop of Myra, in Lycia 6 Dec. 

Macarius the Elder, of Egypt. Solitary of Scete , . .15 Jan. 

Martin of Tours, who divided his cloak with a beggar. 'Life' 

by N. Gervais 11 Nov. 

Titus, martyr, while Rome was under the Goths . . .16 Aug. 

Germdnus, bishop of Auxerre, cc nfessor . . . . .31 July 

Proclus. ' Life ' by Marlnus, and by Eunapius . . .24 Oct. 

Brigit, or Brigida, of Ireland. Her cell was called ' Kill-Dara ' 1 Feb. 

Linus, pope and martyr 23 Sept. 

Cuthbert, the * British Thaumatui'gus ' 20 March 

Jonas, priest of St. Sabas, in Palestine. Of the Greek Church 21 Sept. 

Hesychhts, solitary of St. Andrew's, in Bithynia. Of the 

Greek Church 6 March 

John, bishop of Polybotos, in Asia ,,.... 5 Dec. 

Isaac of Cordova, martyr ........ 3 June 

Aldric, bishop of Mans 7 Jan. 

Bernard of Clairvaux, called ' The True Thaumaturgus of the 

West' . . 20 Aug. 



3-98 



205-270 

212-270 
3rd cent 
died 283 
died 303 
died 311 
died 342 

310-395 

316-397 
died 410 
330-448 
412-485 
436-523 
570-667 
died 668 
7th cent. 

8th cent. 

8th cent. 

died 851 

800-856 

1091-115} 



THAUMATURGISTS 



877 



^ Fete Day. 
Isidore of Seville, farm labourer. 'Life' by John of Da- 
mascus 10 May 

Dominic, founder of the Dominicans 22 Jan. 

Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscans . ... 4 Oct. 
Hyacinth, called ' Thaumaturgus of the Thirteenth Century* . 16 Aug. 
^«i7tOMr/ of Padua, who preached to the fishes. . .. •. 13 June 
Catherine of Siena. (Not the Catherine famous for the wheel) 30 April 

Vincent Ferrer, a Spanish Dominican 5 April 

Francis of Paula, founder of the Minims . . . . ,2 April 

Francis Xavier, apostle of the Indians 8 Dec. 

Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan 4 Nov. 

Vincent of Paul, founder of the Lazarists and ' Sisters of 
Charity' 19 July 



1110-1170 
1170-1221 
1182-1226 
1182-1256 
1195-1231 
1347-1880 
1357-1419 
1416-1507 
1506-1552 
1538-1554 

1576-1660 



II. Of these neither the time of birth 

nor of death is known : — 

Fete Day. 

Aninas, or Ananias, anchorite 
and prophet. In Greek 
menology . . . .17 Feb. 

Attains, honoured in the 

Greek Church . . .6 June 

Dius, archimandrite and thau- 

maturgist of Constantinople 19 July 

Elisabeth, virgin of Constanti- 
nople . . . .24 April 

Eustratius of Nicomedia. 
Honoured in the Greek 
Church . . . 2 & 18 April 

Felix of Spoleto . . .16 June 

Filumena, called ' Thauma- 
tui'ga of the Nineteenth 
Century,' of whom nothing 
whatever is known . . 10 Aug. 

In 1802 three tiles were found 
which made this name ; and 
since then her ghost has 
told her story. L'Abbe Migne 
says : ' Ces revelations particu- 
lieres paraissent reunir sous 
lea caracteres dune source 
.divine' ! ! (' Encyclopedic Theo* 
logique,' vol. xli. p. 719). 

Georgius the Younger. Hon- 
oured at Constantinople . 23 March 

Georgms-Theophorus, of the 
Greek Church . . .11 March 

Illyrius, of the Greek Church 3 April 

Jasimus, of the Greek Church 4 Feb. 

Maurus of Sopeto. (Not the 

great Maurus of Glanfeuille) 16 June 

Memnon, of the Greek Church 28 April 

Onesimus, of the Greek 

Church . . . .14 July 

Peter, bishop of Argos . . 3 May 

Peter of Gallia Cisalplna . * 

Philotheus, founder of the 
monastery of Mermecium, 
on the Bosphorus . . 15 Cept. 



Fete Day. 

Bitza, a virgin of Coblentz . 30 Aug. 

Puflnus, deacon of Sinope, 

martyr .... 7 April 

Sehastiana, Greek Church . 7 June 

Stephen, Thaumaturgus of 
the laura of St. Sabas, in 
Palestine . . . .13 July 

Tharasius of Lycaonia. (Not 
the patriarch of Constanti- 
nople) 25 Feb. 

Theocleta, Greek Church . 21 Aug. 

Titus, of the Greek Church . 2 April 

Zanais, called ' Thaumaturgus 

of Constantinople ' . .6 June 

III. The following were miracle workers, 
but not entitled ' Thaumaturgi ' by the 
Catholic Church : — 

Prince Jlexander of Hohenlohe, titular bishop 
of Sardica. His miracles made a great noise 
in 1620-1821. He healed by prayer only. 

J. Joseph Oassnerot Bratz, in the Tyrol, who exor- 
cised the sick. His cures were considered to be 
miraculous (1727-1779). 

Javibiicus. When he prayed, we are told, his body 
' rose in the air at least 10 cubits, and his face 
became luminous ' ; so says Eunapius (4th 
cent.). 

Jannt's and Jambres, Pharaoh's magicians, who 
imitated the miracles of Mo.ses. 

Mohammed is said to have performed no miracles, 
yet rode ho to heaven on the back of Alborak, 
made the moon pass up one sleeve and down 
the other, and took a scroll of the Koran out of 
the horns of a bull (570-(>t2). 

FAaise Pascal, philosopher and mathematician 
(quite sufficient to account for his ' deeds of 
wonder '), 1623 1662. 

Simoii Magus of Samaria, called ' The Great Power 
of God' (Acts viii. 10). 

Sospltra, who, says Eunapius, ' had the power of 
seeing what was done in any part of the world.' 

Vespaaian, the P.oman emperor, we are told, ' cured 
a blind man and a cripple by his touch while 
staying at Alexandria.' 

* ^* Caspar Schott published a treatise 
on natural magic, entitled ' Thaumaturgus 
Physicus ' (1657-9). 

Apparently thaumaturgy did not hold 
a very high place in the Cliristian Church. 
It was extremely common, and nothing 



878 



THAUMATURGUS 



THEOPHILANTHROPISTS 



whatever is known of many thauma- 
turgists beyond the name and/e^e day. 

Thaumaturgus. The following 

are given as thaumaturgi by Mgr. Guerin, 
'Petits Bollandistes,' xvii. p. 757. 
Antony of Padua . . . 1195-1231 
Bridget or Brigit of Ireland 436-523 

Francis de Paula . . . 1416-1507 

Gregory of Neoca?sarea . 212-270 
Hyacinth (of the 13th cent.) . 1182-1257 
Martin of Tours . . . 316-397 
Vincent Ferrier . . . 1357-1419 
Francis Xavier . . . 1506-1552 
Hundreds ol others are said to have worked 
miracles, but the eight given above are recognised 
thaumaturgi. 

Thaumaturgus of the "West 

(The). St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091- 
1153). 

The before a proper name in Scot- 
land and Ireland means the head of a 
clan, as : The MacLeod, The Chisholm, 
in Scotland; The O'Donoghue, The 
O'Connor Don, in Ireland. The assump- 
tion of ' the ' was forbidden and declared 
treasonable because the head of a clan, 
like The O'Neill, also claimed a right to 
sovereignty. Thus when O'Neill threw 
off his allegiance to Queen Elizabeth, he 
called himself 'The O'Neill of Ulster,' 
meaning that he was king of Ulster. 

The'atines (3 syl.), 1524. Confirmed 
by Clement VII. in 1524. Settled in 
France by Cardinal Mazarin in 1644, 
and suppressed in France in 1790. The 
order was founded by the Archbishop of 
Chieti(in Latin, Thedte),w\io afterwards 
was pope (Paul IV.). The object of the 
order was to reform the lives of the clergy, 
and restore the priesthood to apostolic 
purity. They wore a black soutane, and 
black robe with white sleeves. 

Theatines of the Congres-a- 
tion, 1583. An order of nuns founded 
at Naples by Ursula Benincasa. Made 
subject to the Theatines by Clement IX. 
in 1668. 

Theatines of the Hermitage, 

1610. Founded in Naples by Ursula 
Benincasa, and confirmed by Urban VIII. 
in 1624. 
Thebaidic. See p. 787, ' Sahidic' 

Thellusson Act (The), 39 & 40 
Geo. III. c. 98. For checking the dispo- 
hition of tosta.tov3 to restricting the use 



of their fortunes till they had accumu- 
lated to very large amounts. So called 
from Mr. Thellusson, who had directed 
in his will that his personal property 
should be left to accumulate during the 
lives of his three sons, and the lives of 
their sons, and then to be inherited by 
the eldest male descendant of his three 
sons. No testator can now tie up his 
property for more than twenty-one years, 
dating from the death of the testator. 

Mr. Thellusson died 21 July, 1797. It was decided 
in the House of Lords that his 'stock' might 
accumulate for 120 years, when it would amount 
to 140 millions sterling. Should no heir then 
exist, the whole should be applied to the discharge 
of the national debt. 

Them.istians, 535. Monophysites, 
originated by Themistius, deacon at 
Alexandria. Also called Agnoites [q.v.). 

Themis'tocl6s of Modem 

Greece. Constantine Kanaris (1795- 

1855). 

Theodor'iei Infernum. The 

crater at Lipari. 

Theodosian Code (The). Said to 
have been compiled by command of 
Theodosius the Younger, Emperor of the 
East (401, 402-450). The reputed date 
of the code is 438 ; but nine years later 
the 'Novelise Constitutiones ' were 
promulgated in the "Western empire. 
The codex consists of 16 books, sub- 
divided into titles and sections. The 
262 laws are imperial Rescripts {q.v.) 
consecrating the wisdom of Christian 
princes from the reign of Constantine to 
the year 447. One of the edicts ascribed 
to Constantine, extending the jurisdic- 
tion of bishops to all causes, has been 
proved to be a forgery; it is, however, 
inserted in the capitularies of Charle- 
magne. See p. 524, ' Literary Forgeries.' 

Another edict, ascribed to the same emperor 
[Constantine], and annexed to the Theodosian 
code, extended the jurisdiction of the bishops to 
all causes which either party chose to refer to it, 
even where they had already commenced in a 
secular court, and declared the bishop's sentence 
not subject to appeal. This edict has clearly 
been proved to be a forgery.— Hallam, Middle 
Ages. vol. 11. p. 211. 

Theodosian Table (The). Same 
as the Peutingerian Table (q.v.). 

Theoph'ilan'thropists (Lover3 
of God and man), 1796-1800. Philan- 
thropic deists who rose in France during 
the revolution. They believed in God 
and the immortality of the soul, but not 



THEOPHORON 



THERMOPYL^ 



879 



in the Christian scheme of salvation 
through faith or by the atonement. They 
considered that the duty of man is doing 
good, and their rule was, ' Worship God, 
cherish your kind, and render yourself 
useful to your country.' Thomas Paine 
was one of the founders of this society, 
and one of its most active members. 

These Theophilanthropists superseded the so- 
cial circle of Paris. Its cliief authors were Auber- 
mesnil, Chemin, Mandar, and Valentin Haily. 
The cult was professed in many of the French 
churches, but was forbidden in 1800. 

Theoph'oron, Christot'okos, 
and Theot'okos. Nestorius {5th cent.) 
declared that Mary was not diorSKos 
(mother of God), but only xP'<'''''OT({«os 
(mother of Christ), for God cannot be 
born of a woman. Jesus of Nazareth 
he called 6eo<p6pov (possessed of God). 
These distinctions were condemned by 
the Council of Ephesus in 431. 

Theos'ophy, 1889, means ' the wis- 
dom of the gods,' or the divine wisdom 
which underlies all religions. It pro- 
fesses to pick out the grains of wisdom 
from all the divers religious systems of 
the world, and to amalgamate them into 
one consistent whole. 

Theot (Catherine), 1725-1793. A 
French visionary, who called herself 
sometimes the Mother of God and some- 
times the new Eve. 

Theotokos. See ' Theophoron.' 

Therapeutse (The), Greek OepaTrev- 
Toi. Greek Jews of Egypt, more rigid 
than the Essenes, as they avoided towns 
and dwelt only in deserts or * commons,' 
where they gave themselves up to contem- 
plation. Like the Essenes they had all 
things in common, but unlike the Es- 
senes they abjured all possessions beyond 
the barest necessities. When anyone 
er.tered the society he ' sold all that he 
had and gave to the poor.' The Thera- 
peutse were all celibates, like the Essenes, 
although women were allowed to join 
their society. On Sabbath days all dined 
'together, the women on one side, the men 
opposite, and the fare was bread and 
Bait, with a little hyssop (Philo, 'De Vi^a 
Contemplativa '). 

The Therapeutse believed that God is the author 
of all good, but not of evil. 

That the soul is immortal. That the good are 
rewarded after death, and the wicked punished. 

They objected to animal sacrifice, as no inan 
could be justified in taking life. 

Lie ven was their sacred number. 



Ther'midor (The 9th), Year II. 
27 July, 1794. The day when Robes- 
pierre was accused by Tallien in the Con- 
vention, and arrested in the H6tel-de- 
Ville, Paris. He and 22 of his partisans 
were guillotined next day (10 Thermidor, 
Year II.). 

Amongst these partisans were St. Just, Lebas. 
Henriot, Robespierre jeune, &c. The month 
called Thermidor was from 19 July to 18 Aug. 

Thermido'rian G-overnment 

(The), 1795-1799. The French Directory 
was so called because it was established 
in the month Thermidor (July). 

Thermido'rian Re ign of Terror 

(The), 1795. The period which immedi- 
ately succeeded the fall of Robespierre, 
when the Anti-Jacobins were in power, 
and guillotined the Jacobins with the 
same relentless vengeance as Robespierre 
had shown against the Anti-Jacobins. 

Thermido'rians. Partisans of the 
9th Thermidor. See ' Thermidor.' Origi- 
nally applied to Tallien, Legendre, Le- 
cointre, Freron, Thuriot, Bourdon de 
rOise, and Barras, but afterwards (1794) 
applied to all the Anti-Jacobin party, 
which rose into power on the downfall of 
Robespiex're (9 Thermidor, Year II.), i.e. 
27 July, 1794. There were a host of 
young Thermidorians called * Fre'ron's 
Gilded Youth.' See ' Jeunesse Dore'e.' 

Generally speaking, the term Thermidorians 
was applied to those who wanted to restore the 
monarchy. 

ThermopylaB of France {The), 

1792. The Forest of Argonne, which 
Thouvenot was assigned by General 
Dumouriez to hold against the army of 
Bi-unswick, who was marching on to- 
wards Paris. Whilst planning how he 
was to prevent the allied Prussian and 
Austrian armies, which had just taken 
Verdun (2 Sept., 1792), from advancing 
on Paris, he wrote to the French min- 
isters, ' Grand-Prey and Islettes are 
our Thermopylae.' He meant that the 
enemy would be penned up in the deso- 
late, muddy, 'and sterile fields of Cam- 
pagne, if his army held Grand-Prey and 
Islettes. If not the enemy would winter 
in the fertile country of the Trois 
Eveches. 

[Dumouriez] beckons a certain young Thouve- 
not, the fire of whose looks had pleased him, to 
wait a moment. Thouvenot waits : ' Voila (saya 
Polymetis, pointing to the map) that is the Forest 
of Argonne, that long strip of rocky mountain and 
wild wood— 40miles long . . , this might one . . . 
seize . . . [and] once seized . . . [it] might be the 



880 



THESMOPHORIA 



THIRTY 



Thermopylae of France.'— Carlyle, French Revolu- 
tion, vol. iii., book i., 3. 

Thes'mophor'ia. A festival of the 
ancient Greeks in honour of Demeter, 
the thesmoph'oros or law-giver. It lasted 
three days of October, and only married 
women could take part in the ceremonies. 
The last day, called Kalligenei'a, was 
spent in jollity and raillery. 

Thiers (Afows.). His nicknames were 
' Attila le Petit,' ' Tamerlan a lunettes,' 
' Camele'on,' ' Ge'neral Bonne,' ' Le Roi 
des Versailleux.' Louis Adolphe Thiers, 
born at Marseilles 1797 ; first president 
of the French Republic 1871-1873 ; died 
1877. 

Thiggers ana Sorners of Scot- 
land. Similar to the ' sturdy rogues ' of 
England. Vagabonds who preferred 
begging to work, and collected alms 
by menacing the timid. James 1. of 
Scotland tried to put them down, and 
ordered licensed beggars to wear a badge. 
These licensed beggars were called 
' Gaberlunzies.' 

To thig is to beg. Ancient German tnigen. Thig- 
gers also written Thigsters. A Sorner, in Scotch 
law. is one who takes meat and drink from others 
by force or threats. Sorn or Sorehon was an arbi- 
trary exaction or servile tenure in Scotland and 
Ireland. Purveyance was a similar exaction in 
England, that isfood and free quarters for king or 
chief and all his retinue on passage. 

Thimble League (The), 1886. To 

provide work at fair wages for women 
whose only means of livelihood is needle- 
work. 

Thinse. An hypothetical city of 
ancient geographers, situated, as Ptolemy 
says (book vii., 3), ' on or near the vast 
ocean which bounds Asia. It is enclosed 
by brazen walls.' The following is the 
description given in the Periplus of this 
city : ' It is situated under the Lesser 
Bear, and is reported to border on the 
oj)posite part of Pontus and the Caspian 
Sea, by which the Maeotis Palus flows 
into the ocean ' (' Periplus Maris Ery- 
thrsei,' ap. Hudson, ' Geogr. Vet. Scrip- 
Grseci Minores,' vol. i., p. s6). 

Some identify Thinae with China. 

Third Founder of Rome {The). 
Caius Marius, the victor of the Teutons 
and Cimbrians (b.c. 101) ; the second 
founder was Camillus, who overthrew 
the Gauls that invaded Rome under 
Brennua (b.c. 367). Romulus is called 
the original founder (b.c. 753). 



Third Order of Religionists 

(The). See p. 873, ' Tertiaries.' 

Third Romulus (TTie). See above, 
' Third Founder of Rome.' 

Thirlwall Prize {The\, for original 
historical research. A prize given every 
alternate year. Part of the prize is a 
bronze medal. Open to all graduates of 
the University of Cambridge of not more 
than four years' standing. Founded out 
of the Thirlwall memorial fund 1884; 
first award 1889. 

Thirteen United Colonies (T^e), 

1775. The style assumed by the Ameri- 
can Congress after Georgia sent in her 
adhesion. For the other twelve colonies, 
see ' Patres Patriae.' See also ' Congress 
of the United Colonies.' 

Thirty {Battle of the), 1351. The 
defiance of Jean sire de Beaumanoir to 
the English chatelain Bemborough to 
decide a contest by thirty Bretons pitted 
against thirty Englishmen. It is said 
by French historians that after eight of 
the Englishmen had been slain, the rest 
surrendered ; and that Jean sire de 
Beaumanoir quenched his thirst with a 
draught of blood. The fight took place 
between the castles of Josselin and 
Ploermel in France. 

Thirty Tyrants {The). 1. Of 
Athens, b.c. 404. After the battle of 
^gospotamos, the government of Athens 
was changed into an oligarchy. The poli- 
tical clubs named a committee of five who 
called themselves the Athenian ephors; 
and this committee nominated thirty 
persons to draw up the new constitution 
and to undertake the temporary admi- 
nistration of the city. The chief names 
were Theramenes and Critias. The com- 
mittee thus appointed soon obtained the 
unenviable name of the Thirty Tyrants. 

II. Of Borne, b.c. 200. A term loosely 
applied to a number of usurpers who 
assumed the rank and title of Augustus 
in different Roman provinces after the 
death of Valerian. The phrase applied 
to a list of independent rivals, only 
nineteen in number, is ridiculous, and 
these rivals in no wise resembled the 
council of thirty set by Sparta over 
Athens. 

The nineteen pretenders to the Roman throne 
were Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista Odenathus. 
and Zenobia (in the East) ; Posthumus, Lollian, 



THIRTY 



THOMISTS 



881 



Vlctorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and 
Tetricus (in Gaul and the western provinces) ; 
Ingennus, Regelliiinus, and Aureolus (in Illyricum 
and the confines of the Danube) ; Saturninus, in 
Pontus ; Trebellian, in Tsauria ; Piso, in Thessaly ; 
Valens, in Achaia ; yEmilian, in Egypt ; and Gel- 
Rus, in Africa. They all died a violent death. 
Perhaps the thirty was made up of the wives and 
children involved in the deaths of the pretenders. 

Thirty Years' Peace of Venice 

{The). From 1538 to 1570, when Selim 
II. sultan of Turkey declared war against 
Venice wholly without provocation. 

Thirty Years' Truce {The), b.c. 
445-415. This truce preceded the great 
Peloponnesian war. 

Thirty Years' War {A). The 
War of the Roses lasted thirty years; 
and in tliis civil war more than 100,000 
Englishmen lost their lives. The first 
battle was that of St. Albans 23 May, 
1455, and the war ended with the death 
of Richard III. in Bosworth Field 23 
Aug., 1483. The other historic battles 
were : Northampton, in which Henry VI. 
was made prisoner a second time 19 
July, 1460 ; Wakefield, in which Richard 
duke of York was slain 31 Dec, 1460; 
Towton, in which Henry VI. was a third 
time made prisoner — this was one of the 
bloodiest domestic battles ever fought, 
29 March, 1461. Hexham, won by the 
Yorkists 15 May, 1463; Barnet, in which 
the Earl of Warwick was slain, fought 
Easter Day, 14 April, 1471 ; Tewkesbury, 
in which Margaret and her son were 
taken prisoners 4 May, 1471. Altogether 
eight noted battles. 

Thirty Years' War {The), 1618- 
1648. A war to extirpate the Protestants 
of Germany set on foot by Kaiser Fer- 
dinand II. It may be divided into four 
parts, thus — 

I. From the commencement to the 
Danish intervention. A period of seven 
years (1618-1625). 

II. From the beginning of the Danish 
intervention to the peace of Liibeck, 
when Christian IV. of Denmark retired 
from the contest. A period of five years 
(1625-1630). 

III. From the intervention of the 
Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus to the 
battle of Nordlingen. Another period of 
five years (1630-1634). 

IV. From the French intervention to 
the peace of Westphalia, a period of 
thirteen years, in which the character of 
tlie war was wholly changed. It was no 



longer a religious war, but a fight by 
France and Sweden for German ascend- 
ency (1635-1648). 

Thistle {Knights of the), 809, said 
to have been founded in Scotland by 
Archaicus. Revived by James II. of Great 
Britain in 1687 ; again by Anne 31 Dec, 
1703. The badge is a collar composed 
of sixteen gold thistles interlaced with 
golden sprigs of rue ; and a small golden 
image of St. Andrew in a gold badge 
attached to the collar. The motto is 
* Nemo me impune lacessit.' 

The ' rue ' is a pun. Thistles Andrew {rue), 

Thistlewood's Conspiracy, 

1820, to assassinate all the ministry. 
Arthur Thistlewood had been arrested 
for taking part in the Spa Fields riots 
{q.v.), Dec. 1816. He challenged Lord 
Sidmouth (secretary of state for the 
Home Department) 1817. Sixteen of the 
ministers were to die at Lord Harrowby's 
house in Grosvenor Square on 19 Feb. 
One of the conspirators was to call with 
a note, and when the door was opened 
the rest were to rush in and murder all the 
j ministers, bringing off in bags the heads 
of Sidmouth and Castlereagh. They 
were then to throw fireballs into the 
straw-sheds of the cavalry bai-racks and 
set them on fire ; and then to take the 
Bank and the Tower. Edwards informed 
against the conspirators, so the whole 
affair ended in smoke. Thistlewood and 
four others were executed 1 May, 1820. 

The four others were Ings, Brunt, Tidd, and 
Davidson. Castlereagh, pronounce Castle-ray, 

Tho m as ( Chris tians of St.). A very 
early sect settled on the coast of Malabar, 
and said to have been planted by Thomas 
the apostle. They lapsed into the Nes- 
torian heresy ; that is, they believed in 
the co-existence of the two natures of 
Christ, but not in their union. At present 
they are chiefly Monophysites, but many 
are Romanists of the Eastern rite. 

It is certainly remarkable that the churches 
said to have been founded by apostles were, as a 
rule, not what is now called ' orthodox.' These 
were the Seven Churches of Asia, the St, Thomas 
Christians, the Church of Pella presided over by 
James and his brother, and so on. 

Thomasites. See p. 169, ' Christ- 
adelphians.' 

Thomists. Disciples of Thomas 

Aquinas (1224-1274), who applied the 

Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. 

Aquinas was a Dominican, and therefore 

SL 



882 



THOMITES 



THREE-CORNERED 



was hated by the Franciscans, their na- 
tural enemies. In the 14th cent. Duns 
Scotus, a Franciscan, came forward as the 
avowed opponent of Thomas Aquinas, 
and hence arose the two sects, the 
Thomists and the Scotists. The Thomists 
leaned to ' Nominalism ' (q-v.) ; the 
Scotists to ' Realism ' (q.v.). The Tho- 
mists, like Augustine, denied the ' Ira- 
maculate Conception ' ; the Scotists 
maintained it. The Thomists believed 
in the doctrine of Condignitism (q.v.) ; 
the Scotists were Semi-pelagians {q.v.). 
The points of grace and predestination 
were always bones of contention. 

See 'Christians of St. Thomas,' a large body of 
Christians in Malabar. See p. 170. 

Thomites {The) of Kent, 1838. Fol- 
lowers of John Nicholl Thom, a native 
of Cornwall, who went to Kent, assumed 
the name of Sir William Courtenay, gave 
out that he was the Messiah, and wholly 
invulnerable by fire or steel. This luna- 
tic had a large following of respectable 
middle-class men and women, who were 
guilty of rioting. The military being 
called out, Thom was shot, and buried 
at Heme Hill 5 June, 1838. 

Mr. Wyse referred to the ignorance revealed in 
the county of Kent by the delusion of the Thomites. 
— HOWITT, Hist, of Eng. year 1H39, p. 441. 

Thorn {Treaty of), 1466, which closed 
the wars between the Poles and the Teu- 
tonic Knights of Preussen. By this 
treaty all the western part of Preussen was 
ceded to Poland, and the rest of Preussen 
(or ancient Prussia) was held as a fief by 
the knights. 

Thorough (T^e). A system adopted 
by Wentworth and Archbishop Laud, 
which would (by the aid of the church) 
have rendered Charles I. the most abso- 
lute of all monarchs. It was the ' tho- 
rough ' subjection of all law to the royal 
will. 

The hearers had not forgotten the ' Thorough,* 
nor the utter suppression of all forms of religion 
but his own, the sweeping away utterly of the faith 
of Scotland, and the substitution of Arminianism 
and the liturgy.— Howitt, Hint, of Engl. (Charles 
I., chap. iv. p. 249). 

Thoulounid.es (3 syl.). A Turcoman 
dynasty of Egypt (869-905), so called 
from Thouloun of the tribe of the Oi'gours. 
He was a slave, but made Egypt inde- 
pendent. 

Thrani'tSQ, the uppermost bank of 
rowers in a Greek galley. The lowest 
bank was called the Thalamltce and the 



middle bank the ZeugltcB. As the oars 
of the Thranitee were the longest, their 
labour was greatest, and they had higher 
wages. 

Three Articles {The), 1584. The 
three things which Archbishop Wliitgift 
required the clergy to subscribe to, viz. 
(1) the royal supremacy in matters eccle- 
siastical as well as temporal ; (2) the 
legality of the Book of Common Prayer 
and the Ordinal ; and (3) the Thirty-nine 
Articles. See p. 48, ' Articles.' 

Three Branch Men {The). A 
term applied to those politicians who in 
the reign of Charles I. used to speak of 
the king, lords, and commons as the 
three estates, or the three branches of 
the legislature. The phrase originated 
with John Reeves at the close of the 
16th cent. 

Lord Clarendon says : ' The three branches is not 
only unsound in point of law, but is wholly false 
as a metaphor. Nobody talks of branches, but 
relatively to something else. If you speak of 
branches of a canal, you always have in your 
mind the grand trunk ; but if king, lords, and 
commons are three branches, where is the 
trunk ? ' 

(Of course the three estates of the kingdom are 
the nobility, the clergy, and the commons.) 

Three Chapters {The). In Greek 
Ke<j)d\aia. Schedules setting forth 
the heresies of Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of 
Edessa, accused of the Nestorian and 
Pelagian taint. They had been cut off 
and restored to church communion, and 
were dead and buried, when Justinian 
revived the controversy and submitted 
the ' Three Chapters ' to the fifth general 
council held at Constantinople in 553. 
The three ' heretics ' and all their de- 
fenders were then delivered over to the 
prince of darkness. 

Dean Milman (vol. ii. p. 843) says : ' The contro- 
versy of "the Three Chapters" was idle and 
frivolous; yet how many pages of church history 
does it not fill ! ' Gibbon says : ' The dispute has 
filled more volumes than it deserves lines.'— See 
Robertson, Hist, of the Christian Church, vol. ii. 
p. 301. 

Three-cornered Constitu- 

encies. A political device for repre- 
senting minorities. In 1867 it was 
enacted that if any place returned more 
than two members, the constituents 
should be allowed to vote for one less 
than the entire number : thus if, as in 
the city of London, there are four mem- 
bers, the constituents could vote for only 
three. By this arrangement the three 



THEEE 



THREE 



883 



most popular candidates would represent 
the majority, and the fourth choice would 
lie between the least popular of the 
majority and the most popular of the 
minority, and in almost every case the 
latter would be elected. 

Three Days of July (The), or 
• The Three Days,' July 27, 28, 29 (Tues- 
day, Wednesday, and Thursday) of 1830, 
in which the revolution of France cul- 
minated in the abdication of Charles X. 

The famous Three Days of July had as thrilling 
an effect in Transylvania as elsewhere.— Godkin, 

Jlist. of HuiiQury. 

Three Emperors {The), b.c. 2953- 
2598. The 10th ki of Chinese ' history.' 
This mythic period followed the alle- 
gorical. The three mythic emperors were 
Fo-hi, Chin-nong, and Hoang-li, i.e. son 
of heaven, divine husbandman, and em- 
peror of earth. 

Three Fatal to France. The 

fatal nuinber to Rome has been six ; 
and three has proved singularly fatal to 
France. 

I. Take the kings. The third of any 
name has been uniformly either worth- 
less or unlucky : Childebert III., Clotaire 
III., Clovis III., Dagobert III., and 
Thierry III. were rois faineants . 

Childekic III., the last king of France 
of the first race, was confined in a cloister 
that Pepin le Bref might reign in his 
stead. 

Pepin le Bref was the third Pepin : 
(1) Pepin de Landen ; (2) Pepin d'He'ris- 
tal, his grandson, and (3) Pepin le Bref, 
grandson of Pepin d'He'ristal, who was 
succeeded by the Carlovingian dynasty. 

Chaeles III. le Simple was wholly 
under the thumb of favourites, and 
after a most inglorious reign was 
poisoned by the Comte de Vermandois, 

Henki III. le Mignon. ' weaker than 
woman and worse than harlot,' was 
assassinated by Jacques Clement. 

Louis III., joint king with Carloman, 
reigned about a year and was killed by 
an accident at the age of 22. 

Philippe III. le Hardi was singularly 
unfortunate, and singularly misnamed 
' The Bold.' This tool of Labrosse went 
on a crusade, and brought home the dead 
bodies of five near relatives : his father, 
his wife, his son, his brother, and his 
brother-in-law. The ' Sicilian Vespers ' 
{q.v.) occurred in his reign. He died of 
.an epidemic at Perpignan. 



Napoleon III. lost his imperial crown 
at Sedan, and died in exile at Chisel- 
hurst, in Kent. 

II. The succession of three brothers 
has always proved fatal : 

The Capetian dynasty terminated 
with the succession of three brothers : 
Louis X., Philippe V., and Charles IV. 
(sons of Philippe le Bel). 

The Valois line came to an end by the 
succession of three brothers : Francois 
IL, Charles IX., and Henri III. (sons of 
Henri II.). 

The BouBBON dynasty terminated with 
the succession of three brothers : Louis 
XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. 
(sons of Louis the Dauphin). 

III. The vionarchij of France was 
brought to an end by the third of these 
triplets. 

The empire of France consisted of 
Napoleon I., Napoleon IL, and Napo- 
leon III. 

Ut dicitur, semper sub sextis perdita Koma, 
Sic quoque sub numero tres perdita Francia 
semper. 

If six to Rome hath always brought mischance, 
Three hath a fatal number proved to France. 
Sec p. 796, ' Semper sub Sextis.' 

Three Glorious Days, or 'La 

grande semaine.' The insurrection of 
27, 28, 29 July (1830), in Paris, which 
drove Charles X. from the throne. The 
days were Tuesday, Wednesday, and 
Thursday. 

The political world was shaken by the three 
glorious days in Paris.— J. A. Fboude, Thomas 
'Carlyle, vol. ii. p. 124. 

Three Great Military Orders 

(The). The Knights Templars, the 
Knights Hospitallers, and the Teutonic 
Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem. 

Three Hundred (The), of Milan. 
The band in charge of the banner of St, 
Ambrose, the sacred oriflamme of Milan, 
sworn to die in its defence. The three 
hundred were supported by a guard of 
three times three hundred, the elect sol- 
diers of Lombardy. Three was a sacred 
number, and three times three was thrice 
sacred. 

Three in English history. Our line of 
kings never exceeds three reigns without 
interruption or catastrophe. 

William I., IL, Henry I, 
A usurper, Stephen, 

Henry II. , Richard I, 

A usurper, John. 

Sl2 



884 



THEEE 



THEEE 



Henry III., Edward I. 

Edward II. murdered. 

Edward III. 

Richard II. deposed. 

Henry IV., V., VI. 

Line of Lancaster changed. 

Edward IV., V., Richard in. 

Dynasty changed. 

Henry VII., Vni., Edward VL 

Lady Jane Grey. 
Mary, Elizabeth. 

Dynasty changed. 

James I. 

Charles I. beheaded. 

Charles 11. 

James II. dethroned. 
William III., Anne. 

Dynasty changed. 

George I., II., m. 

Regency. 
George IV., William IV., Victoria. 

Indirect successions. 
*,* Except in one case, that of Jolin, we have 
never had a qreat-ci landchild as sovereign indirect 
descent. See ' Three Fatal to France.' 

Three Kings {The). The three 
Kings of Cologne are the supposed 
Magians who offered gifts to the infant 
Jesus in Bethlehem. The ' Feast of the 
Three Kings ' is the Feast of Epiphany 
or Twelfth Night. There was a famous 
dramatic spectacle so called, once ex- 
tremely popular. The representation in 
1336 by the monks of Milan is historic. 

The names usually given in Cologne Cathedral 
are Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar ; but other 
traditions give other names, as Apellios, Ameros, 
and Damascos ; Magalath, Galgalath, and Sara- 
sin,— Ator, Sator, and Peratoras. 

Three Kings' Day. Twelfth 
Day, so called because the visit of the 
' Three Kings ' or wise men of the East 
who came to honour the infant Jesus is 
commemorated on that day (the Epi- 
phany). 

Three per cent. Reduced 
Annuities {The), 1747. Several 
funds borrowed at a higher rate of inte- 
rest reduced to a three per cent, interest. 
In 1749 by Act of Parliament it was 
declared that all such holders of the 
fund as did not choose to accept the 
reduced interest should be paid off in 
full. Very few embraced the alternative. 

Three Popes. 

I. In the 11th cent, there were three 
simultaneous popes : Benedict IX. (1033 
-1048), Silvester HI. (1044), and Gre- 



gory VI., who bought the pontificate 
(1044-1046). Kaiser Henry III. in 1046, 
having set aside Benedict and Gregory, 
appointed Clement II., a German, who 
died the following year. Benedict still 
held on, and in the two next years two 
other Germans were appointed by the 
kaiser. 

II. In the 15th cent, there were three 
simultaneous popes : Gregory XII. (1406 
-1415, died 1417), held his court at Friuli ; 
Benedict XIII., the Avignon pope, held 
his court at Peniscola, in Spain (1394- 
1424); and Alexander V., the Roman 
pope (1409-1410), succeeded by John 
XXIII. (1410-1415). While Gregory and 
Benedict were still alive the Council 
of Pisa appointed Martin V. (1417), and 
at the death of Benedict Clement VIH. 
took his chair. 

Three Questions {The), 1687. 
The lords-lieutenants of counties and 
mayors of boroughs were requested by 
James II. to make a return of persons 
who answered the following questions in 
the affirmative : (1) If chosen to sit in 
the next parliament will you vote for the 
repeal of the Test Act and of the Penal 
Laws ? (2) Will you give your vote to 
candidates favourable to those repeals ? 
(3) Will you support the declaration for 
liberty of conscience by living peaceably 
with Christians of a different creed to 
your own ? The answers received were 
not favourable to the king's views. 

Three Rejected Articles {The). 
The original number of the articles of 
the Church of England was 42, drawn 
up in 1551, but the present number is 
39, tlrree having been omitted by Convo- 
cation, 29 Jan., 1563. The three articles 
rejected are these : (1) The resurrection 
of the dead is not passed already; (2) 
the soul does not perish with the body ; 
and (8) not all men will be saved. 

Three Sacraments {The). 

I, 1520. Luther acknowledged only 
three sacraments, viz. baptism, the 
eucharist, and penance. Roman Catho- 
lics have seven sacraments, but English 
Protestants since 1553 have admitted 
but two, baptism and the Lord's supper, 
as may be gathered from the church 
catechism published that year. 

II. In ' Cranmer's Catechism ' {q.v,) 
three sacraments are authorised ; 

1. Baptism, the bath of regeneration, 



THEEE 



THRONE 



885 



or instrument of the second birth (pp. 
182, 206). 

2. Absolution, or the authority of the 
keys, by virtue of which pardon is 
obtained for sins after baptism. 

3. The holy communion, which sup- 
plies fresh grace to the woi'thy recipient, 
and enables him to go on from strength 
to strength. 

Three States or Stages (The). 

Comte says the mind passes through three 
stages, the theological, the metaphysical, 
and the positive. In the infancy of 
thought the mind attributes phenomena 
to the arbitrary will of some spirit, fairy, 
or pervading providence, which says and 
it is done. In the second stage it attributes 
the causes of phenomena to some abstract 
or hypothetical principle, as law and 
force. In the third stage it relies on 
science and data. Thus plague or 
famine by the first is attributed to God ; 
by the second to eclipses or some other 
hypothesis ; by the third to bad sanitary 
arrangements. Most educated men are 
in all the three stages : on some subjects 
they are in the theological stage ; on 
others in the metaphysical ; and on 
others in the positive. Thus Faraday 
was remarkable for his theological and 
positive stages. 

Three States [Pei-iod of the), called 
by the Chinese San-kuo (221-226). The 
states were (1) Heou-Han, or Sho-Han, 
the continuation of the Han or 6th 
imperial dynasty. It gave two kings, and 
lasted forty-four years. The seat of govern- 
ment was Shen-see ; (2) the kingdom of 
Oey or Wei, which gave five kings, lasted 
forty-five years, and had Honan for the 
seat of government ; (3) the kingdom of 
Ou or Woo, which gave four kings, lasted 
forty-four years, and had its seat of 
government first at Ou-chang, and after- 
wards at Nankin. 

Three Tailors of Tooley Street 

{The). Only two of these busybodies 
were tailors. They were John Grose 
(tailor, Tooley Street), Thomas Satterley 
(tailor, Weston Street), and George Sand- 
ham (grocer, Bermondsey Street), who 
met after business at a public-house, to 
smoke their pipes and talk politics. 
During the movement of Catholic Eman- 
cipation they resolved to petition par- 
liament, and commenced their document 



with these words : ' We, the people of 
England.' Canning was prime minister. 
A correspondent of 'Notes and Queries' (21 
Jan., 18S8, p. 66) avouches this to be a fact. 

Three Test Articles [The), 1554, 

introduced in the reign of Mary in proof 
of orthodoxy, were : — 

1. Is the natural body of Christ really 
present in the elements after consecration, 
or not ? 

2. Does any substance, except the 
body and blood, remain in the eucharist ? 

3. Is the Mass a propitiatory sacrifice 
for the sins of the living and dead, or is 
it not ? See p. 48, ' Articles.' 

Three Theological Virtues 

{The). Faith, Hope, and Charity. 

Three-way Leet. A three-way 
road, a cross-road where suicides used to 
be buried with a stake thrust through 
their body. These cross-ways were the 
terror of ' old women and old maides.' 

Ltedan, zelsedan • Idd, geldd. Junius says, 
' Trivium, quadrivium, ita dicunt, in quibusdani 
Angli8e tractibus. 

* Three Ws' {The), 1837. Three 
great American houses in London. The 
amount paid from June to December by 
Wilson & Co. was 935,300?. ; by Wigau 
& Co. 674,700L; and by Wildes & Co. 
505,000Z.; total acceptances in six months, 
2,116,000?. 

Three Writers {The). See p. 801, 
* Scriptores Tres.' 

'Five Writers,' sec 'Scriptores Quinque'; 'Ten 
Writers,' see 'Scriptores Decern'; the ' Six Chro- 
nicles,' see ' Six.' 

Threshers {The), 1806. An Irish 
secret treaty formed by Roman Catholics 
of Ireland in opposition to the Orange- 
men or Protestant association. They 
appeared in Sligo, Mayo, Leitrim, Long- 
ford, Roscommon, and Cavan. One of 
their articles was the resistance to the 
payment of tithes, even when voluntarily 
paid to Roman Catholic priests. Their 
chief called himself ' Capt. Thresher,' and 
his gangs used to thrash or beat unmer- 
cifully all collectors of tithes and their 
clerks, as well as those who paid tithes. 
See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' 

Throne and Altar {The). 'Le 
Trone et I'Autel,' the motto of the Legiti- 
mists and Carlists. It really means the 
divine right of kings and priests, both 
'the Lord's Anointed.' The absolute 
king and infallible Church. 



886 



THRONE 



TIEN -TEH 



Throne of Jamshed {The). Per- 
sepolis is so called because founded 
by Jamshed (shed means illustrious). 
This mythical king of Persia began to 
reign B.C. 2240 and reigned twenty years. 
The Blue-ribbonites will be glad to know 
til at the art of making wine is ascribed 
to this king. 

Throne of the Barricades {The). 
That of Louis Philippe of France (1830- 
1848), founded on the Revolution of 
July, when Paris was barricaded for 
three days. 

Thronus Regalis (Konigstuhl), A 
round vault on tlie Rhine, five miles 
south of Coblentz, The vault is built of 
freestone, and rests on nine stone pil- 
lars, one of which stands in the middle. 
It is eighty feet in circumference, 
furnished above with seven seats, one 
for each elector. The ascent to it is by 
stairs consisting of twenty-eight stone 
steps, and it has two stout doors. On 
this thronus regalis the original electors 
consulted respecting their choice of a 
king, Heinrich VII. in 1308 was elected 
in this manner, and in 1338 the electoral 
league was established here. Maxi- 
milian I. was the last of the kaisers 
brought to the thronus regalis. 

Thugs {The). A religious fraternity 
in India in honour of Khali, wife of Siva, 
but addicted to murder. In some pro- 
vinces they are called Phansigars or 
stranglers. 

Phansigars means those ■who 'employ the 
noose ' or phansi. Thug means deceiver or cheat. 

Thunderbolt of Italy {The). 

Gaston de Foix, nephew of Louis XIL, 
who fell at Ravenna in the moment of 
victory (1489-1512). 

Thunderer {The). The 'Times' 
newspaper, so called from an expression 
used by Captain Edward Stirling while 
Thomas Barnes was editor : ' We thun- 
dered forth the other day an article on 
the subject of social and political reform.' 

Thundering Legion {The), a.d. 
174. In Latin 'Legio Fulminatrix.' 
While Marcus Aurelius was engaged in 
a war with the Quadi and Blarcomanni 
his army suffered severely from want of 
water. Eusebius says the 12th legion 
{Legio Melitina) fell on their knees and 
prayed for rain, when forthwith a storm 
broke overhead, supplying the Roman 



army with water, and dealing destruction 
to the foe. From this storm the Legio 
Melitina was ever after called the 
Thundering Legion. 

The assertion of Eusebius (v. 5), be it remem- 
bered, is only one-sided, for others ascribe the 
storm to the prayers of Marcus Aurelius to 
Jupiter, and under this impression the emperor 
raised a pillar in gratitude to ' Jupiter the Thun- 
derer.' Others ascribe it to the Incantations ol 
Arnuphis, an Egyptian magician. Then, again, 
Dio Cassius informs us that the twelfth legion 
had been called " Legio Fulminatrix ' ever since 
the time of Augustus (Book vii., v. 23). 

Thurificati {The). Those lapsed 
Christians who, to avoid persecution, con- 
sented to burn incense to heathen gods. 

Tiara {The). The triple crown of the 
pope, symbolising his civil rank, as the 
keys symbolise his ecclesiastical power. 
The most ancient head-dress of the 
bishop of Rome was a high round cap. 
In 1053 Pope Damasus II. adopted a cap 
more like that of the Jewish high-priest 
or a mitre. In 1276 Pope John XIX. 
encompassed his miti-e with a crown ; in 
1295 Boniface added a second crown; 
and in 1411 John XXII. added a third 
crown, completing the tiara or triple 
crown to signify the power of the pope 
over the church ' souffrante, militante, et 
triomphante,' or else his power over 
three parts of the world (Europe, Asia, 
and Africa). 

Surely the pope cannot claim power over the 
church triumphant. 

Tiberius {The French). Louis XL 
(1423, 1461-1483). Both were cruel, 
crafty, and deceitful. Their rule of 
government was, ' He who knows not 
how to deceive knows not how to rule.' 

TibuUus of France {The). Eva- 
riste Desire Desforges Parny (1753- 
1814). The ' dame de sa plume ' was a 
Creole, who, however, preferred in mar- 
riage a rich planter to a poor poet. 

Tiedge Verein (T7ie), 1842. An 
institution founded in Berlin in honour 
of Christoph August Tiedge, ' the Nestor 
of German poesy ' (1752-1841). It gives 
every fifth year a literary prize to some 
youthful candidate, and makes provision 
for needy meritorious authors. 

Tien-teh. The pretender to imperial 
power in China, and leader of an insur- 
rection which lasted sixteen years. There 
were five chiefs, all of whom acknow- 
ledged his supremacy (1850-1866). 

His proper name was Hung sieu-tseuen. He 



TIEN-TSIN 



'TIMES' 



887 



was a native of Quangsl of lo-w origin, and as- 
sumed the titular names of Tien-teh (celestial vir- 
tue) and Tae-ping-wang (.prince of peace). 

Tien-tsin {Treaty of), 26 June, 
1858, between Great Britain and China. 
Eatified 24 Oct., 1860. Provided for 
ambassadors on the part of the two con- 
tracting parties to reside at each other's 
court ; for the estabhshnaent of a British 
minister at Pekin, and the liberty of 
trading without restriction. 

Tierce. One of the eight daily ser- 
vices of the Catholic Church, and third 
of the four lesser ones. At nine in the 
morning — the third hour of the day. 
See p. 140, 'Canonical Hours.' 

Tiers Consolid^, 1797. A name 
given in France during the Directory to 
the public debt, ' dont le tiers seul e'tait 
garanti,' the nation being bankrupt at 
the time. ■» 

Tiers l^tat (Le), or ' Le Tiers.' The 
third order of the state, the other two 
being the noblesse and the clergy. The 
three orders combined form the Etats 
Generaux. In the reign of Louis le 
Gros (1108-1137), the commons were 
admitted into the legislative assembly, 
which then took the name of the ' As- 
semblee des trois etats.' 27 Dec, 1788, 
it was determined that the deputies of 
Le Tiers should equal those of the other 
two orders combined. This is called 
'Le doublement du Tiers.' The name 
of Tiers Etat was abolished in 1789, 
and the Etats Generaux became the 
Assemblee Nationale. 

Pronounce Tears-a-tah' . 

Tiers Ordre, or ' Tiercelins,' or 
' Tertiaries.' Seculars of a religious 
order who observe the rules of the 
order to which they attach themselves 
without renouncing their civil life. The 
* Third Order of St. Francis ' was founded 
in 1221 ; the ' Tertiaries of St. Augus- 
tine ' in 1401 ; the ' Third Order of St. 
Dominic ' in 1422 ; &c. 

Some tertiaries who live in common. 

Tigernach. Tlie oldest of the L-ish 
annalists (died 549). His annals were 
published in O'Connor's Berum Hiber- 
nicarum Scriptores Veteres at the ex- 
pense of the Duke of Buckingham, 1814- 
1826. 



Tiglath-pileser. 

Shergat.' 



^eep.485,'Kileh- 



Tigretier. The dancing mania of 
Abyssinia, which occurs most frequently 
in the Tigre country, whence its name. 

Tilsit {Peace or Treaty of), 7 July, 
1807, between France and Russia. This 
was a most disgraceful affair, as Russia 
was at the time an ally of Great Britain, 
and they were acting together against 
Turkey and the French. Napoleon by 
this treaty won over Alexander, and 
secretly provided that he should make 
common cause with France against Gi'eat 
Britain, and sign the Berlin Decree 
{q.v.). It was secretly agreed between 
the two signatories that France should 
be allowed to make itself master of the 
Danish fleet and Russia to seize Finland. 
Turkey was to be divided between them : 
France to have Macedonia, Dalmatia, 
and Greece; and Russia all the rest of 
Turkey. 9 July Prussia signed the 
treaty, but was not informed of the 
secret provisions above referred to. 

* Times* {The), newspaper. Com- 
menced 1 January, 1788. 

* Times' {The) and the Irish Land 
League, 1889. The ' Times ' newspaper 
had used its gigantic influence to put 
down the crunes committed in Ireland 
for several past years connected with 
the Land League. The Irish were com- 
pelled by the leaguers to join the league 
on pain of death or personal injury, and 
those who joined the league were for- 
bidden to pay their rents or to occupy a 
holding from which a defaulting tenant 
had been evicted. In 1889 three judges, 
called Commissioners, were appointed to 
examine into the merits of these charges 
made by the ' Times.' 

Whatever may be said respecting the position 
taken up by the 'Times' in 1888 1889 against 
Charles S. Parnell and the Irish party, one thing 
is indisputable, the motive was noble and patri- 
otic. Mr. Gladstone as prime minister had said 
that ' crime doggpd the Parnellite party in every 
movement,' and if so, the movement ought to be 
put down. In fact, the phrase 'Parnellism .-ind 
crime' ia only Gladstones dictum in another 
form. The conduct of the ' Times ' in seconding 
Mr. Gladstone was a most disinterested act, with 
only one fault— the editors trusted too implicitly to 
an adventurer named Pigott, who betrayed them. 

* Times' Fund {The), 1854. A 
sumi of 10,000Z. raised by private sub- 
scription and sent to Printing-house 
Square for the relief of the sick and 
wounded in the hospitals of Scutari, 
tended by Miss Florence Nightingale and 
a staff of lady volunteers in the Crimean 



888 



TIMES' 



TITHE 



war. The 'Times' newspaper under- 
took to superintend this fund. 

'Times' Memorial (The), 1841. 
Mr. O'Keilly, the ' Times ' correspondent 
at Paris, having received secret informa- 
tion of a gigantic fraud projected on the 
continent, exposed it in the ' Times ' 
newspaper, and saved the bankers the 
loss of a milhon sterling. A testimonial 
was set on foot, and the ' Times ' declin- 
ing any money recompense, a 'Times' 
scholarship was founded at Oxford for 
boys educated at Christ's Hospital, and 
another at Cambridge for boys educated 
in the City of London School. The rest 
of the money was spent on four tablets, 
to be set up in the Royal Exchange, in 
Christ's Hospital, in the City of London 
School, and in the ' Times ' printing office. 

The swindle was to have been a simultaneous 
issue of forged letters of credit on the chief 
bankers of Europe. The attempt to expose the 
Irish Land League was equally noble, but mis- 
carried through the villainy of one Pigott. 

* Times ' Testimonial (TAe), 1842. 
The Bishop of London headed a sub- 
scription to the 'Times' newspaper for 
the interest taken by that journal in the 
School of Christ's Hospital. The money 
collected was funded to create exhibitions 
in that school to either of the Universi- 
ties, and to found ' Times' Scholarships.' 
See above ' The " Times " and the Irish 
Land League.' 

Timothy Sparks. The no^n de 
guerre of Charles Dickens in his pam- 
phlet of ' Sunday under Three Heads ' : 

(1) As it is; (2) As Sabbath bills have 
made it ; and (3) As it might be made (1836). 

Tim.othy Titcom.b. The pen- 
name of Josiah Gilbert Holland, an 
American author. 

Tineman, i.e. lose-man, the man 
who loses his men. So Archibald Douglas 
was called, because after the death 
or murder of the Duke of Rothesay, for- 
tune deserted him, and he lost most of 
his followers in each action he under- 
took (died 1424). 

Tintamarresque. Burlesque his- 
tory : as ' Le Trocaderoscope, Revue 
Tintamarresque de I'Exposition Uni- 
verselle.' Paris, 1878. Par Touchatout. 

' Histoire de France Tintamarresque.' 
Par Touchatout. Paris (to the flight of 
Louis-Philippe in 1848). 

' Histoire Tintamarresque de Napoleon 



in.' Par Touchatout. Paris, 1877 (from 
1848). 

' La Degringolade Imp^riale ' (a second 
part to the above). Paris, 1878. 

' Grande Mythologie Tintamarresque.' 
Par Touchatout. 

' Histoire Populaire et Tintamarresque 
de la Belgique.' Par F. Delisle. Brussels. 

Tintoret of Switzerland {The). 
John Rudolph Huber (1722-1790). He 
painted 3,065 portraits, besides other 
subjects. 

Tippling Act (The). 24 Geo. IL 
eh. 40. So called because it allowed no 
action to be maintained for the sale of 
spirituous liquors, retailed on credit, 
unless the debt amounted to 20s. or 
upwards at one time. Now in part 
repealed. 

Tire'sias. Milton is called 'the 
blind Tiresias of modern times ' (1608- 
1674). 

Tirshatha. A governor appointed 
over the Assyrian kings. , 

Tirzah {The Ho^ise of). In the 
language of the Roundheads, the Epis- 
copalians were of the house of Tirzah. 
Any persons who differ from our own 
religious faith. Tirzah was the royal 
city of the revolted tribes of Israel. 

He liked not this going to feast in high places 
with the uncircumcised in heart, and looked on 
the whole ... as a making merry in the house of 
Tirzah.— Sir W. ScoTT, Peveril of the Peak, chap. 4. 

Tisserands (weavers). The French 
name of the Cathari, or Puritans of the 
12th cent. See p. 150, ' Cathari.' 

Tithe Agitation {The). In Ire- 
land, 1831. The Catholic Irish combined 
to resist the payment of tithes to Pro- 
testant clergymen. The rebellion was 
stirred up by Daniel O'Connell, who 
hated Mr. Stanley, the chief secretary. 
Many of the clergy in Ireland were 
reduced to pauperism. At Newtown- 
barry, in Wexford, cattle were impounded 
by a tithe-proctor, and the peasantry 
who went to release them came into 
collision with the yeomanry, who fired 
and killed twelve. At Carrickshock, 
however, there was a more frightful tra- 
gedy. The peasantry armed with scythes 
and pitchforks killed eighteen of the 
police, including the commanding officer. 
At Castlepollard, in Westmeath, the 
police fired on the peasants and shot 



TITHE 



TITLE 



889 



ten. At Gortroclie, near Rathcormack 
(Cork), Archdeacon Ryder, supported by 
a number of the mihtary, ordered the 
soldiers to fire, when eight were killed 
and thirteen wounded. Among the slain 
was the son of widow Ryan. Government 
now took the matter up. Mr. Stanley, 
chief secretary, insisted that the law 
must be respected ; Daniel O'Connell sided 
with the tithe recusants. It was found 
that the amount of arrears was 104,285Z., 
but all that could be collected was 
12,000/., and the cost of collecting it was 
15,000/., so the contest was given up, as 
the game was not worth the candle. See 
* Irish Church Temporalities Bill.' 

Tithe Bill, or Commutation Act, 
1836, As a tenth of the produce of land 
would in many cases swallow up the 
profits of improvement, the bill enacted 
that a rent-charge should be levied 
equal to the average amount received 
for wheat, barley, and oats, during the 
seven preceding years. The rent-charge 
removed the vexatious custom of taking 
tithes in kind. The measure was devised 
by Mr. Jones. 

Many landlords let their lands tithe free, and 
pay the rent-charge themselves. This should 
always be done under all circumstances. When 
tithe was collected in kind, a green bough was 
Btuck into every tenth shock of corn on the field 
to mark the property of the tithe-owner. 

Tithe Commissioners of Eng- 
land and Wales [The). 6, 7 Will. IV, 
c, 71 appointed to convert the tithes 
into a rent-charge payable in money, but 
varying "in amount, according to the 
average price of corn {i.e. wheat, barley, 
and oats), for the seven preceding years. 

Tithe Commutation Act {The), 
1832, Ireland. This act enabled the 
tenant to pay a yearly sura of money in 
lieu of tithes, if the rector was willing to 
accept the commutation. Above 1,000 
parishes accepted the change, but some 
rectors stood out, and this led to the 
Anti-tithe War {q.v.). 

Tithe Composition Bill {The), 
1832. Introduced by Lord Stanley. In 
1838 composition for tithes in Ireland 
was changed for a fixed charge, which 
was only three-fourths of the former 
composition, to be paid by the landlords 
and not by the tenants (1, 2 Vict. c. 
109). 

Tithe "War {The). In Ireland 
(1830-1835). A most sanguinary rebel- 

:-58 



lion ostensibly for the abolition of tithes. 
The Whitefeet, the Blackfeet, the 
Terryalts, the Lady Clares, the Molly 
Maguires, and the Rockites overran Ire- 
land during these years. And in 1842, 
1846, the Repeal movement roused the 
country to a state of enthusiasm border- 
ing on frenzy, if not actual revolt. See 
p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' 

Tithes {Co7nmii.tation of). In Eng- 
land and Wales, 1836 (6, 7 Will. IV. c. 
71), whereby the tithes hitherto collected 
in kind were commuted for a fixed sum 
of money. Amended by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 
64 (1837), and several times since. 

Titi {Prince). Frederick prince of 
Wales, eldest son of George II. Seward, 
a contemporary, tells us that Prince 
Frederick was a great reader of French 
memoirs, and that he wrote memoirs of 
his own times under the pseudonym of 
* Prince Titi.' These memoirs were sub- 
sequently found amongst the papers of 
Ralph the historian. 

Correspondents of ' Notes and Queries ' in 1884 
inform us that there is a political fairy tale by St. 
Hyacinthe (1684-1746) called the • History of Prince 
Titi, the four chief characters of which are King 
GiNGUET, mean, stingy, and hating his son (like 
George II.); the Queen Tripasse, his wife, 
haughty, very fond of money, and also hating her 
son (like Queen Caroline); Prince Titi, a good, 
kind-hearted, affable prince, handsome and brave, 
but ill-used by his royal parents (like Frederick 
prince of Wales); and Prince Triptillon, a 
younger brother, made much of by both his 
parents (like the Duke of Cumberland). Kalph 
also wrote a ' History of Prince Titi,' in which the 
page L Eveille by fairy help gets to know all that 
passes in royal councils, and keeps the prince 
advised of everything. The page made a journal 
in cipher of these matters, which was printed in 

17;^;. 

Titian {The French). Jacques 
Blanchard (1600-1638). 

Titian {The Portuguese). Alonzo 
Sanchez Coello (1515-1590). 

Titian {The Spanish). Juan Fer- 
nandez Ximenes, generally called *E1 
Mudo ' (the Dumb), 1598-1666. 

Title, or ' Titiilus,' means ' pastor,' as 
the ' Title of St. Mary,' i.e. the pastor of 
the church so called. 

Title of Accusation, (T^e), nailed 
to the cross, we are told, is deposited 
with one of the nails in the Santa Croce 
of Rome. Bozio asserts that it was 
found in the cave where the three crosses 
were buried. The letters are red, and 
the slab of wood. Lipsius informs us 
that the slab shown to him was 9 inches 



8C0 



TITULAES 



TOLOSA 



long; but, as it contained only a small 
part of five "inscription, the entire slab, 
he thinks, must have been about 4 feet. 
See p. 231, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 

Father Durand (123-2-1296) tells us that he saw 
in Paris the title of the accusation in full. The 
monk Antonine (1389-1459) asserts that he held in 
his own hands the slab bearing the full accusation 
when he visited the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 

The title on the Roman slab contains two Latin 
words, NAZARINVS KE[x], and one Greek word 
written bnckuards and spelt with two blunders, 
iYONEPAZAN, where K should be H, and -OY2 
>;hould be -02. Surely this must be a most clumsy 
forgery, for the writer ignorantly supposed that 
Greek was written like Hebrew from right to left. 

Tit'ulars of Tithes. Scotchmen 
to whom the king made grants of abbey 
lands and tithes, on condition of their 
providing suitable stipends to the re- 
formed clergy. Also called the 'Lords 
of Erection.' 

Titus of Germany {The). Joseph 
II. (1741-1765-1790), son of Maria 
Theresa. So called because hardly a day 
passed which was not distinguished by 
some act of munificence, some private 
deed of charity, or something done for 
the good of others; yet was he almost 
always unfortunate. 

Titus, or the Delight of Man- 
kind of Germany {The). Maxi- 
milian II. Coxe, in his ' House of 
Austria,' says : ' If ever a Christian and 
philosopher filled the throne, that Chris- 
tian and philosoper was Maximilian II.' 
(vol. i. part ii. p. 649). Born 1527, reigned 
1564-1576. 

Tityre Tus (pronounce Tit'-e-re 
tuze). The name assumed in the 17th 
cent, by a clique of young blades in 
London, of the upper class, whose delight 
was to break windows, upset sedan-chairs, 
rudely caress young women, molest the 
watch, and annoy quiet citizens. See 
' Street Bullies.' 

The reference is to the first line of Virgil's first 
'Eclogue,' Tityre, tupatuUc recubanssub tegmine fagi, 
implying that they were men of leisure who 
delighted to 'recline at ease under their paternal 
beeches.' 

To Remain Bible. In Gal. xxiv. 
29 an editorial note in the margin, ' to 
remain ' [stet], is inserted in the text : 
' But as then he that was born after the 
flesh persecuted him that was born after 
the spirit to remain, even so it is now.' 
See p. 90, ' Bible,' and ' Scriptures.' 

Tobacco Revolt {The), 1848. See 
p. 32, ' Anti-tobacconists.' 



Toeplitz, in Bohemia {Treaty of), 
Sept. 1818, between Austria and Great 
Britain. This treaty of alliance was 
effected between the battle of Dresden 
and that at Leipsic. A few days pre- 
viously (9 Sept.) Austria, Eussia, and 
Prussia had entered into an alliance 
against Napoleon. 

Toga'ted Wation {The). The 
ancient Eomans, whose distinguishing 
dress was a toga or white robe bordered 
with purple for magistrates. Women as 
well as men wore the toga. 

The children who were free-born wore a toga 
prceiexia (white bordered with pvirple) till they 
were seventeen, when they changed it for the 
U^ga virllis, made of white wool without ornament 
or border. 

Toga'ti et Pallia'ti. The Eomans 
and Greeks. The dress of a Eoman was 
the toga, of a Greek the pallium, whence 
the Eomans were called the gens togdta, 
and the Greeks the gens pallidta. 

Toghlak {The House of). Founded 
in Delhi by T<5ghlak in 1821. This line 
of kings succeeded the second Gaurian 
dynasty, which reigned from 1288 to 
1321. The house of Toghlak was suc- 
ceeded in 1414 by the government of the 
Seiads. 

Toleration Act {The), 1 William & 
Mary, c. 18 (24 May, 1689). For the relief 
of Protestant Dissenters. All persons 
dissenting from the Church of England 
(except Papists, Unitarians, and Arians) 
were allowed to assemble for religious 
worship according to their owti forms, 
provided they took the oaths of allegiance 
and supremacy, and also subscribed a 
declaration against transubstantiation. 
The exception of Unitarians and Arians 
was repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 160, The 
Eoman Catholics were relieved by the 
Emancipation Act, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, 1829, 
and 1844. 

Tolosa {Gold of). Tolosa— «.e. Tou- 
louse — was a large and wealthy city with 
a famous temple, where great riches 
were deposited. In this temple was pre- 
served the booty taken by ' Brennus ' 
from Delphi. In 106 this temple was 
plundered by Quintus Servilius Csepio 
on his way to meet the Cimbrian army. 
Csepio was utterly defeated by the Cimbri, 
and it was said that his defeat was a 
judgment of the gods for his sacrilege. 
Hence the Latin proverb Aurum Tolo- 



TOLTECAN 



TONSUEE 



891 



sdnum habet ('Ill-gotten wealth never 
prospers '). 

Toltecan Nations {The). The 
Mexicans and Peruvians are so called by 
Morton. The Toltecans, he says, were 
the builders of that series of mounds 
found throughout North America. 

Tom Moore of France {The). 
Chaulieu (1639-1720). Called 'The 
Anacreon of the Temple.' 

Tom of Ten Thousand. Thomas 
Thynne, of Longleat Hall. So called 
not only from his great wealth, but for 
his unbounded hospitality. He married 
Elizabeth Percy (countess of Ogle), 
heiress of Joscelyne earl of Northumber- 
land, and was murdered on his wedding 
day (12 Feb., 1682) by three assassins 
hired by Charles count Konigsmark, a 
disappointed suitor of Lady Ogle. 

In Dryden s ' Absalom and Achitophel' Thomas 
Thynne is introduced as ' Issachar.' 

Tome of St. Leo {The). That is 
his ' Dogmatic Letter ' 449. Leo set 
aside the Council of Ephesus, which had 
pronounced in favour of Eutyches, and 
summoned a new council of Chalcedon, 
in which his ' Tome ' was accepted ' as 
the voice of St. Peter,' and adopted as 
the orthodox exposition of the doctrine 
of the person of Christ. It declared that 
his body was not a celestial body, as Eu- 
tyches maintained, nor yet a mere human 
body into which the Godhead descended 
at baptism, as the Nestorians taught, but 
a human and divine nature like the 
union of body and soul. This of course 
led to the dogma that Mary was the 
mother of God, and to the more modern 
dogma of the Immaculate Conception. 

Tomlins Praelector of Ana- 
tomy in Oxford University. Founded 
by Richard Tomlins in 1626. Now an- 
nexed to the Linacre professorship of 
Physiology, the stipend being 2001. a 
year. 

Tong-H^n. The last fourteen kings 
of the Han dynasty (b.c. 25 to a.d. 220). 

The first 16 kings of this dynasty were the west- 
ern or Si-Han. The second hall the eastern or 
Tong-Han. 

Tong-Oei Dyiiasty {The), a.d. 534. 
The northern empire of China was split 
into the eastern or Tong-Oei, and the 
western or Si-Oei. The first dynasty of 



the eastern kingdom had but one sove- 
reign, who reigned 16 years (534-550). 

Tonnage and Poundage. A 

duty per ton or per pound on goods im- 
ported into England. First imposed by 
Edward III. by vote of parliament for a 
fixed number of years, and renewed at 
the expiry of the time. It was to furnish 
the sovereign with ready money for the 
defence of his realm. In the reign of 
Henry V. the grant was made for life, 
but on the accession of Charles I. the 
parliament limited the grant to a year, 
and when the grant was not renewed, 
as was usual, Charles levied it without 
the authority of a grant. The amount 
was about 3s. per tun on imported wines, 
10 per cent, on goods sold by the pound 
of less value than 1001., and 5 per cent, 
on goods above that value. In the reign 
of Queen Anne these imposts were made 
perpetual, and mortgaged for the public 
debt, and in 1787 (27 Geo. HI. c. 13) ton- 
nage and poundage was aboli".hed, a duty 
being substituted according to tariff on 
each article subjected to duty. 

Of course, since 184fi, when- free rade in corn 
was established, the principle has spread to the 
free importation of well-nigh every article of 
commerce ; but no nation in the world follows the 
example (1890). The United States of N. America, 
in Oct. 1890, ran to the extreme Df protection. 
And now the nations will learn whether Free 
Trade or Protection is the true principle of na- 
tional prosperity. 

Tonnage Bank {The), 1694. So 
the Bank of England was called when 
it was first established in the reign of 
William III., because the Bank com- 
pany was to lend government 1,200,000^. 
at 8 per cent., and to receive in repay- 
ment the proceeds of a new duty on 
tonnage. 

Tonsure. The shaven part of the 
head indicative in the Catholic Church 
of holy orders. Probably it represents 
the halo of sanctity, or else the crown of 
the royal priesthood. 

1. St. Peter's tonsure. The shaven 
part is the whole crown of the head, with 
a fringe of hair left to represent the 
crown of thorns. This is the tonsure of 
the Latin Church. 

2. St. Paul's tonsure, when the whole 
head is shaven. This is the tonsure of 
the Greek or Oriental Church. 

Sifnon Magus's tonsure. A semicircle 
shaven from ear to ear above the fore- 
head, but not reaching to the hinder part 



892 



TOOM 



TORYISM 



of the head, where the hair was suffered 
to remain. This is sometimes called St. 
James's tonsure. It was adopted by the 
Irish missionaries. 

Tonsures are mentioned by St. Dionysius the 
Areopagite, who died a.d. 95, ' De Hierarchia,' p. 2 ; 
and they -were general in the 4th and 5th cents. 
See Bede, ' Church Hist.,' book v. ch. 22. 

Toom Tabard (Empty Jacket). So 
John Baliol was called by the Scotch for 
his silly opposition to Edward I. (Baliol 
born 1259, king 1292-1296, died 1314.) 
' Vox et prsetera nihil.' 

Torch of Peng TArern ( The). Gwen- 
wyn, prince of Powysland, was so called 
from his constantly laying Pengwern 
in Flintshire, part of the 'province of 
Shrewsbury,' in conflagration. 

Torches, Links, and Lanterns. 

In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. 
courtiers (proceeding home after dark) 
were conducted with torches, merchants 
with links, and mechanics with lanterns. 

Torgau {The Book of), 1574. A 
celebrated confession of faith, the object 
of which was to establish unanimity 
between the reformers. Torgau is in 
Prussia (Saxony). Also called the 
* Formula of Concord.' 

Torgau, pronounce Tor-gow (ow as in ' now '). 

Tories (in Irish history), 1653, rap- 
parees, or freebooters. They were the 
Irish Catholics driven by Cromwell from 
their homes into Connaught, who, instead 
of settling down, lived by blackmail, 
or by plundering those planted on their 
estates. Tory-hunting was a regular bu- 
siness after the Restoration, and was con- 
tinued to the latter part of the 18th cent. 
In 1695 a law was made that any Tory 
killing two other Tories, * proclaimed and 
on their keeping,' should be entitled to 
pardon for all former offences, except 
murder. In 1718 it was declared a suffi- 
cient claim for pardon if a Tory could 
plead that he had killed o7ie Tory. These 
acts expired in 1776. The word is from 
toruighim, to pursue for the sake of 
plunder. 

The word Tory has completely changed its mean- 
ing: it no longer means the anti-government 
party, but the Church and State party. So in 
Italy the Guelfs and Ghibellines (q.v.)in 1313 com- 
pletely changed their meanings. From the acces- 
sion of William III. to the reign of George II. the 
Jacobites or anti-government party were the 
Tories: since then they have been the strong 
Church and State party. 

Tories and "Whigs, 1781, in the 
American War of Independence. Those 



colonists who adhered to the British in- 
terest called themselves Tories, Boy- 
alists, or Loyalists ; those in the Ame- 
rican interest called themselves Whigs 
or Patriots. They were nearly equal in 
numbers, and showed a savage hostility 
to each other. 

^ Tornd {Bishop), 1792, in the Na- 
tional Hall of Paris, demanded that all 
religious costumes and such like carica- 
tures should be abolished. Then he 
flung on the floor of the house his pon- 
tifical cross, skull-cap, and frill-collar. 
Fauchet and other prelates followed his 
example, till all insignia were stripped 
off (' Moniteur,' 7 April, 1792). 

Torquema'da. A bigoted inqui- 
sitor. The reference is to Thomas de 
Torquemada, the first Inquisitor-General 
of Spain, born at Valladolid' (1420-1498). 
He was a Dominican, and made Inquisi- 
tor-General of Castile in 1483. He greatly 
augmented the number of persecutions 
against ' heretics,' consisting of confisca- 
tions, condemnations, punishments of all 
kinds, and autos-da-fe, insomuch that 
even the popes [Sixtus IV. and Alex- 
ander VI.] were obliged to modera,te his 
excessive zeal. Torquemada had the 
chief hand in the banishment of the 
Jews and Moors of Spain in the time of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 

Tor'tura Torti (Tortus confuted), 
1609. A book by Lancelot Andrews, 
written at the request of James I. to con- 
fute the attack of Bellarmine, who, under 
the assumed name of Matthew Tortus, 
had attacked that monarch. Andrews 
was rewarded for his book with the see 
of Chichester, 1605. 

Tory. A political party in England 
opposed to the Whigs. They are the 
most remote from the democratic or re- 
publican party, and are for the most part 
attached to the monarchy, the established 
church, and the landed interest. They 
are called Conservatives from their de- 
sire to preserve these, which the Radicals 
wish to root out. For etymology see 
' Tories and Whigs,' ' Whig and Tory.' 

Toryism, in the latter part of Queen 
Anne's reign, and the earlier days of 
George I., meant the peace party, and 
the party of free-trade. This party was 
opposed to the pretensions of the crown, 
and endeavoured to override the autho- 



TOTEMISM 



TEACTAEIANISM 



893 



rity of the House of Lords by the creation 
of new peerages. Their sympathies were 
with the Cathohcs of Ireland, and some 
of them were for the repeal of the Scotch 
Union, The reason is plain enough ; 
they were Jacobites, and opposed to the 
innovations of Anne and the house of 
Hanover. 

To'temism. An American Indian 
superstition ; the belief in totems or 
guardian angels, whether animal, vege- 
table, or mineral. A totem is the image 
of this guardian spirit. For not only 
human beings have souls, but all animals, 
plants, inanimate beings, stars, sun, 
moon, earth, sky, and even thunder, 
which the totem is supposed to represent. 

Tottenham in his Boots, 1748. 
The Irish patriot toast. The Irish House 
of Commons incurred great public debts, 
and was charged with extravagance. An 
attempt was made to change the annual 
vote for the discharge of the national 
debt into a grant either for perpetuity or 
for a term of years. The ayes and noes 
were equal, when a member named 
Tottenham entered the house in his 
riding dress, and gave the preponderance 
of votes to the anti-ministerialists. Hence 
the toast. 

Touch-piece (A). A medal which 
the king hung on the neck of a person 
touched for the ' king's evil.' It was 
called an Angel, and contained the 
legend, * He touched them, and they were 
healed.' In the Stuart Exhibition, 1889, 
nine of these tokens were exhibited. 
Those of Charles II, were gold pieces ; 
those of James I. and the two Pre- 
tenders were silver. 

Of course the legend shows the prevalence of 
the notion of the ' divinity ' of kings. 

Tou'lunites (3 syl,), 868-905. A 
dynasty of califs in Syria and Egypt, 
founded by Ahmed Ibn Toulun, a Turkish 
slave. 

Tower of Famine (The). The 
tower on the Piazza del Anziana, in which 
Ugolino of Pisa, with Gaddo, Ugoccione 
(his sons), and Nino and Anselmuccio 
(his grandsons), was confined. The arch- 
bishop threw the key of the dungeon into 
the Arno. Ugolino survived five days 
after the death of the other four. Dante 
refers to this in his ' Inferno.' 



Town Clerk (The). Since the 
Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 the 
town clerk acts in obedience to the direc- 
tions of the town council. His duties are 
to preserve minutes of the transactions, 
and to make out the freemen's roll, the 
burgess list, and the ward list; he is 
responsible for the safe keeping of all 
charter deeds and municipal records; 
and is subject to various fines in cases of 
neglect. He is a lawyer by profession.* 

Townley Marbles {The). Sculp- 
tures which Charles Townley collected 
at Eome between 1765 and 1772. He 
died in 1805, when his collection was 
purchased by the nation for the British 
Museum. 

Toyshop of Europe {The). 
Birmingham. 

I look upon Birmingham as being the great 
toyshop of Europe.— BiRKE, speaking on a Bill for 
licensing the New Street Theatre, Birmingham. 

Tract No. 90 (1841), by the Rev. 
J. H. Newman, was intended to show 
that much of the Roman Catholic doc- 
trine might be held consistently with 
subscription to the Thirty-nine Aj-ticles 
of the Anglican Church. This led to 
the termination of the series, and the 
resignation by Mr. Newman of the vicar- 
age of St. Mary's, Oxford, and subse- 
quently, in 1845, to his secession to the 
Church of Rome. Many of his friends 
and associates followed him. 

Dr. Newman was made a Cardinal in 1879, and 
died in 1890. 

Tracts for the Times, or 'The 
Oxford Tracts,' 1833-1841. A series of 
tracts published in Oxford having for 
their object the revival of church prin- 
ciples, greater attention to all the rites, 
ceremonies, and externals of religion, 
and checking the latitudinarian tendency 
of the day. The chief promoters of the 
movement were the Rev. John Keble 
(author of the ' Christian Year '), the Rev. 
J. H. Newman (author of Tract No. 90) 
{q.v.), the Rev. E. B. Pusey, the Rev. 
Isaac Wilhams, the Rev. Hugh J. Rose, 
&c., aU men of great scholarship and 
literary honours. 

The Apostolic succession, priestly absolution, 
baptismal regeneration, the real presence, the 
authority of the Church, the value of tradition, 
and a discountenancing of Protestant principles 
are the chief tenets of the Tractarian party. 

Tractarianism. The system con- 
tained in a series of papers called ' Tracts 



894 



TEACTARIANS 



TRAJAN'S 



for the Times' {q.v.). The effect of 
which have been : 

1. A revival of the High Church party. 

2. A great development of church 
ritual. The preacher no longer wore his 
college gown and Geneva bands, pews 
were abolished, intoning became general, 
and bowing at the name of Jesus. 

3. A great impulse was given to church 
restoration and building, and the style 
of church architecture has been carefully 
studied. 

4. Many hundreds of churchmen have 
seceded to the Roman Catholic Church. 

5. The Pope has taken advantage of 
the movement to establish in England 
and Scotland a regular hierarchy. 1852. 

Tractarians. Those who uphold 
the doctrines and practices advocated 
by the ' Tracts for the Times.' 

Trades-Unions. Declared unlaw- 
ful in 1360. The law abolished 1824. 
Regulated by Act of Parliament 1825, 
and again 1859. These unions are com- 
binations of artisans to compel masters 
to pay such wages as the union thinks 
they ought to give. Commission on out- 
rages at Sheffield, 1867 ; at Manchester, 
1867; law amended, 1871. If 'masters 
refuse to obey the demand, the men 
'strike,' i.e. refuse to work, and the 
masters are unable to fulfil their con- 
tracts. 

So long as the members of a union do not 
interfere with the liberty of non-unionists, these 
combinations are lawful, but the moment they 
overstep that limit they are most despotic. Any 
man may fix the price at which he will work, but 
it is tyranny to prevent another man from work- 
ing at a lower or higher wage. 

In 18:^4 as many as 30,000 Dorchester labourers 
marched through London to Whitehall to present 
a petition of grievances to the throne. This, of 
course, was a moral threat, and meant to be so. 

Tradu'eianism. A theory to 
account for the procreation of the soul 
in human beings, ascribed to Tertullian. 
Tertullian taught that souls are pro- 
created by souls as bodies are by bodies. 

Somewhat allied to Tertullian's theory are the 
theories called GeneraiionUm and Creationism. The 
former explains the production of soul as ana- 
logous to corporeal generation ; the latter sup- 
poses that the Creator sends a soul into every 
human body at birth. 

TrSigedy {Father of French). Robert 
Garnier (1534-1590). Also P. Corneille 
(1606-1684), generally called * Le grand 
Corneille.' 

Tragedy (Father of Greek). I. 
Thespis, the Richardson of Athens. 



11. ^schylos is also called the 'Father 
of Greek Tragedy ' (b.c. 525-426). 

Trailbaston. A law term applied 
to certain lawless men, probably armed 
with clubs. See below, ' Court of Trail- 
baston.' 

Circa haec tempora processit in publicum novsa 

inquisitionis breve, quod Anglice dicitur Trail- 
bastim, contra intrusores, conductitios, hominum 
vapulatores, conductitios seisinsB captores, pacis 
infrac tores, raptores, incendiaries, murdurafores, 
pugnatores. Multi hoc perempti, multi redempti, 
multi noxii. pauci innoxii sunt invent!. Adeo 
quidem rigide processit hujus coercitionis jus- 
titia, quod pater proprio filio non parceret, &c., 
dira multa.— Hist. Roffens. folio 200, de anno 
1305. See ' Notes and Queries," 10 Dec, 1887, p. 470)t. 

Trailbaston {Court of), 1305. ' Jus- 
tices of Traylbaston ' were appointed by 
Edward I. upon occasions of great dis- 
orders in the realm during his absence 
in the Scotch and French wars. We 
should now call them ' justices in eyre.' 
Riley tells us that the offenders them- 
selves were styled Trailbastons from the 
hastens or clubs with which they were 
armed. The courts were for the trials 
of these rebels, who 'lurked in woods 
and parks to rob, murder, and molest 
the unwary.' 

Justices in eyre are itinerant magistrates. 
Eyre a French word from the Latin iter, a journey. 

Train-band. A militia force sub- 
stituted by James I. for the old English 
fyrd. In the civil wars the train-bands 
sided with the parliament. Charles II. 
restored the militia to their ancient foot- 
ing. Everyone will call to mind that 
John Gilpin was a ' train-band captain.' 

Traj an's Column, at Rome. Made 
of marble, a.d. 114, by Apollodorus. It 
is 132 feet in height, and has inside it 
a spiral staircase of 185 steps, with 40 
windows to let in light. It was sur- 
mounted by a statue of the Emperor 
Trajan, but the original statue was (by 
Sixtus V.) most incongruously supplanted 
by that of St. Peter. As in the column 
of the Place Vendome, Paris, the battles 
of Napoleon form the spiral reliefs, so the 
battles of Trajan are represented spirally 
in bas-relief in the older Roman column. 
It still stands amid the ruins of Trajan's 
Forum. 

Trajan's Column is made of 24 huge pieces of 
marble so closely united that they seem like one 
block. It is about 12 feet in diameter. 

Trajan's Rescript. This was a 
letter to Pliny the Younger, propraetor 
of Bithynia, telling him how to act 



TEAJAN'S 



TKAVENDHAL 



895 



towards Christians. ' They are not to 
be hunted up; but if brought before 
you and convicted of crime, they must 
be punished as the law directs.' See 
p. 397, ' Hadrian's Rescript.' 

Trajan's Wall. A line of fortifi- 
cations across the Dobrudscha. 

Trampling on the Crucifix. 

See p. 468, ' Jefume.' 

Transcendental and Transcen- 
dent. Kant means by transcendental 
the various ideas, forms, and categories 
assiuned to be native elements of human 
thought. These are not products of 
experience, though manifested only in 
experience. Such, for example, as space, 
time, causality, &c. 

Transcendent he reserves for those 
transcendental elements that transcend 
experience, as God, the immaterial soul, 
spirits, and so on. See below. 

Kant says : ' I call all knowledge transcendental 
•which occupies itself not so much with objects 
as with the way of knowing those objects so far 
as it is possible d priori.' 

Transcen'dentalism. The system 
of certain schoolmen, like Duns Scotus, 
who taught the existence of conceptions 
which, by their universality, transcend 
or rise above the ten Aristotelian cate- 
gories. Thus God exists and the world 
exists, so that existence bears the same 
relation to particular existences as sum- 
mum genus does to genera. Kant uses 
the word transcendental differently, 
though analogously. See above. 

Kant means (I think) tl at there are certain 
mental data which are innate, and thna transcend 
mere experience. 

Transfiguration {Day of). Matt, 
xvii. 1-13. Instituted 6 Aug., 1498. 

Transfiguration {Mount of). 
Supposed to be Tabor, in the plain of 
Esdraelon, in Galilee. On its summit 
is a plain of about a mile in circumfer- 
ence. The Mount is about 1,000 feet in 
height. 

Transubstantiation. The change 
which takes place in the Eucharist by 

consecration, when the whole substance j 

of the bread is changed into the body of j 

Christ, and the whole substance of the i 

wine into the blood of Christ. The fact ' 

that the bread and wine phenomenally j 

appear to be unchanged is a sensual i 
deception. By consecration the bread 



ceases to be bread and the wine ceases 
to be wine, the phenomenal appearance 
is mere ' accident,' the noumenon, or real 
substance, is the body and blood of Christ. 
The Lutheran doctrine is that the bread 
remains bread and the wine remains 
wine, but that the body and blood of 
Chvist by consecration are transfused 
into them, ' as heat into hot iron ' ; so 
that the bread is bread ^Z«s the body of 
Christ, and tiie wine is wine plus the 
blood of Christ. This is called ' Consub- 
stantiation,' or ' Impanation.' 

It has been denied that Luther taught the doc- 
trine of Consubstantiation : but what else did he 
mean by impanation and the " he it of hot iron ' ? 

Trappists, 1140. Founded in Nor- 
mandy by Eotrou, comte de Perche. 
Refounded by Abbe de Ranee in 1636. 
A reformed Benedictine order. The 
female order call themselves Trappis- 
tines, instituted 1822. When driven 
out of France in 1791 they went to 
Switzerland and built the monastery 
called Val- Sainte, which wufi suppressed 
in 1811. Fifty-nine monks of La Trappe 
migrated from England to France in 
1817, and settled in La Loire Inferieure. 
In 1822 the Trappists had sixteen houses 
in France. Their chief monastery was 
burnt to the ground in August, 1871. 
They have several houses in the United 
States. 

Travaux Forces, Code Napoleon, 
called travaux publics in republican eu- 
phemism. Hard labour of criminals in 
public works, instead of the punishment 
of the galleys, which was abolished in 
1748. • 

Travelling Bachelors, in the 

University of Cambridge, 1861. Two 
bachelors to travel for three years to 
investigate the religion, learning, laws, 
politics, customs, manners, and rarities 
of foreign countries. Stipend, lOOZ. each 
per annum. 

Travendhal {Treaty of), 5 Aug., 
1700, between Charles XII. of Sweden 
and Frederick IV. of Denmark. Frede- 
rick IV. of Denmark, regardless of the 
treaty of Altona (1689), revived the dis- 
putes with the Duke of Holstein, who had 
married the eldest sister of Charles XII. 
Charles immediately attacked Denmark 
by sea and land, and so furious was the 
attack that Frederick of Denmark was 
obliged to sue for peace. By the media- 



TREACLE 



TREATY 


Frederikshanm 


Poitiers 


Ghent 


Potsdam 


Gisors 


Prague 


Gulestan 


Presburg 


Hamburg 


Pruth 


Hanover 


Pyrenees 


Hubertsburg 


llanstadt 


Jassy 


Ratisbon 


Jonko'ping 


Rosijild 


Kainardji 


Ryswick 


Kardis 


Sempach 
Seville 


Kiel 


Knnerod 


Stettin 


Lahore 


Stockholm 


Lambeth 


Teschen 


Laybach 


Tilsit 


Limerick 


Toeplitz 


London 


Travendhal 


Lubeck 


Troppeau 


Lunevilla 


Troyes 


Madrid 


Turchomancho 


Mersen 


Turin 


Moss 


Unkiar Skelessi 


Minister 


Utrecht 


Nertschinsk 


Verdun 


Nimeguen 


Verona 


Northampton 


Versailles 


Nottingham 


Vervins 


Noyon 


Viasma 


Nystadt 


Vienna 


Oliva 


Villafranca 


Orebro 


Vordingborg 


Paris 


Wallingford 


Passarowita 


Widmore 


Passau 


Weliki Luki 


Pequigny 


Westphalia 


Perth 


Wilna 


Peronne 


Wiirtzburg 


Petersburg 


Ziirich 



tion of England and France a treaty of 
peace was signed at Travendhal, and 
Denmark had to pay the expenses of the 
war. 

Treacle Bible {The) is Beck's Bible 
of 1549, in which the word balm is 
rendered treacle. The Bishops' Bible 
has tryacle (Jer. iii. 22 ; xlvi. 11 ; and 
Ezek. xxvii. 17). See ' Bible.' 

■ Treasurer {The), since the Muni- 
cipal Corporations Act of 1835, is ap- 
pointed by the council, of which he must 
be a member, and he must give security 
for the proper discharge of his duties. 
The treasurer of the corporation is 
bound to keep accounts of all receipts 
and disbursements, and these accounts 
must be open to the inspection of the 
members of the council. He is to pay 
no money except by written order, and is 
to submit his accounts with vouchers 
every half-year. 

Treasury Devil. A law phrase 
meaning clerk to the Solicitor- General 
of government business. 

Treasury Remembrancer, or 

* Treasurer's Remembrancer.' He whose 
charge it is to put the lord treasurer and 
the rest of the judges of the exchequer 
in remembrance of such things as are 
called on and dealt with in the sove- 
reign's behoof. In England the office 
was in 1833 allied to the queen's 
remembrancer, but in Scotland and Ire- 
land the office remains. 

Mr. Goschen met Mr. R. W. Arbuthnot-Solmes, 
Treasury Remembrancer, and other officials. — 
Newspaper paragraph (on Mr. Goschen's visit to 
Dublin), 3 Dec, 1887. 

Treaties, Conventions, &c. 

See also 



Aarau 

Abo 

Abrantes 

Adrianople 

Ainaly Cavak 

Aixla-Chapelle 

Afghan 

Akerman 

Alcacebas 

Almorah 

Altenberg 

Altmark 

Altona 

Amboise 

Amiens 

Anagni 

Ancenis 

Andelot 

Andrussow 

Augsburg 

Bagdad 

Bartenstein 

Bergen 



Blois 



Breda 

Bretigny 

Bromsberg 

Bucharest 

Cambray 

Campo Formic 

Capriano 

Carlovitz 

Gateau Cambresis 

Chaumont 

Closter Seven 

Cognac 



Constantinoplo 

Constance 

Copenhagen 

Edinburgh 

Falezy 

Ferrara 

Fontainebleau 

Frankfort 



Treaty of 1841 {The), signed 29 
Aug., 1842. Made with the Chinese after 
the war with that country. Its pro- 
visions were : — The payment by the 
Chinese of 21,000,000 dollars (about 4^ 
million £ sterling). The opening of the 
new ports. Canton, Amoy, Poo-Chow, 
Ningpo, and Shanghai to British mer- 
chants ; the cession of the island of Hong 
Kong to England ; , correspondence to 
be opened and continued between the 
Chinese and British Governments, and 
the islands Chusan and Kolangsoo to be 
held until the money was paid. 

Treaty of 2 Dec, 1854 {The). 
Between Austria, Great Britain, and 
France, against Russia. Austria engaged 
to defend the frontier of the Principali- 
ties against Russia; if Russia made war 
on Austria the three powers would act 
in concert ; if the Crimean War lasted 
beyond 1 Jan., 1855, the three powers 
would unite to bring it to an end. 

Treaty of Partition {The), b.c. 
205. At the peace of Dyrrhachium 
Philip v., king of Macedon, made a bar- 
gain with Antiochus, king of Syria, to 
divide the dominions of Ptolemy Epi- 
phanes, the boy-king of Egypt. This 
scandalous treaty induced Ptolemy to 



TREATY 



TRIAL 



897 



place himself under the guardianship of 
Rome. 

Treaty of 1696 {The). In this 
treaty it was secretly stipulated at 
Loretto: (1) That the Vaudois valleys 
should have no communication or con- 
nection with the subjects of the great 
king [Louis XIV.] in matters of reUgion ; 
and (2) that the subjects of his most 
Christian Majesty [Louis XIV J, who had 
taken refuge in the valley, should be 
banished. 

This was a mere evasion of the famous Edict 
of 13 May (q.v.), to which Victor Amadeus (whose 
daughter was betrothed to the heir of France) was 
forced by Louis XIV. 

Treaty Stone {The), 8 Oct., 1691, 
Limerick, Ireland. A large stone on 
which the capitulation of Limerick 
was signed by General Ginkell and the 
leaders of the Irish insurgents. It still 
stands near Thomond Bridge, in the 
county of Clare, beside the river-bank. 

Trecentisti. The Italian worthies 
of the 14tli cent. See ' Cinquecentisti ' 
and ' Seicentisti.' 

This was the golden period, of which Dante 
was the representative. 

Tree of Feudalism (The), 14 July, 
1792. An immense tree erected in the 
Champ de Mars, Paris, on which were 
hung crowns, blue ribbons, tiaras, cardi- 
nals' hats, St. Peter's keys, ermine 
mantles, doctors' caps, law-bags, titles of 
nobility, escutcheons, coats of arms, and 
so on, to which the king (Louis XVI.) 
was to set fire. Louis refused to do so, 
saying there was no such thing as 
feudalism in France. 

Champ de Mars, pronounce Sharnd Mar (r of 
• Sharnd ' silent). 

Trees of Liberty. Trees or green 
boughs set up as symbols of liberty. 
The idea came from America. In 1790 
the Jacobins planted a tree of liberty in 
Paris, and soon every village in France 
had its tree, crowned with the cap of 
liberty, round which the people danced 
singing revolutionary songs, as English 
villagers used to sing and dance round 
the May-pole. In the Reign of Terror 
thousands were guillotined for injuring 
these trees. During the empire the trees 
were suppressed, but in July, 1830, they 
were again set up, and again in 1848. 
These trees were adorned with rings as 
symbols of unity, with triangles as sym- 
bols of equality, with tricoloured ribbons 



as the revolutionary badge, and a cap of 
liberty. The last was rooted up in 1872. 
In Italy, during the revolution of 1848 andlSig, 
numerous trees of liberty were planted in the 
peninsula. 

Trent {Council of), begun 1545 and 
closed 1563. Its object was to correct, 
confirm, and fix for ever the doctrines 
and discipline of the Catholic Church, 
and to reform the lives of the Catholic 
clergy. Hence Catholics are called Tri- 
dentines (3 syl.), from Tridentura, the 
ancient name of Trent, in Lombardy. 

Tr^ve de Dieu {La), 1040. Sus- 
pension of arms during sacred days, 
divine service, and the intervals between 
Advent and Epiphany, Quinquagesima 
and Pentecost. 

Triad, according to Pythagoras, is 
the third mathematical quantity ; the 
monad or point ^s the first, length is the 
duad, breadth the triad or third mathe- 
matical quantity, and the fourth or 
tetrad is the solid. Physically, intel- 
lectual capacity is the monad, scientific 
or certain knowledge is a duad, opinion 
a triad, and perception by the senses a 
tetrad. 

Triad Society {The). A secret 
society in China during the reign of Kia- 
king (1796-1820). Organised for plunder. 
Ostensibly, however, for the expulsion 
of the Manchoos from the throne and 
country. 

Triads {Welsh). Mythological tra- 
ditions, moral rules, historic fragments 
of the British, &c., in the Welsh lan- 
guage, disposed in groups of three. 

Trial by Battel, or 'Wager of 
Battle.' Recognised in the laws of 
Liutprand, about 720. In use in Eng- 
land before the reign of Henry I., and 
not abolished till 1819. The combat- 
ants fought on horseback, fully armed. 
Being duly marshalled, they entered the 
lists saying, ' May God defend the right.' 
The king presided : if he threw do\vn 
his warder, the combat ceased ; if not, it 
went on till one of the combatants was 
vanquished or slain. The notion was 
that God would defend the innocent 
party. 

Abraham Thornton in 1818, charged with the 
murder of Mary Ashford, refused to be tried by a 
jury, and insisted on a wager of battle. Lord 
Chief Justice EUenborough allowed the appeal, 
and as Thornton was a very strong and athletic 
8 M 



TRIAL 



TRIBUNE 



man, and his accuser a mere stripling, the trial 
■was declined, and Thornton released. 

Trial of the Pyx [The). A very 

ancient ceremony, spoken of in the 
reign of Edward T. as 'a well-known 
custom.' It is the final trial, by weight 
and assay, of the gold and silver coins of 
the United Kingdom prior to their issue. 
The proceedings, which now occur every 
year, are conducted by the Lords Com- 
missioners of the Treasury with much 
solemnity, and constitute a public attes- 
tation of the standard purity of the coin. 
The wardens of the Goldsmiths' Com- 
pany act as the jury, and after making a 
careful examination, deliver to the king's 
or the queen's remembrancer a verdict 
that they can discover no variation from 
the standard specified in the Coinage 
Act, 1870. 

Triarchy {The J?o?naw), 337-361. 
Constantine the Great; at his death, 
divided his empire into three parts 
between his three sons : 

To his eldest son, Constantine [II.], he 
left Gaul, Spain, and Britain. 

To his second son, Constans, he left 
Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. 

To his third son, Constantius, he left 
the East. 

Constantine attacked his brother Con- 
stans, and was slain a.d. 340, aged 25. 

Constans was slain by Magnentius a.d. 
850. 

Constantius died at Tarsus a.d. 361, 
aged 41. And the empire came to 
Julian. 

Tribes {Boman). The original fol- 
lowers of Romulus were called Ramnes, 
or Ramnians. After the Sabine war 
the Sabines had a share in the new 
state, and were called Titles, or Titians. 
And after the conquest of Rome by 
Porsena, the Etruscans had a share in 
the state, and were called Luceres. 

Ramnes, the original Romans. See Ramnes. 

Titles, so called from Tatius, the Sabine king. 

Luc§res, so called from Lucerum, a town of 
Etruria. 

It has been suggested by modern scholars that 
these are primitive clan-names long before Rome 
was founded. 

Tribunal Extraordinaire, or 

•Tribunal Revolutionnaire,' 1792. De- 
creed by the Mountain for the trial and 
dispatch of suspects. It had five judges 
and a standing jury, was subject to no 
appeal, and was virtually free from any 
law forms. 



Tribunal Revolutionnaire {Le), 

10 March, 1793. An ' exceptional tri- 
bunal ' created by the Convention of 
France, and consisting of three judges at 
least, a jury, and a public accuser. Its 
decisions were without appeal. 

Tribunal de Premiere In- 
stance (Le), 1810. A jurisdiction 
established in each arrondissement of 
France for ' toutes les affaires civiles et 
correctionnelles ' which are not specially 
assigned to other tribunals. 

Tribunal of Blood {The), 1567. 
The organisation under Margaret, 
governor of the Netherlands, under 
which 18,000 persons were put to death 
in three years. Also called ' The Council 
of Trouble.' 

Tribunal of the Faith {The), 
1823. A revival in Spain of the ' Holy 
Inquisition.' Extinct in 1868. 

Tribunal of the 17th of 

August {The), 1792. A French revo- 
lutionary tribunal demanded of the Con- 
vention by Robespierre, for the trial of 
* traitors against the people.' It con- 
sisted of one deputy from each section. 
This tribunal was succeeded by the more 
awful ' Tribunal Revolutionnaire ' {q.v.). 

Tribunat {Le), 1799. In France, 
established for discussing the merits of 
the laws presented by the government. 
Orators were appointed to speak pro 
and con, and the corps legislatif 
decided. The tribunat entered on its 
functions in 1801. It was originally 
composed of 100 members, not above 25 
years of age. In 1802 the number was 
reduced to 50, and in 1807 it was wholly 
supj)ressed. 

Tribunaux Correctionnels 

{Les), 1810. Under this title the tribu- 
nals of ' premiere instance ' take cogni- 
zance of appeals from the decisions of 
the police court, and all minor offences 
limited to five days' imprisonment or a 
fine not exceeding 15 francs (12s. 6d.). 
Pronounce Tre-bu-no cor'rek'-sc-o-nel. 

Tribune of the People. So 

FrauQois Noel Babeuf called himself 
(1764-1797). He assumed the name of 
Gracchus, and tried to make himself a 
second Robespierre, but his rebellion was 
soon crushed by the Directory, and Ba- 
beuf was guillotined. 



TRIBUNES 



TRIERS 



899 



Tribunes {French), 1799. In the 
Consulate 100 tribunes formed part of 
the government. Their sole province was 
discussion. The first consul submitted 
a motion to the corps le'gislatif ; where- 
upon the state councillors advocated its 
adoption, and the tribunes pleaded 
against it. In 1807 the tribunate was 
abolislied, and the ' Corps Le'gislatif ' 
was addressed by the Conseil d'Etat. 

Tributum was the Roman property 
tax, an extraordinary levy in times of 
war. The censors made the assessment, 
and it was called tribute because it was 
exacted from all the tribes. The col- 
lectors were called Tribuni ^rarii. 

Tricolour (The), 1789. Clovis, after 
his baptism, adopted the blue standard 
of St. Martin de Tours for the national 
banner. The successors of Hugues 
Capet, who made Paris their capital, 
changed the blue standard of St. Martin 
for the red standard of St. Denis. As 
red was the English colour, Charles VII. 
discarded it, and chose white (in honour 
of the Virgin Mary), for the national 
colour. Hence blue, red, and white 
have all in turns been the national 
colours of France. In the revolution, 
1789, blue and red were adopted, being 
the colours of the commune of Paris, and 
Lafayette added white (the lilies of 
France), to represent the French nation. 

Long before this, Mary Stuart, wife of Francois 
II. (afterwards queen of Scotland), had adopted 
the tricolour as the livery of her Swiss guards: 
white for France, bliw for Scotland, and rt'd for 
Switzerland, in compliment to the nationality of 
the guards themselves. 

There is no reason to suppose that Lafayette 
introduced white (the monarchical colour) to con- 
ciliate the Bourbon king. 

Tricolour Scarfs. Still worn in 
France by the municipal magistrates and 
commissaires of police. 

Tricolours (European). Indicative 
of national liberty : 

In Fbance : Blue, red, white, divided 
vertically. 

In Italy : Green, white, red, divided 
vertically. 

In Belgium: Black, yellow, red, 
divided vertically. 

In Holland : Red, white, blue, divided 
horizontally. 

Tricoteuses (Les). Women who 
frequented the public clubs and revolu- 
tionary tribunal in Paris, where they 



sat knitting, while they listened to what 
was going on, and expressed audibly 
their approval or disapprobation. With 
the fall of the Jacobins in 1794 they 
ceased to appear. They were called 
' The Furies of the Guillotine.' 



Pronounce Trick'-ko-Ui\ 



No combination of 



letters in the English language can convey the 
sound of the French euse. It almost rhymes with 



Tricoteuses de la G-uillotine 

{Les). Knitters of the guillotine. 
Women of Paris who daily went to the 
Place de la Rc^volution, Paris, to witness 
the executions, and passed their time 
there knitting. 

Tridentine Catechism {The), 

1.566. Prepared in accordance with the 
decrees of the Council of Trent by Arch- 
bishop Leon, the Bishoj) ^gidius Fosco- 
rari, and the Portuguese Dominican 
Francis Fureiro. It was revised by the 
Cardinals Borromeo, Sirlet and Antonian, 
and sanctioned by Pius V. 

Tridentine Council {The), i.e. 
the Council of Trent, called in Latin 
' Tridentum,' 1545-1563. 

Tridentine Decrees. Decrees 
issued by the Council of Trent (16th 
cent.). See above. 

Tridentines (3 syl.). Bigoted Roman 
Catholics whose religious views are rigidly 
circumscribed by the decrees of the 
Council of T\:BXii[Tridentum\, 1537-1563. 

Triennial Bill {The), 1694. It 
provided two things : (1) That no parlia- 
ment shall continue longer than three 
years, and (2) that a new parliament shall 
always be called within tliree years of 
the dissolution of the preceding one. 

Triennial Parliaments, 1694 to 
1715. Appointed to be held by Act 16 
Car. I. c. 1 (1641), by 16 Car. II. c. 1 
(1664), and by 6, 7 Will. & Mar. c. 2 
(1694). Septennial Act was passed 1716 
(1 Geo. I. c. 38). See ' Parliaments.' 

Triers of Petitions. Edward I. 

granted leave for everyone who thought 
himself unduly assessed, rated, charged 
to aids, subsidies, or taxes, to deliver a 
petition to receivers who sat in the Great 
Hall of the Palace of Westminster. The 
petitions were forwarded to the king's 
council. This gave, rise to the ' Triers of 
Petitions ' at the opening of every new 
3m2 



900 



TRIMMERS 



TRINODA 



parliament by the House of Lords, a 
usage which is still continued. See 
' Tryers.' 

Trimmers, in the reigns of Charles 
II. and William III., were those whose 
political opinions were neither hot nor 
cold. Charles Montagu (earl of Halifax) 
called himself a ' trimmer ' or medium 
man, half Whig and half Tory. They 
were friendly to the monarchy, but 
opposed to James duke of York ; and 
pleased neither party. 

Trimurti is the inseparable unity in 
the three gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva 
in one person. The Christian dogma is 
the inseparable unity of three Persons 
(Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) in one G-od. 

Son, husband, and father may be one and the 
eame person, or trimurti ; and Antony, Octavi- 
anus, and Lepidus may bo three separate persons, 
but one triumvirate. This is not meant to be a;n 
explanation of the Trinity, but merely to show 
the difference between three gods equal to one 
person, and three persons equal to one god. 

Tringlo (A). A soldier of the Arab 
commissariat and baggage trains in 
Algiers. 

Trinita'rian Controversy (The), 
17th and 18th cents. This controversy 
had many phases : (1) The Arian, an- 
swered by Dr. Bull in his ' Defensio 
Fidei Nicenee,' 1685-1688. This is termed 
the 'Patristic' phase. (2) The Meta- 
physical phase, controverted by Dr. 
Thurlock and Dr. South. (3) The Scrip- 
tural phase, set forth by Dr. Samuel 
Clarke, Sykes, Whitby, and Jackson, and 
answered by Dr. Waterland in his ' Vin- 
dication of Christ's Divinity,' 1719, 1723. 
(4) The Free-thinkers led by Lord 
Shaftesbury, Collins's 'Free-thinking,' 
Woolston's ' Discourse on Miracles,' 
Tindal's ' Cliristianity ' ; replied to by 
Waterland, Zachary Pearce, and War- 
burton. 

Trinitarians. Those who believe 
that there are three distinct Persons 
(Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) in the 
one undivided Godhead. 

The word ' persons ' is very misleading applied 
to deity, as we use the word to signify an objec- 
tive individual, and cannot divest our thoughts 
of some such idea. In no sense is God an indi- 
vidual or objective person, but simply an entity, 
or, to use the Hebrew phrase, an ' I am.' No one 
on earth would call the human soul a person. 

Trinity {Confraternity of the), or 
' Fathers of the Oratory,' 1550. A reli- 
gious order founded in Rome by Philip 



Neri to aid and succour pilgrims. When 
it undertook to instruct the young the 
brotherhood changed their original name 
to Oratorians. In 1611 P. de Be'rille 
instituted a branch of the society iu 
France, and called it ' L'Oratoire de 
Jesus,' a normal school for young priests. 
Suppressed in 1790, but re-established iu 
1853 under the title of L'Oratoire de 
V ImtnacuUe Conception. 

Some of the greatest Christian orators of France 
were Oratorians ; as Malebranche, Massillon, 
Mascaron, Richard Simon, Lelong, La Bletterie, 
Foncemagne, Dotteville, Daunou, &c. Cardinal 
Newman was an Oratorian. 

Trinity College. 

I. Cambridge University. Is the con- 
solidation of several foundations : (1) Of 
St. Michael house, founded by Hervey of 
Stanton in 1324; (2) of King's Hall, 
founded by Edward III. in 1337 ; (3) of 
Phiswick's Hostel and Oving's Inn ; 
(4) augmented and largely endowed by 
Henry VIII. in 1546, when its present 
name was given to the College. It is the 
largest and richest foundation in the 
University. The head of the college is 
called the Master, and is appointed by 
the crown. 

II. J)ii6Zm University, 1591. Founded 
by Queen Elizabeth Statutes revised 
31 June, 1855. 

III. Oic/orcZ University, 1554. Founded 
by Sir Thomas Pope. It was originally 
called ' Durham College,' being endowed 
by the priors and bishops of Durham. 
The headmaster is called the * president.' 

Trinity Hall. A college in the 
University of Cambridge, founded by 
William Bateman, bishop of Norwich in 
1350. 

William Bateman was the second founder of 
Gonville and Caius College also. See 'Caiua 
College.' 

Trinity Sunday. Instituted in 
1287. It is next to Whitsunday, and is 
called ' Stately Sunday.' See ' Sunday.' 

Statuimus quod Festum Trinitatis Dominicaa 
post octavam Pentecostes, quae vocatur octava 
Trinitatis, cum ix lectionibus et debita solemn!- 
tate fiat. — The Bull for its iiistiiiition. 

Christmas Day is the day of the birth of Jesus, 
Whitsunday is the day of the outpouring of the 
Holy Ghost, and Trinity Sunday is the day dedi- 
cated to Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, ' One in 
Three and Three in One.' 

Trinity Week. Hebdomada Trini- 
tatis, the week which begins with Trinity 
Sunday. 

Trino'da Neces'sitas. Three im. 
posts or taxes to which all lands (not 



TKIPARTITE 



TRIPOS 



901 



excepting church lands) were subject in 
Anglo-Saxon times : (1) Brt/ge-bot, for 
keeping bridges and highways in repair ; 
(2) Burg-hot, for keeping the burgs or 
fortresses in repair; and (3) Fyrcl, for 
the payment of the mihtary and naval 
forces of the kingdom. 

Fyrd means an army, or the military force of a 
country; fy idling means military service; and 
fyrd-wite the fine for neglecting to join the fyrd. 

Tripartite {The). The Jus iElianum 
{q.v.). 

Tripartite Decree {The), or 'De- 
ere turn tripartitum juris consuetudinarii,' 
by Verboczy of Hungary, 1514. 

I. It established equal rights to all 
the Hungarian nobility, who were exempt 
from all taxation. 

II. It limited the authority of the 
clergy, and deprived the pope of the 
disposal of church benefices in Hungary. 

III. It took from the peasantry all 
liberty and every species of property, 
reducing them to the state of serfs. 

Tripit'aka, or ' Three Baskets.' 
The sacred books of the Buddhists ; the 
books altogether being between two and 
three thousand, A complete series was 
presented to the India Office by the 
Japanese ambassador, Iwakura-Tomomi, 
from the Mika'do, some years ago. The 
collection was originally published by 
the Emperor Wan-lich of China, at the 
close of the 16th cent., and it was re- 
produced in Japan in the sixth year of 
Nengo Impo {i.e. 1679). 

Triple Alliance {The). I. 28 Jan., 
1668, between Great Britain, the Nether- 
lands, and Sweden, against France. It 
was a ruse of Arlington's to force Louis 
XIV. to accept the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. "William III. was king of 
England, and his heart was bent on 
checking the conquests of Louis that his 
beloved Holland might be aggrandized, 
and to this end he wanted to protect 
from France the Spanish Netherlands. 

II. 4 Jan., 1717. Between Great 
Britain, Holland, and France, against 
Spain, or rather against the designs of 
Cardinal Alberoni of Spain, whose object 
was to re-establish the monarchy of 
Charles V. In order to annoy the English 
the Spanish cardinal favoured the pre- 
tender, and in order to annoy France he 
favoured the Huguenots. He tried to 



induce Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter 
I. of Russia to join him ; to plunge 
Austria into a war with Turkey, to stir 
up insurrection in Hungary, and actually 
effected the ari'est of the regent Due 
d'Orle'ans. The platform of the alliance 
was (a) that the Pretender should be 
made to quit France ; (6) that the forti- 
fications of Dunkirk should be abolished 
according to the treaty of Utrecht ; and 
(c) that the Protestant succession of 
Great Britain should not be disturbed. 

III. 1789, between Great Britain, 
Holland, and Russia, against Catharine 
of Russia, in defence of Turkey. 

Triple Tree {The). The gallows, 
which was a permanent erection resting 
on three posts ; first at Smithfield, then 
at Tyburn. See ' Elms.' 

Tripod of Life {The). The brain, 
the lungs, and the heart. All natural 
death in the human animal proceeds 
from one of these three organs. 

Tripos, in the University of Cam- 
bridge. In the 15th cent, an 'ould 
bachelour,' as representative of the uni- 
versity, had to sit on a three-legged stool 
' before Mr. Proctours ' to test the abili- 
ties of the candidates for degrees by 
arguing some question with the ' eldest 
son' of them as their representative. 
There were three occasions on which 
questionists were admitted to degrees : 
(1) the Comitia priora on Ash-Wednes- 
day, for the best men ; (2) the Comitia 
posteriora, a few weeks later, for the 
second-best men ; and (3) the Comitia 
minora for the 'poll-men.' Hence the 
word tripos meant the stool and the 
' ould Bachelour,' then the three classes of 
questionists, and lastly the examination 
system. 

The Classical Tripos was established in 1824, and 
the Historical Tripoa, the Science Tripos, &c., in 

1868. 

*^* The word now means the classifi- 
cation into three classes of graduated 
merit adopted in the University of Cam- 
bridge, Class I. being the highest. 

The Triposes are : The Classical Tri- 
pos, the Historical Tripos, the Indian 
Languages Tripos, the Law Tripos, the 
Mathematical Tripos, the Mediasval and 
Modern Languages Tripos, the Natural 
Science Tripos, the Semitic Languages 
Tripos, and the Theological Tripos. 



902 



TEISAGION 



TEIUMVIRATE 



TriSSig'ion {The), or ' First Religious 
War,' A.D. 508-518. The Trisagion is 
the repetition of the word ' Holy ' three 
times, as ' Holy, holy, holy. Lord God of 
Hosts,' supposed to indicate a Trinity. 
The Greeks maintained that it is the 
song sung by the angels before the 
throne of God, and that it was miracu- 
lously revealed to the church at Con- 
stantinople in the middle of the 5th cent. 
The Manichaeans objected, and a sedition 
was caused which filled the streets day 
and night with men, women, and chil- 
dren, shouting and fighting. Churches 
were destroyed, the statues of the 
Emperor Anastasius were thrown down, 
and at length Vitalian, with an army of 
Huns and Bulgarians, interfered for the 
Catholic party. Such, says Gibbon (xlvii.), 
was the event of the first religious war 
waged in the name of the God of peace. 

Triumphal Arches. The most 
celebrated are the following : — 

Constantine's Areh, in Rome, to com- 
memorate the triumph of Constantine 
over Maxentius. 

The Arch of Septimus Severus, at the 
foot of the capitol. 

Gallienus's Arch, erected A.D. 260. 

Titus's Arch, to commemorate his 
taking of Jerusalem. 

Arc de Benevent, in honour of Traj'an. 
A copy of Titus's Arch. Another, dedi- 
cated to the same emperor, called the 
* Arch of Ancona.' 

The Arch of Rimini, dedicated to 
Augustus. This is the most ancient of 
the Roman arches. Another, dedicated 
to the same emperor, at the foot of 
Mont Cenis, and called the 'Arch of 
Suza.' 

In Pabis there is an arc de triomphe 
at the Porte St. Denis, erected in 1673 
to commemorate the passage of the 
Rhine by Louis XIV. There is another 
dedicated to the same king at the Porte 
St. Martin, to commemorate his con- 
quest of the Franche-Comte. 

The arch in the Carrousel was raised 
to the honour of Napoleon in 1806. The 
splendid Arc de Triomphe in the Champs 
Elysees was begun in 1806 and finished 
in 1835. It is the work of Chalgrin and 
Huyot. 

Triumvirate [The). I. The British 
Triumvirate (1763), consisting of George 
Grenville and the Lords Egremont and 



Halifax, who succeeded the Earl of Bute 
and Sir Francis Dashwood. Grenville 
took both Bute's and Dashwood's ofidce 
(lord of the treasurer and chancellor of 
the exchequer), while Egremont and 
Halifax were the two secretaries of state. 

In the reign of Queen Anne the triumvirate 
•was the Duke of Marlborough, Lord Godolphin, 
and Sarah duchess of Marlborough. The first 
controlled foreign affairs, the second controlled 
the council and parliament, and the third con- 
trolled the Court and queen. 

II. The First French (1561). The 
Guise family leagued against the Hugue- 
nots. The triumvirate was the Due de 
Guise, the Constable de Montmorency, 
and Marshal de St. Andre. This league 
was supported by the Pope, the Cardinal 
de Lorraine, and the clergy generally, 
the people of the north and west, and by 
Philip II. of Spain. 

III. The Second French Triumvirate 
(1685) for the extirpation of Huguenots 
in the reign of Louis XIV. The trium- 
virate was Father la Chaise (the king's 
confessor), Madame de Maintenon (the 
king's wife), and the Marquis de Louvois. 
See below, No. IV., ' Triumvirate ' {The 
ThermidoHan),' and ' Reign of Terror.' 

IV. The Thermidorian Triumvirate 
(1795), consisting of Barras, Rewbell, 
and La Reveillere. As in all other 
triumvirates one of the three is dominant, 
so in the Thermidorian Triumvirate Bar- 
ras was infinitely more powerful than the 
other two. 

V. First Boman (b.c. 60). A cabal 
formed by Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar. 
Crassus was the wealthy partner, Pom- 
pey the most powerful, Cassar the most 
popular. 

VI. The Second Boman Triumvirate 
(b.c. 43-31). Lej)idus, Antony, and Octa- 
vianus. After the assassination of 
Ceesar. 

VII. Of the Commonwealth (1659). 
General Lambert having put down the 
Rump Parliament, after the death of 
Cromwell, introduced a inilitary form of 
government. Its three heads were Lam- 
bert, Fleetwood, and Monk. In April, 
1660, the king (Charles II.) was recalled. 

Fleetwood was Cromwell's son-in-law, and 
Monk was governor of Scotland. 

VIII. Of the Beign of Terror (1794). 
Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just. 

IX. Of the Boman Government (30 
March, 1848) Mazzini, Armellini, and 
Suffi. These representatives of the 



TRIUMVIRATE 



TRUCE 



people formed a constitutional assembly, 
with a design of converting Italy into a 
republic like France ; but it was re- 
publican France which prevented it by 
an army of occupation. 

Triumvirate of England {The). 
Gower, Chaucer, and Lydgate (poets). 

Triumvirate of Italian Poets. 

Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch. 

Boccaccio is now Itnown chiefly as the ' Father 
of Italian Prose.' His ' Decameron ' has outlived 
bis poetry. 

Triv'ium. The three sciences : 
Grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The 
QUADBiviUM were the four sciences : 
Music, arithmetic, geometry, and astro- 
nomy. Up to the 14th cent, called the 
seven sciences or seven liberal arts, and 
all taught in Latin. 

Trois Chapitres {Les). Three 
theological works on the Incarnation of 
Christ and his dual nature, by Theodore 
of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and 
Ibas of Edessa, condemned as heretical 
in 553. 

Trojans.and Greeks in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge. Partisans of Sir 
John Cheke, regius professor of Greek 
in the University, and of Gardiner the 
chancellor. Sir John introduced a new 
pronunciation of Greek, against which 
the chancellor protested. As Sir John 
was a Protestant and Gardiner a Catholic, 
the feud was more than half of a religious 
character. Those who took the side of 
the Regius professor were called 'Tro- 
jans ' ; those who sided with the chan- 
cellor called themselves ' Greeks.' Many 
a street row ensued, till at last the king 
in council commanded the innovation 
of Sir John to be discontinued. See 
p. 735, * Ramists,' 

Troppau, in Silesia {Congress of), 
from 20 Oct. to 20 Dec, 1820. Its object 
was to resist the revolutionary movement 
in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 

Trottiera {La). The bell which 
summoned the * riders ' or nobles to the 
Grand Council in Venice. 

Trou'badours {The), Minstrels of 
Southern France in the 11th, 12th, and 
13th cents. They were the first to dis- 
card Latin and use the native tongue 
in their compositions. Their poetry was 



either about love and gallantry or war 
and chivalry. See ' Trouveres.' 

The poetry of the proven<;als or troubadours 
■was of two sorts : cansos, or poems of love and gal- 
lantry, and sinentesr, or lays of war and chivalry, 
politics and morals. The word is from troubar, to 
invent, as ' poetry ' is from the Greek verb mean- 
ing ' to make ' or ' create." 

Trousse-galant {Le), 1445. An 
epidemic which ravaged France, and was 
so called 'de la rapidite avec laquelle 
elle enlevait les malades. Elle affectait 
surtout le bas-ventre et la tete.' See 
* Plague,' &c. 

Trouveres {The). Minstrels of the 
north of France in the 12th, 13th, and 
14th cents. The language they employed 
was the ' Walloon ' or ' Langue d'oil ' 
{q.v.). The subjects of these minstrels 
were satires and romances, tales of 
knavery and adventure, legends and his- 
torical traditions. It had three periods. 
In the first period the subjects were 
Gothic, Frankish, and Burgundian heroes. 
In the second period the subjects were 
Charlemagne and his paladins. In the 
third period they were traditions of 
British story, such as the fabulous Brute, 
King Arthur and his knights, King Horn, 
and so on. 

Sir Walter Scott's ' Marmion," 'Lady of the 
Lake,' ' Rokeby, &c., are excellent imitations of 
the old Trouvere minstrelsy. The word is the 
AValloon verb trouver, to find out or invent. The 
same as troubar. Sec ' Troubadours.' 

Troy {The Destruction of). This 
was 12 June, B.C. 1184. 

Troyes, in France {Treaties of). 

I. 2f May, 1420. Between Charles VI. 
of France, Henry V. of England, and 
Philippe le Bon of Burgundy, for the 
marriage of Henry V. with the Princess 

j Katharine of France. By this treaty 
Henry was declared regent and heir of 
France. 

II. 1 April, 1564. A treaty of peace 
between England and France, 

Truce of God {The), 1040, A 
modification of the ' Peace of God ' [q.v.). 
The latter was an ecclesiastical prohibi- 
tion of war altogether, under the general 
expectation of the Second Advent of 
Christ, the Prince of Peace (1035). The 
truce limited the prohibition to Thurs- 
day, Friday, Saturdi^y, Sunday, and 
Church festivals, such as Easter, Lent, 
and Christmas, and absolutely forbade 
anyone to molest a man working in tlie 



904 



TEUCK 



TSHIN 



fields. The penalty of breaking the 
truce was death or outlawry. 

Truck Act {The\ 1, 2 Will. IV. c 
37 (1831), forbids employers to pay 
wages in whole or in part by goods in- 
stead of money. Orders on a truck- 
shop or store are likewise forbidden as a 
set-off against wages. 

' Truck ' is the French troquer, to barter. 

Truck System {The). The mode 
of paying wages in part or wholly either 
by goods or by an order on some store. 
Very common before it was prohibited 
by law in 1831. 

True as Bicknell. Bicknell was 
a hosier who supplied George III. with 
gloves. In the Gordon riots, 1780, a 
notion got abroad that the Eoman Catho- 
lics designed to kill the king by poisoned 
gloves, as Catherine de Medicis killed 
Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Henri IV. of 
France, and many others. The ' London 
Courant ' and other newspapers, to lull 
this suspicion, inserted the following 
paragraph : ' We are authorised to assure 
the public that Mr. Bicknell, his majesty's 
hosier, is as true and faithful a Protestant 
as any in his majesty's dominions.' 

True Blue, in a theological sense, 
means a Presbyterian in contradistinction 
to an Episcopalian. Butler says that his 
knight Hudibras was ' Right Presbyterian 
true blue.' In the time of George I,, and 
probably before that reign, ' True Blue,' 
in a political sense, meant a Whig in 
contradistinction to a Tory. Lord George 
Gordon, in 1780, and his adherents ap- 
peared in the House of Commons with 
blue cockades in their hats. 

■ True Blues ' ; so the Palatines of Limerick 
called themselves when they mustered into the 
yeomanry service. ' True Blues ' have always 
been associated with Orangeism. 

Trumpet {Murder of the), 1403. 
This refers to an incident in Venetian 
history. A Venetian trumpet (herald) 
appeared before Vicenza and announced 
to Francesco Terzo that the city had 
placed itself under the protection of 
Venice. Francesco ordered the trumpet 
to retire, and not retvirn without a safe 
conduct. In the evening he returned, 
bearing the pennon of Vicenza, and com- 
manded the Paduans to raise the siege. 
Francesco denied the authority of the 
trumpet, and said if he had been sent by 
the Venetians he would have borne the 



Venetian pennon. Next morning the 
trumpet again appeared, this time with 
a Venetian pennon. The guards seized 
him, cut off his nose and ears, and sent 
him back with a declaration of war. 
' Let us make this trumpet,' said the 
guards, ' the Lion of St. Mark.' The 
point was this : the Lion of St. Mark has 
both nose and ears, but shall henceforth 
be mutilated like this trumpet by the 
indignant Paduans. 

Trumpet of Sedition {The). So 
George III. spoke of William Pitt, the 
statesman, afterwards the earl of Chat- 
ham, because he protested so strongly 
against the American war, which George 
as strongly desired. While Britain was 
glorying in the victories of Lord Howe, 
he said: — 

You cannot conquer America. If I were an 
American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign 
troop was landed in my country, I never would 
lay down my arms— never, never, never.' 

Trumpets {Feast of). A Jewish 
festival held the first day of the civil 
year, which was in September, and insti- 
tuted in commemoration of the thunder 
heard on Mount Sinai at the giving of 
the Law. 

Tryers, or Triers, 20 March, 1654. 
Commissioners appointed by Cromwell 
and his council to examine into the 
' sufferings of the clergy.' Francis Rous, 
with thirty-seven others, part laymen 
and part ministers, were appointed. A 
list of the names is given by Neal in his 
' History of the Puritans,' iv. p. 93. See 
p. 899, 'Triers of Petitions.' 

Tse Dynasty {The). The ninth 
imperial dynasty of China. Like the 
eighth, tenth, and eleventh dynasties, it 
had dominion only over Southern China, 
the court being held at Nankin. It 
lasted twenty- three years (479-502), and 
gave five sovereigns. 

Tshin Dynasty {The). The first 
historic dynasty of China (B.C. 256-201). 
Also called the fourth imperial dynasty. 
It gave five emperors who held their 
court at Yn ; and lasted fifty-four years. 
It was succeeded by the dynasty of Han, 
It was Tchao, the first of this dynasty, 
who built the great wall of China. 

This dynasty must not be confounded with that 
of Tsiit (the seventh), nor with that of Tchin (the 
eleventh;, nor with that of Tsing (the twenty- 
second). It is spelt and pronounced differently. 



TSIN 



TUDORS 



905 



Tsin Dynasty (T/ie), 265-420. The 
seventh imperial dynasty of China. It 
was preceded by the San-kuo or Three 
States, and succeeded by the duplex em- 
pire called Southern and Northern. It 
gave fifteen kings, all of whom were 
either dethroned or put to death. This 
dynasty is known by its exodus or grand 
migrations. 

It is thought that the word China is derived 
from Tsin, but Fo-hi was said to hold his court at 
Shensi or the country of Tsin or Chin, whence 
Tsin a, Sina, China, and this was B.C. 2953, the 
mythic period of the empire. No dates are intro- 
duced in the Chinese annals till B.C. 827. 

Tsing Dynasty {The) of China 
(1644-*) succeeded the Mings, founded 
by Choun-tchi. This is sometimes called 
the Manchou dynasty. The present 
reigning fainily of China is of this dynasty. 

Tsong Dynasty {The) or Pih Sung. 
The eighth imperial dynasty of China, 
and first of the Woo-tae or ' five races.' 
These five races ruled only over the 
southern empire, and held their court at 
Nankin. The eiglith dynasty gave seven 
emperors and lasted fifty-nine years 
(420-479). The founder, Noo-tee, was a 
cobbler. 

Tuatha-na-Danans (T/ie), a semi- 
historical very early Irish dynasty. It 
is said that the five sons of Dela esta- 
blished in Ireland the five principalities 
of Leinster, Munster, Ulster, Connaught, 
and Meath, and this pentarchy con- 
tinued for eighty years, when the three 
sons of Danan invaded the island and 
established themselves there, till they 
were driven out by the eight sons of 
Milesius, who came from Spain. Five 
of the sons perished, and the whole 
island was divided between two of the 
surviving sons, Heremon and Heber. 
Heremon took Connaught and Leinster, 
and fixed his residence at Tarah, in 
Meath. Heber ruled over the southern 
provinces, but being slain in battle, Here- 
mon became sole monarch of the island. 
Tuatha=coinmander. 

Ttibingen School {The), of theo- 
logy in Germany, also called ' The His- 
torical School,' founded by Baur, to 
investigate the historical correctness of 
the New Testament. Baur wrote a book 
to prove that the Gospel of St. John was 
not written till some considerable time 
after the other three gospels ; and another 
to show that St. Mark's Gospel was not 



written till many years after the supposed 
date. The bases of his criticisms are 
the undoubted historic facts of the New 
Testament. 

Tuchins, or Touchins, 1385. Peas- 
ant rebels of France who committed 
most frightful massacres. The verb 
tuchinare (rebellare) and the noun tuchi- 
natus (rebellio) are used in ancient 
French charters. 

La ville de Nismes est bonne ville . . . les habi- 
tans sont . . obeissans au roy, et ils ne furent 
onques Tuchins, maisont ton jours eu lesfleurs de 
lys sur les portes de la \il\e.—i'lacitum, '21 Jan., 
1387. 

Tudor, a corruption of Theodore. 
Owen Tudor, a yeoman in the guards in 
Bedford's army, married Catherine, 
widow of Henry V., and had three sons. 
The eldest son Edmund, who was made 
by Henry VI. earl of Richmond, married 
Margaret Beaufort, heiress of the house 
of Somerset. He died at the age of 20, 
leaving one son, afterwards Henry VII. 

Catherine fell In love with the Welsh guards- 
man while he was keeping guard at Windsor. It 
is said that he stumbled and fell upon her lap at 
a dancing party, whence their acquaintance 
began. He had but 40;. a year. No proof of the 
marriage was ever traced. The Dulse of Glouces- 
ter, lord protector, seized Tudor and committed 
him to Newgate, whence he escaped, and after a 
while Henry VI. made him keeper of his park in 
Denbigh, Wales. 

Tudor Rose {The), or ' Union Rose,' 
a combination of the Lancastrian red 
rose and the Yorkist white rose. The 
red rose has two rows of five alternate 
petals ; the white rose is represented 
with three rows of five alternate petals ; 
the Tudor or Union rose has four rows 
of alternate petals, one containing 10, 
one 8, one 7, and one 6 (counting from 
the exterior), with centre. The Tudor 
rose, between sprigs of shamrock and 
thistle on one stalk, forms the badge of 
England. 

Tudors {Line of the). Henry VII., 
Henry VIIL, Edward VI., Mary, and 
Elizabeth. 

Henry VII. descended from Jolin of 
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 4th son of 
Edward III. {q.v.). He married Eliza- 
beth of York, daughter of Edward IV., 
son of Richard duke of York slain at the 
battle of Wakefield, 146G. See ' York.' 

Henry VII. had no hereditary right to the 
crown. He was the illicit and adulterous son of 
Edmund Tudor by Margaret Beaufort, daughter 
of the Duke of Somerset. Elizabeth of York was 
heir to the crown, but even in the Lancastrian 
line there were many who had a much cleaner 
title than Henry. It is not even certain that he 



906 



TUDOES' 



TUMULTS 



•was born in wedlock at all. He was a despicable 
money-grubber, and very ' indiflerent honest.' 

Tudors' Crest {The). A crown in 
a bush of fruited hawthorn to comme- 
morate the incident of a soldier finding 
the crown of Richard III. hid in a haw- 
thorn bush on the day of battle. It was 
given to Lord Stanley, who placed it on 
the head of Richmond, saying ' Long 
live King Henry ! ' 

Tugendbund (Der), or * League of 
Virtue,' 1813. A secret society set on 
foot by the Prussian minister Von Stein, 
and sui:>ported especially by the students. 
It had for its object the total expulsion 
of the French from German soil, and 
embodied the*seething hatred of Ger- 
many for France. It gave umbrage to 
the allies and was dissolved in 1815. 

Tulchan Bishops, 1574. Bishops 

who took a small part of their stipends 
and gave the rest to their patrons. When 
a cow had lost her calf, it was customary 
in Scotland to flay the calf and stuff the 
skin with straw, that, being placed before 
the mother, she might be induced to part 
with her milk freely. This stuffed calf 
was called a Tulchan, and the stipendiary 
bishop parted with his revenues to the 
patron freely, his see being only nominal. 
The first skimmed-milk bishop was John 
Douglas, appointed archbishop of St. 
Andrews by the Earl of. Morton, who 
claimed the cream. 

The regent Morton, affecting zeal for the Pro- 
testant doctrines, disobliged the Church of Scot- 
land by a device which he had invented to secure 
to the secular nobility the lands and revenues of 
the Catholic clergy. To this end he nominated to 
the archbishopric of St. Andrews a poor clergy- 
man named Douglas, taking his obligation to rest 
satisfied with a very small annuity out of the re- 
venues of the see, and to hand over the rest to his 
patron, the regent himself. This class of bishops 
. . . was facetiously called Tulchan prelates.— Sir 
W. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xxxi. 

Tuileries {The), a garden and palace 
in Paris, built on the site of an ancient 
fobrique de tuiles. It was composed of 
three great pavilions, called Le pavilion 
de Marsan (north), the pavilion de Flore 
(south), and the pavilion de VHorloge 
(centre). It was joined to the Louvre by 
Napoleon III. (l'851-6). The land was 
bought by Francois I. in 1564, and the 
original palace was made for Catherine 
de Medicis, after the design of Philibert 
Delorme. Louis XIV., Napoleon I., 
Louis-Philippe, and Napoleon III. made 
great improvements, especially the last. 



In the republic the convention held their 
meetings there, afterwards it was used 
by the Conseil des Anciens. The First 
Consul made it his residence in 1800. In 
1848 it was converted into an asylum for 
invalid workmen ; it was the imperial 
residence of Napoleon III. from 1852; 
and was burnt by the Communists 24 
May, 1871. 

Tulip Mania {The), 1634-1637. An 
extraordinary rage for tulip-bulbs, which 
prevailed in Holland and spread through 
Europe. The tulip called the Viceroy 
fetched 250L, and the Semper Augustus 
as much as 1,700Z. Thousands were sold 
on Exchange merely as articles of specu- 
lation, and when the rage subsided thou- 
sands of persons were ruined. 

TuUia'num {The). A loathsome 
dungeon in Rome. This dismal sub- 
terranean dungeon was built by Servius 
Tullius, and was a part of the Career 
Mamertlnus built by Ancus Martins on 
the slope of the Capitoline hill. The 
Tullianum is especially noted, as it was 
in this dungeon, twelve feet underground, 
that several of the Catiline conspirators 
were put to death. 

Mamers is the Sabine form of Mars, and Ancus 
Marcius was a Sabine. Jugurtha was starved to 
death in the Career Mamertlnus. 

Tully, i.e. Cicero. The TuUii were 
of Alban descent, transplanted to Rome 
in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Cicero 
made the word a generic name for a legal 
orator. 

Tumble-down Dick. Richard 
Cromwell, son of the Protector. He was 
proclaimed Protector after his father's 
death, but resigned office within seven 
months. ' Tumble-down Dick ' was a 
common public-house sign affected by 
royalists. 

Tumults and Disorders {Act 
against), 1661. This Act made it an 
offence punishable with a fine of lOOZ. 
and three months' imprisonment to solicit 
a signature to a petition to king or 
parliament which had more than twenty 
names signed, unless the petition was 
sanctioned by three justices of the peace, 
or by the majority of the grand jury of 
the county. Wlioever presented such 
petition was liable to the same punish- 
ment also ; and whoever was present at 
the presentation of a sanctioned petition, 



TUKANIAN 



TWELVE 



907 



if there were more than ten persons 
attending it. 

Turanian Languages (The). 
The agglutinate orders of languages, 
divided into North and South. The 
NortJiern division falls into five sections, 
viz. the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, 
Finnic, and Samoyedic. The Southern 
division comprises the Tamulic, the Gan- 
getic, the Taic, the Malaic, and some 
other Polynesian tongues or dialects. 
See ' Semitic ' and ' Aryan.' 

Turcomanchi [Peace of), Feb., 
1828, between Persia and Russia, making 
the river Araxes the boundary of the 
two kingdoms. Persia had also to pay 
the expenses of the war. 

Turcos (The). The native Algerian 
foot-soldiers. The horse-soldiers are 
called Spahis. Cf. Sepoy. 

Turin {Treaty of), I. 8 Aug., 1381, 
terminating the war of Chiozza between 
the Venetians and the Genoese. The 
turning-point of Genoa's greatness, from 
which she began to decline. 

II. 29 Aug., 1696, for separate peace 
between France and Savoy. 

Turin Papy'rus (The), or 'Book 
of Kings.' A fragmentary list of Egypt- 
ian kings brought from Thebes by an 
Italian named Drovetti. At one time it 
was supposed that this was a complete 
list in chronological order, but it does 
not point out contemporary or double 
kings. A facsimile is preserved in the 
Royal Society of Literature, 21 Delahay 
Street, London. 

Turkish Trilateral (The). Silis- 
tria, Shumla, and Varna in Bulgaria and 
on the flank of every possible line of 
operation upon the Balkan. 

Turkish War of 1683-1697. Prin- 
cipally noted for the siege of Vienna by 
Mustapha, the Turkish vizier, in 1683. 
When, on the eve of success, Sobieski, 
king of Poland, arrived with reinforce- 
ments, Mustapha decamped, leaving 
behind him the sultan's standard, many 
splendid dresses, and the harnesses of 
several Turkish horses adorned with 
silver, gold, and precious stones ; besides 
the money for the siege, the pay of the 
soldiers, the baggage, tents, cannons, 
and chariots. 



The war dragged on after this till 1697, and was 
brought to an end by the " Peace of Carlovitz.' 

Turlupins, 1372. Heretics analo- 
gous to the Begards (q.v.). They taught 
the perfectionabiiity of man; and, it 
is said, went about nude. They were 
exconununicated by Gregory XL in 1372, 
and were extirpated by the order of 
Charles V. of France. They called them- 
selves the Fraternite des pauvres. 
Called Turlupins ' quod ea tantum habi- 
tarent loca, quae lupis exposita erant.' 
(An etymology most unsatisfactory.) 

A turlupin means a sorry jester, a fool. Whence 
turlupinotie and the verb turlupiner, to play the fool. 

Turneys, 1339. A base coin made 
in Ireland and circulated ' to the injury 
of the king's sterling money.' See p. 99, 
' Black Money.' 

Turpin's Chronicle, ' Chronique 
de I'archeveque Turpin.' Turpin was a 
monk of St. Denis, and afterwards arch- 
bishop of Reims, contemporary of Charle- 
magne. The chronicle referred to is an 
historic romance having Charlemagne 
for its hero, and is full of marvels, such 
as enchanted castles, winged horses, 
magical horns, incantations, and so on. 
Historically it is worthless, and probably 
Turpin had no hand at all in it. Some 
say it was the work of Gui de Bourgogne 
(Calixtus n.) in the 12th cent. ; others 
ascribe it to a monk of St. Andre de 
Vienne, in Dauphine, who lived in the 
lltli cent. 

Tweeddale's Act {The Earl of), 
1668. It restored to their livings those 
ministers who had been ejected, provided 
they would accept collation from the 
bishop, and would attend the presby- 
teries and synods. 

' Collation ' means induction and institution, or 
investing a clergyman with the temporalities and 
spiritualities of his living. 

Twelfth {The), i.e. the 12th August. 
The commencement of grouse-shooting. 

Twelve Articles of the Symbol 

{The). Said to have been suggested by 
the Apostles in a grotto of Mount Olivet 
just before their final separation. 

1. Peter: I believe in God the Father 
Almighty, maker of heaven and earth. 

2. John : [And] in Jesus Christ, his 
only son, our Lord. 

3. James the Greater : Who was con- 
ceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the 
Virgin Mary. 



908 



TWELVE 



TYND ALE'S 



4. Andbew: Suffered under Pontius 
Pilate ; was crucified and buried. 

■ Dead ' was subsequently added, and is bad 
English. We should not say (A B) was hanged, 
dead, and buried. 

5. Phxlip : He descended into hell. 

6. Thomas : The third day he rose 
again from the dead. 

7. James the Less : He ascended into 
heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of 
God the Father Almighty. 

8. Matthew : [From thence] He shall 
come to judge the quick and the dead. 

9. Nathaniel : I believe in the Holy 
Ghost. 

10. Simon : The Holy Catholic Church. 

' The Communion of Saints ' was added in the 
6th cent. 

11. Matthias : The forgiveness of sins. 

12. JuDE : The resurrection of the 
dead, and the life everlasting. 

The twelve Apostles were anciently delineated, 
each holding a banderole inscribed with the 
words attributed to him. Of course the tradition 
is historically worthless. The Apostles had no 
hand whatever in the creed. 



See ' Articles.' 



The 



Twelve Brethren {The), 
Twelve ' Marrowmen ' {q.v.). 

Twelve Fruits of the Holy- 
Ghost {The) in Catholic theology. 

(1) Chastity ; (2) faith ; (3) gentleness ; 
(4) goodness; (5) joy; (6) longsuffering ; 

(7) love or charity; (8) meekness; (9) 
modesty; (10) patience ; (11) peace; and 
(12) temperance. 

Compare these with Gal. v. 22, 23. 

Twelve Peers of France {The). 
Philippe Auguste fixed the number of 
peers to six seculars and six ecclesiastics. 
The secular peers were : (1) the Duke of 
Normandy ; (2) the Duke of Burgundy ; 

(8) the Duke of Guyenne ; (4) the Count 
of Flanders ; (5) the Count of Toulouse ; 
and (6) the Count of Champagne. 

The ecclesiastical peers were : (1) the 
Archbishop of Reims ; (2) the Bishop of 
Laon; (3) the Bishop of Langres; (4) 
the Bishop of Beauvais ; (5) the Bishop 
of Chalons; and (6) the Bishop of 
Noyon. 

Twelve Remembrancers {The). 
(1) Unity of the Godhead ; (2) the hypo- 
static union of God and man ; (3) the 
Trinity; (4) the Evangelists; (5) the 
wounds of Christ, two in the hands, two 
in the feet, and one in the side ; (6) the 
Bix days of creation ; (7) the seven words 



uttered on the cross; (8) the Beatitudes ; 
(9) the heavenly host; (10) the com- 
mandments; (11) the Apostles after 
Judas the traitor had ' gone to his place ' ; 
(12) the Apostolic college when com- 
pleted. Called ' The Twelve.' 

Twelve Tables {The), or Leges 
DuocU'cim Tabularum. The Magna 
Charta of Old Rome drawn up by the 
Decemvirs. Ten of them B.C. 451, and 
the other two B.C. 450. 

Twenty {The). See p. 367, ' Giunta.' 

Twenty Years' "War {The), 1794- 

1815. The wars against Napoleon. 1 
June, 1894, the French fleet was defeated 
and crippled by Lord Howe off Brest, 
and 18 June, 1815, the battle of Waterloo 
gave the coup de grace to the great dis- 
turber of nations and enduring enemy of 
England. 

Twenty-two {The), 30 Oct., 1798. 
The twenty-two Girondin deputies were 
sentenced to death, with confiscation of 
goods. 

Two Hundred {The). On the day 
of subscription to the Bill of Uniformity, 
in the reign of Charles II., 200 of the 
Scotch Presbyterian clergy relinquished 
their livings. Calamy, Baxter, and Rey- 
nolds, chief of the Nonconformist leaders, 
were offered bishoprics, but only Rey- 
nolds accepted the bribe. See ' Seven 
Bishops.' 

Charles II. said to Lauderdale that a Scotch- 
man s religion ' is not fit for a gentleman.' It is 
much to be feared the king's religion was not fit 
for any man, gentle or simple. 

Two Thousand {The). See ' Me- 
morable,' &c. 

Tyburn Dick. Richard Savage, 
lord Rivers ; made by Queen Anne lieu- 
tenant of the Tower in 1710. 

Tyndale's Bible. English trans- 
lation of the New Testament, published 
at "Wittenberg in 1526. English trans- 
lation of the Pentateuch, published at 
Hamburg in 1530. This translation 
was the basis of the Great Bible (1539- 
1541) in the reign of Henry VIII. ; of the 
Bishops' Bible (1568-1572) in the reign 
of Elizabeth; of the King's Bible (1611) 
in the reign of James I. ; and of the Re- 
vised Version (1870-1884) in the reign of j 
Victoria. See ' Bible.* 



TYNWALD 



TYET^OS 



Tynwald {The Court of). The 
court of the three estates of the Isle of 
Man, consisting of the governor, the 
council of ten, and the House of Keys. 
It is the supreme court of the island. 
All new Manx laws must be proclaimed 
in English and Manx, in the presence of 
the people, at the Tynwald Hill. 

The laws of Man still retain much of their an- 
cient peculiarity of character, though modified by 
occasional acts of the Tynwald.— Peince, Parallel 
History, vol. iii. p. 285. 

Type {The), a.d. 648. An edict pub- 
lished by Constans II. of the Eastern 
empire under the hope of burying in 
silence the dissentient views of the ortho- 
dox Christians and the Monothelites {q.v.). 
It imposed silence on both parties on all 
points of religious differences. 

Tyran de Blanc. Frederick baron 
Grimm (1723-1807). So called from his 
free use of cosmetics to repair the ravages 
of increasing age in his face. He was so 
called when he took up his abode in 
Paris. 

Tyranny of the Thirty {The), 
B.C. 404, lasted eight months. After the 
overthrow of the Athenians at -^Egospo- 
tamos the Lacedaemonians insulted them 
by setting over them thirty magistrates, 
called ' Tyrants.' These magistrates be- 
haved with such arrogance and cruelty 
that Thrasybulus easily got possession 
of the city and expelled the tyrants. 

To the honour of the Spartans be it said, when 
they were informed of the rebellion, instead of 
punishing the conspirators, they passed a bill of 
amnesty, and re-established in Athens the demo- 
cratic form of government upon its ancient foun- 
dation. 

Tyra,ntBasili'des(T/ie). Ivan IV. 
of Kussia, surnamed the ' Terrible ' by 
the Russians. ' Basili ' is only another 
spelling of ' Vassili,' and Ivan IV. was 
the fourth of the Vassili who had reigned 
in Russia. ' Basili-ides ' or ' Vassili-ides ' 
means ' a descendant of Vassili.' 

Among the writers of the history of the north, 
Ivan IV. is famous as ' The tyrant Basilides.'— 
Duncan, Hist, of Russia, vol. i. p. 89. 

Tyrants of Sparta {The), b.c. 
219-192. They were, first, Lycurgus, 
nine years ; then Machanidas, four years ; 
and lastly Nabis, fourteen years. Called 
tyrants because they did not belong to 
either of the royal dynasties, but were 
usurpers. 

Tyrconnel — now Donegal, Tyrone, 
Derry, Fermanagh, Armagh, and Ca'vaa 



(500,000 acres) — was the land planted by 
James I. The lands were portioned out 
into estates varying from 1,000 to 2,000 
acres, and the proprietors were bound to 
build substantial houses in the English 
fashion, and to people them with EngHsh 
and Scotch tenantry. A company of 
London merchants, called ' The Irish 
Society,' contracted (1619) for large tracts 
of land, which are still held under this 
tenure. 

Tyrian Era (T/ie). This era began 
19 Oct., B.C. 125. 

Tyrolese Insurrection {The), 

1809. Tyrol had been 442 years under 
Austria, and was happy and prosperous ; 
but Napoleon placed it under Bavaria, 
with a promise that nothing should be 
changed. Immediately, however, Maxi- 
milian changed its name to South Ba- 
varia, and conformed its laws to those of 
his own kingdom. Andre Hofer, proprie- 
tor of the inn of Sand, now induced 
Austria to join them in freeing the Tyrol ; 
battle after battle was won by the insur- 
gents, and then Austria made peace with 
France. Hofer was taken prisoner by the 
French and shot 20 Feb., 1810. 

Tyrtaeos {The English). Laurence 
Minot, who celebrated the exploits of 
Edward III. in English verse (died 1352). 

In 1878 the music hall jingo-song, 'We don't 
want to fight,' almost roused England into a war 
with Russia. 

Tyrtseos of Attica in the second 
Messenian War was by command of an 
oracle appointed leader of the Spartan 
army, and by his war-songs led them to 
victory. The following is a free transla- 
tion of the first of his three extant 
elegies : — 
Oh ! 'tis joyful to fall in the face of the foe, 

For country and altar to die ; 
But a lot more ignoble no mortal can know 
Than with parents and children, heart-broken 
with woe. 

From home as an exile to fly. 

Unrecompensed travail, starvation, and scorn, 

The fugitive s footsteps attend ; 
Dishonoured his race, and his children forlorn, 
Himself by temptation and shame overborne, 

Never hear the sweet voice of a friend. 

To the field, then ! Be strong, and acquit ye like 
men! 

Wlio shall fear for his country to fall ? 
Ye younger, in ranks firmly serried remain ; 
Ye elders, though weak, look on Might with disdain, 

And honour your fatherland s call. 

Tyrtseos of France. Rouget de 
Lisle (1700-1836), whose ' Marseillaise ' 
stirred the French revolutionary party 



910 



TYET^OS 



ULSTER 



almost to madness. The refrain of this 
spirit-stirring hymn runs thus : — 

Aux armes, citoyens ! Formez vos bataillons ! 
Marchons! marchons ! qu'unsangimpurabreuve 
nos sillons. 

Tyrtseos of Germany {The 

Youthful). Karl Theodore Korner (1791- 
1813), killed in a skirmish with Walmo- 
deii's outposts at Godebusch. His ' Lyre 
and Sword Songs ' stirred his country- 
men like a trumpet. Perhaps the ' Wacht 
am Ehein,' by Max Schneckenburger, 
who died 1851, may be called the German 
'Marseillaise.' The fifth verse runs thus: 

Wi»ile there's a drop of blood to run, 
While there's an arm to bear a gun, 
While there's a hand to wield a sword, 
No foe shall dare thy stream to ford. 
Dear fatherland, no fear be thine. 
Thy sons stand firm to guard the Rhine. 

Tyrtaeos of Spain. Manuel Jose 
Quintana, whose odes stimulated the 
Spaniards to vindicate their liberty at 
the war of independence (1772-1857). 

Tyrwhitt Scholarships, for 
Hebrew. Two for bachelors of arts of 
the respective values of 30Z. and 20Z., 
tenable for three years. Founded in the 
University of Cambridge by the Kev. 
Robert Tyrwhitt, 1818. See 'Hebrew 
Prize,' ' Mason Prize.' 

TJ and "V. The ancient use of these 
two letters was this: U before vowels, 
especially the vowels a, e, and i ; Y be- 
fore consonants, especially the consonants 
n, r, p, s. 

As meruailed, aduantage, conuaye ; 
leaue, haue, gaue, moued, reueal, gouern, 
deserues, diuers, forgiue ; deuise, hauing, 
deuil, sauiour, seruice. 

vnto, vnite, vnmannerly, co-vntry ; dis- 
covrse, Oedipvs. 

It must not be supposed that u was never set 
before consonants, nor v before vowels. In the 
book now before me, dated 1004, hundreds of ex- 
amples might be gathered, as very, rule, mouse, 
foure, houre, &c. 

Ubiqua'rians (The). A social club 
which existed in Barbadoes, and probably 
elsewhere, in the latter half of the 
eighteenth cent. Their tenets were called 
Ubiquarianism. 

Ubiquita'rians or Ubiquists 
(The), 1560. A small German religious 
sect, originating with John Brentius, 
who maintained that the body of Christ 
was present everywhere (ubique), in the 
eucharist, by virtue of his divine ubi- 



quity. They were opposed to the Sacra- 
mentarians ($.f .). 

Udaller (A), an allodial possessor of 
Zetland. A Udaller holds his possession 
under an old Norwegian law, instead of 
the feudal tenures introduced from Scot- 
land. Hence a Udaller had no feudal 
lord or superior. Icelandic odal, an 
hereditary estate. 

Uhlan King {The). King Alfonso 
XII. of Spain was so called in contempt 
by the French, in 1883, because he ac- 
cepted a colonelcy in Germany of a Uhlau 
regiment. 

Uhlans, Prussian hussars, 1813. They 
are mounted on fleet horses, are lightly 
clad, and armed with sword, pistol and 
lance. Every battalion of the Landwehr 
{q.v.) has its squadron of Uhlans. In 
the Franco-German War, 1870, these 
Uhlans did admirable service, especially 
as scouts. 

Ukase {Emanoi), that is, a ' personal 
order,' meaning an edict signed by the 
czar. These edicts, as various as the 
opinions, whims, or prejudices of the 
czar, are the laws of Russia. Alexei 
Michailowitz (1645-1676) had a selection 
of such edicts for the preceding century 
made into a digest called the Sobornoe 
Ulajenie, which is the common law of 
Russia. In 1670 he collected all the royal 
ukases held by private individuals as per- 
sonal licences, and burnt them, so that 
one and the same law prevailed through 
his whole dominion. Ukase = Ou'-kase. 

Ulaj'enie (T/ie). A Russian code of 
jurisprudence, amended and codified by 
Alexei Michailowitz, czar of Russia 
(1646). See above, ' Ukase.' 

Ule'ma, a powerful corporation in 
Turkey, consisting of the Mufti, who 
presides, the Imaums, the Mollahs, and 
the Kadis. Their functions extend to 
the religion of the country, the adminis- 
tration of justice, and the general govern- 
ment. It serves as an equipoise to the 
despotism of the sultan. 

Ulid'ia, in Ireland, comprised the 
present county of Down and part ol 
Antrim. 

Ulster Custom {The), 1870. It 
was a custom up to 1870, but was then 
made a law. It is a sort of ' free sale ' 



ULSTER 



UNCROWNED 



911 



which prevails in Ulster. Suppose A is 
the tenant of B, and does not wish to 
continue so, instead of throwing up his 
tenancy, he can sell it to C, and then C 
is the tenant of B. Certain restrictions 
are made. For example, the landlord 
can ■ prevent A's asking an exorbitant 
price, because this would be to the pre- 
judice of the landlord. The new tenant 
C must be accepted by the landlord be- 
fore the transfer is made. And, lastly, A 
(the old tenant) must pay up all rents 
and taxes before C can take his place. 

Mr. Lowther, chief secretary of Ireland, in 1879, 
protested against the extension of Ulster custom 
to the rest of Ireland; but in 1881 this demand, 
together with ' fixity of tenure' and 'fair rent,' 
•was duly recognised. 

Ulster King-of-arms, chief of the 

Irish staff of heralds. The first was ap- 
pointed by Edward VI. (1 June, 1552). 
That of Scotland is styled Lord-Lyon. 
See p. 415, ' Heralds.' 

Urtimus Anglo'rum. William 
Bedell (Protestant bishop of Kilmore and 
Ardagh), who died 1642, aged 70. The 
Irish insurgents fired a volley over his 
grave in Kilmore churchyard, and parted 
saying * Requiescat in pace ultimus 
Anglorum.' 

urtimus Romano'rum. Dr. 

Johnson was so called by Thomas Carlyle. 
I think he might be more aptly called 
the last of the Catos (1709-1784). 

Sometimes Horace AValpole Is so called (1717- 
1797). 

Ulto'nian Kings {The). The kings 
of Ulster, in Ireland. 

Emania, the seat of the old Ultonian kings.— 
T. Moore, Hist, of Ireland, vii. D. 143. 

Ultramontane Doctrines, or 

' Ultramontanism.' Extreme views of 
papal supremacy and the rights of the 
popes. These partisans of the pope are 
so called in France because the pope 
resides on the other side of the Alps, 
ultra monies. They are opposed to the 
Galileans {q.v.). 

Ultramontane Party (in Ireland), 
1825. The anti-English and anti-Pro- 
testant party. The Duke of Wellington 
made a great distinction between 
* Orangemen and Papists ' [Ultramon- 
tanists] and ' Protestants and Catholics.' 

Ultramontanes. So the Vaudois 
who settled beyond the Apennines, after 
they were driven from their valley homes 
in the 13th cent., were called by the na- 



tives, because they originally dwelt on 
the other side of the mountain range. 
They first founded, in the vicinity of 
Montalto, the town of Borgo d'Ultra- 
montani, subsequently the walled town 
of Guadia. 

O Florence, what does the word Florence mean ? 
The flower of Italy. And so thou wast till these 
Ultramontanes persuaded thee that man is justi- 
fied by faith and not by works ; and herein they 
lie.— GiLLES, p. 20. 

Ulysses of Brandenburg (The). 
Albrecht III,, elector of Brandenburg. 
Also called the ' German Achilles ' (1414- 
1486). 

Ulysses of the Highlands. Sir 

Evan Cameron lord of Lochiel. Also 
called ' The Black ' (died 1719). 

It was the son of Sir Evan who was called the 
'Gentle Lochiel.' 

Umbrella {Mr. Gladstone's). Mr. 
Gladstone's policy. When in September 
1885 he issued his manifesto to the 
electors of Midlothian it was said that 
he ' opened his umbrella.' His ministry 
were said to take shelter or stand under 
his umbrella. In caricature he is often 
drawn with a ' Sarah Gamp ' under his 



Unam Sanetam, 1302. The fa- 
mous constitution of Boniface VIII., 
setting forth that ' the church is one body 
and has one head. Under its sway are 
two swords, one spiritual and the other 
temporal. The former to be used by the 
supreme pontiff himself, and the latter 
by temporal powers at his bidding, but 
at all times the lesser sword must be in 
subjection to the greater, the temporal 
power to the spiritual . , . Every human 
being on the earth is the subject of the 
see of Rome (' Extra vagantes,' book i., 
title viii. c. 1). 

This constitution ends thus : ' Diclmus, deflni- 
mus, et pronunciamus, omnino esse de necessitate 
fldei.' 

Uncorruptible Commoner 

(The). Andrew Marvell, also called ' The 
British Aristides ' (1620-1678). See p. 48, 
' Aristides,' n. 

Uncrowned Monarch {The), of 

Ireland. Daniel O'Connell, also called 
' The Agitator.' With Sheil he founded 
the new Catholic Association in 1825 ; he 
began the agitation for the repeal of the 
Union in 1842, held monster meetings 
in 1843, was arrested for sedition in 1844 
and found guilty, but the sentence passed 



912 



UNDER 



UNIFORMITY 



on him was reversed by the House of 
Lords. He lost his supremacy, and died 
at Genoa, on his way to Rome (1775- 
1847). 

Under the Yoke (Sent). In Roman 
history to be sent under the yoke was a 
sign of subjection. The yoke consisted 
of an arch made with three spears, two 
upright ones, and one forming a transoin. 
The conquered army was made to lay 
down their arms, and march suhjugum in 
token of subjugation. 

Undertakers. I. In English 
history, 1614. Men of influence who 
undertook for a consideration to get 
such persons returned to parliament as 
would prove submissive to the royal 
will [James I.]. 

Bacon, Somerset, and Neville were the 
three chief, and are sometimes called 
' undertakers ' because they undertook 
by bribes to win over the chief speakers 
and men of influence in the parliament 
of 1614. 

A generation about the court that, to please and 
humour greatness, undertook a parliament, as 
men presuming to have friends in every county 
and borough, who by their power among the 
people would combine to return such members 
as should comply solely to (sic) the king s desires. 
—Wilson. 

In his [.lames I.] opening speech he admitted 
•what he had so sturdily denied before, the exist- 
ence of Undertakers in the last parliament, ' a 
strange kind of beast which had done mischief.— 
HowiTT, Hist, of Eng. (James I., vol. iii., p. 83). 

II. In Irish history, 1608. Those 
English or Scotch colonists sent by James 
I. in the northern counties of Ca'van, 
Fermanagh, Armagh, Derry, Tyrone, and 
Tyrconnell, who were allotted 2,000 acres 
each. They were men of capital, and 
undertook to pay a mark a year for every 
60 acres, and to admit no recusant for 
tenant. 

James confiscated 2,000,000 acres in these coun- 
ties, and divided them in lots of 2,000, 1,500, 1,000 
acres. Elizabeth tried to plant Ulster with an 
English colony. 

*^* In the early part of George III.'s reign a 
party which played off the British Government 
against the Irish Parliament were called Under- 
takers. They had two objects in view: (1) To 
make the crown, so far as Ireland was concerned, 
dependent on themselves : (2) To check the spirit 
of liberty in the people, but throw the odium on 
the government. This party was broken up by 
making the lord-lieutenant reside in Ireland and 
distribute the patronage himself. 

Undertakers {Fife), 1600. An 
association of gentlemen, chiefly proprie- 
tors of Fife, who undertook to settle in 
the Lewis, Uist, and other isles conveni- 
ent for the fisheries, in order to bring 



these islands into a more civilised state. 
They expelled the natives, built towns, 
and introduced manufactories. The 
attempt did not succeed, and three years 
later was tried again, but with no better 
success. 

Unfair Preacher [The). Isaac 
Barrow, D.D. (1630-1677). So Charles IL 
called him ' because his sermons were so 
exhaustive that he left nothing for others 
to say who came after him.' 

Unfunded Debt {The). Loans to 
the British government which are paid 
off in a given number of years. Some- 
times these loans are for a few months 
only, and sometimes for a few years. Thus 
a war, such as that in Egypt, may increase 
the government expenditure, say 10 mil- 
lions, more than the Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer has provided for, and instead of 
adding this sum to the National Debt, 
the Treasury may think proper to borrow 
the money at 3 per cent., and pay off 
2 millions every year for 5 years, and so 
cancel the debt. Such a debt is not 
' funded,' but is only temporary. 

Unicorn. One of the pursuivants 
of Scotland. See p. 415, ' Heralds.' 

Uniformity {Statutes of), 3 Edw. 
VI. c. 1 (1549) ; 5, 6 Edw. VI. c. 1 ; 1 
Eliz. c. 2 ; 13, 14 Car. II. c. 4. Dissenters 
relieved of all penalties of nonconformity 
by the Act of Toleration (1689). 

Uniformity {Act of), 1661. En- 
acted that the revised Book of Common 
Prayer shall be used in all places of 
public worship; that the ordination of 
ministers therein prescribed shall be 
alone lawful; that all beneficed clergy- 
men shall read the service therein con- 
tained within a given time, shall sub- 
scribe to the 39 articles, and shall profess 
in a set form of words their unfeigned 
assent and consent to these Articles and 
to everything else contained in the said 
Book of Common Prayer. Above 2,000 
ministers refused to be bound by this 
act. All schoolmasters, all who entered 
our universities, and all persons who took 
any office, civil or military, were required 
to give on oath their assent and consent 
to this act. 

By the Act of Uniformity all ministers who re- 
fused to comply were to be imprisoned for six 
months for the first offence, to lose their livings 
lor the second offence, and to be imprisoned for 
life for the third offence. 



UNIGENITUS 



UNION 



918 



ITnigen'itus {The Bull), 1713, 
passed by Clement XI. in condemnation 
of the Jansenists. This bull condemns 
101 passages extracted from the famous 
book of Quesnel, called ' Moral Reflections 
on the New Testament,' and set the whole 
kingdom of France in an uproar. 

The Jansenists were Calvinistic Roman Catho- 
lics who maintained the doctrines of free grace, 
predestination, and the non-freedom of tlie will. 

Union (The), 22 July, 1706. The 
union of Scotland and England under 
the name of Great Britain. The terms 
were : (1) The succession to the throne 
of Great Britain shall be vested in the 
Princess Sophia and her heirs ; (2) All 
the subjects shall enjoy the same rights 
and privileges ; (3) the court of session 
and all other courts of judicature in Scot- 
land shall remain as at present consti- 
tuted ; (4) Scotland shall be represented 
in parliament by 16 peers and 45 comr- 
moners, &c. 

Union {Act of), 1799. An Act of 
Parliament by which Ireland was united 
to Great Britain. It came into opera- 
tion 1 Jan. 1801, when the Dublin parlia- 
ment was suppressed. 

Union {L'Arret d'), 13 May, 1648. 
The abolition of the Act of Union. 
Mazarin proposed to keep back for four 
years the salaries of all the crown courts 
of France except those of the Paris par- 
lement. The Paris parlement refused to 
be made an excej^tion, and immediately 
passed the Act of Union, declaring that 
all crown courts should be treated alike. 
Mazarin stopped the Act from passing, 
declaring it to be illegal, and this was 
* I'arret d'Union.' The parlement would 
not give way, and civil war broke out. 
This civil war was called la guerre de 
la Fronde, which was between Mazarin 
and the Paris parlement. 

Union {The Edict of), 1588. An 
Act proclaimed at Blois, by which Henri 
III. was declared chief of the league or 
confederation of the Catholics in France 
against the Huguenots. See ' Holy 
Union.' 

Union {The Evangelical), 1608. An 
alliance formed at Auhausen in Bavaria, 
and confirmed at Halle in 1010, between 
the Protestant states of the Palatinate, 
Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, and Baden- 
Dourlach, against the Holy League 
formed in 1609 at Wurtzburg. 



Union Brigade (T/ze), at Waterloo, 
1815, was composed of the • 1st Royal 
Dragoons [Englayid'] ; the 2nd Dragoons 
[the Royal Scots Greys] for Scotland 
and the 6th [Inniskillings] for Ireland. 

Union of Calmar {The). The 
union of the three crowns of Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden, agreed to in the 
Conference of Calmar in Sweden. From 
the overthrow of Albert king of Sweden 
in the battle of Falkoping, Margaret 
queen-regent of Denmark and Norway 
had acted as regent of Sweden ; but the 
Diet held at Calmar on 17 June, 1397, 
conferred the crown of the three king- 
doms on Eric, her grand-nephew, because 
no woman could reign. The union was 
only nominal at any time, and was for- 
mally abolished in 1523, 

Margaret had the provinces of Wermland, East 
and West Gothland, with several contiguous de 
pendencies, assigned to her as a life settlement. 

*,* From 1471 to 1523 Sweden had separate ad- 
miniKtration, but Wasa or Vasa united the two 
kingdoms. 

Union of Public Good {The). 
The reorganised ' Association of Russian 
Knights.' A Russian secret society in 
the reign of Czar Alexander I. Their 
ostensible object was the welfare of 
Russia, but all their schemes were to be 
worked secretly to prevent envy, hatred, 
and opposition. There were several 
sections ; the duty of the first was phil- 
anthropy ; it had to watch over all chari- 
table institutions, and report abuses. 
The business of the second section was 
educational ; it had to keep watch on all 
schools and colleges, and see that the 
scholars were taught to love Russia and 
hate foreigners. The third section was 
devoted to the law-courts, and reported 
all grievances. The fourth section was 
to study political economy, the sources of 
national wealth, and the development of 
industry. 

Union of Safety, or the True 
and Faithful Sons of the Coun- 
try {The). A secret society organised 
in Russia in 1816 by young officers who 
had served in the campaigns of 1813, 
1814, 1815. The members were divided 
into (1) Brothers, (2) Men, and (3) Boyars. 
The Boyars were superior in grade to the 
Men and Brothers, and from them three 
directors were chosen monthly, viz. a 
president, a superintendent, and a secre- 
tary. Solemn ceremonies were observed 
3N 



914 



UNION 



UNITED 



at their meetings, and all members were 
sworn to absolute secrecy. Dissolved 
1821. 

Union of Scotland and Ireland 

{The), 1651, effected by the Rump Par- 
liament. Eight commissioners were sent 
to Scotland, and in spite of much oppo- 
sition, procured a vote in favour of the 
iTnion, and 30 members were admitted in 
the parliament of 1654 for Scotland, and 
30 for Ireland. But the legislation of 
the Protectorate was ignored by Charles 
II., and the permanent Union was effected 
in the reign of Queen Anne, 1707, when 
the Scotch parliament was abrogated, 
and the nation was permitted to send 16 
lords and 45 commoners to the British 
parliament. 

Union of Utrecht {The), 1579. A 
league under the influence of William 
(prince of Orange-Nassau), aided by 
Count Hoorn and Count Egmont, to 
throw off the Spanish yoke. It was 
joined by seven of the South Belgian 
provinces, which succeeded in 1594 in 
erecting themselves into an independent 
state, called the ' Republic of the Seven 
United Provinces.' 

The seven provinces were Holland, Zealand, 
Utrecht, Gelderland with Zutphen, Over-Yssel, 
Friesland, and Groningen with Drenthe. 

Union with. Ireland {The). The 
act passed for this Union 2 July, 1800 
(89, 40 George III. c. 67). 

Unionists, 1885, &c. The Radicals 
and "Whigs who united with the Con- 
servatives, in Lord Salisbury's adminis- 
tration, to preserve the integrity of the 
United Kingdom, which Mr. Gladstone 
(the preceding premier) would have sacri- 
ficed to please the Irish Home Rule 
party led by Mr. Parnell. Mr, Glad- 
stone's bill utterly demoralised the Whig 
party, and split froiji it its i-ichest, most 
talented, and most influential members. 
George Joachim Goschen, a Whig, joined 
the ministry as chancellor of the ex- 
chequer ; Lord Hartington and Joseph 
Chamberlain, important members of 
Gladstone's ministry, abandoned the 
Whig party and became Unionist leaders ; 
about seventy-five M.P.'s did the same, 
leaving the Gladstone party an utter 
wreck. See ' Broad-bottom Administra- 
tion.' 

Mr. Gladstone, by giving independent parlia- 
ments to Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, would 
have reduced the United Kingdom into a mere 



federation. In IftOO the Gladstone or Whig party 
was nicknamed the ' demoralised.' 

Lord Salisbury's parliament, formed in 1886 on 
the downfall of the Gladstonian house, consisted 
of 670 members, of which 303 were Conservatives 
and 75 LiberalUnionists who voted with the Con- 
Eervatives=378. The opposition consisted of 205 
Gladstonians and 86 Nationalists, chiefly Irish 
members==291. Conservative majority 87, often 
increased to 100 and more. 

Unitarians, 16th cent. Protestant 
Dissenters who believe in the monarchy 
of God, and disbelieve that the one God 
has three persons. Arians, Socinians, 
Mussulmans, and Jews are in one sense 
Unitarians, but, of course, the sect so 
called disavow the identity of the five 
creeds. Unitarians disbelieve the doc- 
trine of the Trinity, the vicarious atone- 
ment of Christ, the doctrine of original 
and transmitted sin, and everlasting 
punishment. They baptize, however, 
and celebrate the eucharistic sacrament 
as a memorial of the crucifixion. 

Milton, Newton, Priestley, Locke, and Dr. 
Lardner were Unitarians. 

U'nitas Fratrum. The Moravian 
brotherhood (1500). 

United Armenians {The). A 
sect in Italy, Poland, Galicia, Persia, 
Russia, and Marseilles, which recognise 
the spiritual sovereignty of the pope and 
hold the doctrines of the Catholics, but 
have their own church government. 

United Brethren {The), or, as 
they call themselves, ' Unitas Fratrum.' 
More generally called ' Moravians ' {q.v.) 
or ' Moravian Brethren,' 1500. 

The 'United Brethren in Christ' (1800) are Ger- 
man Methodists of North America. 

United Brotherhood {The). The 
American Irish League. They were 
called 'V.C {q.v.). The object was to 
bring about an Independent Irish Re- 
public in Ireland by force of arms. Called 
in Ireland ' I.R.B.' (Irish Revolutionary 
Brotherhood). 

The Irish, in their jargon, were called ' Jsjti,' 
and Ireland was called ' Jsfmboe.' 

The executive body was known as 'F.C' which 
was merely removing the initial letters (like V.C.) 
one letter in advance. F.C. for E.B., and V.C. for 
U.B. 

The secretary was known as ' Y,' the treasurer 
as ' Z,' and the chairman as ' X.' 

Letters were addressed ' To the F.C. of the V.C.,' 
i.e. the ' Executive Body of the United Brother- 
hood.' See ' Irish Associations.' 

United Diet of Prussia {The), 
1847. A union of the provincial diets 
created in tlie previous reign. It was no 
organ of the national will, like the British 
Parliament. It levied taxes, except in 



UNITED 



UNITED 



915 



time of war, but the kingdom of Prussia 
was ruled like a military camp by the 
king as commander-in-chief, and his diet 
took the place of field officers. 

United East India Company 

(The), 1708. The original company 
chartered in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth, 
and granted a monopoly for fifteen years 
of trading to India, united with a rival 
company chartered in 1693. In 1759 the 
united company obtained from parlia- 
ment the political management of the 
acquired countries, subject to certain re- 
strictions, and was denominated the 
' East India Company,' and twenty-four 
members were appointed directors, their 
acts being subject to the revisal of the 
Board of Control. In 1858 the govern- 
ment of India was transferred to the 
crown. 

The original company was formed in 1599, and 
consisted ot four ships. The charter had to be 
renewed every fifteen years. 

United Empire Loyalists (The), 
1783. Those lovers of Old England 
who gave up everything they had rather 
than abide in the revolted American 
colonies under a new and alien flag. They 
settled in Nova Scotia, the wilderness of 
Ontario, the West Indies, New Bruns- 
wick, and elsewhere. The centenary of 
their departure from the United States 
was held in the Dominion in 1883, when 
the quaint costumes and old coaches of 
the previous century were paraded. 

United Free Church Metho- 
dists {The), about 1850. The Wesleyan 
Association and Wesleyan Eeform As- 
sociation united. 

United Free Gospel Churches, 

or ' Band Room Methodists,' 1806, who 
first met in the Band Room, Manchester. 
They do not pay their ministers, they 
ignore class meetings, and they admit 
non-members into their society. 

United Irishmen (The). 

I. In 1793. Projected in 1791 by 
Samuel Neilson, a draper of Belfast, to 
unite Protestants and Catholics in a 
constitutional agitation for reform and 
Catholic emancipation. The principal 
leaders of the people were Wolfe Tone, 
Hamilton Rowan, and James Napper 
Tandy, whose violence was so great that 
they were obliged to expatriate them- 
selves. When the Earl of Camden, who 



succeeded the Earl Fitzwilliam, returned 
to the old system of coercion, the United 
Irishmen advocated a separation from 
England and the establishment of a re- 
public in Ireland in alliance with the 
French Republic, and a well-organized 
system of secret confederacy was spread 
over the country, the heads of which 
issued orders for enlisting, combining, 
and arming their adherents. In the 
northern and midland counties were two 
associations at the same time, one of 
Catholics called 'Defenders,' and the 
other of Protestants called' Orangemen.' 
The Defenders joined the United Irish- 
men, and the Orangemen were the op- 
ponents. See * Irish Associations.' 

II. In 1846. An Irish newspaper edited 
by Mr. Mitchel; the organ of a party 
which split from the Young Irelanders, 
whose organ was called the ' Nation.' 
The ' Nation ' advocated the ' combination 
of all classes, and the exercise of all poli- 
tical and social influences ' to carry Re- 
peal ; the United Irishmen advocated 
revolution, bloodshed, and civil war. 
Mitchel every week addressed the lord 
lieutenant as ' Her Majesty's Execu- 
tioner-general and Butcher-general of 
Ireland ' ; and women were exhorted to 
throw vitriol on the police and the 
Queen's soldiers. 

United Kingdom. That of Ire- 
land added to Great Britain. The Act 
of Union took effect 1 Jan., 1801. 

The union of the four kingdoms, Wales, Ireland, 
and Scotland, added to England, make the ana- 
gram W.I.S.E, 

United Kingdoms {The Four). 

England, the Heptarchy united 
under Egbert .... 802 

Ireland, united under Anlaf . . 853 

Scotland, one kingdom under Ken- 
neth MacAlpin .... 850 

Wales, the several princes of Wales 
and Powisland united under 
HowelDha 907 

England and Ireland, Henry II. . 1172 

England and Wales (with Ireland), 
Edward 1 1283 

Great Britain (England, Wales, 
Scotland, and Ireland), under 
James VI. of Scotland, called 
' James I. of England ' . . 1603 

United Methodist Free 
Churches {The), 1857. An amalga- 
mation of the Protestant Methodists 
3n2 



916 



UNITED 



UNIVEESITY 



(formed 1828), the Wesleyan Methodist 
Association (1834), and the Wesleyan 
Eefonn Association (founded in 1849). 

The Wesleyans have 7,310 chapels, the Primi- 
tives 4,486, and the United Methodist Free 
Churches 1,242. Their chief differences are the 
disapproval of a theological seminary, the exclu- 
sion of instrumental music, the place they give 
to laymen in church administration, which is 
much larger than in the original body, and the 
greater freedom from control in the circuits. 

United Presbyterian Church 

{The), 1847, is composed of the ' Seces- 
sion ' and the ' Rehef,' the former insti- 
tuted in 1733 and the latter in 1752. 

United Presbytery {The), or 
♦ Synod of Munster,' formed in 1809 by 
the junction of the Southern Presbytery 
of Dublin with the Presbytery of Mun- 
ster. It is one of the three non-subscrib- 
ing Presbyterian bodies of Ireland. 

The other two are the ' Remonstrant Synod of 
Ulster • (q.v.), and the ' Presbytery of Antrim ' (q.v.). 
These three bodies subsequently united and 
formed the 'General Non-subscribing Presby- 
terian Association of Ireland ' (q.v.). 

United States {The). There are 
somewhat more than 2,700 counties. Of 
these 10 per cent, are named after presi- 
dents, and 35 per cent, after Americans 
who have not been presidents (1890). 

1. Counties, &c,, named from presi- 
dents : — 

27 counties named Washington, besides cities and 

towns innumerable. 
43 Jefferson. 
21 Jackson. 

17 Lincoln, Madison, and Monroe. 
12 Polk. 
10 Grant. _ 

9 Adams and Harrison. 

4 Garfield, Pierce, and Van Buren. 

2. Counties, &c., named from Ameri- 
cans who have not been presidents : — 

Putnam. 
Randolph. 



Calhoun. 

Clay. 

Hancock. 



Scott. 

Webster, and many more. 



3. The following names are enough to 
Nicodemus any place from ever rising 
into a bishopric. Only fancy a dignified 
clergyman signing himself 'Yours faith- 
fully, John ....,' followed by one of 
the following names : — 

Eurekapolis. 
Eurekaville (!) 
Fighting Cocks. 
Good Thunder. 
Hell and Nails Cross- 



Alkaliburg. 
Bleeder s Gulch. 
Bloody Bend. 
Boanerges Ferry. 
Breeches Fork. 
Bludgeonsville. 
Bugville. 
Butter's Sell. 
Buried Pipe. 
Cairovllle. 
Clean Deck. 
Daughter's Loss. 
Euchreville. 



ing. 
Hezekiahville. 
Hide and Seek. 
Jack Pot. 
Joker. 

Murderville. 
Nettle Carrier. 
Numaville. 



Peddlecake. 
Poker Flat. 
Pottawattomieville. 
Plumpville. 
Roaring Fox. 
Sharper's Creek. 
Skeletonville Agency." 
Soaker s Ranche. 
Spottedville. 



Starvation. 
Stuck-up-Canon. 
Thief's End. 
Tombstone. 
Ubet. 

Villa Realville. 
Yellow Bledicine. 
Yuba Dam. 
&c. 



United States {The), 4 July, 1776. 

At the ' Declaration of Independence ' 
the name of the American Colonies was 
changed into ' The United States.' At 
that time eleven of the states signed the 
declaration, and formed the nucleus of 
the United States. 

The War of Independence did not terminate till 
1782. 

Unitive Life. Quietism. 

Molinos in 1681 published his ' Spiritual Guide/ 
in which he spoke of bringing the soul to a degree 
of perfection which he called ' Unitive Life ' ; and 
' Quietism ' became the appellation of his mystic 
doctrine.— Pkince, Parallel Hisiory (vol. ii. p. 290). 

Universal Agent {The). That 
subtle and all-pervading something of 
which light, heat, electricity, and life are 
the phenomena and sensible manifesta- 
tions. J 
She struggled to take her eyes from his, but 1 
was of no use. The subtle power of the Universal 
Agent had got hold upon her, and she was riveted 
to the spot so long as he kept his eyes upon her.— 
Crawford, Zoroaster, chap, xviii. 

Universalists, or 'The Universal 
Christians,' 3rd cent. Those who believe 
that Christ died for all, and that no one 
will ultimately be cast away for ever. 
He shall see of the travail of his soul and 
be satisfied. The wicked shall be cast 
into hell only till they are purified, when 
(cleansed from sin) they will join the 
saints in light. 

The Philadelphian Universalists are the fol- 
lowers of Mr. James Kelly, who was connected 
with Mr. Geo. Whitfield. His congregation met 
in the Philadelphian Chapel, Windmill Street, 
Finsbury Square, London. There are a goodly 
number of these Christians at Boston, Philadel- 
phia, and other parts of the U. 8. of America. 

See ' Paulinists.' 

University. 

Paris, founded about 1109 ; its degrees 
were recognized 1200. 

Oxford, founded about 1150 ; its de- 
grees were recognized 1214. 

Cambridge, founded about 1209 ; its 
degrees were recognized 1231. 

Glasgow, founded about 1450. 

Aberdeen „ „ 1506. 

Edinburgh „ „ 1582. 

Dubhn „ „ 1591. 

London „ „ 1828. 



UNIVEESITY 



URBANISTS 



917 



University College, 872. The 

oldest in the University of Oxford, 
founded by Alfred the Great. Probably 
the real founder was William of Durham, 
rector of Wearmouth 1249. The head of 
the college is called the Master. 

University Counsel {The), Cam- 
bridge. These officers have no con- 
nection whatever with the Council • of 
the University {q.v.). They are coun- 
sellors-at-law consulted upon occasions 
of doubt, and appointed by grace of the 
Senate. 

University Fight (The). In the 
reign of Elizabeth, when that queen in 
1504 visited Cambridge, the public orator 
declared in his harangue that Cambridge 
was the older University. Oxford at 
once took up the cudgel, and when in 
1566 the queen visited that university, 
she was told that Oxford, not Cambridge, 
was the older foundation. 

Caius in 1574 published a goodly quarto in 
defence of Cambridge. He countenances the pre- 

Eosterous assertion that the first stones of Cam- 
ridge University were laid 178 years after the 
flood!! and gravely tells us that Cambridge 
derives its name from Cantaber, a royal Spanish 
emigrant, who in the 4th Christian cent, sent for 
Greek philosophers from Athens as professors in 
the Cantaber or Cambridge University. Brian 
Twyne in IGOiS published a similar folio on behalf 
of Oxford, stating its foundation was laid when 
Brute came to the island. This ' Trojan ' colony 
laid the university at Cricklade— !-e.Bello Situm— 
■where Oxford now stands. And as for Cambridge, 
it was a mere offshoot of Oxford in the reign 
of Henrx I- 

University Museum {The), 1855, 
erected for the study of natural science. 
There are lecture-rooms, work-rooms, 
and laboratories, a dissecting-room, a 
library, and a reading-room. The keeper 
has 801. a year (University of Oxford). 

The nearest approximative institution of Cam- 
bridge is the museum in the old Botanical Gar- 
dens : but there are other museums, as the Wood- 
wardian for geology, another for zoology, others 
for comparative anatomy, botany, mechanics, 
optics and astronomy, chemistry, &c. See p. 328, 
'Fitzwilliam Museum.' 

Unkiar Skelessi {Treaty of), 26 
June (July 8), 1833. A secret treaty 
between Russia and Turkey of alliance, 
offensive and defensive, for eight years. 
It provided the establishment of a per- 
petual peace between Russia and Turkey. 
Each was to defend the other's territory 
against all invaders. The treaty was for 
eight years positive, with the hope of its 
being perpetual. The alliance was made 
when Egypt threatened Turkey with 
war, and Russia feared that Constanti- 



nople would fall into the hands of Egypt. 
This alliance was annulled by the Treaty 
of London 13 July, 1841. 

Unlearned Parliament {The). 
' Parliamentum Indoctum,' 1404, from 
which all lawyers were excluded. So 
called by Su: E. Coke. See p. 664, 
' Parliaments.' 

It advised the king to seize the revenues of the 
church. More than one third of all the land of 
England was church property. It also advised 
the king (Henry IV.) to repeal the statute De 
Haeretico Comburendo, but he feared the clergy. 

Unrighteous Bible {The). Cam- 
bridge Press, 1653, contains this query : 
' Know ye not that the unrighteous shall 
inherit the kingdom of God ? ' See ' Bible * 
and ' Scriptures.' 

Up-Angas {The). Written in Sans- 
krit by the sage Vyasa, on the subjects 
of cosmogony, chronology, and geography. 
Two heroic poems are also included, viz. 
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. 
See p. 820, ' Shastras.' 

The P<aranas, or sacred poems of Up-Angas, tell 
of virtue, good works, and the soul. 

Upa-Vedas {The), deUvered by 
Brahma, treat of medicine, archery, 
architecture, music, and sixty-four me- 
chanical arts. See p. 820, ' Shastras.' 

Upsetters. The college companions 
of St. Augustine. See his ' Confessions,' 
iii. 3. 

They formed themselves into tumultuous bands 
Which wandered through the city streets with 

noise, 
Fright'ning the old, the peaceful, and the weak 
And hence, from acts upsetting decency. 
Were called ' Upsetters,' nor refused the name. 

Heney Warwick Cole, Q.C, St. Augustine. 

Urbanists and Clem'entines 

(3 syL), 1378. The followers of Urban 
VI., pope of Rome, and Clement VI., 
pope of Avignon. For fifty-one years 
there were two sunultaneous popes. 

Urbanists and Damianists. 

Nuns of the order of St. Claire. In 1264 
Urban IV. mitigated the austerity of 
the Franciscan rule observed by these 
nuns. Those who followed the rule thus 
modified were called Urbanists, but 
those who continued the more austere 
rule were called Damianists from St. 
Pietro Damian, noted for his extreme 
austerity. 

The nuns of St. Claire devote themselves chiefly 
to the education of the young. 



918 



UKBAKIAL 



USES 



Urbarial Dues. The labour and 
produce due to the landlord for an 
Urbarial Tenure (q.v.). 

Urbarial Tenure. A free tenure 
in Hungary according to the provisions 
of the Urbarium. By this charter a Hun- 
garian peasant was no longer attached 
to the soil, but could leave his landlord 
and farm whenever he thought fit. 
Every peasant had as his own an acre of 
land, with a house and garden ; and also 
could possess a farm, varying from four- 
teen to sixty acres, the rent of which 
was paid by labour and produce. One- 
ninth of the produce belonged to the 
landlord, and the labour varied from 
18 days to 104 days, according to the size 
of the holdings. 

In 1848 the nobles of Hungary abolished, of 
their own free will, their right to exact either 
labour or produce in return for lands held by 
urbarian tenure. Thus were the peasants in- 
vested with the absolute ownership of twenty 
millions of acres among them.— GoDKiN, History 
of Hungary, p. 319. 

Urbarium {The). A code of laws 
made in the reign of Maria Theresa of 
Austria, regulating the relations between 
landlord and tenant. This was an ad- 
mirable measure, passed in 1764, and 
remaining in force till 1835. It was 
called ' the People's Charter.' 

Ursulins, 1537. A religious society 
founded by St. Angela of Brescia, and 
dedicated to St. Ursula. Their speciality 
is the gratuitous education of the 
young. They followed the rule of St. 
Augustine. Abolished in France in 
1790, but subsequently re-established. 
They have some houses in the U.S. 

Uscoechi, or Uskoks. Dalmatian 
fugitives, swelled by the offscouring of 
all nations, who infested the Adriatic for 
about a century as pirates. They consisted 
of Turks, Austrians, Croats, Dalmatians, 
Venetians, and English, who lived in 
Segni ; and ' God save you from the 
Uskoks' was a proverbial expression. 
By the Treaty of Madrid, 16 Sept., 1617, 
the extermination of the pirates was an 
article stipulated by Venice and Austria, 
and the horde disappeared. - 

Uskoks, Russian uskakat, fugitives. 

Use. Meaning the prayer-book used, 
or the ' services ' of the mediaeval church. 
Several large dioceses had their own 
prayer-book, which contained services 
for local saints and holidays, and special 



modes of singing and saying the service. 
The preface of our Common Prayer Book 
tells us ' there [had] been [hitherto] great 
diversity in singing and saying in 
churches within this realm, some follow- 
ing Salisbury Use, some Hereford Use, 
and some the Use of Bangor, some of 
York, some of Lincoln. Now, from 
henceforth, all the whole realm shall 
have but one Use.' 

The Sarum or Salisbury Use was 
compiled by Osmund about 1085, and of 
this missal there have been several re- 
prints and translations. 

The dates and authors of the other five 
Uses are unknown, but it is generally 
thought that they were older than the 
Sarum. There is a MS. of the Hereford 
Missal in University College, Oxford, of 
the 14th cent., and it was printed at 
Rouen in 1502; copies of the printed 
Missal are preserved in the British 
Museum and in the Bodleian. 

The Bangor Missal was never printed, 
but from a MS. of the 15th cent, of this 
book Mr. Maskell printed the Ordinary 
and Canon in the Ancient Liturgy of the 
Church of England in 1844. 

The York Missal was printed at Rouen 
in 1509, and a copy of it is preserved in 
the Bodleian Library. Nothing of the 
Lincoln Missal remains except a MS. 
fragment of the 15th cent., preserved in 
the Bodleian. 

Sometimes the term Use was applied 
to the local usage of a particular parish. 
Thus there were offices and a mass of St. 
Wilfrid secundum usum Biponice. 

In the northern parts was generally observed 
the Use of the archiepiscopal Church of York, in 
South Wales the Use of Hereford, in North Wales 
the Use of Bangor, and In other places the Use 
of the principal sees, as Lincoln, Sarum, &c.-« 
Stephens, O/t the Common Prayer, p. 121. 
See 'Notes and Queries," 28 June, 1890, pp. 509, 510. 

Use of Sarum (' Li Usum Sarum '), 
1078. A liturgy or service-book drawn 
up by Osmund bishop of Salisbury, 
which was generally adopted throughout 
the entire kingdom. It was in Latin, 
and based on the Roman Missals. 

There were other liturgies besides that of 
Sarum, as the ' Use of Bangor,' the ' Use of Here- 
ford,' the ' Use of Lincoln,' and the ' Use of York.' 
These ' Uses' contained eleven different services, 
as the Missal, Graduale or Grayle, Processionale, 
Ordinale, Portiforium or Breviary, Legenda, Pica 
or Pie, Finale. Antiphonarium, Manuals, and 
Pontificale. 

Uses. A legal device to elude the 
statutes of mortmain. As no lands could 
be left to religious houses, donors granted 



USES 



VACCA 



919 



their property in trust for the use of a 

stated religious house. Other property 
was transferred by a similar fiction during 
the wars of the Roses. As a itse was not 
a tenure, such property could not be for- 
feited for treason or any other offence. 

Uses ( The Statute of),27 Henry VIII. 
c. 10. To prevent the ecclesiastical 
evasion of the statute of mortmain. It 
laid down the rule that there cannot be 
'a use upon a use.' In other words, 
that a third person cannot be nominally 
held for a church or other society, so as 
to enable that church or that society to 
evade the statute of mortmain. 

Useful Knowledge {The Society 
for the Diffusion of), 1827. Designed to 
give information on useful subjects gene- 
rally. Lord Brougham, Professor De 
Morgan, Sir David Brewster, Professor 
Lindley, &c., contributed to the series 
of books issued by the Society. 

Useless Parliament (The). Con- 
vened 18 June, 1625, "by Charles I., ad- 
journed to Oxford 1 Aug., and dissolved 
12 Aug., having done nothing but offend 
the king. See p. 664, ' Parliaments.' 

Utah Mormons {The). The Poly- 
gamist Mormons. Sometimes called 
Brighamites, from Brigham Young, who 
practised polygamy. Utah was first 
occupied by the Mormons in 1847. 

Polygamy was declared unlawful in 1870 by the 
• Mormon Disabilities Bill,' and in 1890 was aban- 
doned by the Mormons. 

Utas of Easter {The). Utas are 
the octaves of a festival. Old French, 
oitauves, octaves. 

Utilitarian School {The). 'To 
be as useful as possible,' *to give the 
least possible pain to others,' and ' to 
give the greatest possible happiness to 
the greatest number.' A system of ethics 
founded by Jeremy Bentham (1747-8 — 
1832). 

On his death-bed he gave his body to his 
physician. Dr. Southwood Smith, for dissection, 
that he might do the most useful thing possible 
with it. He forbade calling his friends to his 
bedside, that he might give them the least 
possible pain. The two were in accordance with 
his principle of Dinxivin felicitas. 

*,* His body was, however, embalmed, and is 
now kept in University College, London. 

*" U'traquists. A sect of the Hussites, 
also called Calix'tines (3 syl.). Called 
Calixtines from calix (a cup), because 
they insisted on the cup being given to 



communicants; and called Utraquists 
from utraque (both kinds), because they 
insisted that both bread and wine should 
be administered in the eucharistic sacra- 
ment. 

Utrecht {The Treaty of), 1713, 
between France and t/ie following allies, 
viz. Great Britain, Savoy, Portugal, 
Prussia, and the states of Holland, signed 
11 April. Spain, which, of course, was 
allied with France, did not sign till 18 
Sept. Peace was concluded after a war 
of eleven years, noted for the brilliant 
victories of the Duke of Marlborough and 
the Prince Eugene. The treaty of Utrecht 
is generally considered most dishonour- 
able to England, as it ignored all Marl- 
borough fought for. Philip still remained 
king of Spain, and the interests of the 
allies were almost entirely ignored. Bo- 
lingbroke, Oxford, and Ormonde, parties 
to this treaty, were (1715) charged by the 
House of Commons with high treason. 
Bolingbroke and Ormonde fled, but 
Oxford was brought to trial and acquitted. 

However, it confirmed to England the 
island of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, 
with the possession of Gibraltar and 
Minorca, St. Kitts, and Hudson's Bay. 

In 1708 Newfoundland was attacked and partly 
conquered by the French. 

Nova Scotia was given to France by the treaty 
of St. Germain in 1632, was reconquered by the 
British in 1654, and again ceded to France by the 
treaty of Breda in 1667, was again taken by Britain 
1711, and confirmed to the British crown in 1713. 

These were but small concessions, it is true, but 
they tended to confirm the peace between Franco 
and England. 

v. C. The cryptogram used in Ire- 
land to designate the ' United Brethren.' 
It consists simply of shifting the initials 
one letter forwards. V comes next to 
U, and C comes next to B. The ' Clan- 
na-Gael ' {q.v.) was a secret organisation 
known as ' V. C See p. 455, ' Irish As- 
sociations.' 

V and S {hrandi7ig with). V^ va- 
grant, S = slave. 

A runaway, or anyone who lives idly for three 
days, shall be brought before two justices of the 
peace, and marked V with a hot iron on his 
breast, and shall be adjudged the slave of him 
who brought him for two years. ... If within 
that space he absents himself fourteen days, he 
shall be marked on the forehead or cheek by a 
hot iron with an S, and be his master's slave for 
ever. (Edward VI.) 

Vacca {Totver of the), in the Palazzo 
Pubblico or Delia Signoria of Florence. 
The great bell-tower or campanile in the 
middle of the edifice. Arnolfo designed 



920 



VAKEEL 



VALOIS-ORLEANS 



and began it, but it was completed by 
altri maestri. Why called the Cow 
Tower is not known, but the ' lowing ' of 
the bell is a part of the city wit. 

Vakeel. A Persian satrap, or prince 
of a small state. In India an envoy or 
inferior ambassador is called a Vakeel. 

Aga Mohammed was soon set aside by Luft All 
Khan of the Zend tribe, and a relative of the 
late Vakeel, 1789.— PBINCE, Parallel History, vol. 
Ui. p. 132. 

Valdenses. Separatists from the 
Catholic Church in the 11th cent. Pro- 
bably vallenses from the Latin vallis, a 
valley. Hence commonly called the 
' Church of the Valleys,' the chief being 
the valleys of Piedmont and Embrun. 
Other valleys where they abounded were 
the ' Valley of San Martino,' the ' Valley 
of Perosa,' the ' Vale of Pragela,' the 
' Valley of Lucerna,' the High Valley of 
the Durance and the adjacent glens, and 
many others. The followers of Peter 
Valdo were ' The Poor Men of Lyons.' 

Eberard de Bethune says : ' They call themselves 
Vallenses because they live in a Vale of Tears.' — 
Maxima Biblioth. P. P. vol. xxiv. 

Valentia. One of the five provinces 
into which Britain was divided in the 
reign of the Emperor Severus. It in- 
cluded the land from the Wall of Severus 
to the Forth and Clyde. It had its own 
ruler, but that ruler was subject to 
the prsefect or governor-general of the 
island. 

Valentin'ians {The), 2nd cent. 
Followers of Valentlnus, an Egyptian, a 
Platonist, who taught that Depth is the 
first principle, and the trinity of Depth, 
Thought, and Silence existed from all 
eternity. From this triune sprang Wis- 
dom and Truth. Thought and Silence, 
Wisdom and Truth, Valentlnus called the 
first quaternity of eons, the source of all 
the rest. The second quaternity was 
the offsprin-;; of Wisdom, viz. the Word 
(or Logos) and Life, Man and the Church. 
Logos and Life produced five couples of 
eons, Man and the Church formed six 
couples, and the thirty eons compose the 
Pleroma of deity. Wisdom wanting to 
pry into depth (or Bythos) gave herself 
much trouble, and from this sprang 
matter. Horos restored Wisdom to the 
Pleroma, and then she brought forth 
Christ and the Holy Ghost. Irenseus, 
Justin the Martyr, Tertullian, and others 



were avowed opponents of the mixture 
of Christianity and Platonism. 

Eon, in Platonic philosophy, means a divine 
attribute existing without beginning or end. In 
Gnostic theology it means an emanation from 
deity anterior to time. The Son is an eon of the 
Father, the Holy Ghost is an eon from the Father 
and Son. The word is also used to signify a period 
of time of immeasurable duration. 

Vale'sians, a.d. 198. Heretics, so 
called from Valesius, an Arabian. They 
admitted only eunuchs into their society, 
insisting that this crucifixion of the flesh 
is essential to salvation. 

Valley of Death {The). Balaklava, 
famous for the charge of Lord Cardigan's 
Light Brigade, consisting of 607 sabres, 
which advanced right into the Russian 
centre with the view of taking thirty 
Russian guns directed against them. 
When Lord Raglan perceived the mis- 
take, he ordered a retreat to be sounded. 
25 Oct., 1854. 

Certainly a worse choice than Lord Raglan as 
leader of a great war could hardly have been 
made. He had neither the energy, the dash, nor 
the lightning speed of a military hero. 

Valley of Heroes {The). So the 
Persians call the Plain of Oujan, the 
famous royal hunting-ground. 

Valley of "Waters {The). The 
Mediterranean Sea. 

The Valley of Waters, widest next to that 
Which doth the earth engarland, shapes its course 
Between discordant shores [Europe and Africa], 
Dante, Paradise, ix. 

Valley of the Shadow of 
Death {The). The Koord Cabul Pass, 
where in 1839 the Afghans annihilated 
the British army. See p. 485, ' Khyber 
Pass,' and p. 13, ' Afghan War.' 

Valois Branch {The). The younger 
branch of the Capetian race of French 
kings (1328-1498). Li 1498 came a 
branch of the Valois called the Orleans- 
Orleans, and in 1515 a branch called the 
Orleans- Angouleme. Called Valois from 
Philippe VI. de Valois (1328-1350). 

Valois-Angoul^me Branch of 

the Capetian dynasty gave to France 
five kings : Francois I., Henri II., Fran- 
cois II., Charles IX., and Henri III. 
(1515-1589). 

Valois-Orleans Branch of the "^ 
Capetian dynasty gave to France one 
king, Louis XII., le pere du peuple 
(14(32, 1498-1515). 



VALOR 



VEDAS 



921 



Valor Ben'efieio'rum, 1512. 
DravvTi up by the clergy in council at 
Edinburgh, and known by the title of 
' Bagimont'^ ' or ' Bajimont's Roll.' See 
p. 66. 

"VajndL-yck-^The Caledonian). George 
Jameson (1586-1644). 

Vandyck {The English). William 
Dobson, painter (1610-1647). 

Vandyck of France {The). 
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743), the 
founder of the Pre-Raphaelites. 

Vandyck of Sculpture {The). 
Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720), 

Va'nists. Followers of the religious 
opinions of Sir Harry Vane (1612-1662), 
which were almost identical with Anti- 
nomianism. He detested episcopacy, and 
though he promoted the Solemn League 
and Covenant, he abhorred both it and 
the presbytery. Vane was a fifth-mon- 
archy man, and a great believer in ' un- 
known tongues,' so that his prayers were 
utterly unintelligible. He wrote several 
theological treatises, but all mark him 
out as a wild visionary. 

Varan'gians. All Northmen were 
so denominated by the Greeks; but, 
strictly speaking, the Varangians were 
the Norse bodyguard of their emperors. 

Varela {Peace of), 3 Aug., 1790, be- 
tween Sweden and Russia. 

Vasa {Order of), 1772. A Swedish 
order instituted by Gustavus III. in 
honour of Gustavus Vasa, founder of the 
dynasty. 

Vassy {Massacre of), 1 March, 1652. 
Some 1,200 reformers had assembled in 
a barn on Sunday morning, when Francois 
due de Guise with sixty horsemen and 
bowmen rode by, and all began to insult 
the worshippers by calling them ' rebels ! 
dogs ! heretics ! ' &c. Some of the re- 
formers shut the doors, when the duke 
shouted ' Mort-dieu ! slay the vermin ! ' 
A scuffle ensued, in which a stone struck 
the duke on the cheek. His horsemen 
now fell foul cutting and slashing. Sixty 
were slain and above 200 wounded. 
When called upon to answer for this un- 
provoked attack, the duke declared that 
the reformers were the aggressors, and 
that he only acted in self-defence. He 



died the following year, and the matter 
ended for a time, but it led to the long 
* Religious Wars of France.' 

A Bible was shown to the duke, and he handed it 
to his brother the cardinal, who said, ' There is no 
harm in this book. It is the Holy Scriptures.' 
' How ! (cried the duke) sang-dieu ! Call you that 
the Holy Scriptures y Why, they were written 
more than l,oOO years ago, and this -was written 
last year, as you may see by the date.' 

Vatican {The). 'Vaticanus Mons ' 
is a hill at Rome ; but is now chiefly 
noted for its magnificent palace of the 
popes, with its superb gardens, its mu- 
seums, celebrated library, and basilics* of 
St. Peter. The palace was constructed 
in 49S, but has been often enlarged, es- 
pecially by the popes Nicolas V., Paul 
IL and III, Sixtus IV., Leo X., Sixtus V., 
Benedict XIV., Clement XIV., Pius VI., 
&c. 

In the Vatican are the celebrated Sixtlae 
Chapel, the Pauline Chapel, and the Raphael 
room. 

Vatican {Council of the), 1870, to 
render the dogma of the Immaculate 
Conception an article of faith. 

Of course the New Testament does not give the 
remotest hint of such a dogma, nor does it remove 
the difficulty of ' bringing a clean thing out of an 
unclean," or, in other words, the entail of sin. It 
merely removes it one stage further back, and 
helps to destroy the proper manhood of Christ. 
The dogma is a grand theological mistake. 

Vatican MS. {The) of the Bible. 
See p. 184, ' Codex Vaticanus.' 

Vauban de la Marine {Le). 
Baron Sane, the shipbuilder, born at 
Brest (1740-1832). 

Vaudois {The) must not be con- 
founded with the followers of Peter 
Waldo, or ' Poor Men of Lyons,' who were 
a revival of the Paulicians ; but the 
Vaudois, mentioned by Jerome, were 
Valentinians, and were confined to the 
Cottian Alps. 

Ved-Angas {The), revealed by 
Hindu inspired saints, are devoted to 
astronomy, grammar, prosody, pronun- 
ciation, charais, incantations, religious 
rites, and religious ceremonies. Written 
in Sanskrit. See ' Shastras.' 

Vedas. The sacred books of the 
Hindus written in Sanskrit. They are 
four in number : (1) The Big, containing 
hymns, and in A'erse ; (2) The Yadjour, 
prayers in prose ; (3) The Sama, designed 
to be chanted ; and (4) The Atharvan, 
containing formulas for consecration, 



922 



VEDUTO 



VENDETTA 



expiation, and imprecation. Said to have 
been written in the 15th cent. B.C. 

Of the commentaries the most celebrated are 
the Purdnas and the Sutras. See these words. 

Veduto. See p. 286, ' Eighty ' (The). 

Vehmgerichte {The), ' The Holy 
Vehm.' A secret tribunal of Germany, 
death being the penalty of a betrayal 
thereof. 

It had its origin in Westphalia in the 
13th cent. The members consisted of 
the initiated and the ignorants, but 
every member must be free born and in 
lawful wedlock. There were secret signs 
of recognition. The names and charges 
of persons brought before the tribunal 
were entered in the ' Blood Book ' toge- 
ther with the sentence of the tribunal. 
There were tl.u-ee modes of proceeding — 
the summary, the secret, and the open. 
Death was by hanging on the nearest 
tree, but a knife stuck in the tree an- 
nounced to the world that the victim was 
not hanged by highwaymen. Towards 
the close of the 16th cent, the Vehm- 
gerichte dwindled and died. See p. 743, 
' Red Land.' 

See Walter Scotts 'Anne of Geierstein ' and Rey- 
nolds's 'Bronze Statue.' 

Vella {Giuse2}pe), an abbot and lite- 
rary impostor (1751-1814). He confessed 
his frauds and was sentenced to fifteen 
years' imprisonment. His books are 
' Codex Diplomaticus Siciliae,' 1791, and 
' Libro del Consiglio di Egitto,' 1798. 
See p. 524, ' Literary Forgeries,' &c. 

"Velvet. The little gentleman in 
velvet, the mole. The Jacobites used to 
drink to the ' little gentleman in velvet,' 
meaning the mole which threw up the 
mound against which Sorel (King William 
III.'s horse) stumbled, whereby, being 
thrown to the ground, he broke his collar- 
bone, which caused his death. 

Velvet Book {The). The Russian 
peerage and official lists. 

Velveteen Plot {The), 1842. A 
trick played upon Sir Robert Peel by a 
Lancashire manufacturer in order to for- 
ward the anti-corn law interests. It was 
tlie present of a piece of cotton velvet so 
dressed as to look like silk velvet, and 
ostensibly made in New York. Sir 
Robert thanked the donor, and said that 
Lady Peel would hav« part made into a 
cloak and he himself would have the rest 



made up for his own use. After a more 
careful inspection Sir Robert found that 
the design consisted of wheat-ears about 
a scroll on which was inscribed the word 
FREE. So he returned the present, stat- 
ing that he was unaware of its political 
symbolism. 

Vend^an Massacres {The), or 
Vende'an war, May 1793 to 19 Feb., 1795. 
That is the resistance of the Vendeans 
to the republican J acobins . Prudhomme 
says the slaughter of the Vendeans in 
this contest was 337,000, distributed 
thus : — 

Women killed in La Vendee 15,000; children 
killed 22,000 ; men killed 300,000. 

Vend^an Wars {The), 1793-1800. 
Divers wars between royalists of the 
west of France and the republicans. The 
insurgents were the nobles, priests, and 
peasantry combined. The first encoun- 
ter was in March 1793 in the Bocage. 
Lazarus Hoche brought the contest to an 
end in 1796, and was called the Pacifica- 
teur de la Vendee. In 1799 the Vendeans 
again took up arms. Brune brought this 
insurrection to an end in the early part 
of 1800. In 1815, during the Hundred 
Days {q-v.), the Vende'ans would have 
taken up arms if General Lamarque had 
not interfered to prevent it. In 1832 
insurrections were again planned, but 
came to nothing. Prudhomme estimates 
the death of the Vendeans in their resist- 
ance to the republican Jacobins at 
337,000, of which 37,000 were women and 
children. See ' Chouans.' 

Vend^miaire (Days 12, 13), Year 
IV. That is 3, 4 Oct., 1795 ; the days when 
the troops under Barras and General 
Bonaparte triumphed over the insurgents 
against the Convention. The combat 
before the church of St. Roch was most 
murderous. 

Vendetta. The blood-feud, or duty 
of the nearest akin of a murdered man to 
slay the murderer. The custom prevails 
in Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, Calabria, 
among the Montenegrins and Albanians, 
the Druses, Circassians, Arabs, natives 
of Australia, and in central Asia. In the 
play of ' Romeo and Juliet ' the two houses 
of Montague and Capulet ' suffered the 
vendetta.' Moses appointed cities of 
refuge to break down the vengeance of 
the vendetta. 

The vendetta is called by the Bedouins Tar'= re- 



VENDETTA 



VENICE 



923 



taliation. It existed in ancient times among the 
Greeks. In the summer of 18,s9 in Corsica both the 
slayer and the avenger in a blood-feud were slain 
in a duel fight with each other. 

Vendetta Transversale, a cross 
blood-feud. That is, each set of two re- 
latives has a murder to avenge, A has 
a blood-feud with B, but B has a blood- 
feud with A. 

Vendidad Sadd. A sacred book 
of the Parsees attributed to Zoroaster. 
It fonns part of the Zend-Avesta, and is 
in the form of a dialogue between Ormuzd 
and Zoroaster. 

Venerable {The) Bede, the author 
of an ' Ecclesiastical History.' A native 
of Wearmouth. He died 735, aged 62. 

Ven'eta Factio. The Blue Coats. 
A faction in Byzantium, so called because 
their livery was Venice blue. The Veneti 
were simply charioteers in the circus 
dressed in blue, but the blue coats ulti- 
mately fonned into a political party of 
royalists, opposed to the Prasina Factio 
{q.v.), which were opposed to Justinian, 
and tried to assassinate him. See ' Blues 
and Greens.' 

Ven6ti is Latin for Venetians, Venice is ' Vene- 
tisB,' and Venetus, the adjective, means 'of 
Venice,' or ' Venice Blue,' the livery of the com- 
mon soldiers and seamen of Rome. 

Vengeance de Jeanne de Cas- 
tille {La), a box on the ears. Jeanne 
de Castille out of jealousy boxed the ears 
of a maid of honour she had brought 
from Portugal, and who developed into a 
rival. 

Vengeance for the Lamb torn 
by the "Wolf. The war-cry and motto 
of Capobianco, the leader of the Carbo- 



Vengeur {Le), 1 June, 1794. A 
French man-of-war immortalised by a 
romantic fiction. It was one of the fleet 
engaged against the English fleet under 
Lord Howe. The English gained a signal 
victory, but Jean Bon St. -Andre, the 
Jacobin commissioner on board the ' Ven- 
geur,' announced to the Convention that 
the French had won a most splendid 
■victory, and the * Vengeur ' went down 
all the men shouting ' Vive la Re'publique ! 
Vive la France ! ' and continued these 
cries even at the bottom of the ocean. 
Barere added to the fiction that the 
• Vengeur ' was not sunk by the English, 
but was engulfed by the waves. Chenier 



the revolutionary poet wrote a panegyric 
on the ' Vengeur,' containing these 
lines : — 

Les voix des braves expLrans 
Qui chantent au fond des abimes I 

The Binliing of ' Le Vengeur ' described by 
Bart-re, and Napoleon crossing the Alps, a paint- 
ing by David, are what Carlyle would call ' master- 
pieces of blague.' Napoleon, who really crossed 
the mountains on a plodding mule, and buttoned 
to the chin in a grey greatcoat, is represented in 
full military costume spurring a prancing charger, 
and pointing with his right liand towards Italy. 
But strangely the wind blows the tail and mane 
of the charger one way, and the military cloak of 
the rider in an opposite direction. 

The' Vengeur ' wasoneof the ships of the French 
Convention, which encountered Howe in the 
Brest waters. Six of the French fleet had been 
taken, and the battle was lost. The 'Vengeur,' 
disabled, sank with all its crew, to the number of 
200. The men were picked up by British boats, 
and saved from a watery grave, for which they 
were very grateful. This is how Barere describes 
the incident (the translation is by Carlyle, who 
spells the name Barrere) :— 

Twelve hours of raging cannonade ; sun now 
sinking westward through the battle-smoke. Six 
French ships taken ; the battle lost ; what ship 
soever can still sail, making off ! But how is it 
with ' Le Vengeur ' ? she neither strikes [sail] nor 
makes off ? She is lamed ; she cannot make off, 
[and] strike she will not. Fire rakes her fore and 
aft from victorious enemies : the 'Vengeur ' is sink- 
ing. Strong are ye, tyrants of the sea ; yet we 
also, are we weak ? Lo ! all flags, streamers, 
jacks, every rag of tricolour that will yet run on 
rope, fly rustling aloft. The whole crew crowd to 
the upper deck, and with universal, soul-madden- 
ing yell, shouts ' Vive la Republique ! ' Sinking, 
sinking. She staggers, she lurches, her last drunk 
whirl. Ocean yawns abysmal. Down rushes ' Le 
Vengeur,' carrying ' Vive la Bepubliques ' along 
with her, unconquerable, into eternity. (He gives 
as authority Barrere, ' Choix des Bapports,' xiv., 
416-421, and refers to Lord Howe's report for the 
simple truth, 'Annual Register,' 1794, p. 86). See 
p. 36.'^, ' Glorious First of June,' and ' Fire First.' 

Veni, Vidi, Vici, b.c. 47. Cassar's 
despatch to the Roman senate when he 
vanquished Pharnaces, king of the Cim- 
merian Bosphorus in the battle of Zela. 

Karl V. imitated this despatch when he an- 
nounced his victory at Muhlberg, in April 1547. ' I 
came, I saw, God conquered.' 

Venice of the East. Bangkok, 
capital of Siam. 

Venice of the North {The). I. 
Amsterdam, built on 95 small islands, 
and its canals are crossed by 290 bridges. 

II. Stockholm, capital of Sweden. 

Venice of the "West. Glasgow. 

Another element in the blazon of the Venice of 
the West is the fish laid across the stem of the 
tree.— Burton. 

Venice Sketch-Book {The), or 
* Raphael's Sketch Book,' preserved in 
the Accademia delle Belle Arti, in Venice. 
Long considered to be a collection of 
sketches by Raphael, but proved by 
Morelli to be sketches by Pintoricchio, 



924 



VER 



VERSAILLES 



the Umbrian artist, and executed before 
Raphael was born. 

Ver Sacrum. When the whole pro- 
duce of a spring-time was devoted to the 
gods. This was done by the Sabellians 
in times of famine and public calamities. 
Even the children born during the ver 
sacrum were devoted to Mamers, the war 
god, and had to leave the city of their 
birth. 

Verbena'lia. Annual rites held by 
the Romans when the altars were deco- 
rated with verbena or vervain, called the 
herha sacra. 

Verdun {Treaty of), a.d. 843, by 
which the empire of Charlemagne was 
divided into three parts. Lothaire I., 
as emperor, received Italy and Lorraine ; 
Charles the Bald re- ^ 
ceived France; and 
Louis or Ludwig re- 
( eived Germany. So 
that by this treaty 
Germany was created 
into a separate kingdom. 

Vergobret [Vergob'retus], A tem- 
porary king chosen by the Druids in times 
of danger. Like the Roman dictator a 
vergobret laid down his office when the 
war was ended. 

Vergognosi (J). * The Shamefaced,' 
or begging nobles of Venice, 16th cent. 
Many of the nobles of Venice from the 
16th cent, were so utterly penniless that 
' begging licences ' were granted them. 
These begging nobles assumed a particu- 
lar dress, viz. an old black linen frock 
falling to the feet. The head was covered 
with a hood, and a thick veil fell over 
the face with two eye-holes. They carried 
in their hands a little conical box made 
of paper, for alms. See p. 84, * Begging 
Licences.' 

Veriss'imus. So the Emperor Ha- 
drian used to call Marcus Aurelius [An- 
toninus], a pun on the name of his 
adopted son, Lucius Verus. Lucius the 
son was Verus ; Marcus the father was 
Verissimus (the philosopher). 

Vermilion PenciL The pencil 
used by the Chinese in royal edicts and 
despatches. 

On the 25th day of the 1st moon [16 Feb.], 
and '21st year of Tao-Kwang [1841], the following 
despatch, written with the vermilion pencil, was 
re36i\ed in reply [to Commissioner Keshen'8 
despatch].— Jficsi ClUnese War, 



Vermilion To^wers. To the right 
of the Alhambra in Granada. So called 
from their very ruddy hue. Built by 
Mohammed 11., who reigned 1273-1302. 

Vermont (U.S. America), means 
* Green Mountains.' So called in 1777 
from a range of mountains which tra- 
verses the state (French Verd-mont). 
The inhabitants are called Green-moun- 
tain Boys. 

Verner's Law. The law of the 

interchanges of s and r in the Teutonic 
languages. 

Vernier. A sliding scale by which 
linear and angular magnitude may be 
read off with much greater accuracy than 
by mechanical division and subdivision. 
B 



^5 



A B is part of a scale ; a 6 is the vernier 
made to slide along the edge of the scale, 
Ten divisions of the vernier = eleven of 
the scale. Invented by Pierre Vernier, 
a Burgundian, who died 1637, aged 59. 

Verona [Congress of), from 25 Aug. 
to 15 Dec, 1822. It was a congress of 
European sovereigns. 

Versailles [Congress of), opened 
8 Dec, 1784. Between France and the 
States-General of Holland. 

Versailles [Treaties of). 

1. 9 March, 1701, between the elector 
of Bavaria and Louis XIV. 

2. 5 April, 1715, between Louis XTV. 
and Charles XII. of Sweden. 

3. 5 June, 1744, between Louis XV. 
and Frederick II. the Great of Prussia. 

4. 1 May, 1756, of alliance, between 
France and Austria. 

5. 30 Dec, 1758, of alliance, between 
France and Austria. 

6. 16 July, 1782, between France and 
America. 

7. 3 Sept., 1783, of peace, between 
Great Britain and the United States of 
America, admitting the Independence of 
the United States. 

8. 26 Feb., 1871, of peace, between 
France and Prussia, after the Franco- 
German War. 



VERSAILLES 



VICTIMS 



925 



Versailles {The German). Cassel 
is so called from its gardens, conserva- 
tories, fountains, and colossal statue of 
Hercules. 

Versailles of Poland (T/ie). The 

palace and grounds of the counts of 
Braniski, which now belong to the 
municipality of Bialystok, 

Versailles of Prussia {The). 
Potsdam. 

Vervins {Peace of), 2 May, 1598, 
between Henri IV. of France and Felipe 
II. of Spain. 

Vespers. One of the eight daily 
services of the Catholic Church, and one 
of the four greater ones. At eventide or 
sunset. See p. 140, ' Canonical Hours.' 

Veto {Monsieur). Louis XVI., so 
called in mockery by the revolutionists, 
because at one time he had the power of 
annulling by a simple veto the decrees 
of the National Assembly. His queen, 
Marie Antoinette, was nicknamed Ma- 
dame Veto {q.v. p. 548). 

Veto Jj&W {The) or 'Veto Act,' 1834, 
in Scotland. The General Assembly 
gave it out as a fundamental principle of 
the Scotch Church that no minister shall 
be placed in any parish against the will 
of the congregation — i.e. against the 
consent of the majority of the male 
communicants. This law was based on 
the practice of the 'minister's call,' or 
invitation of the people to become their 
pastor. 

Viasma {Peace of), 1634, between 
Russia and Poland, in which Russia, on 
one part, renounced all pret'^nsions to 
Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland; and 
Vladislas of Poland, on the other part, 
abandoned his rights to the throne of 
Poland, and recognised the dynasty of 
Romanov. 

Vicar of Bray. ' Let whoever will 
be king, I will be Vicar of Bray.' Several 
vicars have held their livings through 
shifting creeds. Some say the vicar re- 
ferred to was Simon Alleyn ; others tell 
us it was Pendleton. Ray says Simon 
Symonds lived under the Protectorate, 
Charles II., James II., and William III., 
and that he was at one time Independent, 
then Anglican, then Papist, then mode- 
rate Churchman. The vicar referred to 



in the song lived in the reigns of Charles 
II., James II., William III., Anne, and 
George I. 

Vicars Apostolic {of England). 
Catholic dignitaries appointed by the 
Pope over the 'Vicariates' {q.v.). 

Vicariates (4 syl.). Divisions of 
England into Catholic governments, pre- 
sided over by ' Vicars Apostolic' From 
the revolution of 1688 up to 1840 there 
were four vicariates ; but Gregory XVI. 
doubled the number. They were the 
London, the Western, the Eastern, the 
Central, the Welsh, the Lancastrian, 
the York, and the Northern districts. In 
1850 Pius IX. re-established in England 
the regular episcopal system of the 
Church of Rome ; and since then the 
converts from the Anglican to the Roman 
rite have been very numerous indeed, 
especially in the upper classes of society. 
It looks very much as if Catholicism was 
about to become dominant in England 
again. 

What else can be expected with the wretched 
organisation of the Anglican Church ? No autho- 
rity to appeal to, powerless bishops, curates 
without any certain promotion, vicars taxed far 
higher than the squirarchy, and their widows vir- 
tually turned out of house and home the moment 
their husbands cease to breathe. It is a most 
pitiful system, hardly possible to be worse. 

Vice-Chancellor {The). In our 
universities. The deputy of the chan- 
cellor, by whom, in Oxford, he is chosen 
annually from the heads of the colleges ; 
but in Cambridge he is chosen annually 
by the Senate from two heads of colleges 
nominated by the council. In 1855 the 
stipend of the vice-chancellor, at Oxford, 
was fixed at 600 Z. a year from the uni- 
versity chest. At Oxford it has been 
usual of late to hold the office for four 
years, and the first vice-chancellor was 
William Farrendon (1400-1403). In Cam- 
bridge the office is an annual one. 

In Cambridge the vice-chancellor is elected 
Nov. 1 or 3, and enters on his functions Jan. ID 
or 11. 

Victims of the Unstamped 

{The). Persons imprisoned or heavily 
fined for publishing unstamped news- 
pai)ers. The duty was Ad. on each paper, 
and the Government stamp was in red, 
at one corner of each sheet. Stamp 
abolished 1855. 

The prisons of London and the provincial towns 
of Manchester, Liverpool. Leeds, Hull, Birming- 
ham, Bristol, Edinburgh, and Glasgow wera 
seldom untenanted by Bome of the persons popvu 



926 



VICTOE 



VIENNA 



larly called the 'Victims of the Unstamped.* 
Large numbers of women and very young persons 
■were pvit in ijrison for selling by retail papers 
without a stamp.— HowiTT, History of England, 
year 1841, p. 618. 

Victor {Canons Begular of St.), 
1113. Established in Paris by Guillaume 
de Champeaux. See ' Victorins.' 

Victor of a Hundred Battles 

(The). Napoleon the Great (born 1768, 
emperor 1804-1815, died 1821). 

Victoria. Queen of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and Empress of India. The 
5th sovereign of the house of Hanover. 
Born 24 May, 1819, began to reign 
20 June, 1837. Proclaimed Empress of 
India 1 January, 1877. 

Father : Edward duke of Kent, 4th 
son of George III.; Mother; Louisa 
Victoria of Saxe-Coburg; Consort: Albert 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; Children: 1. 
Victoria, the princess royal (who mar- 
ried Frederick William, crown prince of 
Prussia) ; 2. Albert Edward, prince of 
Wales (who married Alexandra of 
Denmark) ; 3, Alice Maud (who married 
Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt), she died 
1878 ; 4. Alfred duke of Edinburgh (who 
married Marie- Alexandrovna of Russia) ; 
5. l_elena (who married Christian of 
Schleswig-Holstein) ; 6. Louise (who 
married the Marquis of Lome); 7. Arthur 
duke of Connaught (who married Louise 
Margaret, daughter of Prince Frederick 
Charles of Prussia); 8. Leopold duke 
of Albany (who married Helen, daughter 
of the Prince of Waldeck), died 1884; 
9. Beatrice (who married Henry Maurice 
of Battenberg). 

style: Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India 
[Kaisari-Hind]. Or Victoria, Dei Gratia, Britan- 
niarum Regina, Fid. Def. [Empress of India is 
added only to documents which extend to India.] 

*^* The Queen Victoria is lineally 
descended from Egbert. Omitting the 
Normans, we come to Henry II., whose 
mother was Maud wife of Geoffrey 
Plantagenet. Maud's mother was Matilda 
wife of Henry I. of England. Matilda's 
mother was Margaret wife of Malcolm 
III. of Scotland. Margaret's father was 
Prince Edward, son of Edmund. King 
Edaiund was son of Ethelred, Ethelred 
of Edgar, Edgar of Edmund, Edmund of 
Edward the Elder, Edward the Elder 
of Alfred, Alfred of Ethelwolf, and 
Ethelwolf of Egbert. 

From Henry II. the Plantagenets 



continued to the Tudors. Henry VIL 
descended from John of Gaunt, 4th sou 
of Edward III., and he married Eliza- 
beth of York, daughter of Edward IV. 
Henry VII.'s daughter Margaret married 
James IV. of Scotland, and their son 
was James V. of Scotland. The daughter 
of James V. was Mary Queen of Scots, 
whose son was James I. of England. 
Elizabeth, daughter of James I., married 
Frederick king of Bohemia, whose 
daughter Sophia was the wife of Ernest 
Augustus duke of Brunswick. And 
their son was George I. 

Victoria and Albert {Boyal 
Order of). Instituted 1862. In 1878 was 
instituted ' The Imperial Order of the 
Crown of India.' 

Victoria Cross {The), 19 Jan., 
1856. A Maltese cross of bronze, with 
the inscription for valour. It is given 
to any person who has performed an act 
of distinguished courage, such as rescuing 
from fire or water, acts of great bravery 
in battle, and so on. V.C. 

Victorieux {Le). Charles VII. of 
France (1403, 1422-1461). So called 
because in his reign the English lost all 
their possessions in France except Calais. 
He won the battle of Gravelle in 1423, 
and of Montarges in 1427, and, by the 
aid of Joan of Arc raised the siege of 
Orleans in 1429 ; he took Metz, con- 
quered the English at Formigni, got 
possession of Normandy and Guienne, 
and in 1451 drove the English out of 
France, leaving only Calais in their 
power. 

Victorins (T/ie), or 'Canons of St. 
Victor,' 1113, Paris ; especially those of 
them who accepted and extended the 
mystical views of Hugo of St. Victor. St. 
Victor contended that the objects of reli- 
gious contemplation are partly above 
reason and partly contrary to reason {e.g. 
the dogma of the Trinity). The Victorins 
were opposed to dialectical theology. 

Victory of Victories {The). So 
the great battle of Nehavend (a.d. 637) 
is called by the Arabs. In this battle 
Yzdegerd III. king of Persia was de- 
feated and afterwards murdered by the 
Saracens. 

Vienna Conference {The). 

I. 6 Jan.-21 April, 1853. Between 



VIENNA 



VILLAFEANCA 



927 



Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
Prussia, on a device of Count Buol, 
chief minister of Austria, to prevent war 
with Russia. Great Britain and France 
could not agree to Count Buol's plan, 
and the conference fell through. See 
* Vienna Note.' 

II. in 1855. Between Austria, Great 
Britain, France, and Russia, for the pur- 
pose of bringing to an end the Crimean 
war. It came to nothing. 

Vienna {Congress of), from 1 Oct., 
1814, to March, 1815, of the allied princes, 
to distribute the spoils of the French 
empire, after the banishment of Napo- 
leon T. to Elba. It was found impossible 
to satisfy the greed of the different 
powers, and probably war would have 
broken out between the allies had they 
not been startled by the alarming news 
that Napoleon had escaped from Elba 
and was gathering around him the best 
strength of France (7 March, 1815). 

In this congress England was represented by 
Lord Castlereagh, Russia by Czar Alexander, Aus- 
tria by Prince Metternich, Prussia by Baron 
Hardenberg. and France by Prince Talleyrand. 

It was arranged to give to England the Cape of 
Good Hope, the Mauritius, Malta, and Corfu; to 
Russia was assigned Finland and Poland ; to 
Austria was assigned Lombardy and the Venetian 
States ; to Prussia was allotted Saxony, Fran- 
conia, and Swedish Pomeiania ; to the Ajrchduke 
Ferdinand was allotted Tuscany ; to the King of 
Sardinia was allotted Genoa ; to Marie Louise, 
wife of Napoleon, was assigned Parma and Pla- 
centia; to Sweden was assigned Norway : and to 
Ferdinand IV. of the Bourbon line was allotted 
the Two Sicilies. 

Vienna {Treaties of). The treaties 
of Vienna are numerous. The tlu-ee 
subjoined are the most important ; — 

L 18 Nov., 1738, which gave Lorraine 
to France after the death of Stanislaus, 
Tuscany to Francis husband of Maria 
Thei'esa, and Naples to Don Carlos. It 
concluded the War of the Polish Succes- 
sion {g.v.). 

II. 14 Oct., 1809, which put an end to 
the war carried on by the fifth coalition 
against Napoleon I. By this treaty the em- 
peror of Germany ceded the Tyrol and Dal- 
matia to France, and agreed to adopt the 
' Continental System,' i.e. to hold no com- 
mercial intercourse with Great Britain. 

III. 9 June, 1815, in which the boun- 
daries of France were defined by the 
allied powers of Europe. 

The other treaties of Vienna were :— 

27 May, li«7. An alliance between the kaiser, 

Poland, and Denmarlc, iigainst Sweden. 
IG March, 1731. An alliance between the kaiser, 

Great Britain, and Holland, to guarantee the 

Pragmatic Sanction. 



3 Oct., 1735. To agree upon preliminaries of 
peace between France and Germany. 

20 June, isoo. To agree upon subsidies between 
Austria and Great Britain. 

23 March, 1815. Between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, confirming the Treaty of 
Chaumont and effecting the union of Holland 
and Belgium. 

81 May, 1815. Between the king of the Nether- 
lands, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
agreeing to the enlargement of Dutch territories, 
and vesting the sovereignty of the Netherlands in 
the House of Orange. 

4 June, 1815. Between Denmark and Prussia, 
for the cession of Swedish Pomerania and Riigen 
to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. 

2 Dec, 1SS4. A treaty of alliance between Great 
Britain, France, and Austria. 

HO Nov., 18 .4. Between Denmark, Prussia, and 
Austria, for the cession of the duchies of Schleswig- 
Holstein to the allies. 

11 Oct., 18C<5. A treaty of peace between Austria 
and Prussia. 

Vienna Wote {The), 1853. A 
scheme of Count Buol to prevent war 
with Russia. It proposed a compromise 
between the czar and the sultan. Russia 
claimed a protectorate over the Christian 
subjects of Turkey. This, of course, the 
sultan could not and would not concede. 
Count Buol suggested that the Christian 
subjects should have protection not only 
as Ottoman subjects, but over and above 
that as Christians. 

The Vienna Note was as huge a diplomatic 
blunder as could possibly have been devised. 
' Such a concession [wrote Lord Stratford 20 Aug.] 
would leave Russia nothing to desire as to the 
means of exercising a powerful influence on all 
the concerns of the Greek clergy, and of inter- 
fering on behalf of the Greek laity, subjects of the 
Porte. —HOWITT, Hist. o/£)((7. (year 1853,p.l53). 

Vigilance Society (TTie), 1885. A 
secret Irish society, similar to the Moon- 
lighters, Fenians, &c., for the murder, 
mutilation, and destruction of the pro- 
perty of those who refused to obey the 
league. See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' 

Vigilants {The). Irish rebels simi- 
lar to the Invincibles. See p. 455, ' Irish 
Invincibles.' 

Vigin'ti-virat of Rome. The office 
of the Vigin'tivirs or Committee of 
Twenty. They had charge of the public 
ways, the minting of money, and the 
prisons. It was a most honourable office. 

Villafranca, in Italy {Treaty of), 
11 July, 1859. Between Francis Joseph 
emperor of Austria and Napoleon III. 
emperor of the French, for tlie creation 
of the Italian Confederation and the ces- 
sion of Lombardy. Austria ceded Lom- 
bardy to France, and France gave it to 
Sardinia. Lombardy and Sardinia soon 
. afterwards formed parts of the kingdom 
of Italy (14 March, 1861). 



VILLEINS 



VIRGINIA 



Villeins in G-ross. Villeins were 
farm labourers and domestic servants, 
not exactly slaves nor yet exactly free- 
men, but something between the two. 
' Villeins in Gross ' were, for the most 
part, domestic servants, who moved from 
place to place with their master and his 
family. See 'Villeins Regardant.' 

Villeins Regardant. Farm la- 
bourers who could not be shifted from 
place to place, but had a fixed habitation. 
If a master died or his tenement changed 
hands from any other cause the villeins 
remained, like other fixtures, with the 
new lord. 

' Villeins in Gross ' -were those attached to the 
person of the lord, and, like personal property, 
might be sold or otherwise transferred. ' Villeins 
Kegardant ' were attached to the land, and were 
fixtures. 

Vinegar Bible {The\l&\l, Claren- 
don Press. In this Bible the ' Parable 
of the Vineyard ' was printed the ' Parable 
of the Vinegar.' See p. 90, ' Bibles.' 

Vinegar Hill. An eminence near 
the town of Enniscorthy in Ireland, 
famous for being a station of the rebels 
called ' White Boys ' and ' Peep o' Day 
Boys,' &c. Here was fought what is 
called the 'Battle of Vinegar Hill' in 
1798. 

Vinerian Professorship {The) 
of English law, in the University of Ox- 
ford, 1758. Founded by Charles Viner. 
The professor is called the ' Vinerian 
Reader.' 

Vinerian Scholarships. Three 
for law. Of the value of 80Z. a year for 
thuee years. Founded in the University 
of Oxford by Charles Viner in 1755. 

Vinzaglio {Battle of), 30 May, 1859, 
in which the allied army led by Victor 
Emmanuel and Napoleon III. defeated 
200,000 Austrians. The honour of this 
day was due to General Cialdini. 

Violets, worn by partisans of the 
French empire in compliment to Napo- 
leon I. He was called ' Father Violet,' 
because he said, when leaving France for 
Elba, 'I will return with the violets.' 
Those partisans who were in the secret 
of his return wore a violet on their 
breasts, and always toasted Napoleon as 
' Caporal la Violette.' Prints containing 
profiles of Napoleon and Maria Louisa 
in two violets were common in 1814, and 



beneath was written 'En printemps il 
reviendra.' In 1815 a popular song refers 
to Napoleon as ' Le pere de la Violette.' 

Farewell to thee, France; but when liberty rallies 
Once more in thy regions, remember me then— 

The violet still grows in the depth of thy valleys, 
Though withered, thy tear will unfold it again. 
Byron. 

Violets {The Day of the), 1 March, 
1815. The day when Napoleon I., having 
escaped from Elba, landed at Cannes, 
and with 800 soldiers began his march 
towards Paris. 

Virgil of the race of Scota 

{The). Flann MacLonan, ' chief poet of 
all Ireland ' (ninth cent.). 

It must not be forgotten that Scota is Ireland. 
North Britain was called Albany till the 12th cent. 

Virgin City {A), or ' Maiden City.' 
One which has never changed masters or 
been conquered. Bayonne, in France, 
boasts of being a ' Virgin City.' Metz 
was a ' Maiden Fortress ' before it fell 
into the hands of the Germans in the 
Franco-German War, 1870. 

Virgin Mary's G-uard {The). 
The Corps Ecossais, or ' Gardes du 
Corps du Roi,' organised in 1448 by 
Charles VII. of France. Louis XL made 
the Virgin Mary their colonel. Disbanded 
in 1830. See ' Gardes du Corps du Roi.' 

Virgins {The Eleven Thousand). 
Ursul [Ursilla], or Horsel, in Suabia, 
means the moon, and her eleven thousand 
virgins are the stars. But in Cologne 
Cathedral is shown a pile of bones of all 
sorts, men, women, and children, taken 
from an old Roman cemetery, across 
which the wall of Cologne ran. These 
bones are exhibited as the veritable bones 
of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand 
virgin companions, said to have fallen 
martyrs to the Huns. 

Virgins offered to dragons. 

When, in 786, Abdalrahman of Cordova 
entered the Asturias in the reign of 
Mauregato, he utterly defeated his army, 
and would make peace only on condition 
of an annual tribute of 100 Spanish 
virgins. Alfonso II. , ' the Chaste,' has 
the credit of compelling the Moors to 
relinquish this tribute, about 800. 

Virgins of the Shield. In Danish 
Skioldmeyar, female warriors of ancient 
Denmark. 

Virginia (U.S. America), so called, 
in 1584, by Sir Walter Raleigh in com- 



VIRI 



VOLUNTARY 



929 



pliment to the ' Virgin ' queen Elizabeth. 
The inhabitants are nicknamed Beadies. 

Viri Galilaei. The north summit of 
the Mount of Ohves, about three furlongs 
from the middle suixmiit, from which 
Christ ascended. So called from the 
words of the angels, ' Ye men of Galilee.' 

It is also called Galilee. See Matt, xxviii. 16. 

Virtuous Genevese {The). 
Jacques Necker, the French statesman 
and financier (1732-1804). 

Visigoths (The). The Western 
Goths, who came from Scandinavia, and 
settled in Moesia, a.d. 376. They esta- 
blished themselves in Gaul, a.d. 412, and, 
passing into Spain, founded a kingdom 
there in 414, which was overthrown by 
the Moors in 712. The names of the 
kings were — 

AtaulfUB to 414 

Wallia ... 415-418 

Theodores ... 418? 

Theudis 531-548 

Theudisele 548-550 

Agila (at Merida) 550-556 

Atharagild 556-567 

(Toled(J his capital) 
Liuva (at Nar- 

bonne) 567-568 

Leovigild ... 568 572 

Becared 672-586 

Liuva II. ... 586-603 

Vitteric 603-610 

Visitandines (4 syl.), or 'Eeh- 
gieuses de la Visitation,' 1610. An order 
of females instituted by St. Francis of 
Sales and the Baroness of Chantal, in 
commemoration of the visitation of the 
Virgin Mary. They wore a black dress 
and a silver cross. 

Visitation (The), or * Festum Visita- 
tionis,' 2 July, instituted 1263 in comme- 
moration of Mary's visit to her cousin 
Elizabeth {Luke i. 39-56). The 'Con- 
gregation of the Visitation ' was founded 
in 1610 by the Baroness de Chantal at 
Annecy, and the order was confirmed by 
Urban VIII. in 1626. 

Vitry Disaster (The), 1143. Louis 
VII. (le Jeune) persuaded the Comte de 
Vermandois to divorce his wife and marry 
the princess (Louis's sister). The Comte 
de Champagne, father of the divorced 
countess, to resent this interference, 
stirred up a rebellion against the king, 
and Louis, to punish the revolt, set fire 
to the castle of Vitry. The flames spread 
to the town. The inhabitants fled to the 
church, which also caught fire, and 1,300 
persons were burnt to death. The king, 



Gundemar .. 


. 610612 


Sisebut 


612-620 


Kecaredll. .. 


620-621 


Suintella 


621-631 


Sisenand 


631-ft^6 


Tulca 


. 636.642 


Chindasvinde 


642-649 


Recesvinde 


. 64J-672 


Wamba 


672-680 


Ervige 


680-687 


Egiza 


687-701 


Witiza 


701-710 


Roderic 


. 710-711 



horrified by the shrieks of the sufferers, 
gave up the war, and made peace with 
the count. 

Vizier of Sultan Selim. The 

greatest curse which a Turk can utter 
against a foe is this, ' May you be vizier 
of Sultan Selim ! ' Few of his viziers 
lived more than a month (1512-1519). 

Volpone (3 syl.), 1709. So Dr. Sache- 
verell called Lord Godolphin in his two 
sermons, one at Derby and another in St. 
Paul's, London. For this offence he was 
brought to trial before the Lords, and 
suspended V>r three years. The mob 
took the doctor's side, and shouted 
' High Church and Sachevex-ell ! ' and 
Queen Anne gave him the living of St. 
Andrew's, Holborn. The first sermon he 
preached there was sold for lOOZ., and 
40,000 copies were sold in a few days. 

' Volpone ' is the title of a comedy by Ben 
Jonson. It means ' old fox.' 

Voltaire. His name was Marie 
Francois Arouet. He was confined in 
the Bastille for satirising the Duke of 
Orleans, and on his release from prison 
assumed the name of Voltaire from a 
small property left him by his mother. 
He retired to Femey, a little village 
near Geneva. At one time he lived for 
fifteen years with Madame du Chatelet 
at Cirey, in Champagne, a lady of for- 
tune, the wife of a marquis, and here 
he composed his best works. He set 
up reason as the guide and rule of every- 
thing, and whatever could not be squared 
with human reason he rejected in religion 
and politics. 

Voltaire of G-ermany (The). I. 
Christoph Martin Wieland (1733-1813), 
author of ' Oberon ' and the romance of 
' Agathon.' 

II. Johann Wolfgang von Gothe (1749- 
1838), also called ' The German Voltaire.' 

Voltaire {The Polish). Ignatius 
Krasicki (1774-1801). 

Voltaire {The Russian). Alexander 
P. Sumorokof (1727-1777). 

Voluntary Controversy {The), 
1834, in Scotland. One of the most in- 
tensely pronounced controversies that 
Scotland ever witnessed. The question 
was this : Is a congregation to exercise 
the right of giving a ' call ' or invitation 
to its pastor, or has the kirk the right of 
presenting any minister it thinks proper ? 
The question was tried on the eel ibratei 
30 



930 



VOLUNTEERS 



WAGES 



' Auchterarder Case' {q.v.), and termi- 
nated in the great schism of the Free 
Church. 

Volunteers {The), 1852. The Vic- 
torian movement sprang into existence, 
and Dr. J. C. Buckuill of Exeter was the 
originator. The corps first mustered in 
uniform 6 Oct., 1852, when the oath of 
allegiance was taken. Consolidated 21 
July, 1863, by Act 26, 27 Vict. c. 65, which 
Act was amended 9 Aug., 1869. 

Bi/ie corps organised 1859. 

Volunteers as volunteers have no re- 
gimental colours, but several of the Vo- 
lunteer corps have had special colours 
presented to them by persons interested 
in the movement. Thus the Duchess of 
Gloucester and her daughter Sophia 
presented colours to the Kensington 
Volunteers. 

First raised in Great Britain March, 1794 ; again 
in the spring 1808 George III. reviewed them in 
Hyde Park, 26 and 28 Oct., 1803. 

Vordingborg {Peace of), 1435, ter- 
minating the long war of twenty-six years 
between the counts of Holstein and the 
Hanse Towns. By this treaty it was sti- 
pulated that the Hanse republics should 
continue to enjoy all their immunities in 
the Sound and in the harbours of the 
three united kingdoms of Scandinavia ; 
and that Adolphus count of Holstein 
should be secured in the possession of 
the duchy of Sleswig during his life and 
his heirs two years after. 

Votaries of Celestial Reason 

{The), or Tien-le, a brotherhood in China 
during the reign of Kea-king (1796-1820). 
They broke into the palace and kept 
possession of it for several days. 

Vote of Non-address {The), 1647. 
After the escape of Charles I. from 
Holmby House, a vote was passed in both 
houses that no further ap^jlication or ad- 
dresses to the king should be permitted 
under the penalty of high treason, and 
that neither the House of Lords nor 
House of Commons should receive from 
him any letter or message. 

The vote of non-address amounted to a declara- 
tion tliatall attempts at reconciliation were at an 
end, and that the Independents meant to proceed 
to put the doctrines of the army in force, and put 
the king to death,— HowiTT, Hist, of Engl. (Cha.ilas 
I., chap. vi. p. 290). 

Votive Mass. 'Missa Votlva,' a 
mass ' quae ex proprio voto dicitur.' See 
p. 565, ' Mass.' 



VoTAT of the S'wan {The), or Vow of 
the peacock, heron, pheasant, or some 
other bird. A fantastic vow made during 
some banquet in Mid-Lent to perform 
some feat during the year. The bird, 
profusely ornamented, was brought into 
the banquet-room in great ceremony, a 
herald trumpeted its approach, and a 
body of knights, squires, and pages at- 
tended it. The person who made the 
vow stood up, laid his hand on the bird, 
and vowed before the year was out to 
perform some feat in honour of the bird 
and some lady. 

10 Feb., 1306, Edward I., then an old man, rising 
at the royal board, swore on the dish before him 
(a swan) to avenge on Scotland the murder of John 
Comyn by Robert Bruce. 

Edward III. said, 'Hey! the White Swanl By 
God's soul I am thy man ! ' 

Henry V. vowed in a similar manner to traverse 
France from sea to sea with flying banners. 

Vulgate {The). A Latin version of 
the Scriptures by Jerome, the third of 
the Latin Fathers {q.v.), sanctioned by 
the Council of Trent. It was translated 
from the Hebrew, and received the ap- 
proval of Gregory the Great. See p. 
801, * Scriptures.' 

There was a ' New Latin Version ' execu- 
ted by Jerome, 390-405. Wiclif rendered 
it into English, 1324-1384. See ' Bibles.' 

There was an earlier version called ' the Itala,' 
of which some few fragments remain. Jerome in 
the 4th cent, revised parts of the lUila, but his 
MSS. are lost. The Vulgate is quite a new trans- 
lation. 

"Waddington Scholarship. Clas- 
sics. For undergraduates in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, tenable for five 
years. It is the interest of 3,000Z. in the 
3 per cent, consolidated Bank annuities. 
Founded by Miss Waddington and her 
sister in memorv of their two brothers, 
1870, 

Wadham College, Oxford, 1609. 
Founded by Nicholas Wadham of Mary- 
field, Somersetshire. The headmaster is 
called the ' Warden.' 

Wager of Battle. In this ordeal 
the challenger faced the west; the one 
challenged faced the east. If the defeated 
party craved his life he was a craven, but 
had his life spared. 

Wages in England. 

d. 

1352, a thresher a day 1 

reaper 



master carpenter 



2 to Sd., not less 
than Sd. in 
1445. 

3, advanced to 5d. 
in 1445. 



WAGES 



WALDENSES 



931 



1352, a carpenter 

master mason 

bricklayer's 1 

labourer / 

1568, farm labourer 

16'20, 

lt»2, 

1S47, „ „ 

1GC2, „ „ 

Kiss, „ ,, 

IG!I8, 

I7ir>, 

1740, 

17G0, „ „ 

17H8, 



a day 2, advanced to id. 
in 1445. 
4 

" 11, bricklayer, 4d. 
in 1445. 

4 
„ 4i 

6 
„ 10 



„ 10 
„ 1-J 
,. 16 
from 9<. to 15s. a •week. 
,, lis. to 15s. „ 



Wages Movement {The), 1854. A 
combination of artizans for a sliding 
Bcale of wages equal to a tenth of the 
profit of their production. The men 
went out on strike only in one or two 
places at a time, and those employed 
subscribed to support those on strike. 
The woollen manufacturers of Preston 
and Burnley led the way. The movement 
came to an untimely end in April 1854. 
The loss to workmen was 500,000Z., and 
to masters many millions. 

"Wahab'ites (3 syl.), or ' Wahabbees,' 
or ' Wah'abees,' 1759. Keformed Mos- 
lems, founded by the son of Abd-el 
Wahab, and dominant over the greater 
part of Arabia. They are firm believers 
in the Koran, and want to bring back the 
faithful to the primitive precepts and 
practices of the first kalifs. They deny 
the sacred character of Imaums, advocate 
the perfect equality of man, and call 
their muftis * brothers.' These strictest 
and straitest of the Moslem sects are 
great brigands and pirates. 

Mohammed Abd-el Wahab was born in Arabia 
1096, and died about 1764. He preached universal 
toleration, and taught that Moses, ChrL=t, and 
Mahomet were three gifted men who taught the 
will of God, and that the faiths of all three are 
reconcilable. 

"Waits. Musical serenaders, who 
play or sing between midnight and four 
or five in the morning about Christmas 
time, and call afterwards on the in- 
habitants for a Christmas-box, They 
used to wish greeting to the master, 
mistress, children, and all, before ]3art- 
ing. The thing has now dwindled down 
to a carol or popular tune or two. Ori- 
ginally they were musical watchmen. 
Rymer, in the ' Foedera,' tells us they 
' piped the watch nightly in the king's 
court from Michaelmas to Shrove Thurs- 
day, and to make the bon gayte at every 



chamber-door and office, for fear of 
pyckeres and pillers.' 

Wakes and Lyke-wakes. These 
are very different things. A lyke or 
licJie wake is a watching of a^ dead 
body (Ang.-Sax. lie) all night by the 
friends and neighbours of the deceased. 
It used to be a scene of revelry and mourn- 
ing, the object being to watch the body 
from being interfered with by evil spirits. 

The other ' wake ' is about equal to 
* vigil,' and every church had its wake on 
the anniversary of the saint. A religious 
service was given, but, as the crowd 
became great, hawkers and minstrels 
assembled, and the wake became a fair, 
held in the churchyard. In 1285 Ed- 
ward I. forbade fairs to be held in church- 
yards, but the practice continued to the 
Reformation. 

Walburgis. See ' Walpurgis.' 

Warcheren Expedition (The), 

1809. Under the charge of the Earl of 
Chatham and Sir Richard Strachan. 
The design was to destroy the French 
fleet in the Scheldt and take Antwerp ; 
but the expedition was so ill-planned and 
executed that only the fortress of Flush- 
ing was taken and the i^e of Walcheren. 
When the British seamen landed in the 
pestilential marshes of Walcheren they 
died by thousands. Napoleon said we 
might as well ' have thrown our men into 
the sea as land them at Walcheren.' 

It was a magnificent fleet, consisting of 87 men- 
of-war, 23 frigates, 115 sloops, &c., and carrying 
41,000 men. The Earl of- Chatham resigned to 
prevent being brought before a court-martial. 
*,* Strachan, pronounce Strawn. 

Waldemar {Knights of St.), nss. A 
Russian order conferred on both military 
men and civilians for merit. The ribbon 
is red, edged with black. 

Waldenses {The), or ' Vaudois,' 9th 
cent. By Mosheim traced to Peter 
Waldo of Lyons, who died 1197 ; but this 
is an error, as they are mentioned as 
early as 1100, and had a regular confes- 
sion of faith in 1120. They seem to have 
been early reformers dwelling in the 
valleys of the Cottian Alps, called Vaux, 
and the inhabitants Vaudois — in Latin 
Vallenses. These were the ancient 
' Subalpini.' The Lyonists or ' Poor 
Men of Lyons ' seem to have followed in 
the same footsteps, and therefore the two 
are very often confounded. The Wal- 
denses, the Wiclifites, and the Lutherans 
3o2 



932 



WALES 



WALPUEGIS 



were very similar in their reforms. Their 
original limits were the districts of An- 
grogna, Villaro, Bobbio, and Rorata. See 
' Lyonists,' 

They were condemned by the Council of the 
Lateran in 1179, and Innocent VIII. in 1487 en- 
joined their extirpation. The crusade included 
the Waldenses and Lyonists (or Poor Men of 
Lyons) in one general slaughter. The similarity 
of Valdo and Valdenses led to the mistalse, but 
the Waldenses were the followers of Claudius of 
Turin, who died 839— that is, 358 years before the 
death of Waldo. 

The Waldenses or Valdenses were also 
called : Apostolicians (in the 12th cent.), 
Arnaldists, Arnoldists, Bagnolens, Ca- 
thari (after the 12th cent.), Consolati, 
Good Men (in Germany), Insabbates, 
Lionists, Montani, Passagins, Patarins 
or Paterins, Perfecti, Petrobrusians, 
Piphles (in Flanders), Poor Men of 
Lyons, Poplieans, Purists, Texerans or 
Tesserands (in some parts of France^, 
Ultramontanes, Vaudois (in France), 
Xabatatelises. See each of these words. 

A Miss Jane Waldo, of Clapham and Hever 
Castle, daughter of Sir Timothy Waldo, died 1841, 
aged ninety-six. This was the last of the direct 
descendants of Peter Waldo of Lyons. 

Wales {The Statute of), 12 Edw. L, 
A.D. 1284, which abolished the most bar- 
barous of the Welsh customs, established 
guilds, introduced English jurisprudence, 
and divided the land into shires and 
hundreds after the English model. 

Walker Exliibition(/oi^nZ/Mca.s), 
for discoveries in pathology. Value 50Z. 
a year ; in the University of Cambridge. 
Founded by John Lucas Walker, 1887. 

Walker Studentship {John 
Lucas). 0?;iginal research in pathology. 
It may be held by either sex, and not 
necessarily a member of the University. 
Value 2001. a year, tenable for three 
years, and the holder eligible for re-election 
for two more years. Founded in the 
University of Cambridge by John Lucas 
Walker, 1887. 

Wall of Seve'rus, the Roman em- 
peror, extending from the German Ocean 
to the Solway Firth. This was built 
because the emperor, when he visited 
Britain a.d. 208, viewed with alarm the 
enormous encroachment of the Scots 
southwards. This emperor died at York 
in 211, aged sixty-six. 

The Wall of Severus was for the most part, but 
not invariably, parallel with Hadrian's rampart. 
It was further north, and extended somewhat 
further at each end. 



Wallace of Switzerland {The). 
Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolese patriot 
(1767-1810). He was a man of gigantic 
stature and strength ; brave as a lion, 
but gentle as a lamb. 

Wallace of Wales {The). Owen 
Glendower (1350-1415). 

Wallach Rebellion {The). In 
Hungarian history, 1784. The Wallachs 
are a people of Hungary, but chiefly of 
Wallachia in Roumania. These insur- 
gents, led by Hora and Kloska, assassi- 
nated the government commissioners, 
destroyed six villages and 182 private 
houses, killed 4,000 Hungarians, and did 
other acts of violence before they could 
be put down. 

Wallingford, in Berkshire {Treaty 
of), 7 Nov., 1153. Between Stephen king 
of England and Henry (afterwards Henry 
II.), son of Matilda, ' the Lady of Eng- 
land.' Henry, by the death of his father, 
having succeeded to Normandy and An- 
jou, and holding Aquitaine in right of 
his wife (Eleanor of Poitou), was invited 
by the archbishop of Canterbury to make 
his appearance in England. On his 
arrival the treaty of Wallingford was 
agreed to by the rival claimants. The 
castles were to be razed, the crown lands 
resumed, the foreign mercenaries dis- 
missed, Stephen to continue on the throne 
during life, and Henry to succeed as his 
heir. Stephen died within twelve months 
of this treaty. 

Walloons {The). The French-speak- 
ing inhabitants of Artois, Hainault, Na- 
mur, Luxemburg, Flanders, and Brabant. 
These six provinces constituted Catholic 
Netherlands. The seven united provinces 
constituted Protestant Netherlands. 

There are speakers of the Walloon dialect of 
French in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, 
and Germany. 

Walpurgis Night. The eve of 

May-day, when the old pagan witch- world 
was supposed to hold high revelry under 
its chief on certain high places. The 
Brocken, in Germany, was an especially 
favourite spot for these revelries. Wal- 
purgis was a female saint concerned in the 
introduction of Christianity into Germany. 

Walpurgis or Walburgis was the daughter of St. 
Kichard, king of the West Saxons, and was edu- 
cated in the monastery of Wimborne in Dorset- 
shire. She was sent to Germany in 752 to assist 
in the conversion of the Germans, and in 754 was 
made abbess of Heidenheim. She died 25 Feb., 779, 
and the day of her death is held in her honour. 



"WALTER 



WAR 



938 



Already do I feel the power, 
The fun and frolic of the hour ; 
The advent of Walpurgis Nisht 
Bids every limb thrill with delight. 
Another night, another day, 
And then the glorious First of May. 

Goethe, Faust (Anster). 

Walter the Pennyless. ' Gautier 
sans avoir ' of Burgundy, joint leader of 
the First Crusade with Peter the Hermit 
in 1096. 

"Wapentake. A term in Yorkshire 
similar to ward or hxinclred. The word 
means weapon-touch, and refers to the 
vassals touching the spear of their feudal 
lord in token of homage. The word 
passed from the assembly to denote the 
district tenanted by the vassals. 

Wappenschaws. The feudal array 
of a county, when each crown- vassal was 
required to appear with such muster of 
men and armour as he was bound to 
make by his fief, under high penalties. 

War Cries. 

I. Of England, in the Middle Ages, ' St. 
George ! ' 

„ Fbance, ' Montjoye St. Denis!' 
[pronounce Sahn Dnee]. Mont- 
joye referred to the little mounds 
surmounted with a cross between 
Paris and St. Denis, either to 
guide travellers or to console the 
pious wayfarer. In the French 
empire it was Vive VEmpere2ir ! 

„ Germany, during the long conten- 
tion between the Dukes of Ba- 
varia and the House of Hohen- 
stauffen, it was Guelf and 
Ghihelline ! See p. 394. 

„ Scotland, it was frequently the 
name of some clan or chief, as 
A Douglas ! A Home ! 

„ Spain, ' St. Jago ! [St. James] and 
close, Spain ! ' Cervantes says 
it was ' St. Jago ! and charge, 
Spain ! ' or ' Santiago mata moros ! ' 
(II. ii. 4.) 
Mount, chivalrons hidalgo ! Not in vain 
Kevive the cry, ' St. Jago ! and close, Spain ! ' 
Byron, Age of Bronze, vii. 

„ the Irish, ' Aboo ! ' 
„ the Welsh, ' Alleluia ! ' 

Loud shrieks of ' Alleluia ! ' blended with those 
of 'Out! Out! iOuct! Oxict!] Holy Cross.'— Lord 
Lytton, Harold. 

n. Of the Bourbons, the word ' Bour- 
bon ! ' 
„ the Crusaders, ' Dieu le veut ! ' 
Not of the First Crusade. 



Of the Counts of Hainault, * Hain- 

ault the Noble ! ' 
„ Jehoshaphat, in his war against 
Ammon, Moab, and Seir, 'Praise 
the Lord, for His mercy en- 
dureth for ever ! ' (2 Chron. xx. 
21.) 
„ the Dukes of Milan, ' Milan the 

Valiant ! ' 
„ the Lords of Montmorency, ' Dieu 
aide au premier Chretien ! ' 
III. In battle of Markfeld, 1278. Of 
the Bohemians, ' Praga ! ' of 
the Germans, ' Christ ! ' 
„ battle of Naseby, 1645. Of the 
Royalists, ' God and Queen 
Mary ! ' of the Parliamen- 
tarians, ' God our strength ! ' 
„ battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48. Of 
Ponjpey, 'Hercules Invictus!' 
of Caesar, ' Venus Victrix ! ' 
At Senlac the English had two war 
cries, ' God Almighty ! ' and ' Holy 
Cross ! ' The latter was the cry of 
Harold's own men, and referred to Walt- 
ham Cross, which he held in special re- 
verence. The Norman shout was ' Dieu 
aidois a nos ! ' {God help us I). 

Of Capobianco, leader of the Carbo- 
nari, it was ' Vengeance for the Lamb torn 
by the Wolf ! ' 

Nelson's mot at the battle of the Nile 
was 'Victory or Westminster Abbey.' 
At Trafalgar it was ' England expects- 
that every man will do his duty.' 
Several others are given in loco. 

War Poet {The). G. H. Boker, ren- 
dered famous in the American anti- 
slavery war. See p. 100, ' Black Regi- 
ment.' 

War Songs {National). 
Austrian, Haydn's Hymn to the Em- 

2}eror. 
Belgian, the patriotic Brahanqonne. 
Danish, the Song of Danebrog. The 

danebrog is the flag with a white cross 

which fell from heaven in the 13th 

cent, at the prayer of Waldemar II., 

and which ensured him the victory. 
English, Bule Britannia. Words by 

Thomson, music by Handel. 
French (ancient), the Chanson de Bo- 

land. 
French (modem), the Marseillaise and 

the Chant du Depart. 
German (modern), Arndt's DesDeutschen 

Vaterland and Heil Dir im Sieges- 



934 



WAE 



WAK 



kranz, Watch on the Rhine, Sword- 
song of Korner, &c. 

HuNGABiAN, the itakoczy March. 

Italian, Garibaldi's warlike hymn, com- 
posed by Mercantino, and Godfredo 
Mameli's Italian brethren, Italy has 
awaked ! 

Russian, God protect the Czar! 

Scotch Jacobite Songs : The king shall 
enjoy his own again, and When the 
king comes o'er the water. The Lilli- 
bulero of 1688 created a most marvel- 
lous furore. 

War in Algeria (The), 1827-1847. 
France owed two Jewish merchants of 
Algiers 100,000Z., the balance due for the 
Egyptian expedition. Hussein dey of 
Algiers pressed for payment, and asked 
the French consul why his master did 
not reply to the letter sent. The consul 
insolently replied, ' The king of France 
holds no correspondence with the dey of 
Algiers.' Whereupon the dey struck him 
on the face. This insult could not be 
overlooked, and war ensued, which ended 
in France taking Algeria, and annexing 
it to France. 

War of Calmar (The), 1611-1613. 
This war was carried on between Chris- 
tian IV. king of Denmark and Charles 
IX. of Sweden, and, after the death of 
Charles, with Gustavus Adolphus. The 
real cause of the war was jealousy with 
Sweden, which had broken away from 
the ' Union.' The ostensible reason was 
interruption of Danish commerce in the 
ports of the Gulf of Riga. The war con- 
sisted in destroying each other's towns and 
ports. It was brought to an end by the 
mediation of James I. of England. 

War of Candia (The), 1667-1668, 
between the Venetians and the Turks. 
So relentless was this war, that the ex- 
pression ' Una Guerra di Candia ' became 
in Venice synonymous with ' war to the 
knife.' In this terrible siege 30,000 
Christians were slain, and although the 
Turks ultimately became masters of the 
island, yet they lost in the siege more 
than 120,000 men. 

War of Chiozza (The), 1378-1381, 
between Venice and Genoa. Chiozza was 
taken by the Genoese under Pietro Doria 
16 Aug., 1379, but recovered by the Vene- 
tians June 24, 1380. The recovery of 
Chiozza is one of the most marvellous of 
all the romances of history. 



War of Devolution (T/^e). ' Guerre 

de Devolution,' 1667. The war proclaimed 
by Louis XIV. against Spain to enforce 
his pretension to a part of the Spanish 
Netherlands, founded on an old custom 
of the Netherlands called * Le droit de 
Devolution.' The law was this : * Les 
immeubles apportes en mariage par I'un 
des epoux devinssent la propriete des 
enfants du premier lit lorsque le pere ou 
la mere contractaient un second mariage.' 
Now Maria Theresa was the daughter of 
the first wife of Philippe IV., but Carlos 
II. of the second wife. The war was 
brought to a close by the Treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, 2 May, 1668, by which treaty 
all Flanders was ceded to France. 

Louis XIV. married Maria Theresa of Austria, 
daughter of the King of Spain. 

War of Honain (The), a.d. 629- 
632, between Mahomet and the Arabian 
idolaters of Mecca. So called from the 
Valley of Honain, where the great con- 
flic fc was decided. The battle was first lost 
by Mahomet and then recovered by his 
uncle Abbas. After this victory and the 
siege of Fayef, Mecca was lastingly con- 
verted to the winning side of the Koran. 

War of Independence. I. In 
North America (1774-1782), see p. 24, 
* American War of Independence.' 

II. In Scotland (1297-1328). The 
wars carried on by Wallace and Bruce 
to liberate Scotland from the English 
crown. Bands of Scot^i insurgents 
rose against Edward I. before 1297, but 
in that year the insurrection became 
general. The independence of Scotland 
was recognised in a parliament at North- 
ampton, 4 March, 1328. 

This recognition wus due to the great Scotch 
victory at Bannockburn (24 June, 1314), the defeat 
of the army of Edward II. at Biland Abbey, in 
YorltsWre, in 1323, and a victory over Edward III. 
in 1327. 

III. In Himgary {18iS-1849). Through 
the treachery of General Goergey this 
struggle terminated fatally to the Hungar- 
ians. Austria called in the aid of Russia. 

War of La Radde (The), 1573. A 
war against the Vaudois by the French. 
The Vaudois showed so determined a 
front that the French were glad to come to 
terms of peace. La Radde was the officer 
who commanded the French troops. 

This was a continuance of the St. Bartholomew 
slaughter, begun in Aug. 1572. 

War of Liberation (The). The 
war between Germany and Napoleon I. 



WAR 



WAR 



to throw o£E the French yoke. It began 
in 1813 and ended in 1815. First Prussia 
and Kussia made an offensive and de- 
fensive aUiance, 27 Feb., 1818. Sweden 
joined on 14 Marcli, and on 16 March 
Prussia declared war on Napoleon. 
Austria joined the alliance 27 June, and 
declared war with France on 12 Aug. 
Bavaria joined 8 Oct. (all in the year 
1813). It terminated with the Treaty of 
Kiel, 14 Jan., 1814, in favour of national 
independence. 

The French won the battles of Ltitzen, 2 May ; 
Bautzen, 19-21 May ; and Dresden, 26, 27 Aug. 

They were defeated at Grossbeeran, 23 Aug. ; 
Katzbach, 21 Aug. ; Kulm, 29, 30 Aug. ; Dennewitz, 
6 Sept. ; Wartenberg, 2 Oct. ; and at Leipsic, 
16-19 Oct. 

War of Mityle'ne (The), b.c. 606, 
between the Atlienians and Mitylenians. 
Phrynon the Athenian attacked Mity- 
lene, which was defended by Pittacos. 
The two leaders agreed to decide the 
battle by single combat. Pittacos threw 
a net over his antagonist, and while 
Phrynon was struggling to extricate him- 
self, despatched him and won the victory. 
Mitylene (4 syL). 

War of Proclamations (The), be- 
tween General Bu'-goyne on the side of 
the English and General Schuyler on the 
side of the United States. 

1. General Burgoyne issued in June a 
pompous proclamation threatening to 
punish with the utmost severity those 
who refused to side with the British 
government. 

2. At Skenesborough, in July, he issued 
a second proclamation summoning the 
people to send deputies to deliberate on 
the measures to be adopted to save from 
destruction those who had not yet con- 
formed to his former proclamation. 

3. General Schuyler issued a counter- 
proclamation assuring the people they 
would be accounted traitors if they 
obeyed the proclamations of General 
Burgoyne. 

War of Schmalkald (The), 1547, 

by the Kaiser against the ' Schmalkaldic 
League ' (q.v.), under a plea made to the 
pope of extirpating heresy, and to the 
Germans of putting down rebellion. The 
real object of the war was the lust of 
dominion. The Protestant princes, alive 
to the danger of this alliance between 
kaiser and pope, assembled at Ratisbon 
and determined on resistance, but were 
overthrown. 



War of the Amorous {The), 
or ' The War of the Lovers,' 1577-1578. 
The seventh religious war of France ; so 
called because it arose out of some 
scandalous intrigues of the French 
court. In fact, Catharine de Medicis, in 
order to break up the Huguenot party, 
invited many of them to balls and fetes, 
where she surrounded herself with maids 
of honour more beautiful and fascinating 
than moral. Gallantries and intrigues 
naturally took place. One effect of this 
was to detach the Due d'Alen^on from 
the court party and ally him to the 
reformers. 

It is said that the real motive of this change 
was the hope of marrying the English queen, 
Elizabeth. He died in 1584. 

War of the Austrian Succes- 
sion (The), 1740-1745. On the death of 
Kaiser Karl VI. the question was who 
had a right to succeed him. Properly, 
females could not occupy the throne of 
Austria ; but Karl VI., by a decree called 
the ' Pragmatic Sanction,' made his 
only child Maria Theresa his heir. Ba- 
varia, Saxony, Prussia, Sardinia, and 
Naples all made rival claims, but Karl 
Albert elector of Bavaria had the best 
claim, and next Frederick Augustus 
elector of Saxony. Prussia demanded 
Silesia, Sardinia demanded Milan, and 
Spain demanded Bohemia and Hungary. 
Ultimately the war was left to Bavaria 
and Prussia ; the Elector of Bavaria was 
crowned kaiser in 1744, lost his electorate, 
and was kaiser only in name. He died 
in Jan. 1745. Maria Theresa agreed to 
restore the electorate of Bavaria to his 
son Maximilian Joseph, and the elector 
agreed to give up all claim to the crown 
of Austria. This being settled, the hus- 
band of Maria Theresa was crowned 
kaiser 4 Oct., 1745 (the same year). 

In 1756 broke out the Seven Years' War between 
Maria Theresa and Frederick II. (the Great) of 
Prussia. 

War of the Bastards (The). * La 
Guerre des Batards,' 1324. A war be- 
tween Charles IV. of France and Ed- 
ward 11. of England, supported by the 
Gascons. ' Dite La Guerre des Batards, 
parce que les Gascons avaient pour chefs 
des batards de la noblesse.' 

War of the Cam'isards (The), 
1702-1704. The Count de Broglie began 
it with horrible savagery, but in 1703 he 



936 



WAR 



WAR 



was recalled, and the war was conducted 
by Marshal de Montrevel. 

"Wa,r of the Giants (TJie), b.c. 
1842. The third revolt of the Titans or 
sons of the earth. These revolters were 
ultimately overcome by Herakles (Her- 
cules). 

The battle of Marignano, 1515, is called the 
' battle of the Giants,' from the great valour 
displayed by the combatants. It was won by 
JFranQois I. 

War of the Mercenaries, b.c. 

241-238. A terrible war which Carthage 
had to sustain in Africa with the mer- 
cenaries because they were not paid. It 
occurred between the first and second 
Punic Wars, the leaders being Mathos 
and Spendius. Hamilcar was sent 
against the insurgents, and massacred 
Bome 40,000 entrapped in a defile. 

War of the Peasants (The), 
1525. Waged by the Elector of Saxony 
and the German princes against the Ana- 
baptists, headed by Munzer, Stubner, 
Storck, and others. Munzer was taken 
prisoner and beheaded. 

War of the Polish Succession 

(The), 1733-1738. The case was this: 
On the death of Sobieski king of Poland, 
in 1674, Frederick elector of Saxony was 
chosen king. At the death of Frederick, 
in 1733, two claimants were put forward, 
Stanislaus, a Pole, and Frederick Au- 
gustus elector of Saxony, As Stanis- 
laus was the father-in-law of Louis XV. 
his claim was backed by France, but 
Germany took the side of the elector. 
The war ended in a compromise: Ger- 
many gave up Lorraine to Stanislaus, 
and agreed to exchange Naples and 
Sicily for Tuscany and Parma. This 
being done, Frederick Augustus was 
allowed to keep the throne of Poland. 

War of the Rustards (The), also 
called ' The War of the Peasants,' 1525. 
A rising of the peasants of Alsatia, 
excited by the Anabaptists. The leader 
was Erasmus Gerbert of Molsheim. 
Chased from Alsatia by the Due de Lor- 
raine, they took refuge in Germany and 
amalgamated with the Anabaptists. 

War of the Saeramentaries 
{The), 1524, The paper war or contro- 
versy between the followers of Luther 
and those of Zwingli, the Swiss refoi'mer, 
on the subject of the Eucharist. Luther 



maintained that, though the bread re- 
mained bread and the wine remained 
wine after consecration, yet the body of 
Christ was transfused into the elements 
and was taken into the mouth by com- 
municants. Zwingli maintained that no 
such transfusion took place at all, but 
that the bread and wine were simply 
symbols of the body and blood of Christ, 
well calculated to remind communicants 
of the sacrifice of Christ and nothing 
more. 

Carlostadt, CEcolampadius, Muncer, Storck, and 
Martin Bucer sided with Zwingli. 

War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion {The), 1700-1714. Carlos TI. had 
no child, and at his death four claimants 
to the throne of Spain arose — viz. the 
King of France, the Emperor of Ger- 
many, the Elector of Bavaria, and the 
King of Savoy. The last two retired and 
left the field to the other two. Louis 
XIV. was the cousin of Carlos and son- 
in-law of Philip IV., whose eldest 
daughter he had married. Carlos had 
recognised this claim by leaving the 
crown to Philippe d'Anjou second son 
of the dauphin, but Louis XIV. by the 
Treaty of the Pyrenees had renounced 
all claim to the Spanish crown. Leopold 
of Germany claimed the crown for his 
second son Karl, whose mother was also 
a daughter of Philip IV. War succeeded, 
and lasted for twelve years. England 
opposed France, and was joined by Hol- 
land, Portugal, Savoy, Brandenburg, 
and of course Germany. 

The French won the battles of Almanza, Villa- 
viciosn, and Denain ; but lost those of Blenheim, 
Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 
The Treaty of Utrecht left France in possession 
of Spain. 

War of the Three Henris {The), 
1584-1589— «.e. Henri III. of France, 
Henri of Navarre, and Henri due de 
Guise. On the death of the Due 
d'AleuQon in 1584, Henri of Navarre 
was leader of the Protestant party in 
France ; whereupon Henri due de Guise 
put himself at the head of the Catholic 
league; Henri III., jealous of both 
parties, resolved to bring them to obedi- 
ence. The king was driven from Paris, 
the Due de Guise was assassinated, 
Henri III. was also assassinated, and 
Henri of Navarre succeeded to the 
crown of France, under the name and 
title of Henri IV., but he also was assas- 
sinated. 



WAR 



WARDSHIP 



937 



War of the Uscoechi {The), or 
• Uskoks,' 1592-1617. The Uskoks were 
pirates who for a century infested the 
Adriatic. They first settled in Clissa, 
then removed to Zara, and finally to 
Segna. They were Dalmatian fugitives 
who gave sanctuary to the proscribed of 
all nations, and were both numerous and 
formidable. By the treaty of Madrid, 
16 Sept., 1717, the Venetians and 
Austrians stipulated to extirpate the 
U§koks, and the horde disappeared. 

Uskoks means fugitives. The Russian tiskdkat, 
to run away, is the key to the word. 

"Wars of Cappel, 1529-1531. See 
p. 143, ' Cappel,' 

"Wars of the Roses {The\ 1455- 
1485. Between the Houses of York 
[white) and Lancaster (the red rose). 
It began with the battle of St. Albans, 
23 May, 1455, and ended with the battle 
of Bosworth Field, 22 Aug., 1483. The 
chief battles were Wakefield, 1460, won 
by the Lancastrians (in this battle fell 
Richard duke of York, claimant of the 
crown), and those of St. Albans, North- 
ampton, Towton, Hexham, Barnet, and 
Tewkesbury, won by the Yorkists. 

k white rose formed the badge of the House of 
York, and a red rose was the cognizance of the 
House of Lancaster. The political effects of the 
war were — (1) the ruin of the ancient baronage ; 
and (2) the growth of monarchical power, being 
relieved of the baronial check. 

Wars of the Silesian Succes- 
sion. Between Frederick II. of 
Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria 
for the possession of Silesia. 

The first war (1740-1742). Maria 
Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick II. of 
Prussia by the treaty of Berlin. 

The second war (1744-1745). Maria 
Theresa confirmed Silesia to Prussia by 
the treaty of Dresden. 

Between the first and second Silesian war was 
fought the battle of Dettingen, 27 June, 1743. 

The third war (the ' Seven Years' War,' 
1756-1763), when Silesia was finally ceded 
to Prussia by the treaty of Hubertsburg. 

Wars of the Tributary Princes 

(The). An intestine commotion of 
China, which lasted with short intervals 
450 years (b.c. 770-320) ; called by the 
Chinese the Chen-kuo (fighting kings). 

The most powerful of these states were GEY, 
founded by Nang-leewiing ; TcHAO, by Heao- 
tchingwang; Han, by Huonhocj ; TsEE, by Wang- 
kin ; and TsiN, by Tchao siang-wang. 

Wars with the Albigenses 
{The). The first was from 1208 to 1229, 
40 



in the reign of Philippe Auguste. It 
was entrusted to Simon de Montfort, 
called ' The French Maccabasus.' 

The second was in 1226, in the reign 
of Louis VIII., the Lion. Louis himself 
was the leader, instigated by Pope Hono- 
rius III. to ' purge the land of heretics.' 

The third was from 1545-1547, in the 
reign of Francois I. 

Warbeck Plot {The), 1490-1499, of 
which Margaret duchess of Burgundy 
was the prime mover. The person she 
selected to personate her nephew, Rich- 
ard duke of York, second son of Edward 
IV., who (she said) had made his escape 
from the Tower, was a Flemish lad 
named Peter Osbeck, generally called 
Perkin Warbeck. The lad was invited 
to the French court, but soon abandoned. 
He then made his appearance in Ireland, 
in what is termed the Pale {q.v.), and in 
1495 started for Scotland. He was re- 
ceived by the Scotch king James IV., 
who gave to him in marriage Catherine 
Gordon, granddaughter of James I. In 
1497 he returned to Ireland, fled to Corn- 
wall; and in 1499 was executed at Tyburn. 

Warbeck of the North {The), 
1598. Otrepieff, who personated Deme- 
trius, the prince murdered by Boris. As 
Warbeck married Catherine Gordon, so 
this mock Demetrius married Marina, 
daughter of the Palatine Sandomir. He 
was murdered in an insurrection m 1605. 
Wai'beck was hanged for insurrection. 
See ' Richard IV.' 

Warden, in Oxford University. The 
title held by the head of five of the 
colleges: All Souls, Keble,.Merton, New 
College, and Wadham. 

Warden of the Cinque Ports. 

The custodian of Dover Castle was cre- 
ated by William the Conqueror warden 
of the Cinque Ports {q.v.). The juris- 
diction of this office was very greatly 
abridged by 18, 19 Vict. c. 48. 

Warden of the Stannaries 

{Lord). An officer who has the adminis- 
tration of the metal mines of Devon and 
Cornwall. When Edward III. created 
his infant son ' prince of Wales,' he con- 
ferred on him these stannaries. 

Wardship. Custody of the body 
and estate of minors holding under the 
king, till the minor, if a male, was 21, 
and, if a female, was 16 years of age. 



938 



WARMING-PANS 



WATCHES 



The lord gave no account to anyone of 
liis stewardship. Introduced by Wilham 
the Conqueror, and abolished by 12 
Car. II. c. 24. 

"Warming-pans. Jacobites, so 
called because Mary d'Este, wife of 
James II., says rumour, never had a 
living child of her own, but, wishing for 
an heir, she had a male child brought to 
her in a warming-pan, which she substi- 
tuted for her own still-born babe. This 
' warming-pan heir ' was James III. the 
Pretender, called 'The Warming-pan 
Hero.' See Macaulay, ' Hist, of England,' 
ii. 308 ; and Miss Strickland, * Queens of 
England,' vi, 213, 243. 

What gave some colour to the scandal are the 
facts that the child was born at least a month 
before its time, and at its birth none of the per- 
sons most interested in the matter were present. 
Thus the Princess Anne was not present, nor yet 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, nor yet the Dutch 
Ambassador, nor any one of the Hyde family. 
AVllliamof Orange, in his manifesto, openly refers 
to ' the son and heir ' of James II. as spurious ; 
but yet the probability is that there was really 
no collusion. 

"Warren's Cavalry, 1887. Mounted 
London police. Sir Charles Warren was 
Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police 
Force. 

'"Warren's Cavalry" armed to the teeth.'— 
Newspaper paragraph, 30 Jan., 1888. 

"Warrior Lady of Latham {The). 
Charlotte countess of Derby, daughter of 
Claude de la Tremouille (peer of France) 
and of Charlotte daughter of William I. 
prince of Orange. Born 1601, died 1664. 
The earl joined the king's troops, and 
left his house at Latham in charge of 
his wife. The Parliamentary army de- 
manded its surrender, but the countess 
returned answfir, ' It does not suit me.' 
For eight months she held out, when 
Sir T. Fairfax retired, leaving Colonel 
Rigby in command of the besieging 
troops. At length Prince Rupert came 
to the rescue, and Rigby raised the siege. 

"Warrior of Freedom [The). Giu- 
seppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). 

"Wartburg Contests {The), or 
' Battles of the Minnesingers.' An annual 
prize given by Hermann margraf of 
Thuringia for the best minne-song. It 
was given in honour of his wife Sophia, 
and all the best minstrels attended. 
About 150 of these prize-songs are still 
extant. Those by Walter of Vogel- 
vverde are the best. See ' Minnesingers.' 

There is a poem so called. It is by Wolfram, and 



records the contests of the Thuringian and Sua- 
bian poets. 

"Wasa {The Dynasty of), or ' Vasa.' 
Gustavus Vasa broke off Sweden from 
Denmark, to which it had been united 
for 126 years — that is, from the ' Union 
of Calmar' (1197-1523). Norway still 
remained in the union till 1813, when it 
was taken from Denmark by the allies 
and attached to Sweden. 

"Wasa {Knights of), Sweden, 1772. 
Decoration is a gold sword hung on watered 
blue ribbon. The name of the founder 
is inscribed in a purple cartouche. 

"Wat Tyler's Insurrection, 1381. 

A rising of the peasantry again st serfage. 
It was a servile war produced by oppres- 
sion and misery. John Ball, a Kentish 
priest, was the stump orator of the day, 
and told the people that as all men came 
from Adam and Eve all men had equal 
rights, and it was gross oppression that 
some should be gentlemen and others 
serfs. The real cause of the insurrection 
was a poll-tax to defray the expenses of 
the war in France. The insurgents mus- 
tered in great force on Blackheath, where 
they had an interview with Richard II. 
The king invited Wat Tyler to a confer- 
ence in Smithfield, when Sir William 
Walworth, lord mayor of London, 
despatched him with a dagger, and the 
king induced the rioters to disperse. The 
tax especially objected to was one to 
enable John of Gaunt to dispute with 
Henry of Trastamare the crown of Castile 
in right of his wife Constance, a natural 
daughter of Pedro the Cruel. 

The mayors of London were created 'lord 
mayors' by Edward III. Walsingham calls Wat 
Tyler ' Wat thehelier ' (Ang.-Sax. hel-an,' to cover'). 

"Watches. It is said that Robert 1. 
(Bruce) had a watch about 1310. Watches 
were used by Purbach in astronomical ob- 
servations in 1500. Those made at Nurem- 
berg in 1477 were egg-shaped. Cornelius 
van Dreble and James Torrianellus 
introduced great improvements in 1580. 

Henry VIII. (1509-1547) certainly had 
a watch. In 1572 the Earl of Leicester 
presented one to Queen Elizabeth. It is 
thus spoken of : — 

One armelet or shakeU of golde all over fairly 
garnished with small diamondes and fower score 
and one smaller peeces fully garnished with like 
diamondes, and hanginge thereat a rounde clocke 
f ullie garnished with diamondes and an appendant 
of diamondes hanging thereat. 

Pretty common in Shakespeare's time, 
and often alluded to in plays. 



WATCHWORDS 



WELLINGTON'S 



939 



Watchwords. Of course military 
watchwords are frequently changed ; still, 
it is interesting to know the watchwords 
of great military men. The following 
are well known : Brutus, Liberia s ; 
Caesar, Venus genitrix ; Marius, Lar 
deus ; Sylla or Sulla, Apollo Delphicus. 

Waterlanders (The). Mild Men- 
nonites, who split off from the general 
body in 1554, and are so called from 
Waterland, in Holland. 

Watling Street. A great Roman 
road running from Dover to Caernarvon- 
shire in Wales. A branch ran to Scotland. 

It passed through Canterbury and Rochester to 
London, then ran to Uriconium and Chester 
into Wales. From Uriconium a branch ran to 
Manchester, Lancaster, and Kendal. 

"Wattier's Club, at the corner of 
Bolton Street. Li the time of the regency 
this was the club for all the marriageable 
young heirs to ancestral honours, and 
all the penniless younger sons whose 
dowry was their animal spirits. It is best 
known to fame for the masquerade at- 
tended by the prince regent, into which 
Caroline forced her way and created a 
fresh scandal. 

Waynflete Professorships (T/ie). 
One of moral philosophy, and one of 
chemistry, in Oxford University. Formed 
from three prselectorshps of Magdalen 
College in 1854. Annual stipend 600^ each. 

William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, 
founded Magdalen College, Oxford, in 144«. 

Waywode (2 syl.). 1. A farmer of 
the revenue of a district in the Ottoman 
empire. 

2. A foi-mer military title of Russia 
and Poland. 

3. A former ruler in the Danubian pro- 
vinces of Turkey. 

Weapons of War and Armour. 

Battle-axes : the best were Danish. 
Casques : „ „ of Poitiers. 

Hauberks: ,, „ of Rouen. 

Swords : „ „ of Damascus, Cologne, 

and Toledo, in Spain. 

Wec'habites (3 syl.). Generally 
called ' Wahabites ' (q.v.). 

Wedmore, in Soiuersetshire {Peace 
of), 878. Between Alfred king of Eng- 
land and Guthrum the Dane, settled in 
East Anglia. This treaty followed Alfred's 
great victory at Edington, and by its 
terms Guthrum consented to be baptized. 

Week of Expectation {The). 
* Hebdomada Expectationis.' The sixth 



week after Easter, when our Lord said 
to his apostles : ' Manete in hac civitate, 
et expectate usque dum induamini virtu te 
ex alto ' {Luke xxiv. 49). 

Week of the Cross {The), or 
' Hebdomada Crucis,' is Rogation week. 

Weeping Crosses. So called be- 
cause, in Catholic times, penances were 
finished before them. 

Weeping Philosopher {The), 

Heraclltos the Ej^iesian, who died B.C. 
495, aged sixty. So called because he 
was ever mourning over the follies and 
frailty of man, and the vicissitudes of all 
human affairs. See p. 630, * Obscure Phi- 
losopher.' 

Weliki-Luki {Treaty of), 20 July, 
1812. Of alliance between Spain and 
Russia. 

Well-beloved {The). *Le Bien- 
aime'.' Louis XV. (1710, 1715-1774). 

The contest was carried into the reign of the 
' Well-beloved.' — Hist, nf France. 

*,* How such a licentious, heartless, and sin- 
gularly immoral man could be ' well-beloved ' is 
past all human understanding. 

Wellington Administration 

{The), 1829-1830. That of Prince Poli- 
gnac was so called by the French. It was 
a retrogi-ade Tory administration, con- 
temporary with the administration of 
the Duke of Wellington in England. 

Wellington Statues. 

I. By Boehm at Hyde Park Place, 
unveiled 21 Dec, 1888. The figures 
round the pedestal represent the four 
nationalities engaged in the battle of 
Waterloo in 1815— viz. (1) The British 
Guardsmen; (2) the 42nd Highlanders; 
(3) the Inniskilling Dragoons; and (4) 
the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers. 

II. The bronze statue of Achilles, 18 
June, 1822, by the women of England, 
and made of the cannons taken at Sala- 
manca, Vittoria, Toulouse, and Waterloo. 
It was originally placed in the south-east 
angle of Hyde Park, near Apsley House. 

III. Equestrian statue of the Duke of 
Wellington surmounting the Marble 
Arch. Hyde Park Corner, set up in 1846, 
taken down 24 Jan., 1883. See p. 131, 
* Burton Arch.' 

Wellington's Assassin. Can- 
tillon, to whom Napoleon I. left a legacy 
for his base attempt, and to whom Napo- 
leon III. paid the legacy. Whether 
Napoleon hired this villain or not to do 



940 



WELSH 



WESTERN 



the damning deed is not of the slightest 
moment. He certainly set his hand and 
seal to the f uU approval thereof, and it is 
but charity to believe that both Napo- 
leon I. when he made the legacy and 
Napoleon III. when he paid it were ' po- 
litically insane.' Cantillon was alive 
and in Paris in 1859. 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, 

1743. Organised by Charles of Bala, a 
clergyman of the Cl^urch of England. 
They believe in the ' Thirty-nine Articles ' 
taken in a Calvinistic sense. In church 
government they are Presbyterian. 

"Welsh Mortgage {A). A pledge 
of land in which there is no day fixed for 
redemption. Such a mortgage is redeem- 
able at any time on payment of the loan. 
A ' vif-gage ' {t:ivum vadimn) is a conveyance of 
property to a creditor and his heirs till he has 
(out of the profits of the estate) satisfied the debt 
■with interest. As neither debt nor interest is lost, 
such a gage is living — i.e. does not lapse or fail. 

Wenceslaus the Worthless. One of 
the promiscuous kaiser-kings of Ger- 
many (1357, 1378-1400, deposed and died 
1419). 

It was a frightful period. In Germany was 
Wenceslaus the Worthless, in France Charles VI. 
the idiot, in England Richard II. the fop. There 
were two popes anathematising each other, one 
at Rome and the other at Avignon. 

Werela [Peace of), 14 Aug., 1790. 
Between Sweden and Eussia. In this 
treaty the limits of both states were re- 
established according to the provisions 
of former treaties. 

Wesleyan Conference (The), 

1744. The original conference consisted 
of six Methodist clergymen of the Church 
of England and four lay preachers, who 
met together in London to consult on the 
continuance of the work. Subsequent 
conferences have been annually held since. 

Wesleyan Methodist Associa- 
tion (The), 1885. Seceders from the 
old Methodist Connection from an objec- 
tion to the Conference, which they 
thought to be tyrannical, especially in 
excluding laymen from any share in the 
general management. 

Wesleyan Methodist Reform- 
ers (The). Seceders from the Methodist 
Connection, who object to the overbearing 
authority of the Conference, and espe- 
cially to the exclusion of those who 
dared to censure their proceedings. (19th 
cent. ; about 1840.) 



Wesleyan Methodists, 1738. 
The Arminian Methodists organized by 
John Wesley. 

The Calvinistic Methodists led by Whitfield 
separated in 1752. The ' Wesleyan Methodist 
Church,' 184.?, was formed at Utica, and object to 
Episcopal titles. 

Wesleyan Reform Union [The), 
1849. Those Reformed Methodists who 
did not join the United Methodist Free 
Church. 

Western Church (The), or 'Latin 
Church ' ; as they call themselves, ' The 
Catholic Church ' ; as others call them, 
* The Roman Catholic Church,' separated 
from the Eastern Church about 324-334 . 
In 606 the word ' pope ' was limited to the 
Bishop of Rome ; the Bishop of Constan- 
tinople being called ' patriarch ' since 588. 

Of course the Eastern Church was established 
before the Western, and the Western Church sepa- 
rated on the moot point whether the bishop of 
Rome or patriarch of the East were the higher 
office. As the Western Church severed itself 
from the Eastern, in the language of the church, 
it was ' schismatic,' and remains so still. 

Western Empire (The). 

I, Borne, or the western portion of the 
ancient Roman empire after its division 
by Valentinian and Valens, A.D. 364. 
Valentinian had the western portion, with 
Rome for his capital, and Valens, his 
brother, had the eastern portion, with 
Constantinople for his capital. The 
Western empire ended in 476, when 
Odoacer, king of the Herilli, took Rome, 
and assumed the title of ' king of Italy.' 

The Eastern empire continued nearly l.OOOyears 
longer, tUl 1453. 

II. 960-126«. The united empire of 
Germany and Italy. Otto I. the G-reat 
took Italy from the usurper Berengarius 
II. and added it to the German empire. 
In 1268 the Germans were driven out of 
Italy, and several republics were formed 
there. 

Western Schism {The), or ' Great 
Schism of the West.' Variously reckoned 
39 years, 50 years, and 71 years. 

1. 39 years, from the double election 
of Urban VI. in Rome and Clement VII. 
in Avignon, 1378 to 1417, when Martin V. 
was elected by the Council of Pisa. 

2. 50 years, from 1378 to 1429, when 
Clement VIII., elected to succeed Gregory 
XII. at Avignon, resigned the tiara. 

3. 71 years, from 1378 to 1449, when 
Felix V. was elected by the Council of 
Basel to succeed Eugenius IV. 

See p. 31, * Anti-popes.' 



WESTMINSTER 



WHIG 



941 



Westminster {The Conference of), 
1559. Summoned by Queen Elizabeth 
to settle these three questions: (1) Should 
the public worship be conducted in Latin 
or English ? (2) What power should be 
allotted to each particular church in the 
matter of rites and ceremonies ? (3) Is 
the Mass a propitiatory sacrifice or not ? 
The bishops of Lincoln and Winchester 
threatened to excommunicate the queen 
and conference if they could not have 
their own way, were arrested and sent to 
the Tower for high treason, and the con- 
ference was dissolved. 

Westminster Assembly of 
Divines {The), 1G43-1649. A convo- 
cation appointed by the Long Parliament 
for settling the doctrine, liturgy, and 
government of the Church of England. 
It consisted of 121 clergymen and 30 
laymen (10 of whom were lords). This 
assembly wanted dogmatically to dictate 
what articles of faith should be compul- 
sory, and even what form of worship 
should be established, but Cromwell de- 
manded toleration and independence. 

"Westminster CatecMsms {The). 
The Shorter Catechism, 5 Nov., 1647; 
the Longer Catechism, 18 Sept., 1648. 
They were drawn up by the Westminster 
Assembly of Divines {q-v.), and are still 
used by the Presbyterians as standard 
catechisms, but are not accepted by the 
Church of England as of any authority. 

The Shorter Assembly Catechism was probably 
drafted by Mr. Palmer. 

Westminster Confession of 
Faith {The), 1646. A confession of 
faith contained in 33 articles drawn up 
by the Westminster Assembly of Divines 
{q.v.), and still considered a standard of 
faith in the Presbyterian churches of the 
United Kingdom ; but, never having re- 
ceived the royal sanction, it is of no 
authority in the Church of England. 

Westminster School, 1560. 
Founded by Queen Elizabeth. 

Westphalia {Peace of), 24 Oct., 
1648. One of the most important in 
European history, as it closed the Thirty 
Years' War. By the terms of this treaty 
* the balance of power ' in Europe was 
first recognised. Alsace was ceded to 
France ; part of Pomerania to Sweden ; 
the Swiss cantons were declared inde- 
pendent ; perfect religious freedom was 
granted, and German Protestants were 



admitted to equal rights with their Ca- 
tholic fellow-countrymen. No one could 
henceforth be put under the ban of the 
empire but by the diet alone. 

Lusatia and Alsace were taken from Austria, 
and Austria received instead Transylvania and 
Croatia. Upper Pomerania, Kugen, with Stettin, 
Gratz, Damme. Golnau, the Isle of Wollin, Peine 
Schiveine, the l)ivenau in Lower Pomerania, Wis- 
mar, the Duchy of Bremen, and the principality 
of Verdun were given to Sweden. 

Wetter {Mrs.), the Queen Victoria. 
The family name of her husband was 
Wetter. A playful pseudonym. 

Some say Wettin, which is Prussian ; but Wetter 
or Vetter, is Swedish. 

Wharncliffe Meetings. Meetings 
of public companies held in conformity 
with the Wharncliffe Order {q.v.). 

Wharncliflfa Order. A provision 
introduced into the House of Lords that 
no meeting of a public company shall 
have power to change the constitution of 
the company unless seven days' notice 
has been given to the subscribers and 
the meeting represents at least three- 
fourths of the paid-up capital. 

Wharton. Philip Wharton, duke 
of Wharton (1698-1731). Pope calls him 
' the scorn and wonder of our days.' His 
talents were brilliant, and his power of 
oratory electric ; but his life was most 
licentious, and he turned traitor. He 
fought against his countrymen at the 
siege of Gibraltar, and joined the Pre- 
tender, from whom he accepted the worth- 
less title of ' Duke of Northumberland.' 

Whevsrell Scholarships for in- 
ternational law. Two yearly, value re- 
spectively lOOZ. and 50Z., tenable for four 
years. Founded in the University of 
Cambridge by the Kev. William WlieweU, 
D.D., master of Trinity College. See 
p. 748, ' Regius Professor of Civil Law.' 

AVhewell, pronovince You-el. 

Whig and Tory, modified conti- 
nuations of the terms Roundhead and 
Cavalier, which arose, in 1680, on the 
introduction of the Exclusion Bill. Tory 
was the name by which ruined adherents 
of King James were known when he 
lived in a state of outlawry in Ireland. 
It was applied in derision to those who 
held the doctrine of ' the divine right of 
kings,' subsequently applied to those who 
stood by ' church and state.' Whig was 
applied to an opposite class of men in 
Scotland, but similarly circumstanced as 
the Irish Tories. They were vagabonds 



942 



WHIG 



WHITE 



collected by the Marquis of Argyll to 
oppose certain government measures in 
the reign of James I. As the Irish Tories 
were church and state men, the Scotch 
Whigs were nonconformists, who repu- 
diated the doctrine of ' divine right ' and 
the right of an established church. 

Scotch Covenanters were nicknamed Whigs 
(vagabonds) as far back as 1(548 ; the Abliorrers (q.v.) 
slanged the Pelitioners (q.v.) as Whigs. The term 
was not used in England as a political designation 
till 1680. Tory is about equal to Eapparee. As Ab- 
horrers called the Petitioners by way of contempt 
Whigs, so the Petitioners returned the contumely 
by calling the Abhorrers Tories. 

Tory is from an Irish verb, meaning to pursue 
for plunder. 

Whig of the Revolution {A). 
So George III. called himself. Not the 
French but the English revolution. He 
abhorred the former, but owed his crown 
to the latter. 

Whig Bible. See * Placemakers' 
Bible ' and ' Bible.' 

Whig Club {The), 1793, in Irish 
history, was instituted to promote reform 
by pressure from without, through the 
agency of voluntary associations. It was 
afterwards superseded by the society of 
the United Irishmen {q.v.). See p. 455, 
' Irish Associations.' 

Whigs' Vault {The). A subter- 
ranean dungeon in the castle of Dunnottar 
where the Privy Council of Scotland, in 
1685, shut up a number of prisoners sup- 
posed to be hostile to the government. 

In this prison .... still termed the Whigs' 
Vault, several died of the diseases incidental to 
such a situation.— Sir W. ScoTT, Old Mortality 
(Introduction). 

Whigamores {The). The rigid 
Presbyterian party, under the leadership 
of the Marquis of Argyll. After the de- 
feat of the Duke of Hamilton, leader of 
the Engagers (q.v.) or moderate Presby- 
terians, the Marquis of Argyll, with 6,000 
followers, marched to Edinburgh and 
made himself head of the government 
(1648). The word contracted into ' Whigs ' 
was applied to the Presbyterians of Scot- 
land opposed to the Royalists or Malig- 
nants, and was subsequently applied to 
all those who denied the divine right of 
kings, the supremacy of royal preroga- 
tives, and the dogma of passive obedi- 
ence. 

The etymology of the word is doubtful. Some 
derive it from Ugham-more, pack-saddle thieves ; 
others from irhig. in horse language, meaning 
' get on ' ; others more wittily than truly from an 
anagram ' We Hope In God.' 

In the ' Encyclopoedia Britannica' we read: 
Ibe Whigs were so denominated from a cant 



name given to the Presbyterian conventiclers : 
"whig," milk turned sour; and Tories received 
that honourable appellation from the Irish ban- 
ditti so called— the Irish word toree being equal to 
" stand and deliver ! " ' Whig or Whey is butter- 
milk. 

Whigamores' Inroad {The), or 
* The Whigamore Raid,' 1648. Cromwell 
with 8,000 men having defeated Lang- 
dale, whose army amounted to 20,000 
men, made his way into Scotland, when 
the Marquis of Argyll, and the Earls 
Cassilis and Eglintoun, at the head of 
the Presbyterians of the west country 
and the Highlands, marched to Edin- 
burgh, and conducted Cromwell to the 
metropolis in triumph. This expedition 
of the Covenanters to Edinburgh gave 
the finishing blow to the royal cause in 
Scotland, and is known in history as the 
'Whigamore's Inroad' or 'Whigamore 
Raid. (' Encyclop. Britannica,' v. 411.) 

The Duke of Hamilton supported what is called 
' the Engagement ' (q.v.) in the Scotch parliament. 
The Marquis of Argyll opposed it. The Duke of 



Hamilton was defeated at Warrington (1648), and 
surrendered to Cromwell. 

Whip -with six strings {The), 
81 Hen. VIII. c. 14, a.d. 1539. 'The 
Bloody Statute.' See the ' Six Articles. 

Whipping Boy {A). A boy kept 
to be whipped when a prince deserved 
chastisement. 

Edward VI. Barnaby Fitzpatrick stood lor 
Edward VI. 

Henri IV. of France. D'Ossat and Du Perron, 
afterwards cardinals, were whipped by Clement 
VIII. for Henri I v.— Fuller, Church Historii, ii. 342. 

Charles I. Mungo Murray stood for Charles I. 

James I. of England. We are told that George 
Buchanan would not punish the Scotch by substi- 
tution, and when the Countess of Mar complained 
of his whipping the prince, he stoutly confessed 
it, and said he would do it again if the boy blun- 
dered over his Latin declensions. 

Lesage, in his ' Gil Bias ' makes Raphael to be 
flogged for the son of the Marquis de Leganez ; 
but Raphael, not seeing the justice of this arrange- 
ment, ran away (v. 1). 

Whipping Post {The), to which 
Jesus was fastened at the scourging, is 
now shown at Rome through iron railings 
in a little chapel in the church of St. 
Praxedes ; and over it is inscribed words 
to the effect that John de Colonna 
brought it to Rome in 1223. The socle 
of the post, however, is in St. Mark's 
Cathedral, Venice. The post is of p^ey 
marble, a foot and a half long, one fo :>t 
in diameter at the base and eight inches 
at the top, where an iron ring is inserted, 
to which the victim was tied. See p. 
231, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' 

White and Black Face, in 

Turkish phraseology, are terms of praise 



WHITE 



WHITE 



943 



and reproach, meaning bright and down- 
cast. 

When the Janizaries were enrolled, a dervish 
blessed the new levies and said, ' Wheresoever 
they go, may they return with white faces.' Gibbon 
tells us that the Komans had the sentence ' Hie 
nigey est, hunc tu, Eomane, caveto.' — Decline and 
Fall, chap. Ixiv., and note. 

We also speak of a downcast leaden look. And 
Bay he looked black in the face ; looked black at 
me ; you need not look so black. 

"White and Black Factions 

(The). The Ommiades (whose colour 
was white), and the Abbassides (whose 
colour was black). Green was the colour 

of the Fatimites (3 syl.). 

From the Indus to the Euphrates the east was 
convulsed by the quarrels of the White and Black 
factions.— Gibbon, chap. 111. 

"White and Crimson. In the 

Valois-Angouleme dynasty Protestant 
soldiers wore white jackets and scarfs, 
but the Catholic soldiers wore crimson 
jackets and scarfs. The Swiss guard 
wore a grey uniform, 

"White Battle (The), 20 Sept., 1319. 
The battle of Mytton, in Yorkshire, was 
BO called from the number of clerks who 
fell. It was between the Scots (under 
Douglas and Randolph) and the forces of 
William of Melton archbishop of York. 
It is said that at ka3t 300 men in holy 
orders were slain, and many were taken 
prisoners, among whom was William de 
Ayremyn (afterwards bishop of Norwich). 
Bishop Hotham of Ely narrowly escaped 
being taken captive. The battle is some- 
times jocosely spoken of as ' The Chapter 
of Mitton.' 

Of tha yhet thre hundreth war 
Prestis that deit [died] intill that chas : 
Tharfore that bargane callit was 
' The Chaptour of Mytoun,' for thare 
Slain so many prestis war. 

Barbour, The Bnis. 

"White Books. The official reports 
of both Germany and Portugal are 
stitched in white wrappers. See ' Blue 
Books,' ' Black Books,' * Red Books,' 
• Yellow Books.' 

"White Brotherhood (The). The 
adventurers led by John Hawkwood (14th 
cent.). 

An English mercenary, John Hawkwood, with a 
band of adventurers, the White Brotherhood, had 
ravaged Italy from the Alps to Calabria.— Gibbon, 
chap. xlvi. 

"White Camisards, 1703. Catho- 
lic volunteers, under tlie name of Cadets 
of the Cross or White Camisards, joined 
the regular troops of Marshal Montrevel 
as auxiliaries to extirpate the Camisards 



of the Cevennes, called by Pope Clement 
XI. ' a cursed brood from the execrable 
race of the Albigenses.' See p. 96, ' Black 
Camisards.' 

A military night surprise is a camisade. Thus 
the taking of Pontoise in 1419 wasa camisade, and 
the battle of Pavia in 1524 began with a camisade. 

"White Canons. Canons, like the 
Premonstratensians, who wore white 
habits. See ' Canons,' * Black Canons.' 

"White Caps were worn by the 
Volones or volunteer slaves as a token of 
liberty. 

Then Gracchus fulfilled his promise to the 
Volones, and celebrated their enfranchisement 
by a public festival, in which they all appeared 
wearing white caps in token of liberty.— 27kj -S'/u- 
denfs Rome. p. 236. 

"White Caps (in the U.S., 1889-1890), 
bodies of self-constituted ' regulators ' 
and correctors of morals. 

White Caps (The), 1758. A sedi- 
tious faction in China put down by the 
Emperor Kien-long. They were zealous 
Mahometans. See p. 120, ' Brethren of 
the White Caps.' 

White City (T^ie). Belgrade, called 
Alba Grcecia by the Franks in the 9th 
cent. 

White Coats {The). I. The train- 
bands, as the ' Red Coats ' were the 
regular soldiers, and the ' Blue Jackets ' 
the sailors. 

II. The Earl of Newcastle's pikemen, 
chiefly Roman Catholics, in the time of 
Charles I. They woie white coats. 

White Company {The). A com- 
pany of adventurers which, after the 
wars of Edward III. in France, passed 
into the service of the Marquis of Mont- 
ferrat. When they were employed by the 
Pisans against Florence the famous Sir 
John Hawkwood was their commander. 

White Cross Knights {The). The 
Knights Hospitallers, who had a white 
cross on their black robes. The Knights 
Templars were the Red Cross Knights, 
their badge being a red cross on a white 
robe. See ' Poor Brothers of St. John.' 

"White Eagle {Knights of the), 132.'>. 
A Polish order instituted by Ladislas 
king of Poland on the marriage of his 
son Casimir with Anne, daughter of the 
Grand Duke of Lithuania. The ribbon 
was blue. Extinct. 

"White Flag {The). Emblem of 
legitimacy in France. The flag of the 



944 



WHITE 



WHITE 



Bourbon monarchs. Ordinarily, the white 
flag craves for truce and peace ; a black 
flag indicates a pirate ; a red flag, defiance ; 
a yellow flag, that the vessel is in quaran- 
tine. 

Those who reverence the symbol of the White 
Flag may feel that its latest upholder [the Comte 
de Chambord] did nothing to sully its purity.— 
Daily Neics, Sept. 3, 1883. 

*,* A white flag as a railway signal means the 
rail is clear, and everything in order; a red flag 
Bignifies danger, and means stop; a green flag 
Intimates that caution is required. 

White Flagellants {The). So 
called from their white mantles. See 
' Flagellants,' and ' Blancs Battus.' 

"White Friars (The), 1171. The 
Carmelites. So called from the colour of 
their dress, as the Dominicans were called 
' Black Friars ' and the Franciscans 
• Grey Friars.' 

White Hats (The). I. In Flanders, 
were in the 14th cent, the badge of the 
democratic party, led by Jacob van Arte- 
velde, the great brewer of Ghent, who 
was elected their captain in 1338, and 
was assassinated in 1345. Their next 
captain was John Lyon, who was sup- 
posed, to be poisoned by the court party 
in 1381. Philip van Artevelde, son of 
the great brewer, next assumed the 
white hat of the party. He was slain in 
the battle of Kosebeque, Nov. 1382. 

II. White hats were used in England 
to denote radical proclivities, because 
Orator Hunt (1773-1835), the great dema- 
gogue, during the Wellington and Peel 
administration, used to wear a white hat. 
Lord Liverpool, who was prime minister 
for fifteen years (1812-1827), rendered the 
badge no longer distinctive by adopting 
a white hat himself. 

White Hood House (The). The 
Regents' or Upper House of the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. So called because 
the Masters of Arts wore hoods lined 
with white silk. It consisted of Masters 
of Arts of less than five years' standing, 
and of Doctors of less than two. If of 
longer standing, they belonged to the 
Black Hood House {q.v.), called the non- 
regent or Lower House. All this was 
abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' 

Regents originally meant tutors, lecturers, and 
professors. Members of the University having 
fcerved their time were exempt from these duties, 
and Masters of Arts took off the white lining of 
their hoods to show they were non-regents. 

White Hoods (The), or. 'Les 
Chaperons Blancs.' I. 1379. The work- 



men of Ghent, when they revolted against 
the Duke of Burgundy, adopted as their 
badge a white hood. 

II. 1407-1415. All Paris, on the 
assassination of the Due d'Orleans, was 
divided into two factions— the Burgun- 
dians under Jean-sans-Peur duke of 
Burgundy, and the Armagnacs, who were 
partisans of the Orleanists. The Bur- 
gundians adopted for their badge a St. 
Andrew's cross on a white hood, the 
Armagnacs adopted a St. George's cross. 
After a time the Cabocians were enlisted 
by Jean-sans-Peur, and wore as their 
badge white hoods. So violent were 
these rowdies that they compelled the 
doctors of the Sorbonne to wear the 
white hood, and, having got the dauphin 
into their power, made him also adopt 
the same badge. See p. 848, ' French 
Brigands.' 

White Huns {The), or the 'Hia- 
tilla.' The Huns of Sogdiana. 

Called White Huns by the Greeks, ' a cause de 
leur civilisation et de leur douceur.' — Bouillet. 

Gibbon says, chap, xxvi., they were called White 
Huns from the change of complexions. The 
Huns of the North are the black Calmucks. 

WTlite Knight (T/^e), or 'Chevalier 
Blanc de Valaigne ' {i.e. Valachia), John 
Corvinus Hunniades, the Hungarian 
general (1400-1456). The Turks, who 
employed his name to frighten their 
perverse children, called him Jancus 
Lain (or the Wicked). 

The white knight fought with the hand rather 
than the head.— Gibbon, Ixvii. 

White Knight of Wallachia 

{The). Same as the preceding. 

White Laws. The Jus Honora- 
rium, or Edicts of the Boman praetors. 
Bed Laws or Eubrics were the •Civil 
Law. 

Alii se ad Album [i.e. jus praetorium, quia 
PrsBtores edicta sua in albo proponebant] ac 
Kubricas [i.e. jus civile] transtulerunt.— QUINTI. 
LI.4X, xii. 3, 11. The Imperial Rescripts were 
written in purple ink. 

White Mantles {The). I. The 
Servites (2 syl.), or ' Servitors of the 
Virgin.' A religious order founded in 
Florence in 1232. So called from their 
white mantles. The order was suppressed 
in France in 1274, but still subsists in 
Italy. 

II. Williamites (3 syl.), or ' Guillem- 
ites ' (3 syl.), were also called ' White 
Mantles ' from their large white mantles. 
This was a religious order founded by 



WHITE 



WHITE 



945 



William of Malavalle, which spread 
through all Italy, Germany, and France. 

White Monks. The Bemardines 
or Cistercians. So called from the colour 
of their habit. 

The Dominicans wore a black habit, the Fran- 
ciscans a grey one. 

"WTiite Penitents, 1899. These 
were men, women, girls, boys, townsfolk 
and countryfolk, nobles and burghers, 
laity and clergy, all with bare feet and 
dressed in white sheets from head to 
foot, who visited in succession the towns 
and villages of every district of Milan. 
Whenever they came to a cross road or 
to a cross, they threw themselves on the 
ground, crying ' Misericordia ' three times ; 
then recited the Lord's Prayer and the 
Ave Maria. On entering a town or city, 
they walked singing the ' Stabat Mater.' 
Corio, in his ' History of Milan,' assures 
us that the number was between 10,000 
and 15,000 at a time. 'However (he 
adds), the people returned to a worse 
course of life than ever after the excite- 
ment was over.' 

"WTiite Poet (The). Olaf, younger 
brother of Sturla, and nephew of Snorro 
the historian (13th cent.). 

White Rent. Rent paid in silver or 
white money instead of corn. Quit- 
rents were so called. Anglo-Saxon, 
Hwit-rent, white-rent. 

White Rose {The). Elizabeth of 
York ; she married Henry VII., and thus 
united the rival houses of York and 
Lancaster. 

White Rose of England {The), 

1490. So Margaret duchess of Burgundy 
called Perkin Warbeck, appointed by her 
to personate Richard duke of York, 
younger son of Edward IV. 

White Rose of Scotland {The). 
Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the 
Earl of Huntly, and grand-daughter of 
James I. Her first husband was Perkin 
Warbeck the pretender, her second hus- 
band was Sir Matthew Cradock. Called 
the ' White Rose ' because Warbeck pre- 
tended to be the representative of the 
House of York (the White Rose party). 

White Russia. Musco^7•. The 
king of Muscovy was called the * White 
JCing ' from his alha tegumenta. 



White Scarfs and White Hoods 

{The), 1407-1415. The Armagnac and 
Burgundian factions, after the assas- 
sination of the Due d'Orle'ans. The 
Orleanists or Armagnacs adopted as their 
cognizance a St. George's cross on a 
white scarf. The Burgundians, led by 
Jean-sans-Peur duke of Burgundy, 
adopted a St. Andrew's cross on a white 
hood. 

The Crusadeirs, the Armagnacs, and the Hugue- 
nots all adopted as their badge the white scarf ; 
but the Burgundian badge was a white hood. A 
red scarf was the badge of Henri III. and Charles 
IX. ; a green scarf of Mazarin, Isabella, and the 
Gondii family. A tricolour scarf is still worn in 
Fiance by municipal magistrates and tiie com- 
missaires of police. 

White Sheep {The), 1468-1497. 
Certain Turkomans who on the decay of 
Timur's dynasty fixed themselves (under 
the leadership of Uzun Hussun) in 
Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Asia 
Minor. They afterwards drove out the 
Black Sheep and made themselves 
masters of all Western Persia. They 
were utterly stamped out by Ismael, a 
native prince, who founded the Suffavean 
or Sofi dynasty. 

At the decay of the Timur dynasty the domi- 
nions of Timur were divided into three parts: 
Hussein Mirza, a descendant of Timur, had 
Khorassan, and held his court at Herat ; the 
Black Sheep acquired Azerbijan, Irak, Fars, and 
Herman ; and the Turkomans of the White Sheep 
held the third part. Called the White Sheep from 
the efiSgy displayed on their standard. 

White Ship {The). La Blanche 
Nef, the ship in which Prince William, 
son of Henry Beauclerc, embarked at 
Barfleur, and was wrecked with 140 pas- 
sengers and 50 sailors, by striking on 
the Ras de Catte (now Catteville), 25 
Nov., 1120. It is said that the king 
fainted when he heard the news and 
' never smiled again.' 

White Staff {The). The staff of 
office presented by the sovereign to her 
privy council. Thus the premier, the 
lord chamberlain, the treasurer of the 
household, the lord steward, &c., bear 
white wands or staffs. 

Shrewsbury refused to take the white wand 
[of chief minister], except from her majesty's own 
hand. It was therefore handed to her [Queen 
Anne], and she extended it towards Shrewsbury, 
saying, ' For God's sake, use it for the good of my 
people.' Shrewsbury was already chamberlain, 
and he presented the stafE of that office in resig- 
nation of it, but the queen bade him retain 
both.— HowiTT, Hist, of En,]l<i)i(1 (Anne, p. 322). 

Lord Harley of Wigmore will have the white 
staff given him tomorrow by the queen herself, 
and be declared lord high treasurer.— Defok (29 
May, 1711). 

8P 



946 



WHITE 



WHITEBOYS 



White Standard, that of Charles 
Edward the Young Pretender. The 
white cockade was the badge of his fol- 
lowers. The Bourbons also adopted the 
white cockade and standard. 

When the white standard is again displayed, it 
shall not be turned back so easily— Sir W. SCOTT, 
lledgauntlei, chap. xxii. 

White Strangers, or ' White Gen- 
tiles.' Norwegians, who took possession 
of Dublin in 838. Dublin- and north- 
wards was the territory of the White 
Strangers. From Dublin southwards 
was the territory of the Black Strangers. 

Dublin and settlements in Leinster constituted 
the territory of the Fin gall or White Foreigners. 
Called by the Four Masters Fionn-gentie (White 
Gentiles). 

White Town {The). Belgorod, the 
third circle of Moscow. So called from 
the white wall with which it was encom- 



Moscow had four concentric circles. Beginning 
■with the innermost they were— (1) the Kremlin, (2) 
Kilaigorod or the Chinese Town, (3) Belgorod or 
the White Town, and (4) Somilangorod, which was 
defended by ramparts. 

White Water-flower {The), or 
Pe-lien-kaou. An association at the 
close of the 18th cent, formed in China 
against Kea-king, the emperor. This 
brotherhood excited in Shan-tung an in- 
surrection, which spread over three of 
the neighbouring provinces. The leader 
was designated San-hwang, and main- 
tained his ground for eight years. 

Or White Water Lotus. Kea-king reigned 1796- 
1820. 

Whites and Blacks {The), I3th 
cent. Rival factions in Italy at the close 
of the 13th cent, and the first four years 
of the 14th. The Blacks were the 
noblesse, the Whites the rich hourgeois. 
The Whites were (ruelfs, the Blacks 
were Ghibelins. Dante in 1302 was 
exiled for being a White. 

Whites and Blues {The). 'Les 
Blancs et Bleus' in the great French 
Revolution mean the royalists, whose 
flag and livery were white ; the republi- 
can troops wore a blue uniform. 

Whites, Beds, Blues, and Greens were colour 
factions of Constantinople, being the liveries worn 
in chariot races, and party colours as formerly in 
our elections for members of parliament ; but the 
Whites merged into the Blues, and the Reds into 
the Greens. See p. 108, ' Blues and Greens.' 

Whites and Reds ( The). ' Albati ' 
and ' Russati.' The original liveries of 



the Roman charioteers, in the chariot 
races. Afterwards two more liveries, the 
Green and the Blue, were added, and the 
latter ultimately absorbed the original 
colours. In Rome, the colours were a 
Capulet and Montague standing faction, 
which led to street brawls and not un- 
f requently death ; and such emperors as 
Caligula, Nero, Vitellius, Verus, Com- 
modus, Caracalla, and Elagabalus, were 
Greens or Blues, and made their livery 
party questions as we do Whig and 
Tory, Church and Dissent. The same 
rage prevailed in Constantinople ; the 
Greens were the partisans of Anastasius, 
the blues of ustinian. In fact, the whole 
empire was divided into Greens and 
Blues. Even religion had its Orthodox 
Blues and Heterodox Greens. 

Whiteboy Acts {The), 1762. Laws 
against the Whiteboys, many of which 
are still in force. 

Whiteboy Riots. It would be 
difficult to tabulate all the riots of these 
turbulent Irish since the formation of the 
society in 17C0. Lord Drogheda was 
charged in 1762 with the task of suppress- 
ing the society, but he only scotched it. 
Outrages were renewed in 1822 ; and in 
1828 Queen's County, Carlow, and Kil- 
kenny were scenes of disgrixcef ul ' White- 
boy riots.' These rioters robbed and 
murdered in every direction, much the 
same as the Moonlighters, as agents of 
the more secret leaders of the Land or 
National League, Home Rule, and Plan 
of Campaign {q.v.). See p. 455, 'Irish 
Associations.' 

Whiteboys {The). I. Protestant 
rioters in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
See ' The Abbot,' cuap. xvi., by Sir W. 
Scott. 

II. 1760. An illegal association of Irish- 
men, so called because, in their nightly 
expeditions, they disguised themselves in 
white smocks. Their object was to resist 
the enclosure of commons, in order to 
increase the number of cattle required 
by the murrain which began in Germany 
and spread to England. They existed 
some time before 1760 under the name of 
Levellers {q-v.), and soon after 1760 be- 
came noted for agrarian aggressions. In 
1762 Lord Drogheda was charged with 
the suppression of this riotous society. 
Outrages were renewed in 1807, and in 



WHITEBOYISM 



WHITSUNTIDE 



947 



1811, 1812 spread to Tipperary, Water- 
ford, Kilkenny, Westmeath, Roscom- 
mon, and Queen's County. The White- 
boys called themselves the agents of 
Captain Right. 

In 1784 and the three following years houghing, 
tarring and feathering, and other personal moles- 
tations prevailed to a great extent. The Protestant 
clergy, especially in the south of Ireland, were 
subjects of especial persecution by the Whiteboys. 
Riotous assemblies were next organised, so that 
in 1787 an act was passed to prevent tumultuous 
assemblies.' 

In 1822 the rioters became so violent that the 
• Insurrection Act ' was passed, and continued in 
force for three years. Similarly in 1807 an Insur- 
rection Act had been passed which remained in 
force for four years; when withdrawn, two years 
of turbulence ensued of a very aggravated cha- 
racter. Set' p. 4.55, ' Irish Associations.' 

*,* Parnellism and crime have had a long spell 
of late years. In 1890 it was thought ' patriotic ' 
to insult the judges, slang the ministers, defy the 
laws, ruin the landlords, and obstruct the police 
in their attempts to keep order. 

"Whiteboyism. The political and 
agrarian platform of the Whiteboys of 
Ireland. In 1762 the outrages of this 
association were greatly repressed, but 
they reappeared soon afterwards in the 
south of Ireland. See ' Whiteboys.' 

"Whitefeet (The). One of the dis- 
turbing factions of Ireland in the Tithe 
War iq-v.). They were associated with 
the Blackfeet, Terryalts, Lady Clares, 
Molly Maguires, and Rockites. See each 
of these in loco, and * Irish Associations.' 

Whitefeet and Blackfeet. Il- 
legal associations formed in Ireland 
during the sanguinary Tithe War (1830- 
1835) (q.v.). The names were in con- 
formity with the colour of their shoes, 
assumed as badges of the associations. 

Whitefieldites (3 syl.), 1739. 
Followers of the Rev. George Whitefield 
[Whit-Jield], an ordained clergyman of 
the Anglican Church, who separated 
from that communion and established a 
hyper-Calvinistic system of religion iu 
opposition to Wesley, whose tenets were 
Arminian {q.v.). Whitefield insisted on 
the doctrines of predestination and un- 
conditional election. Wesley founded 
the Wesleyan Methodist connexion. 

Whitehall Preachers (T/ie), 1724. 
Established by George I. One from the 
University of Oxford and one from the 
University of Cambridge. Appointed 
for two years. Originally there were 
twenty-four preachers, twelve resident 
fellows of each university. The two are 



now appointed by the Bishop of London, 
as dean of the royal chapel. 

White-hood House (The), in 

Cambridge University, is the Regent or 
Upper House of the Senate, composed of 
masters of arts of less than five years' 
standing and doctors of less than two 
years' standing. See ' Black- hood House.' 
Abolished 1858. 

So called because the hood of a Cambridge M.A. 
is lined with white silk. Called ' regent ' because 
they were the tutors and professors, and as such 
were the 'rulers' of the university. After the 
time stated they were released from these duties, 
and stripped off the white lining of their hoods. 
This has been discontinued for many years. 

Whit-Sunday. The Sunday which 
commemorates the descent of the Holy 
Ghost on the day of Pentecost on the 
disciples, in the form of ' tongues of fire,' 
after which they were all inspired to 
speak in foreign tongues, as the Spirit 
gave them utterance. Verstegan says: 
' We yet say hallowed for halih-wied ; 
also we hereof retain the name of Whit- 
son day, which more rightly should be 
written Weid-Sonday, i.e. " Sacred Son- 
day." So called by reason of the de- 
scending down of the Holy Ghost . . . .' 
(' Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,' 
p. 18S). 

Robert of Gloucester, under the article 
* Wytte-Sonetyd,' says: 'Good men and 
wymmen, this day is called Wyt-sonday, 
because the Holy Ghost brought wytte 
and wisdom into Cristis disciples, and so 
by her preching after in all cristendom, 
and fylled hem full of ghostly wytte.' 

Another derivate is ' White-Sunday,' 
from the white dresses anciently worn by 
the newly baptized catechumens, to whom 
the sacrament of the Eucharist was ad- 
ministered on the A^gil of Pentecost. 
Whitsuntide includes the white octave, 
but is now in England almost restricted 
to Whit- Sunday, Whit-Monday, and 
Whit-Tuesday. 

Whitsuntide Dancers. AtEch- 
ternach, in Luxemburg, thousands of 
pilgrims take an active part in a ' sacred ' 
dance, singing at the same time litanies 
in honour of St. Vv'illebrod. The dancers 
take three springs forwards and one 
backwards, or five forwards and two 
backwards, to bands of music. The 
space traversed is about a mile and takes 
above an hour. 

Le mardi de pentecOte une procession de sau- 
teurs parcourt encore les rues dEchternach du 
pont de la Sure a Icglise, et cela, dit-on, pour con- 
jurer la danse de St. -Guy, qu'une tradition Iuu.iIq 

3p2 



948 



WHITSUN 



WILLIAM 



dit avoir ete tres-commune dans le pays vers le 
huitieme siecle.' — Keclus, Nouvelle Geogiaphie 
Universelh'. 

('St. Guy' or'Gui' is the French form ol our 
St. Vitus.) 

"Whitsun "Week. * Hebdomada 
Pentecostes.' Beginning with Whit- 
Sunday ; the week which commemorates 
the descent of the Holy Spirit. 

Whyte's Professorship of 
Moral Philosophy {Dr.\ in Oxford 
University, at lOOZ. a year. Founded by 
Thomas Whyte, D.D., in 16'21. The 
stipend has been raised to 400Z. a year. 

Wicked Bible {The),lQm. Printed 
in London by Kichard Barker and Martin 
Lucas, the king's printers, in the reign of 
Charles I. The printing was bad, the 
paper bad, and there were two monstrous 
errors. The seventh commandment, by 
the omission of not, ran thus : ' Thou shalt 
commit adultery'; and in one case 
* greatnesse ' got converted into ' gi-eat 
asse.' The printers were fined 500/., and 
the edition of 1,000 copies was ordered 
to be burnt. See p. 90, ' Bibles.' 

When the case was brought into the Court of 
High Commission, Laud said : ' The printeing is 
Boe bad and the paper too, that, if it be not 
mended shortlie, they wilbe put downe by those 
of Amsterdam, and tlie trade spoyled.' See ' Raw. 
linson MS.,' printed by the Camden Society, K.S. 89. 

Wicked Street {The) of ancient 
Kome, at the foot of the Esquiline Hill. 
So called because here Tullia, the daugh- 
ter of Servius Tullius, drove her chariot 
over the murdered body of her old father, 
who had been king of Rome forty-four 
years. 

Wic'lifites (8 syl.). Disciples of 
Wiclif. Also called ' Lollards.' They 
denied the dogma of transubstantiation, 
Wiclif lived 1324-1384. 

Wigs. In the middle of the 18th 
cent, there were thirty-three different 
sorts of wigs in use : — 

The Artichoke wig. 
Bag wig. 
Barrister's wig. 
Bishop's wig. 
Brush wig. 
Bush wig. 
Buckle wig. 
Chain wig. 
Chancellor's wig. 
Corded wolf s paw. 
Count Saxe smode. 
Crutch wig. 
Cut bob wig. 
Detached buckle 

wig. 
Drop wig. 
Dutch wig. 
Full wig. 



The Half-natural. 
Jansenist bob. 
Judge's wig. 
Ladder wig. 
Long bob. 
Louis' wig. 
Periwig. 
Pigeons wing. 
Rhinoceros wig. 
Rose. 

Scratch wig. 
She dragon. 
Small black wig. 
Spinage [.s-ic] seed 

wig. 
Staircase. 
Welsh wig. 
Wild boixr's back. 



His periwig was large enough to have loaded a 
camel, and he bestowed upon it at least a bushel 
of powder.— Brown, Letters (time Charles II.). 

Sing [? singe] old Rose and burn the bellows 
(burn Hbellos). 

Wigs were worn by bishops In the House of 
Lords till 1830, when Blomfield bishop of London 
obtained permission of William IV. for bishops to 
discontinue their use. 

The oldest wig in the world is of ancient Egyp- 
tian manufacture. It was found in a tomb at 
Thebes, and is now in the British Museum. 

Wilburites (3 syl.). A new sect of 
Quakers of great strictness, founded by 
John Wilbur, who insisted most rigidly 
on the traditions and peculiarities of the 
society. This movement was the counter- 
action of the Hicksite movement in 1827. 

Wild Scots of Gal way {The). 

The Galwegians, a mixed race, partly 
Irish-Scots of Argyllshire, partly Picts. 

Wilfrid's Needle {St.). The crypt 
of Ripon Cathedral. The eye of this 
' needle ' is a hole in a wall through 
which women suspected of unchastity 
were required to * thread themselves,' as 
evidence of their innocence. 

There is a ' Wilfrid's Needle ' in Belvoir Castle, 
spoken of by Bishop [Joseph] Hall. Others are 
also referred to occasionally. 

Wilkes's Riots, 1768. In No. 45 
of the ' North Briton,' conducted by 
Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, the king 
was charged with telling a deliberate lie 
in his speech from the throne. The 
royal party was so infuriated that Wilkes 
fled to France, but returned in 1768, and 
was sentenced to imprisonment for 
twenty-two months. The mob rose in 
insurrection on behalf of their champion, 
and resolved to conduct him in triumph 
to Westminster. The yeomanry were 
called out. Wilkes was expelled from 
the house, but was re-elected by an over- 
whelming majority. Soon afterwards he 
was made a London alderman, lord 
mayor, and eventually member for Middle- 
sex, and chamberlain of London — a very 
lucrative office. 

William I. ' Wilhelm ' king of Prus- 
sia and German emperor; born 1797, 
died 1888. 

King of Prussia, 1861-1888. 

German Emperor, 1871-1888. 

Father, Friedrich Wilhelm III. (second son); 
Mother, Louisa Augusta of MecklenburgStrclitz ; 
Wife, Louisa Augusta, daughter of Karl Friedrich 
of Saxe-Weimar. Contemporaru with Victoria. 

*^^* His son, Friedrich Wilhelm [Nicholas], born 
183i, married Victoria princess royal of England 
in ia58. He succeeded his father in March, but 
died in June 1888. 



WILLIAM 



WILLIAMITES 



949 



William I. the Conqueror (1025, 
1066-1087). First of the Norman dy- 
nasty of England, which supplied four 
sovereigns— viz. William I., William II. 
(his son), Henry I. (brother of William II.), 
and Stephen (brother-in-law of the last 
two kings). 

Father, Kobert le DIable duke of Normandy 
(William was a natural son). His moVier was Ar- 
lete, Harlotta, or Herleva=' beloved,' and her 
father was a tanner of Falaise, II'i/c, Matilda, 
daughter of Baldv/in V. count of Flanders. His 
daughter Adela married Stephen count of Blois, 
and it was their son Stephen who usurped the 
crown. 

Style, and title : Qulielmus rex Anglorum, comes 
Normannorum et Cenomanentium. 

*,* The Cenomani were a people in what is now 
called Mans, in France. 

"William II., Rufus, or ' The Eed 

King' (1056, 1087-1100), the second king 
of England from the Conquest. He was 
the second son of William I. {q.v.), and 
usurped the crown of his elder brother 
Robert. 

Fatlter, William I. ; Mother, Matilda, daughter of 
Baldwin V. count of Flanders. Never married ; 
shot in New Forest while hunting by Sir Walter 
Tyrell, whether by accident or design was never 
known. Hisstyleand title: Gulielmus rex Anglorum. 
Sometimes ' Gulielmus monarchicus Britannise.' 

William III. and Mary. Fifth 
of the Stuart dynasty of Great Britain. 
William III. (1650, 1689-1702). Mary 
(1662, 1689-1694). No issue. 

Father of William, William II. of 
Orange ; Mothe7; Mary, eldest daughter 
of Charles I. ; Wife (see below), 

Father of Mary, James II. of Great 
Britain ; Mother, Mary d'Este of Modena; 
Husband (see above). 

Style and Title: William and Mary, 
D. G. of England, Scotland, France, and 
Ireland, King and Queen ; Defenders of 
the Faith, &c. Aftei* the death of Mary 
in 1694 the needful alterations were of 
course made. 

The horse on which William III. was riding 
when he received his fatal accident was named 

Sorrel.' Pope says:— 

Angels who watched the guardian oak lio well, 

How chanced ye slept when luckless Sorrel fell ? 

*,* The principality of Orange consisted of a 
part of the present department of Vauclnse ; and 
the House was founded in the 9th cent, In 1530 
Nassau was added by the marriage of Otto of Nas- 
sau with Claude de Chalon of Orange. In 1599 
William of Orange and Nassau was elected 
stadtholder of Holland. After the death of Wil, 
liam III. of England the line of Orange and Nassau 
became extinct, whereupon Louis .\IV. claimed 
the principality of Orange and added it to France. 

William IV. (1765, 1830-1837). 
Third son of George III., and brother of 
George IV., the preceding king. His 
brother, Frederick duke of York, the 
second son of George III., died in 1827. 



William was duke of Clarence. Being 
brought up in the navy service, he became 
Lord Admiral of England, and was called 
' The Sailor King.' By Mrs. Jordan he 
had eight children : George Fitzclarence, 
Frederick Fitzclarence, Augustus, and 
the five daughters Sophia, Mary, Eliza- 
beth, Augusta, and Amelia. 

Father, George III, ; Mother, Charlotte Sophia of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; U'ife, Adelaide, daughter 
of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; two children, 
both died in infancy. Next lieir to the crou:n,yic- 
toria, daughter of his brother Edward duke of 
Kent. Style and title, William IV., D.G. of England, 
Scotland, and Ireland, King, Defender of the 
Faith, &c, 

William the Bad (*, 1154-1166). 

William I. of Sicily. 

William the Conqueror. Wil- 
liam I. {q.v,). So called because he con- 
quered Harold in the battle of Senlac, 
and thus became king of England. 

He had four sons and six daughters. His sons 
were Robert (twice supplanted by his younger 
brothers) ; William II. (Kufus), who succeeded his 
father ; Richard, who was killed by an accident ; 
and Henry I,, who succeeded his brother Wil- 
liam II. 

His daughters were Cecilia, Constance, Adela 
who married Stephen count of Blois (whose son 
Stephen succeeded Henry I.), Adeliza, Agatha, 
and Gundred. 

William the Conqueror's 

Comet, 1066. This comet was visible 
in China from 2 April for 67 days ; it was 
visible in Europe from May for 40 days. 
Never comet excited such attention. In 
the famous tapestry of Queen Matilda 
several figures are represented gazing at 
this comet, and the inscription below is 

* Isti mirantur stellam.' 

William the Good (1154, 1166- 

1189). William II. king of Sicily, son of 
William the Bad. 

William the Lion of Scotland 
(1166-1214). So called because he was 
the first who introduced a lion in the 
armorial bearings of Scotland. The chief 
of the Scottish heralds is called Lyon 
king of arms. 

William the Silent (1533, 1544- 

1584), prince of Orange. Assassinated 
by Balthasar Gerard at Delft. 

Williamites (3 syh), in French 

* Guiliemites ' (3 syl.), in Italy ' Guglielm- 
otes,' 1153. A religious institution founded 
by St. William of Malavalle, which 
rapidly spread through all Italy, Ger- 
many, and France. They were called 
White Mantles because they wore large 
white mantles. 



950 



WILLIAMS 



WINDSOE 



Williams Prize {The George). 
Theology. Given to the best student in 
the theological tripos. Value about 9Z. 
Founded in the University of Cambridge 
by friends of the Rev. George Williams, 
formerly fellow of King's College, 1882. 

Will's Coffee House. In the 

reign of Charles II. near Covent Garden, 
at the western corner of Bow Street. It 
was the great emporium of libels and 
scandals, but was one of the best in 
London, and had acquired the sobriquet 
of 'the Wits' Coffee-house.' Here the 
frequenters heard the talk of the town 
about the poets, authors, and other cele- 
brities, and here was the ' Observator,' 
and all the Tory and Whig journals of 
the day; and here would be found 
Matthew Prior, John Dryden, Betterton 
the tragedian, and other celebrities. 

Wills and Uses {The two Statutes 
of), 1634. Passed by the Irish parlia- 
ment, giving to the crown of England a 
share and interest in the education of the 
heirs-apparent of the great families of 
Ireland. Of course, the object was to 
bring them up Protestants, like the son 
of the Earl of Ormond, formerly the 
king's ward. 

Winchester. Henry III, of Eng- 
land was surnamed Winchester from the 
place in which he was born (1206, 1216- 
1272). 

'Win.oh.eBtQT {The Statute of), 1285. 
A renewal of the ' Assize of Arms ' {q.v.), 
i.e. basing the preservation of public 
order on the strict enforcement of the 
local system of frank-pledge. By this 
statute every man was bound to hold 
himself in readiness for the king's ser- 
vice, every man was to join in the hue 
and cry after felons, every district was 
held responsible for all crimes committed 
within its bounds, the gates of every town 
were required to be closed at nightfall, 
every stranger was required to give an 
account of himself to a magistrate, and all 
brushwood and cover for thieves was to 
be destroyed for 200 feet on each side of 
a high road. 

Winchester Book {The). The 
register of King Alfred's survey of 
England drawn up by his council at 
Winchester. 

Winchester College [Seinte Marie 
College of Wynchestre], 1387. Founded 



by William of Wykeham, bishop of Win- 
chester. 

The famous dulce cUimwin is still sung in the 
courts of the college before the breaking up of the 
school for long vacation. It is very funny that 
the solecism should have so caught the fancy. 

Winchester Reading Prizes 

{The). For reading classical English 
poetry and prose, the scriptures and 
liturgy. Two prizes of the value of 40^., 
two-thirds to be given to the best reader, 
and one-third to the second best. 
Founded in the University of Cambridge 
by an anonymous donor in 1886. 

Wind, Protestant and Popish. 

See p. 718, ' Protestant.' 

Windsor Prophecy {The), 1712. 
A scurrilous set of verses by Swift, after- 
wards dean of St. Patrick's, Dublin. In this 
' prophecy ' Elizabeth duchess of Somerset 
is called ' Carrots ' for her red hair, and is 
accused of assassinating Thomas Thynne 
of Longleat,her second husband. She was 
daughter and heiress of Joceline duke of 
Northumberland, and married Lord Ogle, 
son of the Duke of Newcastle, when only 
11 years old. She was a widow at 13, 
and married Thomas Thynne, who was 
shot by Count Kbnigsmark, a German 
adventurer. Being thus a widow again 
at the age of 14, she took for her third 
husband the Duke of Somerset, who died 
1748. 

But England, dear England, if I understand, 
Beware of Carrots from Northumberland {daughter 

oj . . .) 
Carrots, however Thynne, a deep root may get 

(second husband),^ 
If so be they are in Summer-set (.third husband). 
Their Cunning s-mark thou, for I have been told 

(shot Thynne) 
They asscissinc when young and poison when old. 
Boot out those Carrots, thou whose name 
Spelt backwards and forwards is always the same 

(Anna or Queen Anne), 
And keep close to thee always that name 
Which backwards and forwards is almost the same 

(Mrs. Mosham). 
And England, wouldst thou be happy still, 
Bury those Carrots under a Hill. 

(Mrs. Masham s maiden name was Abigail Hill). 

When Sw^ift s name was given to the queen for 
the vacant see of Hereford the Duchess of Somer- 
set set her face against the appointment, and Swift 
lost his bishopric. The ostensible plea against 
him was his ' Tale of a Tub.' 

Windsor Soap. ' Soapy Sam,' 
Bishop of Oxford. Called ' Soap ' from 
an inscription on the porch of Cuddesdon 
College. S. Oxon was the founder and 
Alfred Potts the first principal. The 
bishop himself observed the curious com- 
bination of letters S.O., A.P. ' Windsor ' 
was added because Samuel Wilberforce 



WINDY 



WINTERS 



951 



was a great favourite with the court at 
Windsor (1805-1873). 

Samuel Wilberforce was transferred to Win- 
chester. 

"Windy Cap. Eric king of Sweden, 
second to none, says Olaus Magnus, in 
magical arts, was so familiar with evil 
spirits that what way soever he turned 
his cap the wind would presently blow 
that way. Historia de Gentibus Septen- 
trionalibus, Romae, 1555. 

Wines of Africa and Asia. 

JBithynian wine from the Mer sites 
grape was of a very choice quality. The 
wines of Byblos, in Phoenicia, vied in 
fragrancy with Lesbian wine. The white 
wines of Mareotis and Tcenia, in Lower 
Egypt, were of unrivalled excellence ; 
the former was sometimes called Alex- 
andi-ian. The wine of Meroe resembled 
Falernian (Lucan, 'Pharsalia,' x. 161). 
Tceniotic wine was greenish, luscious, 
and aromatic. The wine of Antylla, in 
the vicinity of Alexandria, and the 
Sebennytic wines were also commended. 
On the mountain of Tmolus, in Lydia, 
was produced a brown wine, described 
as first rate by Virgil and Galen. The 
Scybellites of Galatia was thick and 
sweet. The Ahates of Cilicia was a 
sweet red wine. Tlie Tibenum, the 
Arsynium, and the Titucazeiiuni were 
of lighter growth, the first two being 
dry red wines, and the last a sweet wine 
of paler colour. 

Wines of Ancient Greece. 

The earliest wine was the Maronean, a 
sweet black wine, so called from the 
district where it was made, which was on 
the coast of Thrace. Usually mixed 
with twenty parts of water; in Pliny's 
time with only eight parts of water; 
Sciathos, another black wine of lighter 
quality, being drunk half and half. 
Pramnian, a dry red wine, made from 
grapes grown on the Pramnian hill, in 
the island of Icaros. Corinthian wine, 
so astringent that Alexis declares it was 
real tortui-e to drink it ('Athen.' i. 24). 
The luscious sweet wines were Lesbian, 
Chian, Thasian, Corcyrian, Cyprian, 
Cretan, Cnidian, and li/todian, all 
white wines. The Saprian (qy. Chian) 
wine was famous for its aroma; the 
Lesbian had less ai'oma, but was very 
delicious. Pliny places the Clazomenian 
wine of Ionia in the first rank. Virgil 



calls the Phanean the king of wines. 
Of light wines we have the Mendean 
(from Mende, in Thrace), a white wine ; 
the Argitis (* Georgics,' ii. 99), and 
Omphacites. 

Winter King (The). Frederick V. 
(who married Elizabeth, daughter of 
James I. of England), who was crowned 
at Pragfue king of Bohemia, 25 Oct., 
1619, and was driven from the throne by 
the Catholics, 8 Nov., 1620. He was 
king for one winter and no more. 

Frederick, elector palatine, was made king of 
Bohemia in opposition to Kaiser Ferdinand II. 

Winter Queen (The). Elizabeth, 
daughter of James I. of Great Britain, 
and wife of Frederick V. the 'Winter 
King.' 

Winters (Cold). 1709, the severest 
winter on record. The following were 
cold winters : 

1067. Thousands of travellers in Germany were 

frozen to death. 
1133. Wine casks in France and Spain were frozen, 

and many trees in Italy were split by the 

frost. 
1179. The snow up to Easter was eight feet deep in 

Austria. 
1233. The Po was frozen over. 
1236. The Danube was frozen to the very bottom. 

The Cattegat between Norway and Jutland 

was also frozen. 
1281. Many houses in Austria were actually buried 

in snow. 
1292. Travellers passed on the ice from Norway to 

Jutland. The Rhine was frozen over. 
1314. All the rivers of Italy were frozen. 
1323. Travellers passed on the ice from Dantzic to 

Denmark. 
1364. The sea at Venice was frozen. 
1408. Travellers passed on the ice from Norway to 

Denmark. 
1434. It snowed forty days and forty nights in 

Germany without intermission. 
1468. Wine in casks and bottles throughout all 

Europe was frozen. 
1580. The Great and Little Belt were frozen over. 
1('.22. The Hellespont was frozen over. 
1658. Charles X. led his whole army over the ice 

from Holstein to Denmark. 
1692. The Zuydfir-Zee was entirely frozen over. 
1684. Coaches plied on the Thames. 
1709-10 was infinitely colder than any of the pre- 
ceding. The frost penetrated three yards (!) 

into the ground. The olive plantations in 

France ^\e^e utterly destroyed. Birds died 

by thousands, and trees with vegetables 

were killed in all directions. The Adriatic 

was frozen over, so was the coast of the 

Mediterranean about Genoa. 
1729 was a continued frost from October to May 

1730. 
1740 was the coldest winter known except that 

of 1709. 
1744 was a severe winter. 
1776. Wine was frozen in the cellars in France and 

Holland. And in England the destruction 

of birds and fishes was frightful. 
1794 was a continuous frost from 24 Dec. to 14 

Feb., 1795. 
1796. Dec. 25 was the coldest day ever known in 

London. Fahr. thermom. was 16° below 

zero(!). 
1814. A fair was; held on the Thames. 



952 



WINTON 



WIVES 



1848. On one occasion the mercury in the thermo- 
meter was frozen. 

1860 was one of the severest winters ever known In 
Britain. On Christmas Day the thermo- 
meter on the grass stood 13° below zero Fah- 
renheit. The three coldest days were 24, 
25, 20 Dec. 
*,* Remember 32° is freezing, so that— 16"=46° of 

frost. Apparently a correct observation. 

Winton Domesday (The). Con- 
taining two surveys of the city of Win- 
chester: one made between 1107 and 
1128, and the other made in 1148. 
Published by Sir Henry Ellis in the 
second of the supplementary volumes of 
Domesday Book, 1816. 

Wire Age {The). The Golden Age, 
the Silver Age, the Age Of Bronze, and 
the Iron Age have had their day, and we 
now live in the Wire Age. Every street 
and almost every road is crowded with 
telegraph wires, which are stretched 
over our houses and sunk under our 
seas. Our books are stitched with wire, 
our clocks set by wire, our watches run 
by wire, our politics are managed by 
wire ; we announce our wants, our news, 
our going and coming by wire ; use wire 
covers for our meat, wire sieves, and 
wire pulls for our gongs; we sleep on 
wire mattresses, and indeed in every 
department of life wire is our slave (1890). 

"Wisconsin (U.S. America). So 
called in 1836 from its river of the same 
name. The inhabitants are nicknamed 
Badgeis. 

"Wisest Fool in Christendom 

{The). James I. of England was so 
called by Sully, the French politician 
(1566, 1603-1625). 

Witch of Eye {The). Marjory 
Jourdemain, with whom Dame Eleanor 
Cobham, the mistress and afterwards 
wife of the ' Good duke Humphrey [Duke 
of Gloucester], protector of the realm in 
the minority of his nephew Henry VI., 
Dame Eleanor was accused of sorcery 
with intent to bewitch the king and raise 
her husband to the throne.' Marjory 
was burnt as a witch at Smithfield, 1441. 

Witchcraft. So late as 1805 a 
woman was tried at Kirkcudbright for 
witchcraft, and actually sentenced to a 
year's imprisonment, and to be set once 
a quarter in the pillory. Elspeth Rule 
in 1709 was tried in Dumfries in the 
Court of Justiciary, and condemned for 
witchcraft to have her cheek branded 
with a hot iron. Documents referring 



to Elspeth M'Ewen, who was burnt to 
death in a tar-barrel for witchcraft in 
1697 at Kirkcudbright, have recently 
been unearthed, in which is this item : 
' Payed to Robert Creighton ... 8 shill 
Scots for beating the drum at Elspet 
M'Queen's funeral, and to James Carsson 
his wife threeten shillings drunken by 
Elspet's executioner at seall times.' 

That is, James Carsson's wife. 

Witches' Hammer {The), 15th 
cent. An infamous document drawn up 
by John Gremper, an ecclesiastic, laying 
down with great minuteness the charac- 
teristics of witches and wizards, the 
skin-marks to be sought for, the familiar 
which clung to them in the shape of cat, 
dog, goat, or other pet animal, and the 
questions to be asked in order to convict 
them out of their own mouths. 

Pope Innocent VIII. led the way to this witch 
persecution by his bull of 1484, which charged the 
inquisitors and all true Catholics diligently to 
search out and put to death all who practised the 
diabolical arts of witchcraft, magic, sorcery, and 
enchantment. 

Wit'ena-gemo'te {The). The mote 
or council of wise men. In Saxon times 
each kingdom, before 827, had its sepa- 
rate gemote, but after that date there 
was one general assembly composed of 
ecclesiastics, aldermen, and large land- 
holders, held every Christmas, Easter, 
and Whitsuntide. In the year 984 the 
gemote (2 syl.) was attended by King 
Athelstan, 4 Welsh princes, 2 archbishops, 
17 bishops, 4 abbots, 12 dukes, and 52 
thanes. The Witena-gemote ordained 
the king's succession, made laws and 
treaties, levied taxes, regulated military 
and church affairs, and was a supreme 
court of justice. See ' Shire-mote.' 

Witena is the gen. plural of the Anglo-Saxon 
wita, a wise man (verb uitan, 'to know '—our 
' wit '), and gemote is an assembly, from the verb 
metan, ' to meet together.' The king presided in 
hig robes of state. 

Witling of Terror {The). Ber- 
trand Barere de Vieuzac, president of 
the National Convention in 1792. So 
called from the flowery language in 
which he spoke on all measures of the 
reign of terror. Also called the ' Ana- 
creon of the Guillotine.' 

Wives of the English Kings. 

I. Before the Conquest : — 

Lady Redburga. 



Egbert 
Ethelwolf 



Lady Osburga, whose fathei 
was the Great Butler of 
England (mother of Alfred 
the Great). 



WIVES 



WOMAN-PLOGGER 



953 



I 



Alfred 

Edward the Elder 

Edmund 

Edgar 

Ethelred 

Edmund Ironside 

Edward the Con- 
fessor 



1. Judith daughter of Charles 

the Bald of France. 

2. Ethelswitha or Answinta 

daughter of the Earl of 
Mercia. 

1. Lady Eguina. 

2. Elfleda. 

3. Edgiva mother of Ed- 

mund. 
Lady Elgiva. 

1. Ethelfled. 

2. Elfrida daughter of Ord- 

garus duke of Devon- 
shire. 

1. Elgiva daughter of Duke 

Thored. 

2. Emma daughter of Rich- 

ard II. duke of Normandy. 
Algitha widow of Segeforth, 

a Dane. 
Edgitha daughter of Earl 

Godwins. 



II. Since the Conquest : — 



WiUiam I. the Con- 
queror 
Henry I 

Stephen 

Henry II 

Bichard Cceur de 
Lion 



Henry III. ... 
Edward I. ... 
Edward II. ... 
Edward III. 

Richard II. .. 



Henry IV. .. 

Henry V. ., 
Henry VI. .. 
Edward IV. 

Richard III. 
Henry VII... 



Henry VUI. 



James I. 
Charles I. 



..A 



Matilda daughter of Baldwin 

V. count of Flanders. 
Matilda or Maud daughter of 

Malcolm III. of Scotland. 
Matilda daughter of Eustace 

count of Boulogne. 
Eleanor of Guienne, divorced 

wife of Louis VII. of France. 
Berengaria daughter of 

Sancho VI. of Navarre. 

1. A daughter of the Earl of 

Mortagne. 

2. Avisa daughter of William 

earl of Gloucester, 
mother of Henry III. 

3. Isabella of France. 
Eleanor daughter of Ray- 

monet earl of Provence. 
Eleanor sister of Alfonso XI. 

king of Castile. 
Isabella daughter of Philippe 

IV. of France. 
Philippa of Hainault. 

1. Anne daughter of Kaiser 

Karl IV. of Germany. 

2. Isabella, aged seven, 

daughter of Charles VI. 
of France. 

1. Mary le Bohun daughter 

of the Earl of Hereford. 

2. Jane daughter of Charles 

the Bald of Navarre and 

widow of John duke of 

Brittany. 

Catherine daughter 

Charles VI. of France. 

Margaret daughter of 

Duke of Anjou. 
Elizabeth daughter of 
Richard Woodville of Graf- 
ton, Northamptonshire. 
Anne Neville widow of Ed- 
ward prince of Wales. 
Princess Elizabeth daughter 
of Edward IV. 

1. Catharine of Aragon 

mother of Mary, who 
married Philip [II.] of 
Bpain. 

2. Anne Boleyn mother of 

Elizabeth. 
8. Jane Seymour mother of 
Edward VI. 

4. .\nne of Cleves. 

5. Catharine Howard. 

6. Catharine Parr. 
Ann of Denmark. 
Henrietta daughter of Henri 

IV. of France, 



of 
the 



Sir 



Charles II.* The Infanta Katharine of 

Portugal. 
' 1. Ann Hyde daughter of 
the Earl of Clarendon, 
mother of Mary and 
Anne. 
.2. Mary d'Este of Modena. 
William III. ... Mary daughter of James II. 

and Anne Hyde. 
(Anne married Prince George of Denmark.) 

George I Sophia daughter of George 

William duke of Brunswick 
and Zell. 

George II Wilhelmina daughter of John 

Frederick margrave of 
Anspach. 

George III Charlotte of Mecklenburgh- 

Strelitz. 
George IV Caroline princess of Bruns- 
wick. 
William IV, ... Adelaide daughter of the 
Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. 
(Victoria married .A.lbort second son of Ernest 
duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.) 
* Cromwell married Elizabeth daughter of Sir 
James Bouchier of Essex. 

Wizard of the Sea {The). Capt. 
Kidd, 17th cent. Executed for piracy 
12 May, 1701. 

"Wolf of America {The). Mont- 
gomery, who led the attack on Quebec in 
1775. The English Wolfe took Quebec, 
and fell in the hovir of victory; Mont- 
gomery tried to take it, but failed, being 
killed in the hour of defeat. 

Wolf of Badenoch {The). Sir 
Alexander Stewart, fourth son of Robert 
II. by his first wife Elizabeth, daughter 
of Sir William Mure of Rowallan, who 
was related to him within the prohibited 
degrees and was divorced. Sir Alexander, 
who was earl of Buchan, was fierce and 
savage as a wolf. 

Some say he was grandson of Robert II., and 
third son of Robert duke of Albany. 

Wolf of Plinlimmon {The). 
Gwenwyn prince of Powys Land during 
the reign of Henry II. 

Wolsey of Hungary {The). The 
Cardinal Martinuzzi (16th cent.). 

Wolsey's Foundation at Ox- 
ford, 1524. Called ' Cardinal College.' 
In 1546 the name was changed to 
' Christ Church College.' 

Woman-flogger {The). Julius 
Jakob baron von Haynau (1786-1853). 
An Austrian general who signalized him- 
self during the Italian campaigns of 
1848-1849 by ruthless cruelty. His 
flogging of women refers to his treatment 
of the defeated Hungarians, and his 
infamy excited the detestation of all 
Europe. In 1850 he came to England 
and visited the brewery of Barclay & 



954 



WOMEN 



WONDERFUL 



Perkins in London, when he was as- 
saulted by the draymen and narrowly 
escaped with his life. He afterwards 
visited Belgium and France, and was 
received with strong demonstrations of 
popular hatred. 

"Woineil {The Four Perfect). Miriam 
sister of Moses, Mary mother of Jesus, 
Cadi j ah the first wife of Mahomet, and 
Fatima his daughter. 

"Women's Rights. A political 
movement first started in 1851 by the 
' Westminster Review.' It includes the 
right of suffrage, for which a petition 
was presented to parliament in 1866. 
Their industrial rights include admission 
to the Universities and the right of en- 
gaging in the higher professions. The 
third claim is the right of married women 
to hold and bequeath property. 

In 1869 the municipal franchise was conferred 
on women. Several colleges for women have 
been opened in Cambridge and Oxford ; and the 
Women's Property Act enables them both to hold 
and bequeath property. 

"Wonderful Boy of Devizes 

(The). Sir Thomas Lawrence, born at 
Bristol, the great painter of portraits. 
Died 1830 at the age of sixty. 

"Wonderful Boys. 

Babatieb [Johann Philip), 1721-1740. 
German. At the age of five he knew 
Greek, Latin, and French, besides his 
native German. At nine he knew Hebrew 
and Chaldee, and could translate Ger- 
man into Latin. At thirteen he could 
translate Hebrew into French, or vice 
versa. His life was written by Formey, 
and an account of him is inserted in 
most biographical dictionaries. 

Bassle {Crustave Adolph). In the 
first half of the 19th cent, exhibited his 
wonderful powers at Willis's Rooms 
under the patronage of the Duke of 
Sussex. About 20,000 questions had 
been prepared by the duke's authority, 
and were circulated amongst the audi- 
ence. These questions were in sacred 
and profane history, chronology, physical 
science, mythology, statistics, arithmetic, 
geography, cosmography, and natural 
history. Any one of the audience might 
put any question to the boy, or as many 
as he pleased, in any order, and the boy 
instantly answered without a mistake. 
Several members of the British Associa- 
tion were present, and took part in the 
function. 



It was said that much of this was due to the 
science of ' sunemonics,' a predecessor of 'mne- 
monics.' 

Betty {Williajn Henry West). Made 
his debut in London as an actor in 1803, 
being about twelve years of age. In 
fifty-six nights he realised 34,000Z., and 
with wonderful sagacity retired into pri- 
vate life. He died in 1874 at the age of 84. 

The greatest mark of genius was his retirement 
in the full tide of his popularity. 

BiDDEB {George Parker). At the age 
of six amused himself by counting up to 
a million. He became an engineer, and 
baffled the parliamentary counsel on 
contested railway bills by confuting their 
statements of figures before the words 
were out of their mouths. In 1856 he 
showed to the members of the Institution 
of Civil Engineers that these calculations 
were not made by dodges, but seriatim, 
only with inconceivable rapidity (b. 1800). 

Buxton {Jedediah), son of a school- 
master. On hearing a sermon he would 
tell at once how many words the preacher 
had spoken. If a period of time was 
mentioned, he would instantly calculate 
how many seconds had elapsed since 
then to the time. He was taken to see 
Garrick in ' Richard III.,' but his sole 
amusement was to count the number of 
words he uttered. He once set himself 
to reckon how much a farthing would 
amount to if doubled 140 times ; the 
answer contained thirty-nine figures re- 
presenting pounds. In 1750 he reckoned 
how many grains of eight different kinds 
of corn and pulse would cover 200,000 
miles, and how many hairs would make 
an inch. What is strange is this — he 
could suspend a calculation at any mo- 
ment, and take it up again hours or days 
afterwards. (1704-1775.) 

Candiac {Jean Louis Elizabeth de 
MontcalTn de), we are told, knew his 
letters when an infant inarms. At three 
years he could read fluently both Latin 
and French either in print or MS. At 
four he could translate Latin. At five he 
could translate the most difficult Latin 
authors. At six he could read Greek 
and Hebrew, was good at arithmetic, 
history, heraldry, geography, and the 
science of medals. At seven years of 
age he had read the chief poets, orators, 
historians, philosophers, grammarians, 
&c. But he died before he had com- 
pleted his seventh year. (1719-1726.) 

Dictionnaire d' Education, 1819, and most biogra- 
phical dictionaries, under the word ' Montcalm.' 



WONDERFUL 



WOOD 



956 



His elder brother Louis Joseph marquis de Mont- 
calm (born 171"2) commanded the French army in 
Canada and defeated Abercromby ; but was mor- 
tally wounded in 1769 under the walls of Quebec. 

CoLBUKN [Zerah). A native of Vermont, 
in the United States ; came to London 
in 1812, being eight years old, and an- 
swered most comphcated problems, such 
as raising 8 to the sixteenth power; 
giving the square root of 106,929, the 
cube root of 268,336,125 ; and how many 
seconds in fifty years. He never re- 
quired above a second or two for his 
answer, but knew nothing of arithmetic. 
Zerah had more than the usual number 
of fingers and toes, so had his father 
and brothers. Later, his mathematical 
powers disappeared to a great extent. 
(1804-1840.) 

'H.^ia^c'KEsT^ [Christian Heinrich). At 
one year old knew the chief events of the 
Pentateuch ! At thirteen months he 
knew the history of the Old Testament ! 
At fourteen months he knew the history 
of the New Testament! At two-and-a- 
half years of age he could answer any 
ordinary question of history or geogi-ajihy. 
And at three years old he knew French 
and Latin, as well as his native German, 
The life of this boy v/as written by 
Schoeneich, his tutor, and his name, like 
that of Baratier, is inserted in most bio- 
graphical dictionaries. (1721-1725.) 

Mangiamete {Nito). A Sicilian, son of 
a shepherd. At eleven years old (July, 
1839) he was examined by Arago, Lacroix, 
Libri, Sturm, and others, sent for the 
purpose by the Academy of Science in 
Paris. He was asked to give the cube 
root of 3,796,416, which he answered in 
one minute ; he gave the 10th root of 
282,475,249 in three minutes. He was 
then asked by M. Arago, ' What number 
has the following proportions : if the 
cube is added to five times its square, 
and then 42 times the number, and the 
number 42 be subtracted from the result, 
the remainder will be ? ' Before M. 
Arago had finished his question the boy 
answered 5. 

Viscount {Ennius), we are told, could 
' read Greek and Latin, as well as his 
own language [Italian], before he was 
four years old. He was exhibited as a 
prodigy between the age of four and five, 
and submitted to a public examination. 
Viscount died in 1818, aged sixty- seven. 

"Wonderful Castle [The). The 
palace built of stone at Tuam by Roderic 



O'Connor (1161). Castles were till the 
12th cent, built of wood in Ireland. 

Probably there were stone or brick structures 
in Ireland before the 12th century, as. for example, 
the Round Towers, but they were so rare that the 
palace of Tuam was called ' Wonderful.' 

"Wonderful Doctor {The). 
' Doctor Mirabilis,' Roger Bacon (1214- 
1292). A Franciscan monk, bom at 
Ilchester, in Somersetshire. His chief 
work is called ' Opus Majus.' He looked 
with contempt on ' Scholastic Theology.' 

Wonderful Parliament {The), 

or ' Wonder-making Parliament,' 3 Feb., 
1388. Convened by Thomas [Plan- 
tagenet] duke of Gloucester in the reigu 
of his nephew Richard II. The chan- 
cellor, De la Pole, having been impeached 
in 1386 by the commons, the duke pro- 
ceeded to establish a permanent council 
of fourteen, consisting of his own par- 
tisans, to inquire into everything in the 
king's household, the ministry, the law 
courts, and the condition of the people. 
Gloucester was at the head, and the 
king, now nearly twenty-one years of 
age, was virtually deposed. All sove- 
reign prerogatives for five months lay 
with the council. The king protested, 
the judges declared the proceedings un- 
constitutional axid the parliament guilty 
of treason. The king impeached the 
chief members, but Gloucester, at the 
head of 40,000 men, compelled the king 
to give way, and resolved to depose 
him. Several of the king's friends were 
arrested, and some were put to death. 
Strangest of all, it declared that its judg- 
ments should never be reversed, nor its 
acts repealed. It was dissolved 3 June^ 
1388. See p. 664, ' Parliament.' 

Wood of the Cross {The). There 
is an ingenious legend that when Adam 
was buried at Hebron three trees 
sprang from his dead body. David trans- 
planted these trees to Jerusalem, where 
they amalgamated into one. Solomon 
felled the tree, intending to use it for 
the principal of the Temple, but being 
too short it was laid on one side. The 
Jews used this very tree for the Cross, 
and after the crucifixion it was buried 
for more than 200 years, when it was 
discovered in a cave during the visit of 
Helena, the emperor's mother, to Jeru- 
salem. 

This can hardly be called a legend ; it Is a mera 
allegory, to connect the first with the seconU 



956 



WOOD 



WORMS 



Adam; the trinity with unity; and the short 
coming of the law with the everlasting gospel. 

Wood Silver. A payment of money 
instead of wood for the manor fires by 
a tenant farmer (14tli cent.). 

Wood's Halfpence, 1724. Half- 
pence coined for Ireland by William 
Wood, an iron and copper founder of 
Wolverhamptom. There had long been 
a deficiency of copper coin in Ireland, 
and the government contracted with Mr. 
Wood to supply 108,000 pounds' worth of 
halfpence and farthings, of stated weight 
and fineness. Sir Isaac Newton, master 
of the mint, was fully satisfied with the 
way the contract had been carried out, 
and said that, although the weight of the 
Irish coin was a trifle less than that of 
the English copper money, yet Wood had 
fully compensated for this difference by 
superior fineness. Dean Swift, for poli- 
tical purposes, ran down the new coin 
both in prose and verse. One of his 
verses runs thus — 

The halfpence are coming, the nation's undoing, 
There's an end of your ploughing, and baking, 

and brewing. 
In that you must all go to rack and to ruin. 

See ' Drapier s Letters." 

Woodland Party (The). The 
Bianchi faction (q.v.), so called from the 
Cerchi, who lived in woodland ( = rural) 
districts when Dante in exile was thrown 
amongst them. 

Woodstock Grhost (The), 1649. 
A trick played on the commissioners 
sent by the Long Parliament to take pos- 
session of the house. The ghost was 
one of the commissioners' clerks, named 
Giles Sharp, who played his part so 
well that his companions fled from 
Woodstock in terror. The secret was 
kept till the Revolution. 

The real name of Giles Sharp was Joseph Col- 
lins, a concealed Royalist, who had lived at Wood- 
stock and knew every hole and cranny inti- 
mately. 

Wood"v\rardian Professor of 

Geology. Value 500Z. a year. Founded 
in the University of Cambridge by Dr. 
Woodward, 1727. See ' Harkness Scho- 
larship,' ' Sedgwick Prize.' 

W^OO-tae in Chinese history means 
* The period of the Five Races.' During 
the first part of this period the empire 
was divided into southern and northern ; 
the imperial line reigned in the southern 
empire, with Nankin as the seat of 
go^'ernment. The seat of government 



of the northern empire was Ho-nan. In 
A.D. 534 the northern empire was split 
into the eastern or Tong-Oei, and the 
western or Si-Oei". In 587 the three 
empires were united again under the 
12th imperial dynasty, that of Swi. The 
founder was a cobbler named Lieu-yu, 
and when he usurped the throne he was 
named Voo-tee III. The contemporary 
kings of the northern empire were Tao- 
Voo-tee and Ming-yuen-tee. The capital 
of the southern empire was Nan-kin, and 
of the northern empire Ho-nan. 

The five races were Tsong, Tsee, Leang, Tchin, 
and Swi, including the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 
r2th imperial dynasties. 

*,* Voo means trarrior, and tee means iniler. 

Worcester College, Oxford, 1714. 
Foimded by Sir Thomas Cookes, The 
head-master is called the Provost. It 
was originally called Gloucester Hall, 
and was used by the monks of St. Peter, 
Gloucester. 

Working-men's Association 

(The), 1838. A title assumed by the 
Chartists (q.v.). 

Works of Supererogation, 

1274. The belief that our Saviour's 
sufferings were more than sufficient for 
the sins of the world, and hence good 
works were an extra stock which might 
be applied to balance off evil works. As 
saints abounded in good works they 
accumulated a stock of merits which 
could be applied for the benefit of others 
or for redemption of souls from purgatory. 

Workshop Regulation Act 

[The), 1867 (80 & 31 Vict. c. 146), pro- 
vides : 

1. That no child under the age of 8 
shall be employed in any handicraft. 

2. That no child under 13 shall be 
employed for more than 6^ hours a day, 
between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. 

3. That no young person under 18 and 
no woman shall be employed more than 
12 hours, between 5 a.m. and 9 p.m., 
with an hour and a half interval at least 
for meals. 

4. Except in retail business no child 
or woman shall be employed after 2 
o'clock on Saturdays. 

5. No child under 11 shall in any wise 
be employed in grinding or fustian 
cutting. 

Worms {The Diet of), 1521. Con- 
vened by Karl V. to put down the 



WORSHIP 



YANKEE 



957 



new opinions in religion. Luther was 
summoned, and defended himself; but 
the diet convicted' him of hei-esy, and 
issued an edict for his api^rehension, and 
the committal of his books to the flames. 
The Elector of Saxony concealed him 
for nine months, and he escaped. 

Worship of Reason {The), 1793. 
A substitute for Christianity in the first 
French republic. It was the beauty of 
virtue and the arbitrament of reason. 
7 Nov., 1793, Mgr. Gobet, archbishop of 
Paris, with a multitude of other ecclesi- 
astics, went to the Hall of the Convention, 
and there solemnly resigned their func- 
tions and renounced the Christian reli- 
gion. It was then decreed that the 
deities of France should thenceforth be 
Liberty, Equality, and Reason. The 
word ' God ' was prohibited, and all 
Christian rites were abolished. A pro- 
cession was then made to Noti'e Dame, 
where an actress was seated on the 
altar to represent the Goddess of Reason. 

"Worsley's Act {Lord), 1836 (6 & 7 
Will. IV.). The General Enclosure Act. 
Nine years after came a more general 
Act for the enclosure of commons (1845). 

"Wranglers, 1753. In the Univer- 
sity of Cambridge. Originally the Tripos 
consisted of Senior Optimes (3 syl.), 
Junior Optimes, and the Poll-men, or 
Ot iroWoi. But in 1753 the first class 
was divided, and the best men were 
made into a new division called Wranglers. 
The Poll-men were then cut off, and the 
Tripos consisted only of the three honour 
classes called Wranglers, Senior Optimes, 
and Junior Optimes. The first word 
refei-red to the disputations, or acts held 
in the school, which, being highly satis- 
factory, the moderator complimented 
the respondent by saying to him Summo 
ingenii acuniine disputasti ('You have 
wrangled excellently '). To the other 
honour men he said Optime disputasti 
(for Junior Optimes), and OjJthne quidem 
disputasti (for Senior Optimes). 

* Wright of Derby.' Joseph 
Wright (1734-1797), a celebrated land- 
scape painter bom at Derby. His land- 
scapes are noted for elegance of outline 
and judicious management of light and 
shade. 

Writ of Habeas Corpus (16 
Car. I, c. 10), A.D. 1641. It enacts (1) 



that any person arrested for a bailable 
offence shall be set at liberty upon 
giving the awarded bail, with an assurance 
to appear and answer the charge when 
duly called upon so to do ; (2) that 
officers shall not evade this law by shift- 
ing about the custody of a prisoner 
under a penalty of 100/. for the first 
offence and 200/. for the second ; (3) no 
person delivered by habeas corpus shall 
be re-committed; (4) every person 
charged with an offence shall, if he re- 
quires it, be tried in the next session ; 
(5) no prisoner shall be sent out of his 
own country to be tried. Thus an Eng- 
lishman cannot be sent to Scotland, Ire- 
land, the Channel Isles, or to any of 
the Colonies. 

There are four other provisions, but they rather 
pertain to the legal profession than to the general 
public. 

Writer to the Signet, or ' Clerk 
to the Signet.' A Scotch attorney of the 
highest class. At one time the clerks so 
called were in the office of the Secretary 
of State, where writs that passed under 
the royal signet were prepared. 

Wiirzburg {Patron Saint of). 
St. Kilian, an Irislunan, who converted 
a duke of Wiirzburg, and was assassi- 
nated by Geila, who was his brother's 
wife. Kilian told the duke it was un- 
lawful to live with Geila, and the 
exasperated woman sent an assassin to 
murder Kilian while he was celebrating 
midnight service. Geilah = Gy-lah, 

Wyatt's Rebellion, 1553-1554. 

Sir Thomas Wyatt the Younger formed 
a confederacy to oppose the marriage of 
Queen Mary with Philip II. of Spain. 
He marched on London, and the train- 
bands who were sent against him under 
the command of the Duke of Norfolk 
deserted in a mass to the rebel. Wyatt 
pushed on to Temple Bar, which was 
closed against him. He surrendered to 
Sir M. Berkeley, was committed to the 
Tower, tried, convicted, and beheaded. 

Xabatatenses (Wooden shoes), so 
the Waldenses {q.v.) were called from 
xabatata (a wooden sandal), worn in imi- 
tation of the apostles. 

Yankee. A name of badinage ap- 
plied to the North Americans by the 
English, but accepted with pride and 
satisfaction by all true-hearted Ameri- 
cans. It was originally the corruption 



958 



YANKEE 



YEAR 



of the word Anglois by the American 
Indians. Jonathan Hastings, a farmer 
of Cambridge, in New England, in 1713, 
used the word as a synonym of excel- 
lence. ' It is Yankee good,' or good as 
if English made ; and the people of the 
other colonies jocosely called the New 
Englanders ' Jonathan Yankees,' and 
sometimes shortened the phrase either 
into Jonathan or into Yankee. 

Yankee Doodle. The name of a 
well-known tune, one of the ' national 
airs ' of the U.S. ; also a doggerel song 
set to that tune. 

Yassanian Dynasty {The). The 
fourth of the fabulous dynasties of Persia. 
The two names given are Shah Yassan 
the founder, and Yassan Ajem the last 
of the race. It was preceded by the 
Kuleev dynasty, and followed by the 
Paishdadians {q.v.). 

Yatagan, a Turkish sabre worn in 
the sash. 

Year I. of the Revolutionary Calen- 
dar, from 22 Sept., 1792, to 21 Sept., 1793. 
The French Convention announced that 
in future the Christian era was to be 
abolished, and all dates were to be taken 
from the Revolution era. 

The Bepublican calendar was first used 26 Nov., 
1793, and was discontinued 31 Dec, 1805. 

Royalty abolished, 22 Sept., 1792. 

The King Louis XVI. guillotined, 21 January, 
1793; and the Committee of Public Safety in- 
Btituted. 

Fall of the Girondists, 2 June, 1793. 

Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday, 
13 July, 1793. 

New constitution proclaimed, 10 Aug., 1793. 

Year II. of the Revolutionary Calen- 
dar, from 22 Sept., 1793, to 21 Sept., 1794. 
The Queen Marie Antoinette guillotined, 16 Oct., 

1793. 

The Girondists put to death, 31 Oct., 1793. 

Worship of the goddess of Reason introduced, 
10 Nov., 1793. 

The noiiades of Nantes in Dec, 1793. 

Danton and others guillotined, 5 April, 1794. 

Robespierre president of the convention, 4 June, 
1794. 

Revolution of 9 Thermidor and end of the Reign 
of Terror, 27 July, 1794. 

Year III. of the Revolutionary Ca- 
lendar, from 22 Sept., 1794, to 21 Sept., 
1795. 

Jacobin Club closed, Nov., 1794. 
Revolt in La Vendee, July, 1795. 
New constitution (the Directory) appointed, 
22 Aug., 1796. 

Year IV. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1795, to 21 Sept., 
1796. 

Close of the convention, 26 Oct., 1793. 



Napoleon commander-in-chief of the army of 
Italy, 23 Feb., 179(3. 

Napoleon marries Josephine Beauharnais, 9 
March, 1796. 

Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Montenotte, 

12 April, 1796. 

Napoleon defeats the Piedmontese at Millesimo, 

13 April ; at Dego, 15 April ; at Mondovi, 22 April, 
1796. 

Napoleon defeats the Austrians at the bridge of 
Lodi, 10 May, 1796. 

Napoleon enters Milan, 15 May, 1796. 

Napoleon defeats Wurmser at Castiglione, 5 Aug., 
1796. 

Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Boveredo, 
4 Sept., and at Bassano, 8 Sept., 1796. 

Year V. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1796, to 21 Sept., 
1797. 
Al vinzi defeats Napoleon at the bridge of Areola, 

15-17 Nov., 1796. 

The Cispadane Republic formed, Dec, 1796. 

Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Rivoli, 14 
January, 1797. 

Treaty of Tolentino, 19 Feb., 1797. 

Napoleon defeats the Archduke Charles on the 
Tagliamento, 16 March, 1797. 

Year VI. of the Revolutionary Ca- 
lendar, from 22 Sept., 1797, to 21 Sept., 
1798. 

Treaty of Campo Formio, 17 Oct., 1797. 
Napoleon takes Malta, 11 June, 1798. 
Napoleon takes Alexandria, 4 July; wins the 
battle of the Pyramids, 23 July, 1798. 

Year VII. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1798, to 21 Sept., 
1799. 

Napoleon takes Jaffa by storm, 6 March, 1799. 
Napoleon orders the massacre of his prisoners, 
March, 1799. 
Napoleon wins the battle of Aboukir, 25 July, 

1799. 

Year VIII. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1799, to 21 Sept., 
1800. 

Napoleon abolishes the Directory and seizes 
the supreme power, 9, 10 Nov., 1799. 

Napoleon made first consul, 24 Dec, 1799. 

Napoleon passes over the Alps, May, 1800. 

Napoleon wins the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 
1800. 

Year IX. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1800, to 21 Sept., 
1801. 

The infernal machine directed against Napoleon, 
24 Dec, 1800. 

Treaty of Luneville, 9 Feb., 1801. 

Concordat concluded with the pope, Sept., 1801. 

Year X. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1801, to 21 Sept., 
1802. 

Peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 
Napoleon first consul for life, 2 Aug., 1802. 
Piedmont annexed to France, Sept., 1802. 

Year XI. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1802, to 21 Sept., 
1808. 

Napoleon declares war against England, 22 May, 



YEAR 



YEAR 



959 



Napoleon establishes the censorship of the press, 

Sept., 1803. 

Year XII. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1803, to 21 Sept., 
1804. 

The Duo d'Enghien shot at Vincennes, 21 March, 
1804. 

Napoleon assumes the title of Emperor, 18 May, 
1804. 

Napoleon prepares for the invasion of England 
during the summer of 1804. 

Year XIII. of the Revolutionary- 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1804, to 21 Sept., 
1805. 

Napoleon crowned by the pope, 2 Dec., 1804. 
Napoleon crowned at Milan as king of Italy, 
26 May, 1805. 
Napoleon breaks np the camp of Boulogne, 

16 Aug., 1805. 

Year XIV. of the Revolutionary 
Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1805, to 31 Dec, 
1805. This was a year of 466 days, i.e. nine 
extra days in September, with the three 
months of October, November, and De- 
cember, which, of course, were dupli- 
cates. But Napoleon, who abolished 
the calendar, returned to the old system 
on 1 Jan., 1806. 

Napoleon wins the battle of Austerlitz, 2 Dec, 
18C5. 

Peace of Presburg, 25 Dec, 1805. 

Napoleon dethrones the King of Naples, Feb. 
1806. 

Napoleon makes his brother Joseph king of the 
Two Sicilies, March, 1808. 

Napoleon makes his brother Louis king of Hol- 
land, (i June, 1806. 

Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Jena and 
Auerstadt, Oct., 1806. 

Napoleon publishes his Berlin decree, 21 Nov., 



Year Books. Reports. These year- 
books are extant in an unbroken series 
from Edward II. to Henry VIII., and 
were made by the court scribes (protho- 
notaries) at the expense of the crown, 
and published annually. 

Year of Confusion {The), b.c. 46, 
which consisted of sixteen months (445 
days). It was the year a.u.c. 708 when 
Julius Caesar inserted (beside the inter- 
calary month of twenty-three days) two 
extraordinary months between Nov. and 
Dec, one of thirty-three days and the 
other of thirty-four days, in order to ad- 
just the year according to the course of 
the sun. To prevent the recurrence of 
any future confusion, he reformed the 
calendar, making it to consist of 365 days 
and a leap year of 366 days, instead of 
355 and the mensis intercalaris attri- 
buted to Numa. 
The reform was the work of Sosiggnes of Alex- 



andria, who introduced the terms kalends, nones, 
and id(}s, to designate certain divisions of the 
Roman month. Kalends the first day of the 
month, when the priest railed out or announced to 
the peoiile the day of the new moon. Nones, nine 
days before the Ides. The Ides were the 15th of 
March, May, July, and October, but the 13th of the 
other eight months. 

Year of Death (The), a.d. 637, is 
so called by the Arabian historians be- 
cause of the terrible plague which deso- 
lated Syria. As many as 25,000 men of 
the army of the Kalif Omar, encamped 
before Jerusalem, fell victims. Next 
year it desolated Aleppo and Antioch. 

Year of Destruction (The), a.d. 

639, is so called by the Arabs from the 
dreadful plague which broke out at 
Medina. It was preceded by violent 
hailstorms which destroyed enormous 
quantities of corn. 

Year of Jubilee (The). Every 
fiftieth year among the Jewish race, when 
all lands returned to their original owners 
and all slavQs were set free. 

Year of Liberty {The), 1648. After 
the execution of Charles I. his statues in 
the Royal Exchange and in other places 
were taken down, and the following in- 
scription was substituted by Act of Par- 
liament : ' Exit Tyrannus, Regum ulti- 
mus. Anno Libertatis Angliae restitutse 
primo, A.D. 1648, Jan. 30 ' (old style). 

Year of Revolutions {The), 18^8. 
The Chartist demonstration in this 
country; the third of France; the in- 
surrections of Italy ; revolutions in Hun- 
gary and Austria. 

Year of the Deputations {The). 
The eighth of the Hedjrah (a.d. 630), 
when, after the victory near Taif, deputa- 
tions flocked from various tribes to pay 
homage to Mohammed. 

Year of the Revolutionary Calendar. 

1. From 22 Sept., 1792, to 21 Sept., 1793 

2. „ 1793 „ 1794 

3. „ 1794 „ 1795 

4. „ 1795 „ 1796 

5. „ 1796 „ 1797 

6. „ 1797 „ 1798 

7. „ 1798 „ 1799 

8. „ 1799 „ 1800 
9 „ 1800 „ 1801 

10. „ 1801 „ 1802 

11. „ 1802 .. 1803 



U60 



YELLOW 



YELLOW 



12. From 22 Sept., 1803, to 21 Sept., 1804 

13. „ 1804 „ 1805 

14. „ 1805 to 31 Dec, 1805 
When the practice was discontinued. 

Yellow and Blue, in China. The 
followers of Lamaism wear yellow robes, 
the imperial colour, because Lamaism 
was promulgated in China by a son-in- 
law of the emperor. The other twelve 
sects wear blue. 

Yellow Book (The). Keports of 
the inspectors of schools for England, 
Wales, and Scotland. So called from 
the yellow cover. 

Yellow Books (The). In France, 
the government reports, papers, and 
other official documents are stitched in 
yellow covers. So are the government 
reports of foreign affairs. See p. 106, 
' Blue Books.' 

Yellow Caps. The caps worn 
in France before the 15th cent, were 
round and of a yellow colour, like the 
stockings of our Blue-coat boys. 

In Italy Jews were obliged to wear 
yellow caps as a badge. And Shylock 
ought to have such a head-dress. 

Yellow Caps [Behellion of the). 
In China in the reign of Han-ling-tee 
(168-189). This formidable insurrection, 
headed by Tchang-keo, received its dis- 
tinctive name from the caps worn by the 
insurgents, which were all of the imperial 
colour. Till 220 rebellion followed re- 
bellion in quick succession, and between 
220 and 266 China was divided into three 
states, called the San Kuo period. 

Yellow in China is the imperial colour, which 
these insurgents adopted. 

Yellow Division {The), or Brigade 
of Pentonville Prison. A convict goes 
through three grades during his sen- 
tence after the probation : (1) the third 
class, when he wears black facings on 
his jacket ; (2) the yellow division or 
second class, when he can, if he likes, 
have tea for supper instead of ' skilly ' or 
gruel ; and (3) the first class, when he 
may have roast instead of boiled beef. 

Yellow Dress [The). A dress worn 
by convicts who have attempted to 
escape, but have been captured and 
brought back. One half, is a bright 
'canary yellow and the other half a 



sombre drab. If the man has used vio- 
lence, the penalty is a ' yellow dress and 
stangs ' [irons], while the drab half is 
changed to deep black. 

Yellow Fever {The). So called 
from the yellow tint which extends over 
the whole body, varying from a pale 
lemon to a deep orange colour. Havan- 
nah and Vera Cruz may be termed nur- 
series of this fatal disease, which attacks 
Europeans in Sept. and Oct. It seems 
to reappear in Europe about thirty times 
in a century. 

It ravaged Antigua in 1816. 

„ Barbadoes in 1647 and 1691, where it 

was called the ' New Distemper.' 
„ Barcelona in 1821. Above 5,000 died. 

„ Cadiz for the first time in 1705, brought 

by a ship from America ; since then 

in 1730, 1733, 1744,1753, 1764, 1819, when 

it also attacked the dogs, cats, cattle, 

birds (even canaries), and was most 

fatal. 
„ Carthagena in 1792, where it produced 

dreadful havoc. 
„ Domingo (St.) in 1730, 1740, 1791, 1792-3, 

1798, when 15,000 Englishmen and 

nearly the whole French garrison fell 

victims to it. 
„ Gaudeloupe in the autumn of 1816-7, 

1819. 
„ Gibraltar in 1804, 1814, 1828. 

„ Guayaquil in 1740 and often since. 

Havannah is its nursery. 
„ Isla de Leon in 1819, 1828-9. 

„ Livorno in 1803, where it carried off 

1,560 persons out of 5,500 who were 

attacked by it. 
„ Malaga in 1741, 1803, when 6,884 persons 

died; in 1804, when 18,582 persons 

were attacked. 
„ Massachusetts in 1618, but not severe. 

„ Mauritius in 1815. 

„ Mexico in 1545. 1576, 1736-7, 1761-2, 1867. 

„ New York in 1791. 

„ North America eight times between 

1790 and 1805 (sundry parts). 
„ Philadelphia in 1699, 1762, when its vio- 

lence was unparalleled ; in 1793, 1797, 

1802. 
„ Spain (various parts) in 1800, 1803, 1813. 

Vera Cruz, like Havannah, is a nursery 

of the disease. 
„ Virginia in 1699 and 1855, where its 

havoc was horrible. 
West Indies in 1732, 1739, 1745, 1763, and 

often since. 

Yellow^ Flag [A). A yellow flag 
flying from a mast indicates that the 
vessel is in quarantine. 

A black flag indicates a pirate, a red flag defiance, 
a white flag craves a truce. 



Yellow Flags {The), or 'Yellow 
Flag Troops. ' The Anamese mercenaries. 
In the Tonquin war, 1883, they were for 
a time French auxiliaries. Their standard 
was a yellow ensign, and their head- 
quarters was Ho-Tang. See p. 97, 
' Black Flags.' 



YELLOW 



YOKE 



961 



Yellow Palace {The), or Khoosk 
e Zurd, one of the hunting-seats of Ba- 
haram Gour in Persia. 

The Yellow Mountain, or ' Koh e Zurd,' is the 
source of the Zeinderood, on which Ispahan 
stands. 

The Yellow Sea, or 'Whang Hal,' is an arm of 
the North Pacific, on the north-east of China. 

Yello-W River {The), or ' Hoang 
Ho.' Known generally as ' China's 
Sorrow.' 

Yellow Robe {Order of the). A 
religious order founded by Buddha. The 
founder himself wore a yellow robe and 
carried an alms bowl. 

But to his own, them of the Yellow Robe, 

He taught how they should dwell ; 

How live, free from the snares of love and wealth ; 

What eat, and drinli, and carry : three plain 

cloths. 
Yellow, of stitched stuff, worn with shoulder 

bare— 
A girdle, almsbowl, strainer. Thus he laid 
That noble order of the Yellow Robe 
Which to this day standeth. 

Edwin Arnold, Tiie Light of Asia, bk. vili. 

Yellow Stick {Beligion of the). 
Scotland. The reformed religion. 

[Livingstone] has . . . recorded a tradition that 
the people of [lllva Isle] were converted from 
being Roman Catholics by the laird coming round 
with a man having a yellow staff . . . [and! the 
new religion went long afterwards ... by the 
name of the ' Religion of the Yellow Stick.' — 
Blaikie, Personal Life of David Livingstone. 

Dr. Blaikie adds : ' The same story is told of 
perhaps a dozen other places in the Highlands." 
See ' Notes and Queries,' 13 July, IBB9, p. 29. 

Y'en Dynasty {The) of China 

(1279-1368) succeeded the dynasty of 
Song, and was succeeded by the Mings. 
Kublai Khan was the founder. It was 
the twentieth imperial dynasty — that of 
the Moguls — gave ten kings, and lasted 
ninety years. The seat of government 
was Pe-kin. 

China was at the time divided into two kingdoms, 
north and south of the Yellow River. The Song 
kings reigned in the south. It v as the old, old 
tale. The reigning king, threatened by the 
Tartars, called in the aid of tiie Moguls. Kublai 
Khan repelled the Tartiirs, then dethroned the 
Song kings, and then made himself master of the 
nortn also, thus uniting again North and South 
China. 

Kublai Khan was called by the Chinese ' Ho-pee- 
lie.' His regnal name in China was ' Shee-tsu,' 
and his reign is still called • the Wise Govern- 
ment." 

Yeoman Usher (T/ie). The deputy 
of the Gentleman Usher of the Black 
Eod. See ' Black Eod.' 

Yeomen of the Guard, or ' Beef- 
eaters,' 1485. Instituted by Henry VII. 
It was a corps of fifty soldiers, whose 
41 



duty it was to attend upon the king and 
wait on him at meals. 

It used to be generally supposed that ' Beefeater ' 
was a corruption of the Knglish-French bitffet-er 
or bujtetier, 'one who waits at the buffet.' That 
there is no such French word as buJTetier is no 
argument against such a perversion. We have 
a small host of English-French words equally 
Ignored in Paris. Take, for example, e)ico7f=tha 
French bis, stirtotii — pardessus, while the French 
svrttuit = the English epergne. Nom de plume is 
English-French, in imitation of nom de gtterre. 

Y'n {Dynasty of ), B.C. 1401-1122. The 
latter part of the Chang dynasty was so 
called from the city Yn, where the court 
was held. The court had been previously 
held at Yang-tching, but Poan-keng, 
the seventeenth emperor of the Chang 
dynasty, moved his court to Yn (b.c. 
1401), and changed the name of the 
dynasty from Chang to Yn. 

This must not be confounded •with the Y'en 
Dynasty. See above. 

Ynglings of Norway (The). It 
is said that a family of Ynglings reigned 
in Norway from 863 to 1136, but the 
whole of this part of Norwegian history 
is very doubtful. The Ynglings of 
Norway were contemporaneous with the 
Skioldungs of Sweden, as will appear 
from the following lists : — 



Noncay Ynglings. 



A.D. 



863 



Harald Haarfagen 

Eric I. Blodeexe .'.'." 
Hako I. the Good 936 
Harald II. Graafel 960 
Hako II. Jarl 962 

Olaf I. king of Den- 
mark, Tryggveson — 
Eric II. ... 1000 

Ola,f II. (Saint) ... 1015 
Sueno II. king of 

Denmark — 

Magnus I. the Good 10.36 
Harald III 1047 



Magnus II. 
Olaf III. 
Magnus III. 
Olaf IV. 
Sigurd I. 
Magnus IV. 
Harald IV. 



... 1087 
... 1103 
.. 1122 
.. 1130 
1135-1136 



Swedish Skioldungs. 

A.D. 

859 Emund of the race 

of Ivar. 
873 Erik Emundson. 
923 Biorn Erikson. 



993 Erik the Victorious. 



1026 Olof Skotkonung. 

1056 Stenkill, founder of 
the race of Sten- 
kill. 

1066 Halstan. 

1080 Inge I. 



1112 Philip. 

1118 Inge II. 

1122 Sverker, 
of the 
Sverker. 



founder 
race of 



Ynglings of Sweden {The). A 
semi-historic race of Swedish kings from 
B.C. 70 to A.D. 647. So called from Yngve, 
son of Odin, to whom at death he assigned 
Sweden. The Ynglings of Sweden were 
not kings of all Sweden, but chiefs of 
Upsala, and overlords of the other chiefs. 
They gave twenty- four chiefs, and were 
succeeded by the Skioldungs. 

Yoke of Infamy. Three spears 
arranged like a gallows, under which 
3Q 



YORICK 



YOUNG 



conquered troops were made to march, in 
token of subjection. (A Roman custom.) 

Yorick. The pen-name of Laurence 
Sterne, who died in 1768, at the age of 
fifty-five. 

York [Frederick Duke of), son of 
George III., commander-in-chief. He 
was obliged to resign his office owing to 
the exposure of a wholesale traffic in 
army commissions, carried on by his 
mistress Mrs. Clarke. 

York {The Line of) gives England 
three kings, viz. Edward IV., Edward V., 
and Richard III., through Lionel duke 
of Clarence, third son of Edward III. 

Lionel was the father of Phillppa, who married 
Edward Mortimer earl of March, and their son 
was Roger Mortimer earl of March, who was slain 
In Ireland 1398. 

This Roger Mortimer was father of Edmund 
Mortimer earl of March, and of Ann Mortimep 
who married Richard duke of York. 

*^,* At the death of Richard II. Edmund Mor- 
timer was heir to the throne. He died 1424. It 
was in Sept. 1399 that Henry IV. deposed Richard 
II. and usurped the throne, being succeeded by 
Henry V. (his son) and Henry VI. 

Now take Ann Mortimer. She was the mother 
of Richard duke of York (slain, in 14(56, at the 
battle of Wakefield), leaving two sons, Edward IV. 
and Richard III. Edward V. was the son of 
Edward IV., and was murdered by his uncle 
Richard. 

York {The Statute of), 12 Edward U., 
A.D. 1318. Ordered that all black money 
{noir monnoie) lately current in the realm 
be excluded. This base coin was intro- 
duced from foreign countries, and pro- 
bably from Ireland also, for in 1339 black 
money, called turneys, was current in 
Ireland. 

York {Trial of the Duke of), 1809. 
Colonel Wardle accused the Duke of York 
in the House of Commons of promot- 
ing improper persons to military rank 
through the influence of a Mrs. Clarke. 
An inquiry was made and the duke 
acquitted. Such things were common 
enough till the middle of the nineteenth 
century. ' Douceurs ' [to mistresses] were 
even advertised in the daily press. I 
well remember when the ' Times ' dis- 
continued these advertisements. 

This was Frederick duke of York, second son of 
George III. 

York Prize {The) for an essay on 
the law of primogeniture. For any 
graduate of the University of Cambridge 
of not more than seven years' standing. 
The same person may receive the prize 



more than once. Value about 90Z. 
Founded by Edmund York of St. Catha- 
rine's Hall, 1875. 

Young. Chevalier {The). The 
Prince Charles Edward [Stuart]. Also 
called the ' Young Pretender ' [i.e. to the 
British throne], 1720-1788. 

Young Clerical School {The), 
1890. To draw more closely together the 
religious party and the masses. M. de 
Mun (in France), M. Decurtius (in Switz- 
erlanci), and a large number of German 
and Austrian Catholics have made nume- 
rous journeys to Rome, and have suc- 
ceeded in forming a very influential 
party at the Vatican. The pope (Leo 
XIII.) is in favour of the movement, and 
hopes thereby to solve the great labour 
question. 

A man who styled himself ' General ' Booth, 
because he was head of a religious society termed 
by him ' the Salvation Army,' said, in the autumn 
of 1890, that if he was entrusted with 100,OOOJ. he 
would solve the great 'labour question." In 
December, 1890, above 80,00OL had been sub- 
scribed. Mr. (General) Booth issued a book to 
explain his scheme, but it has not yet been put 
in operation (1891). 

Young England, about 1840. A 
group of clever politicians with fantastic 
ideas who for a time commanded consider- 
able attention. The chief of the party 
were Benjamin Disraeli [Lord Beacons- 
field], Lord John Manners, George Sydney 
Smithe [Lord Strangford], Cochrane- 
Wishart-Baillie [Lord Lamington], and 
many others distinguished in oratory and 
literature. Their platform was laughed 
at by practical men as Utopian, and 
quietly sank out of notice. 

Young Englanders. A set of 

young men who tried to revive the for- 
mality and court manners of the Chester- 
field school. They wore white waistcoats, 
patronised the pet poor, looked down 
upon shopkeepers, and were altogether 
Red Tape Knights. 

In 1882-3 Oscar Wilde made himself ridiculous by 
trying to introduce the ' esthetic foolery ' both in 
taste, dress, and manners. 

Young Europe, 1834. An Italian 
journal which took the place of ' Young 
Italy ' {q.v.), and tried to propagate the 
same Utopian system. 

Young German School {The) 
of literature followed the emancipation 
of Germany from the Napoleonic yoke. 



YOUNG 



YUEN-OEl 



963 



Headed by Karl Gutzkow. The other 
chief authors of this school are Theodor 
Mundt, Gustav Kiihne, Heinrich Laube, 
Ludolf Wieuberg, Robert Heller, Ernst 
Kossak, and Heinrich Heine (the best of 
all). 

Young Germany. A secret so- 
ciety mentioned in the report of the 
Government of Ziirich, 1844, and said to 
be then in existence in Switzerland. This 
society aimed at a United Germany with 
a republican form of government. 

Young Ireland, 1848. A party 
nursed by the newspaper called the 
'Nation.' It differed from the Old Ire- 
land party headed by Daniel O'Connell 
chiefly in this respect. The old party 
was a religious one and sought the su- 
premacy of the Catholics; the young 
party wanted to unite both Protestants 
and Catholics in the great object of the 
severance of Ireland from the British 
crown. Though the Young Irelanders 
disclaimed warlike intentions, many of 
their speeches were very inflammatory. 
O'Connell headed the old repealers ; the 
young repealers were led by William 
Smith O'Brien. The Young Irelanders 
gave birth to the United Irishmen (q.v.), 
a war party. See ' Irish Associations.' 

In December, 1890, the Irish ' Nationalists, who 
had been under the leadership of Charles S. 
Parnell for ten years, were split up into two 
parties, because Mr. Gladstone refused to co- 
operate with Mr. Parnell. Those who fell off 
from Mr. Parnell placed themselves under Justin 
M'Carthy, and the two Irish ' Nationalist ' 
parties went by the name of Parnellites and 
M'Carthyites. 

Young-Ireland Rising {TJie), 
1848. This was the sequel of Daniel 
O'Connell's repeal agitation. The mem- 
bers called themselves the ' Patriots of 
the Nation.' They were quite ripe for 
active rebellion, but the ravings of 
Mitchel were of a piece with the stump 
orations of a music hall ; and the Young- 
Ireland rising was easily suppressed. 
The ' Nation,' an Irish newspaper, was 
their organ, but the ' Nation ' never had 
the slightest influence on public opinion. 
See ' Irish Associations.' 

Young Italy, or ' The Young Italian 
Party,' 1831. Formed by Mazzini. The 
object of this party was ' the unification 
of Italy,' or ' Italy under one ruler.' At 
the time spoken of part of Italy belonged 
to Austria, part to France. Genoa and 
Lucca were a republic, Tuscany a grand 



duchy, Parma and Placentia were under 
a duke of the Bourbon line, Naples and 
Sicily were a kingdom, the States of the 
Church were under the pope, and so on. 
Young Italy wanted all the several parts 
to be united under one ruler, to be called 
the ' king of Italy.' In 1860, by the arms 
of Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel was 
hailed ' king of Italy ' ; in 1866 Venice 
was added, and in 1870 Rome was made 
the capital of the new kingdom. 

Mazzini lived till 1872 ; Garibaldi died in 1882 ; 
and Victor Emmanuel in 1678. 

Young Pretender (T/ie). Charles 
Edward, after the fatal battle of CuUoden 
in 1746, made his escape to France, and 
his adventures resemble those of Charles 
II. after the battle of Worcester. The 
heroic lady who assisted him was Miss 
Flora Macdonald ; and Charles Edward, 
dressed in woman's clothes, went by the 
name of 'Betty Bourke.' When Miss 
Macdonald left him, his guide was Mal- 
colm Macleod ; and the prince, as Mac- 
leod's man servant, assumed the name 
of ' Louis Caw of Crieff.' Ultimately he 
arrived at Roseau, near Morlaix, in Bre- 
tagne, and died at Florence in 1788. 

Young Roscius (The). William 
Henry West Betty (1790-1874). He 
made his debut in 1803, and in fifty-six 
nights realised 34,000?., when he wisely 
withdrew from public life. 

Young Swritzerland, 1835. An 
association in Switzerland organized by 
Joseph Mazzini on the same platform 
as ' Young Italy ' (q.v.). Mazzini was 
banished from Switzerland in 1836, and 
his association melted into air. 

Mazzini's motto was not the French ' Liberty, 
Fraternity, and Equality,' but the word 'Hu- 
manity.' Abstract humanity is not a workable 
quantity. 

Yuen or Y'en Dynasty (The). 

The twentieth imperial dynasty of China. 
Founded by Kubla'i Khan, emperor of 
the Mongols. It gave ten emperors, and 
lasted ninety years (1278-1368). Pekin 
was I'ebuilt and made the seat of govern- 
ment. It was succeeded by the Ming 
dynasty. 

Yuen-Oei Dynasty (The). The 
first dynasty of the Northern Empire 
of China. Founded by the Goli Tartars. 
Chief city Ho-nan. It gave eleven kings, 
when the Northern Empire was split into 
3q2 



964 



ZADIGISM 



ZOLLVEREIN 



two, called 'Tong-Oei'' and 'Si-Oei',' or 
'Eastern and Western Oei ' (386-534). 
' Oei" ' is written ' Goel ' by many authors. 

Zadigism. The science of observa- 
tion, or the practice of observation in 
scientific research. ' Zadig ' is the hero 
and title of a novel by Voltaire. He de- 
scribes a lost camel, which he had never 
seen, as blind of the left eye, as having 
lost two of its front teeth, and being 
slightly lame in the near fore-foot. When 
pressed to explain how he knew all this, 
never having seen the animal, he replied : 
'I knew it was blind of the left eye 
because I noticed it browsed only on the 
right side of the road. I knew it had 
lost two of its front teeth because some 
of the leaves and some of the grass was 
bitten and some not. I knew it was 
lame of the near fore-foot because the 
marks of this foot in the sand were 
shorter than those of the other feet,' &c. 

Zampieri. Better known as 'Do- 
menichino ' (1581-1641). 

Zegris (T^e), or 'Zegries.' A Mauri- 
tanian dynasty. See ' Zeirides.' 

Zeirides {The), or * Zeirites.' A tribe 
and dynasty of Moors which furnished 
many kings to Fez, Tlem^en, Algiers, 
Tunis, Kairouan, Mahadia, and Tripoli. 
The chief were the Sanhadjides or 
Zeirides Badissides, and the Zeirides 
Zenates.' The former rendered them- 
selves independent of the Fatimite califs 
in 972, and their dominion continued to 
1050. The latter was from 988 to 1070. 

Called alter Zeiri ben Mounad, chief of the tribe 
of the Badissides, who conquered Algiers and 
Tripoli. He founded Achir, and died a.d. 971. In 
the proper names given above the -es does not 
form a syl., but Zeirides is trisyllabic. 

Ze'lotes (3 syl.). Simon is called 
* the Canaanite ' — i.e. Kavavir-ns and also 
ZtjAcut^s. Probably ' Kananite ' is from 
the Hebrew root kana, whence kanani 
= * zealous ' ; so that ' Simon Kananite ' 
is merely the Aramaic translation of 
' Simon Zelotes.' The Zelotse were He- 
braists — that is, great sticklers for the 
Mosaic law. 

Zemindary. The jurisdiction of 
a zemindar or officer who superintends 
the lands, protects the landowners, and 
sees that government receives its legal 
share. {Indian.) 



Zendavesta {The) is said to have 
been written by Zoroaster in letters of 
gold on 12,000 skins of parchment, and 
to have been deposited by Darius Hys- 
taspes in the Castle of Persepolis, about 
B.C. 500. 

' Zend ' is the language, and ' avesta ' = text. 
The compound word means the sacred books of 
Zoroaster in the Zend tongue. 

Zendicism, 8th cent. A Saracenic 
heresy resembling that of the Jewish 
Sadducees. 

Zeugi'tae. The middle bank of 
rowers in a Greek galley. The upper- 
most bank was the Tharntce, and the 
lowest bank the Thalamltce. 

Zeyds {The). One of the numerous 
Shiite sects who profess to follow the 
tenets of Zeyd son of Ali, who is supposed 
to have received, through his father, 
some of the prophet's last injunctions. 
See ' Imaumians,' ' Khattabians.' 

The Shiites reject the first three kalifs (Abu- 
beker, Omar, and Othman), and also the traditions 
concerning the prophet and his will. The Sunis 
accept both. The Persians and Afghans are 
Shiites. 

Ziobbagrassa. Bead * Zobia 
Grassa.' The last Thursday of carnival. 
See p. 559, ' Mardi Gras.' 

Zisca (' one eye '). His name was John 
of Trockznov; he was born in Bohemia, 
and lost one eye in battle when a boy. 
In the Huss persecution he built a fort, 
which he called ' Tabor,' a place of refuge 
for the Hussites, who were thence called 
' Taborites ' (3 syl.). At the siege of Rabi, 
Zisca lost his other eye, and still continued 
to head his troops and win victories (1380- 
1424). 

Zisca's Drum. Zisca, chamberlain 
to Wenceslaus, was the first leader of the 
Hussite War {q.v.), and died 1424. The 
tale is that he ordered his skin to be 
tanned and made into a drum-head. 
Byron, in his ' Werner,' and also in his 
* Age of Bronze,' refers to this trsidition. 

But be it as it is, the time may come 
His name [i.e. Napoleon's] shall beat th' alarm, 
like Zisca's drum. 

Age of Bronze. 

Zoll verein ( The), or * Custom Union,' 
1819. Hesse-Darmstadt joined it 14 Feb., 
1828 ; Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha in 1829; Waldeck and Hesse- 
Cassel in 1831 ; Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
Saxony, Saxe- Weimar, Saxe-Altenberg, 



ZOOLACTAF 



ZURICH 



965 



and the two Schwarzburgs in 1833; 
Hesse-Homburg, Baden, and Nassau, in 
1885 ; Frankfort in 1836 ; Lippe-Detmold 
and Brunswick in 1841 ; Luxemburg in 
1847 ; Hanover, Oldenburg, and Schaum- 
burg-Lippe in 1851 ; Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Lii- 
beck in 1868. The effect of this union 
has been a greatly increased demand for 
German goods in foreign markets, and 
diminished imports. Pronounce ZoV- 
ve-rine. 

Zoolaetaf, or Dsulaktaf. So 

Sapor II. was called (a.d. 310-379), be- 
cause he dislocated the shoulders of all 
Arabs capable of bearing arms. 

Zoroaster. In Greek, Zoroastres ; 
in the Zendavesta, Zabathustra ; in 
Persian, Zerdusht. Founder of the 
Magian religion. 

Zoroas'trianism. The religious 
system of Zoroaster, now called the Par- 



see religion. It was originally mono- 
theism, but subsequently the dualism of 
good and evil. The Magi remained 
faithful to the monotheism of Zoroaster, 
while the Zendiks believed in the dualism 
as taught in the ' Zend-Avesta.' As 
' Zoroaster ' is also written ' Zarathustra,' 
so ' Zoroastrianism ' is called * Zarathus- 
traism.' 

John Malcolm, who died in 1833, attempted to 
prove that Zoroaster was the Jewish Ezra. 

Zseklers, or Szeklers. A people who 
occupy the highlands of Transylvania, 
and belong to the Magyar stock, all 
noble and free. Some are Magyar Uni- 
tarians and some Catholics. They are 
spread over five districts, called Udvar- 
hely, Haromszek, Csik, Maros, and Aran- 
yos, and are about 350,000 in number. 

Zurich {Treaty of), 11 Nov., 1859. 
For the ratification of the Treaty of 
Villafranca. 



APPENDIX 



THE CHIEF BATTLES OF THE WOBLD 

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED 



ABOUKIR 



ALBANS 



Aboukir {Battle of), 1 Aug., 1798. Nelson 
defeatefi Pran(^ois Paul de Brueys, the French 
admiral, in the Bay of Aboukir. The French 
admiral was killed by a cannon-shot. 

Generally called, in English history, ' The 
Battle of the Nile.' 

Aboukir {Battle of), 25 July, 1799, won by 
Bonaparte over the Turks. 

Next year (1800) Kleber was assassinated by 
a young Turk, and Egypt was lost to France. 

Abu Klea {Battle of), 17 Jan., 1885, won 
by General Stewart with 1,500 men over an 
array of Arabs of 10,000 in the service of the 
Mahdi. 

Abydos {Naval battle of), B.C. 411, won by 
the Athenians over the Lacedajmonians. 

Aclea {BattU of), 851, in which Ethelwulf, 
the son of Egbert king of England, defeated the 
Danes. Acl6a is Ockley, in Surrey. 

Actium {Battle of), 2 Sept., B.C. 31, gained 
by Octavian (Augustus Caesar) over Antony 
and Cleopatra, both of whom kided themselves 
to prevent being made captives by the con- 
queror. Octavian dated the years of his impe- 
rial monarchy from the day of this battle. 

Adrianople {Battle of), 3 July, A.D. 323. 
This battle obtained for Coustantine the empire. 

^gatian Islands {Naval battle of), b.c. 
241, won by the Roman consul Quintus Luta- 
tius Catiilus over Hanno the Carthaginian, off 
the Agates. Tliis victory brought to an end 
the First Punic War, which had lasted twenty- 
three years. 

.^gospot'amos, or ' Goat's River ' {Naval 
battle of ), B.C. Sept. 405. This was scarcely a 
battle, it was rather a surprise, for no fighting 
was needed. The Athenians left their fleet un- 
guarded, and most of the men were on shore 
when Ly Sander captured above 150 of their 
ships, and put to death above 3,000 Athenian 



prisoners. This disaster virtually brought the 
PeV>ponnesian war to a close. 

Aghrim, in Ireland {Battle of), 12 July, 
1691, where William III. and General Ginkell 
defeated James II. and St. Ruth. 

Agincourt {Battle of), 25 Oct., 1415, won 
by Henry V. of England over the French, led 
by D'Albret constable of France. The French 
army was five times greater than the English. 
The English loss did not e.Kceed 1,600 men, but 
the French was 10,000 slain, and 15,000 taken 
prisoners. 

Agnadello {Battles of). I. 14 May, 1509, 
in which Louis XII. defeated Petigliano and 
D'Alviano. This to the Venetians was one of 
the most disastrous battles in all their history. 

II. 16 Aug., 1705, in which the Due de Ve'n- 
dtime defeated Prince Eugene. Also called the 
' Battle of Cassano.' 

AgOSta {Naval battle of), 1676, won by Du- 
quesne over the Dutch. Here Ruyter, the Dutch 
admiral, lost his life. 

Ai'rolo, in Italy {Battle of), 23 Sept., 1799, 
in which Suwarrow, the Russian general, de- 
feated Gudin, the French general. 

Aix {Battle of), July, B.C. 101, in which the 
Teuton host was annihilated by Marius the 
Roman consul. 

Aiznaden {Battle of),\Z July, A.D. 633, 
in wldch Klialed, commander of "the Koreish 
cavalry, defeated Werdan, general of Heraclius, 
commander of the Greeks. 

Aland, in the Baltic {Battle of ), 27 July, 
1714, in which Peter I. the Great defeated the 
Swedish fleet. Pronounce 0-land. 

Alarcon, in Spain {Battle of), autumn 
1195, in which Yacub ben Yussef defeated 
Alfonso VIII. of Castile. 

Albans {Battles of St.). I. 22 May, 1455. 
This was the first battle of the Two Roses, and 



968 



ALBUERA 



ANCYRA 



was won by Richard duke of York (the White 
Rose) over Henry VI. 

11. 2 Feb., 1461, between the same factions. 
In this battle Warwick, the king-maker, joined 
the royal side of Queen Margaret, and defeated 
the Yorkists. 

Albuera, in Spain (Battle of), 1811, in 
whicli Marshal Beresford defeated Soult, one of 
Napoleon's marshals. Pronounce Al-boo-a'-rah. 

Albufera da Valencia {Battle of), 1811, 
in which Sucliet marshal of Prance defeated 
Blake and the Spaniards. For this victory 
Napoleon created Suchet ' Duke of Albufera.' 

Alcaniz', in Spain (BattZeo/), 23 May, 1809, 
in whicli Blake and tlie Spaniards defeated 
Suchet, one of the marshals of Napoleon. 

Alc^zax-C{VLXViv {Battle of), 4 Aug., 1578, 
in which Muley Moluc of Morocco defeated and 
slew Sebastian of Portugal. 

Aldenhoven, in Belgium {Battle of), 
1 March, 1793, in which Clairfait, the Austrian 
general, defeated Francisco Miranda. 

Alessandria {Battle of),M May, 1799, in 
wliich Suwarrow, the Russian general, defeated 
the French under Moreau. 

Alexandria {Battle of), 21 March, 1801, 
won by the British army under Sir Ralph Aber- 
crombie over the French under the command 
of Menou. 

Alford {Battle of), 2 July, 1645, in which 
General Eaillie, with an army of Covenanters, 
was defeated by the Marquis of Montrose. 

Alia, or AUia, in Italy {Battles of). I. 
16 July, B.C. 390, where the Gauls under [their] 
Brennus defeated the Romans. 

II. B.C. 374 or 377, when Cincinnatus, the 
dictator, defeated the Pra3uestines and their 
allies. 

Aliwal', in India {Battle of), 28 Jan., 1846, 
won by Sir H. Smith over the Sikhs. 

Aljubarota, in Portugal {Battle of), 
14 Aug., 1385, in whicli Joam I. of Portugal 
defeated Juan I. of Castile. 

Alkmaar {Battle of), 1799. A bloody but 
indecisive battle between the allied English and 
Russian on the one hand and tlie allied Frencli 
ami Dutch armies on the otlier. 

Allifse, in Italy {Hattle of), B.C. 307, in 
whicli the proconsul Q. Fabius Maximus de- 
feated the,Samuites. 

Alma, in the Crimea ( Battle of the), 20 Sept., 
1854, in which Lord Raglan, the Englisli com- 
mander, and Marshal St. Ariiaud, the French 
commander, defeated Prince Menscliikoffi, the 
Russian general. 

Almanza, in Spain {Battle of), 25 April, 
17u7, in which tlie French Marshal Berwick 
defeated the Archduke Karl, and thus secured 
tlie throne to Philip V. (14 Api-il, Old Style.) 

Alnnarez, in Spain {Battle of), 24 Dec, 
18UK, in which Marslial Lefebvre defeated tlie 
Spaniards. 



Almeida {Battle of), 5 Aug., 1811, won 
by Lord Wellington, commanding the Anglo- 
Spanish army, over the French commanded by 
Marshal Massena. Pronounce Al-ma-e'-dah. 

Almenara, in Spain ( Battle of), 27 July, 
1710, in which the Earl of Stanhope and Count 
Stahremberg (or Starhemberg) defeated the 
Marquis de Bay. 

Almham {Battle of), 723, in which Fergall 
(overlord of Ireland) with 21,000 men (who had 
invaded Leiuster to enforce tlie Boarian Tribute 
(q.v.), remitted by Finactha) was utterly de- 
feated by 9,000 Lagenians. As many as 7,000 
were slain, among whom were200 kings [chiefs] 
and Fergall with all his bodyguard. 

Almonacid, in Spain {Battle of), 11 Aug., 
1809, in which General Sebastian, a marshal of 
France, defeated Venegras (3 syl.). 

Alney {Battle of ), 1016. This was a single 
combat between Edmund Ironside and Canute 
in sight of their armies. When Canute was 
wounded he proposed a division of the kingdom, 
and the south part fell to Edmund ; but Ed- 
mund was murdered soon afterwards at Oxford, 
by Edric Streon. 

Alsenz, in Germany {Battle of), 8 Dec, 
1795, in which Clairfait, the Austrian general, 
repulsed the French under Pichegru (2 syl.). 

Altdorf, in Switzerland {Battle of), 5 May, 
1799. The Swiss peasants were here defeated 
by Marslial Soult, the French general. 

Altenberg, in Germany {BaMle o/), 24 
Sept., 1813, in wliich Lefebvre Desnouettes, the 
French cavalry officer, defeated Thielmann, 
commander of the Russian forces. 

Altenheim, in Germany {Battle of), 29 
Ju'y, 1075, in wliich Montecuculi, the Austrian 
general, defeated the French armies under 
Comte de Lorges. Here the Marquis de Vaur 
brun fell in battle. 

Altenkirchen, in Germany {Battles of). I. 
4 June, 1796, where Kleber, the French general, 
defeated the Archduke Karl of Austria. 

n. 19 Sept., 1796, in which the Archduke 
Karl of Austria defeated the French led by 
Jourdan. In this battle the French general 
Marceau was slain. 

Altura, in Spain {Battle of), 25 June, 1838, 
wliere the Carlists defeated Amor. 

Amberg {Battle of), 24 Aug. 1796. The 
Arcluhike Karl defeated Moreau, the French 
general. 

American Civil "War, 1861-1865. 
Brought to a close 10 May, 1865, by the sm- 
render of General Johnston. 

Amis'ia, or the Ems, in Germany {Battle 
of the), B.C. 12, where Nero Claudius Drusus 
defeated the Bruct6ri in a naval engagement. 

Ancrum Muir, in Scotland {Battle of ), 
17 Feb., 1545, in which Archibald Douglas 
earl of Angus defeated Sir R. Eyre and Sir 
Brian Latoun. 

Ancy'ra or Ango'ra {Battle of), 20 July, 
1402, in which Bajazet I. sultan of tlie Otto- 



ANDEENACH 



ASSAYE 



969 



mans, was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Timour the Tartar. 

Andernach. {Battle of), 939, near Coblenz, 
won by Otto I. over his rebellious half-brother 
Tankmar and several disaffected nobles. Tank- 
mar was slain and the rebellion quashed. 

Andredes-lea, the Weald of Sussex 
{Battle of), 477, where Ella and his sous de- 
feated the Britons. 

Ango'ra {Battle of). See above, ' Ancyra.' 

Anjou {Battle of), or 'Battle of Beauge,' 
3 April, 1421, won by the Dauphin of France 
over the Duke of Clarence. This battle turned 
the tide of success against the English. 

Antietam, in Maryland {Battle of), 17 
Sept., 1862, between the Federals under General 
McClellan and the Confederates under General 
Lee. Indecisive. 

Antium {Battle of). May 1378, between 14 
Venetian galleys under the command of Victor 
Pisani and 10 Genoese galleys under Luigi 
Fiesco. The Venetians won the victory. One 
of the Genoese galleys was dashed to pieces on 
the rocky shore, five surrendered, and the other 
four escaped, 

Antoign^ {Battle of), 13 Aug., 1792, won 
by the French over the allied Austrians and 
Prussians. 

Aquae Sextiee {Battle of), b.c. 102, in 
which Cains Marlus defeated the Teutons. 

Axhela,{Battleof),-B.C. l Oct., 331, in which 
Alexander the Great overthrew Darius Codo- 
manus for the third time. It was fought near 
Gaugamela, and is sometimes called the ' Battle 
of Gaugamela.' 

One of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen Decisive 
Battles of the World. 

At Arbela the united Egyptian and Syrian 
army defeated the Ottoman troops in the reign 
of Bajazet II. (1482). 

AJCis-SUr-Aube {Battle of), 20 March, 
1814, between Napoleon's French army and 
Schwartzenberg's Austrian army. It was quite 
indecisive. 

Ar'cola {Batik of), 15 and 17 Nov., 1796, in 
which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians under 
Alvinzy. 

Argentoratum {Battle of), a.d. 357, in 
which Julian defeated the Alemanui. 

*s* Argentoratum, now Strassburg. 

Ajginusse {^"aval battle of), B.C. 406, won 
by the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians. 

Arklow {Battle of), 10 June, 1798, where 
a sma 1 British force utterly defeated 31,000 
Irish insurgents. 

Aries {Battle of), A.D. 508, in which Clovis, 
founder of the French munarchj', was defeated 
by Theodore the Great king of Italy, and 
father-in-law of Alaric king of the West Goths. 

Armageddon {Battle of). Rev. xvi. 16, 
where God will collect together his enemies for 
destruction. Ar-ma-geddon is supposed to be 



the ' city of Megiddo,' and Megiddo is a typical 
word for a battle-fie'.d. Zech. xii. 11 speaks of 
* the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley 
of Megiddon.' The vicinity of Megiddo was 
noted as a great battle-field in Bible history. 
It was here Pharaoh-necho overcame and slew 
Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30). The great 
slaughter of Jabin's and Sisera's army was at 
'the waters of Megiddo' {Judges v. 19). It 
was in this plain that Gideon overthrew the 
Midianites {Judges vi. 33, vii. ; here was the 
fight between Saul and the Philistines, and 
between Tryphon and Jonathan MaccabEeus 
(1 Mac. xii.). In later times it was the battle- 
field of the Tartars and Saracens. 

Armagh' {Battle of), 1318, in which Ed- 
ward Bruce was defeated and taken prisoner. 
He was beheaded at Dundalk. 

Arginusse {Naval battle of), July B.C. 407, 
won by the Athenians over the Laceda?mo- 
nians. What is especially noteworthy in this 
victory is that six of the ten admirals who 
commanded the Athenian fleet were put to 
death, for not picking up those swimming 
for their lives. The excuse was, they were 
prevented by a sudden storm. 

Argoed, or Argoed Llyvain {Battle of), 
A.D. 547, won by Urien over Ida the Saxon in- 
vader. 

Arques {Battle of), 21 Sept., 1589, in which 
Henri IV. with 7,000 men defeated the Due de 
Mayeune at the head of 30,000 men. 

Ascalon {Battles of). I. 12 Aug., 1099, in 
which Godfrey of Bouillon defeated the Sultan 
of Egypt. 

n. 1192, in which Richard I. defeated the 
Soldan's united army, numbered at 300,000 men. 
It is said that 40,000 of the Saracens were left 
dead on the field. 

Aschaffenb\irg(5rt/«« of), 16 Sept., 1796. 
The Archduke Karl of Austria defeated 
Moreau, the French general. This was his 
third victory since August. 

Ash.do"WTl {Battle of), or .Slscesdun, or 
Ash-tree Hill, a.d. 870. The great battle in 
which Ethelred and Alfred overthrew the 
Danes and slew their king, Bacseg. This vic- 
tory is commemorated by the famous White 
Horse. The town now called Ashbury used to 
be called Ayshesdown. The downs are still 
called Ashdown, and not far off is Ashdown 
Park. 

Aspern {Battle of), 21 May, 1809, in 
which the Archduke Karl of Austria was de- 
feated by Napo'eon. Called by the French the 
battle of Essling. 

AssandTin {Battle of), 1016. A decisive 
victory of Canute over Edmund Ironside. The 
death of Ironside left Canute master of the 
realm. 

Assaye, in India {Battle of), 23 Sept., 
1803, in which Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
Duke of Wellington) defeated Scindia and the 
Rajah of Berar. The forces opposed to the 
English were fully ten times the more nume- 



970 



ATHENRY 



BEAUGE 



rous. This battle is especially noteworthy as 
being the first great victory of the Iron Duke. 

Athenry' {Battle of), 1316, in which Ferd- 
lim O'Connor was utterly defeated by "William 
de Burgh and Richard de Eermingham. It is 
said that 11,000 Irish fell in this battle, which 
gave a final blow to the restless O'Connors. 

Audelay' {Battle of), 1118, in which Henry 
I. (Beauclerc) defeated Louis VI. of France. 
The object of this battle was to regain the 
dukedom of Normandy, which Henry had 
taken, for William, son of the deposed Robert. 

Auerstadt (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1806, won 
by the French Marshal Davoustover the Prus- 
sians the same day as Napoleon won the battle 
of Jena. [Pronounce Va-nah.l 

Auglirim, in Ireland (Battle of), 12 July, 
1691. Same as Aghrim (q.v.). 

Augsburg (Battles of). I. 955, won by 
Otto I. (the Great) of Germany over the Hun- 
garians. 

II 24 Aug., 1796, won by Moreau, who com- 
manded the French armv, over the Imperialists. 

III. Again 2 Sept., and again 7 Sept., 1796, 
won by the same general (Moreau), 

Austerlitz, in Moravia (Battle of), 2 
Dec, 1805, in which Napoleon defeated the 
Emperors of Austria and Russia. This great 
victory led to the treaty of Presburg. It is 
called ' The Battle of the Emperors.' 

The Emperor of Austria was Francis, and 
the Czar of Russia was Alexander I. It was 
won by Napoleon on the anniversary of his 
coronation. 

Aylesford, in Kent (Battle of), A.D. 449, 
between the Angles and the Britons. Horsa 
fell in this battle, and the victory gave Kent 
to Hengist the invader. The massacre which 
followed the batt'e was merciless, and drove 
the conquered Britons over sea or to lurking- 
places in the forests, where many were cut down 
and many were made slaves to the conquerors. 

Badon, i.e. Bath (Battle of Mount), 520. 
Called in Latin Mons Bndontcus. This legen- 
dary battle was the 12th won by Arthur over 
the' West Saxons, and checked for a time their 
progress. 

Ballinahincli (Battle of).U June, 1798, 
against the insurgent Irish. The royal army 
was, of course, victorious, but suffered very 
severely. 

Baltimore (Battle of), 12 Sept., 1814, won 
by General Ross over the Americans, but Ross 
was slain, and the attack on Baltimore failed. 

Bannockburn (Battle of), 24 June, 1314, 
in which Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated 
Edward II. In this battle the flower of the 
English knighthood fell into the hands of the 
conquerors, while the Irishry and foot 
soldiers were ruthlessly cut down as they 
fled. For centuries afterwards, the rich 
p'under of the English camp left its traces on 
the vestment rolls of Scottish castle and abbey. 



Bancs di Toloso (Battle of), 1210, in 
which Alfonso IX. of Leon, <fec. defeated the 
Moors. The loss of the Moors is stated to have 
been 180,000 men. They never recovered from 
this tremendous defeat. 

Bantry Bay (Battle of), 1 May, 1689. 
This was merely an indecisive engagement 
with a French squadron. The English ad- 
miral was Herbert earl of Torrington, noted 
for his indolence and total want of seaman- 
ship. 

Barbury Hill, in Wiltshire (Battle of), 
A.D. 552, in which the Angles defeated the 
Britons. 

Barnet, in Hertfordshire (Battle of), 14 
April, 1471, in which the Earl of Warwick was 
defeated and slain by Edward IV. This battle 
was a medley of carnage and treachery. It 
lasted six hours, and ended with the fall of 
Warwick, the 'king-maker,' as he fled for 
hiding to the woods. One more battle, that of 
Tewkesbury, three weeks afterwards, left 
Queen Margaret a captive in the victor's 
power. 

Barrosa (Battle of), 6 March, 1811, won by 
General Graham, leader of the British army, 
over Marshal Victor and his French army. In 
this sanguinary conflict was captured the first 
eagle that the British army had ever taken. 

Bassano (Battle o/), 8 Sept., 1796, in which 
Bonaparte defeated the Austrians. In this 
battle Marshal Augereau and Marshal Massena 
greatly distinguished themselves. 

'Bebasovaih. (Battle of), 4 Nov., a.d. 657. The 
first civil war of the Moslems. In this battle 
Ali, the calif, defeated Ayesha, Telha, and 
Zobeir. 

*Sf* Generally pronounced Bass5rah, but it 
should be called Bas'sorah or Bas'rah. 

Bath.. See ' Badon." 

Batowitz (Battle of), 1653, in which the 
army of John II. of Poland suffered a crushing 
defeat from Bogdan the Cossack and his son. 

Battlefield (Battle of), 1402, won by 
Henry IV. over Percy, surnamed Hotspur. 

Bautzen (Battle of), 21 May, 1813, won by 
Napoleon over the allied Russian and Prussian 
armies. Pronounce Bowt-zn, 

Baylen (Battle of), 19 July, 1808, in which 
the Spanish General Castanos utterly defeated 
Dupont and his French army. 

Bazabdfe (Battle of), A.D. 360, in which 
Sapor the king of Persia repulsed Constantius 
II. 

Beachy Head (Battle of), 30 June, 1690, 
in which the English and Dutch allied fleet 
was defeated by the French. 

Beaugd (Battle of), 1420, won by the 
French over the Duke of Clarence, brother of 
Henry V. In this battle Clarence was slain, 
and the Earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Hunt- 
ingdon were taken prisoners. The victory is 
ascribed to a contingent of Scotch mercenaries. 



BEAUMONT 



BOUVINES 



971 



Beaumont {Battle of), 28 Aug., 1870, in 
the Franco-German war. Won by the Prus- 
sians. 

Bedr {Baitle of), A.D. 624, the famous battle 
in which Mahomet defeated the Koreishites. 
He ascribed his victory to Gabriel, who fought 
on his white horse for the ' prophet.' 

Belgrade {Battle of), 1456, in which the 
Turks were defeated by a German army. The 
famous Siege of Belgrade was in May, 1717, 
by Prince Eugene. The Turks went to relieve 
the city, Aug. 5, with 200,000 men, and, after a 
very sanguinary battle, Belgrade surrendered. 

*** This city has often been besieged. 

Bell air, or Moorfields {Battle of ), in Mary- 
laud, 30 Aug., 1814, A small British force 
under Sir Peter Parker attacked the town, 
but, after an obstinate fight, were repulsed 
with loss. Sir Peter being slain. 

Belle Isle {JVaval batth's of), 25 Oct., 1747, 
in which Admiral Hawke well nigh annihilated 
the French fleet. In 1759 Admiral Hawke 
obtained a second victory over the French 
near the same spot. 

Benacus {Battle of Lake), 268, in which 
Claudius defeated the Alemanni. 

Benburb {Battle of), 5 June, 1646, in 
whicli Owen O'Neill the Irish chieftain com- 
pletely defeated the Scotch and English, led b .• 
Monroe. Of the Scotch and English, 3,243 
were slain in battle and many more on the 
road ; of the Irish army, only 70 men were 
slain and 200 wounded. Owen Koe O'Neill died 
soon after the battle, the last of the Irish 
chitfs. 

Bennington, Vermont, TJ.S. {Battle of), 
16 July, 1777. Here the Americans defeated 
the Germans in the American War of Indepen- 
dence. These Germans were British merce- 
naries. The American general was Stark. 

Bensington, in Oxfordshire {Battle of), 
in which Offa king of Mercia defeated Cyne- 
wulf king of the West Saxons. 

Beresina {Battle of), 28 Nov., 1812, in 
which the French were attacked by the Rus- 
sians, and lost 20,000 men. It was a most 
terrible disaster on their retreat from Moscow, 

Bergen {Battles of). I. 14 April, 1.759, won 
by the French over the allies, 

II. 19 Sept., 1799, won also by the French over 
the allies, 

III. 2 Oct,, 1799, won by the French over the 
allies. 

Biberaeh. {Battle of), April, 1799, in which 
Marshal Moreau, the French general, defeated 
the Austrians. 

Bibracte {BaXtU of), b.c. 58, in which 
Julius Caesar overthrew the Gauls. 
Bibracte is Autun, in Burgundy. 

Bicocco {Battle of), 1521, in wliich Charles 
v. defeated Lautrec, the French general. This 
defeat involved the loss of Milan to the French 
nation. 



Bilbao {Battle of), 25 Dec, 1836, won by 
Espartero over the Carlists. (Christmas Day.) 

Blaekkeath. {Battle of), 22 June, 1497, 
in which the Cornish insurgents led by Lord 
Audley, Michael Joseph, and Thomas Flam- 
mock, met a crushing defeat from the army 
sent against them by Henr}' VII. Above 
2,000 of the insurgents were slain and 1,500 
taken prisoners. 

Bladensburg {Battle of), 24 Aug., 1814, 
in which General Ross defeated the Americans 
commanded by General Winder in the second 
American war, 

Blenheim, in Bavaria {Battle of), 13 Aug., 
1704, in which Marlborough and Prince 
Eugene defeated the French and Bavarians. 
The great benefit of this victory was tliat 
it broke the spell of French invincibility. 
The many victories that the Frencli had won 
induced Europe to believe they were irresis- 
tible; but the fate of Blenheim dispe'led the 
delusion and raised the fame of England in 
proportion. 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the Wo?id. 

Borodi'no, in Russia {Battle bf), 7 Sept., 
1812, between the French commanded by 
Napoleon, and the Russians under Kutusoif. 
This was one of the most sanguinary battles on 
record, and both sides claimed the victory ; but 
as the Russians retreated, the advantage was 
with Napoleon, to whom the road to Moscow 
was left open. 

This battle is also called 'The Battle of 
Moskwa.' 

Boroughbridge {Battle of), 16 March, 
1323, in which the royal troops of Edward II. 
led by Sir Simon Ward and Sir Andrew 
Barclay defeated the Earls of Lancaster and 
Hertford, two of the lords ordainers who had 
risen against the royal favourites Hugli le 
Despeuser and his father. Lancaster, being 
taken prisoner, was hanged, drawn, and 
quartered as a traitor. 

Fourteen bannerets and fourteen knights 
bachelors were hanged, drawn, and quartered, 
with the earl. 

Borystbenes {Battle of the), 1508, won 
by Sigismund I. of Poland over the Muscovites. 
It is said th.it the Muscovites lost 80,000 men in 
this battle. Pronounce Bo-Hs'-then-eze. 

Bos worth Field, in Leicestershire 
{Battle of), 22 Aug., 1485, in which Richard III. 
was defeated and slain by the Earlof Richmond 
(Henry VII.). This batt e brought the Plan- 
tagenet dynasty to an end, and established that 
of Tudor, 

The Tudors were descendants of John of 
Gaant's il egitimate offspring, bom of Cathe- 
rine Swynford. The last of this line, called 
Beaufort, was Lady Margaret, who married 
Edmund Tudor, and became the mother of our 
Henry VII. 

Bouvines, in Flanders {Battle of), 27 July, 
1217, in which Philippe Auguste king of 
France defeated the Kaiser Otto and his allies, 



972 



BOXTEL 



CADESIA 



the Flemish and English. The Flemish were 
the first to fly, then the German centre gave 
way, and lastij^ the English on tlie right wing, 
led by the Earl of Sa'is!)ury. This was a very 
important battle. If Philippe had lost it, 
France would have been partitioned among the 
conquerors. As King John was one of the de- 
feated allies, his vengeance against the English 
barons was powerless, and hence the grant of 
Magna Charta. 

Boxtel {Battle of), 17 Sept., 1794, in which 
the British allied army commanded by the 
Duke of York was defeated by the French re- 
publican arm3\ The Duke retreated across the 
Meuse. 

Boyne, in Ireland {Battle of the), 1 July, 
1690, where William III. defeated James II., 
who the parliament declared had abdicated. 

Bradford on the Avon (Battle o/), A.D. 
657, in which Cenwalh defeated the Britons. 

Brandyivine, a river in the U.S. (Battle 
of the), 11 Sept., 1777. Won by Lord Howe over 
Washington, in the American War of Inde- 
pendence, Philadelphia fell to the possession 
of the victors. 

Breslau. Between 1757-60, in the ' Seven 
Years' War,' it was taken and retaken by the 
Prussians under Frederick the Great and the 
Austrians ; but in 1763 Silesia passed defini- 
tively into the hands of the Prussians. 

It was besieged and surrendered to the 
French 5 Jan., 1807 ; and again 31 May, 1813. 

Pronounce Bres-low (ow as in now). 

Bretigny (Treaty of), 1360, after the 
battle of Poitiers. It stipulated that Edward 
III. should renounce all claim to the crown of 
France ; but should retain Calais, and be the 
independent lord of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumois, 
Sahitonge, the Limousin, and Guyenne. The 
French also paid in money 366,000^. and gave 
40 hostages. 

Briar's Creek, in South Carolina 
(Battles of). I. 16 March, 1779, won by the 
English army led by General Prevost over the 
Americans commanded by General Ashe. 

II. 3 May, 1779, by the same belligerents and 
with the same results. 

Brienne (Battle of), 29 Jan., 1814, won by 
Napoleon over the allied Russians and Prus- 
sians led by Bllicher. 

Brooklyn, U.S. (Battleof), 27 Aug., 1776, 
where General Howe defeated the Americans in 
the American War of Independence. This is 
sometimes called ' The Battle of Flatbush.' 

Brunanburh (Battle of), 937, won by 
Athelstan king of England over a confederacy 
organised by Anlaf king of Ireland. The con- 
fe lerated chiefs who joinetl Anlaf were from 
Scotland, Cumberland, together with some 
Welsh or British chiefs, and some of the Danes 
settled by Alfred in the Five Boroughs. 

Bull Run, Virginia (Battles of), 21 July, 
1861. I. The first of the conflicts in the American 
Civil War. The Federals, under General Irwin 



M'Dowell, were successful at first ; but when 
some Confederate reinforcements arrived, being 
seized with a panic, they fled to Washington, 
leaving their baggage and ammunition behind. 
The Confederate generals were Beauregard and 
Jackson. 

II. 30 Aug., 1862. A desperate conflict which 
also ended in the triumph of the Confederates, 
commanded by General [Stonewall] Jackson. 
The Northern army was under General Pope. 

**.* It was General [Bernard] Bee who gave 
Jackson this cognomen at Bull Run. 

Bulla (Buttle of), 15 Sept., a.d. 533, in 
which Belisarius defeated Gelimer, last of the 
Vandal kings of Carthage. Gelimer was made 
captive, and Carthage became a Roman pro- 
vince. 

Bunker's Hill, near Boston, V.S. (Battle 
of), 17 June, 1775, two months after the battle 
of Lexington. Nominally the result was favour- 
able to Lord Howe and the British troops, but 
the real victory was on the side of the American 
insurgents, led by Colonel Prescot. The British 
loss of men was double that of the Americans. 

Burford, Oxfordshire (Battle of), 752, ia 
which Cuthred king of Wessex defeated Ethel- 
bald king of Mercia. In a second defeat at 
Secandum, in 755, Ethelbald was slain. 

This battle between Wessex and Mercia was 
one of the best contested battles of the hep- 
tarchy. 

BuTlieTSdorf (Battle of), 21 July, 1762, in 
which the Prussians drove the Austrians from 
their entrenchments. (In the seventh cam- 
paign of the Seven Years' War.) 

Burlington Heights (Battleof), 6 June, 
1813, won by the British, who carried the 
heights, but the Americans defended them with 
great valour. 

Busac'o, in Portugal (Battle of), 27 Sept., 
1810, in which Lord Wellington, the British 
commander, defeated the French, commanded 
by Massena. After the battle, Wellington re- 
treated to Torres Vedras. 

ButtingtoD, in Wales (Battle of), AJ>. 
894, in which Ethelred defeated the Danes. 

Byland, in Yorkshire (Battle of), 1328, in 
which Robert the Bruce routed the chivalry of 
England and of France under Edward III. 

Cadesia (Battle of), a.d. 636, in which 
Ysdegerd (king of Persia) was defeated by 
Khaled, commander of the Saracen army. The 
battle lasted three days. The first was called 
the Day of Succour, from a reinforcement of 
3U,000 which arrived on that day. The second 
day was called the Bay of Concussion, from the 
conflict of the two armies on that day. The 
third day was called the Day of Bai-king, from 
the discordant noises of the Persian camp when 
a high wind drove clouds of dust into their 
faces. In this battle the famous standard called 
'Durufsh e Kawanee,' better known as the 
' Blacksmith's Apron,' fell into the hands ot 
the Saracens. 



CAMBUSKENNETH 



CHARFORD 



973 



Cambuskenneth. {Battle of), 10 Sept., 
1297, in which William Wallace defeated the 
English army under the Earl of Surrey. By 
this victory Scotland was lost to Edward I. 

Cambuskenneth is close to Stirling Bridge. 
Wallace allowed half the English army to cross 
the bridge, then fell on them, and, taking posses- 
sion of the bridge, prevented the rest of the 
English from crossing it. 

Camden, South Carolina, U.S. {Battles 
of). I. 16 Aug., 1780. Here Lord Comwallis 
defeated the American General Gates in the 
American War of Independence. 

II. 25 April, 1781, won by Lord Rawdon, the 
British general, over General Greene of Ame- 
rica. 

III. 13 May, 1781, won by the same general 
over the same opponents. Camden was burnt. 

Camperdown (Battle of ),n Oct., 1797, in 
whicli Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch. 

Cannaa (Battle of), 2 Aug., B.C. 216, in 
which Hannibal the Carthagiruan utterly de- 
feated the Romans led by the Consul Varro. 
This was one of the most disastrous defeats 
ever suffered. At least 40,000 Roman foot and 
3,000 horse were left uead on the field. 

Cape St. Vincent (Battles of). 1. 17 June, 
1693, in which Sir George Rooke was defeated 
by Tourville the French admiral. 

II. 14 Feb., 1797, in which Sir John Jervis 
defeated the Spanish fleet. 

Caravaggio (Battle of), 1448, in which 
Sforza defeated the Venetians, took all their 
stores and 15,000 prisoners. 

CaristO (Batdeof), 29 Aug., 1351, a great 
naval \'ictory of Venice over the Genoese. 

Carthagena, South America (Naval battle 
of ), 1747. It was seized by the French in 1544 ; 
taken by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; retaken by 
the French in 1697; and unsuccessfully besieged 
by Admiral Vernon in 1747. 

Casal SecCO (Battle of), 12 July, 1426, 
This was scarcely a battle. It was rather an 
affray between the Venetians led by Carma- 
gnuola and the Milanese under the leadership of 
Francesco Sforza. It was not decisive, but the 
Venetians had the advantage in that they com- 
pelled the Milanese to retire to their lines. 

Casalecchio (Battle of), 26 June, 1402, in 
which Visconti signally defeated the Bolognese. 

Cassa'no (Battle of), 28 April, 1799, in 
which Suwarrow, the Russian general, defeated 
Mai-ohal Moreau and took 5,000 French prisoners. 

Cassel (Battle of), 1677, won by the Due 
d'Orleans over the Dutch. 

Castel Nuovo (Battle of), 29 Sept., 1806, 
in which the Russians were defeated by the 
French. 

Castiglione (Battle of), from 2 to 5 Aug., 
179G, in which Bonaparte defeated the Aus- 
triaus under W^urmser. Here Marshal Augereau 
greatly distinguished himself, and was created 
Duo de Castiglione (5 syl.). 



Castillon (Battle of), 17 July, 1453. The 
most signsil defeat suffered by the English. 
Here the Earl of Shrewsbury and his son were 
slain. This victory put an end to the dominion 
of the English in France. 

Castlebar, in Ireland (Battle of), 27 Aug., 
1798. This was not strictly a battle. In 1798 
the Irish rose in revolt, and were suppressed on 
Vinegar Hill, near Wexford, by General Lake, 
21 June, 1798. Scarcely was this done, when 
General Humbert landed with 1,000 French 
soldiers, and defeated Lake and Hutchinson, 
who had some 3,000 men under them, at Castle- 
bar. The lord-lieutenant, Lord Cornwallis, now 
marched against the invaders and Irish re- 
volters, at the head of 30,000 men, and compelled 
Humbert to surrender. 

Catalaixnian Plains (Battle of the), a.d. 
451. Here Attila king of the Huns was van- 
quished by the Gallic Mer-wig, or Meroveus, 
who united with the Roman anny. 

Cattraeth. (Battle of), a.d. 547, won by Ida 
the Saxon over the British Confederacy. In 
this confederacy there were 363 Britons distin- 
guished by golden torques. 

Cerignola (Battle of ), 1503, won by Gon- 
zalvo of Cordova over the French. 

Cheeroneia (Battles of). I. b.c. 447, in 
whicli the Athenians were defeated by the Boeo- 
tians, and their general Tolmidas was slain. 

II. 2 Aug. B.C. 338, won by Philip of Mace- 
don over the allied Theba'n and Athenian 
army. This battle made Greece a province of 
the Macedonian monarchy. 

It was in this battle that Demosthenes the 
orator served as a foot-so dier, and fled. 

III. B.C. 81, in which Syila, or Sulla, over- 
threw Archelaos, the best general of Mithri- 
dates VI. king of Pontus, sent to aid the 
Athenians who had revolted against Rome. 
The army of Mithridates (4 syl.) consisted of 
100,000 men, with 10,000 horse, and 90 scythed 
cars. The whole army of Scylla did not exceed 
30,000 men. Pronounce Ke-ro-ne'-ah. 

Chalgrove, in Oxfordshire (Battle of), 
18 June, 1643. This was a skirmish between 
the parliamentarians and royalists, which is 
only noteworthy because it was here that 
Hampden was mortally wounded. Generally 
callal ' Chalgrove Field.' 

Ch4lons (Battle of), A.D. 451, in which 
Aetiusand Theodoric utterly overthrew Attila. 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

Champ-Aubert (Battles of), lO Feb., 
1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led 
by BlUcher. And again 14 Feb., 1814. 

Chancellorsville, U.S. (Battle of), 
2 May, 1863, won by the Confederates under 
Lee and Jackson. The Northern army was 
commanded by General Joseph Hooker. 

Cbarford (Battle of), a.d. 519, in which 
a band of Saxons under Cerdic defeated the 
Britons. This victory set the crown of the 
West Saxons on the conqueror's head. 



974 



CHARMOUTH 



CORUNNA 



Cliarinouth. {Battle of), a.d. 850, in which 
Ethelwulf king of Wessex was defeated by the 
Danes. 

Charrse {Battle of), b.c. 53, in which the 
Roman army under Crassus the triumvir was 
defeated by Sureuas, a principal officer of 
Urodes, ' king of kings.' Crassus was treach- 
erously seized in a conference, and killed by 
molten gold being poured down his throat. 

Charroe is Haran [Harran] where Abraham 
once dwelt. 

CMteau Thierry {Battle of), 13 Feb., 
1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led 
by Bliicher. 

Chesapeake {Battle of the),17Sl, in which 
the British admiral, Graves, was repulsed by 
the French admiral, De Grasse, fighting for the 
Americans in their struggle for independence. 
See ' Shannon and Chesapeake,' &c. 

Chester {Battle of), 607, won by Ethel- 
frith over the North Britons. In this battle 
2,000 monks of Bangor, who had invoked 
divine vengeance on the invaders, were the 
first to fall. 

Chiekahominy {Battle of), 25 June to 
1 July, 1862, in the American Civil War. 
' Stonewall ' Jackson, a Confederate general, 
greatly distinguished himself in these conflicts. 

Chickamatiga, U.S. {Battle of), 19, 20 
Sept., 1863, won by the Confederates under 
General Bragg. The Northern army was com- 
manded by General Rosecrans. 

Chillian wallah (Battle of), in India, 
13 January, 1849, in which the Sikhs were 
completely routed by General Lord Gough. 
*«* Gough, pronounce Goff. 

Chippewa {Battles of). I. 5 July, 1814, in 
which the British forces under Gf'neral Riall 
were defeated by the Americans led by General 
Browne. 

II. 25 July, 1814. Between the English and 
North Americans. Both claimed the victory. 
The British were led by General Drummond 
and General Riall ; the Americans by Winfield 
Scott and General Browne. Riall was wounded 
and taken prisoner. See ' Lucdy {Battle of).' 

Chrysop'olis, Scutari {Battleof), A.D. 323, 
won by Constantine over Licinius. 

ClontBiXf {Battle of). Good Friday, 23 April, 
1014, in which Brian Boru king of Munster 
and Connaught utterly defeated the con- 
federated Danes of England, Wales, Ireland, 
and Denmark. This battle, which lasted all 
day, was one of the most decisive ever fought. 
It is said that 14,000 Danes were slain, and 
7,000 Irish. Brian fell by assassination in his 
tent, aged 88. 

Cnidus {Naval battle of), B.C. 394, won by 
Conon, the commander of the allied Phoenician 
and Grecian fleet, over Pisander the Lacedse- 
monian. This defeat deprived LacediBmou of 
her recently gained maritime ascendency. 

Coblenz {Battle of), B.C. 55, in which 
Julius Caesar annihilated the German swarms. 



It is said that 150,000 of them were either 
slain or drowned in the Rhine. 

Cocherel, near Evreux {Battle of), 1364, in 
which Charles Y. le Sage of France, by his 
General Duguesclin, defeated Charles the Bad 
king of Navarre. 

Cold Harbor. {Battle of), in Virginia, 
3 June, 1864, between the Federals under Gen. 
Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Lee. 
It was very bloody, but indecisive. 

Colline Gate {Battle of the), 23 Aug., 
B.C. 82, in which Pontius, leader of the Sam- 
nites, was defeated by Crassus. Sylla mas- 
sacred the 6,000 captive Samnites taken in this 
battle. 

Conquereux or Conquerueil, in 

France {Battles of). I. a.d. 981, in which 
Geofl'rey count of Anjou was defeated by 
Conan comte de Rennes. 

II. A.D. 992, in which Conan comte de 
Rennes was defeated and slain by Foulques 
Nerra duke of Anjou. 

Copenhagen {Battle of), 2 April, 1801, 
won over the Danish fleet by Admiral Lord 
Nelson and Admiral Parker. 

Corinth {Battle of), b.c. 394, won by the 
Lacedaemonians over the allied Corinthian 
army. 

Coronea {Battles of). I. b.c. 447, won by 
the Boeotians over the Athenians. This great 
disaster caused the death of Isocrates, ' the old 
man eloquent.' 

II, B.C. 394, in which Agesilaos king of 
Sparta defeated the allied Athenians, Thebans, 
Argives (2 syl.), and Corinthians. 

Corrichie {Battle of), between the Earl of 
Huntley (a Catholic) and the Earl of Mar (a 
Protestant). The bone of contention was the 
earldom of Murray, which Mary the Queen 
first gave to the Earl of Huntley, and then re- 
called, that she might give it to her brother, 
the Earl of Mar. The feud culminated in the 
battle of Corrichie, in which the Earl of 
Huntley fell. 

The houses of Huntley and Murray were 
mortal enemies. The fatal battle of Corrichie 
was an event not to be forgotten nor forgiven. 
Sir W. Scott, Hist, of Scotland, xxxviii. 

Cortenudva {Battle of), 17 Nov., 1237, 
in which Kaiser Frederick II. defeated the 
Milanese. 

Corunna {Battle of), 16 January, 1809. 
This was not a- battle, but a fight to keep the 
enemy at bay while the British troops were 
safely embarked. Sir John Moore had to retire 
before a French force, and repulsed the foe, 
which pressed har.l upon him. The British 
loss was very great, and amongst the slain was 
Sir John Moore. The French say, ' n y perdit 
le 16 Jan., 1809, la bataille, qui lui coMa la vie, 
et qui for(^a ses troupes a abandonner toute 
I'E^pagne.' Of course, after the British troops 
ha I set sail. Marshal Soult occupied Corunna, 
and therefore claimed the victory. 



CORUPEDION 



DENNEWITZ 



971 



Corupedion, near Salamis (Battle of), 
B.C. 281, in wliich Lysimachus was defeated, 
and Macedonia, with most other parts of Alex- 
ander's vast empire, fell under the hands of 
Seleucus. 

Courtray (Battles of). I. In 1302, in which 
the French were defeated by the Flemings, com- 
manded by Count John of Namur liVa-moor''] 
and William de Juliers. This was ' The Battle 
of the Spurs,' so called because more than 4,(i00 
gilt spurs were picked up on the field. These 
were the spurs of French knights slain in the 
battle. 

II. In 1793, in wliich the French defeated 
the English. 

*«* Courtray has been often lost and won. 

Coutras (Battle of), 20 Oct., 1587, in 
which Henri (afterwards the IV. of France), 
at the head of the Huguenot army, utterly 
routed the Leaguers or Catholics led by the 
Due de Joyeuse. 

Cowpens, South Carolina, U.S. (Battle 
of), 11 Jan. 1811. Here the Americans de- 
feated the British, in the American War of 
Independence. The English troops were led by 
Colonel Tarleton, the Americans by Colonel 
Morgan. The colours, cannons, and baggage 
waggons fell into the hands of the victors, and 
the loss of the British amounted to at least 600 
men, while that of the Americans was trifling. 

Cran'on (Battle of), B.C. 322, in which the 
Macedonians led by Antipiter and Crateros 
defeated the confederated Greeks both by sea 
and land. We are told that Hyperides, being 
taken prisoner, was put under torture, and bit 
or cut ofiE his tongue that he might betray no 
secrets. 

Crayford (Battle of), aj). 457, in which 
the Saxons triumphed over the Britons, who 
abandoned Kent and fled to London. 

Probably the same as the battle of the Darent. 
The river Cray runs into the Darent. 

Cressy or Cr^ci, in France (Battle of), 
Saturday, 26 Aug., 1346, in which Edward III. 
of England defeated Philippe VI. of France. 
The victory was mainly due to the Black Prince, 
who in this battle won his spurs. In this great 
victory 1,200 French knights and 30,000 foot- 
soldiers (a number equal to the whole English 
army) lay dead on the field. The siege of 
Calais followed, and its surrender to the vic- 
torious king. 

This is the gi-eatest victory ever won. The 
French were at least four times more numerous 
than the English, but they lost two kings, 
eleven great princes, eighty bannerets, 1,200 
kuights, and 30,000 rank and file. The English 
lost three knights one squire, and an insigni- 
ficant number of inferior rank. After the 
battle. King Edward sent Lords Cobham and 
Surrey, with a number of secretaries and 
heralds, to take a record of the slain; and 
their recoi-d is still exf ant. 

(Jropredy Bridge, near Banbury (Battle 
of), 29 June, 1644, in which Charles I. defeated 



Sir W. Waller, one of the Parliamentary 
oflBcers. 

Cullod'en, near Inverness (Battle of), 16 
April, 1746, in which the Duke of Cumberland 
completely overthrew the Young Pretender, 
Charles Edward, and stamped out Jacobitism 
for ever. Charles Edward escaped to France, 
three Scptch nobles were beheaded, fifty of 
Charles's followers were hanged, and forty per- 
sons of rank attainted. 

Cunax'a (Battle of), b.c. 401, between 
Cyrus the Younger and his brother Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. Cyrus was slain. Tliis event has 
been rendered especially famous by ' the retreat 
of the 10,000' Greeks, led by Xenophon the 
historian, who also wrote an account of it in 
his ' Anabasis.' 

Cunersdorf (Battle of), 12 Aug., 1759, 
won by the Eussians over the King of 
Prussia. 

Cunobizza (Battle of), 1444, won by 
Huuyades over the Sultan Amurath II. 

Cynoscepll'alee, or the Dogheads (Battle 
of), B.C. 197, in which Philip V. of Macedon 
was utterly defeated by Flaminius the Pioman 
consul. By this defeat Macedonia lost her 
supremacy in Greece. 

Cynossema (]\^aval battle of), B.C. 411, 
won by the Athenians over the Lacedaemo- 
nians. Cynossema means 'dog's tomb,' so 
called from being the traditional tomb of 
Heciiba, who had been metamorphosed into a 
dog. 

Cyzicum (Battle of), B.C. 410, won by the 
Athenians over the Lacedasmonian fleet com- 
manded by Mindaros and assisted by Pharua- 
basus the Persian. 

Czaslau (Battle of), 17 May, 1742, in which 
Frederick IT. of Prussia defeated Prince Charles 
of Lorraine. In the War of the Austrian Suc- 
cession. Pronounce Tshas-low (ow as in now). 

Deegsaslan, north of the river Tees (Battle 
of), 603, won by Ethelfrith over the forces of 
the Northern Britons. By this great victory 
the rule of Northumbria, from the Humber to 
the Forth, was established. Daegsaslan is Dal- 
ton, in Yorkshire. 

Danbury, Connecticut, U.S. (Battle of), 
26 April, 1777, won by the English, who set 
fire to the town. In the American War of 
Independence. 

DegO (Battle of), 15 April, 1796, in which 
Bonaparte repulsed the Austriaus. 

Delium (Bat/l- of), b.c. 424, won by the 
Boeotians over the Athenians in the eighth year 
of the Peloponnesian war. This battle was the 
most disastrous ami most decisive of all the 
battles fought in the first eight years of the 
war. 

Denain (Battle of), 1712, won by the 
French, commanded by Marshal Villars, over 
Prince Eugene. 

Dennewitz (Battle of), 6 Sept., 1813, won 
by Marshal Bernadotte [afterwards Charles 



976 



DEORHAM 



EDGECOTB 



XTV. of Sweden] over Marshal Ney. The loss 
of the French was 16,000 men, Napoleon's de- 
feat at Leipsic the following month (16, 18, 19 
Oct.) closed his reverses in this disastrous year. 

Deorliain, in Gloucestershire {Battle of ), 
577, ill which the West Saxons conquered the 
Britons. Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath, 
which had leagued under the British king in 
this contest, became the spoil of the conquerors. 
Three British kings, viz. Conmail, Condidan, 
and Fariumail, fell in this battle. 

Dessau {Battle of), 1626, won by Wallen- 
stein in the Catholic interest. This was one of 
the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 

*.j5* Pronounce Des-soic (ow as in now). 

Dettingen {Battles of) I. 27 June, 1743, in 
which George II. defeated the French under 
Marshal Noailles. In a military point of view 
this battle was a very small matter, consisting 
of extricating Lord Stair from a position in 
which his blundering had placed hiui. George 
II. cut his way out. The effect of this success 
was considerable, for the French evacuated 
Germany, and the fortunes of Maria Theresa 
revived. This battle, which was in the War 
of the Austrian Succession, was the last in 
which an English sovereign engaged in person. 

II. 26 July, 1866, in which the Prussians 
defeated the Bavarians in the Austro- Prussian 
war. 

Diamond {Battle of the), Sept., 1795. A 
battle in Ireland between the Orangemen 
and Catholics ; so-called from the place where 
it was fought, county Antrim. 

Dolabella {Battle of), a.d. 24, in which 
Tacfarinas the African freebooter was defeated 
by a Eoman army and slain. 

Donnington {Battles of). I. in 1643, in 
which the parliamentarians were defeated by 
Colonel Cavendish. 

II. in 1645, in which the royalists, led by Lord 
Ashton, were defeated by Colonel Morgan. 

These are not the same places. The former 
is in Lincolnshire ; the latter in Gloucester- 
shire. 

Douro {Battle of the), 12 May, 1809, won by 
Sir Arthur Welles' ey (duke of Wellington) 
over Sou;t,the French marshal. 

For this exploit Sir Arthur was created 
Baron Douro. 

Dresden {Battles of). 1. 28 Oct., 1806, where 
Napoleon defeated the Prussians. 

II. 26, 27 Aug., 1813, won by Napoleon over 
the allies, led by the Prince of Schwarzenberg. 
Marshal Idioreau was slain in this battle. 

Dreux {Battle of), 1562, between the Ca- 
tholics and Huguenots, in the first religious 
war of France. Marshal St. Andre, one of the 
French Triumvirate {q.v.), was slain ; but the 
Catholics claimed the victory as Prince Conde 
was taken piisoner. 

Dryfe Viands {Battle of), 1593. Between 
the Maxwells and Johnstones, the former of 
whom was left dead on the field. This was the 
last great clan battle fought on the borders. 



Dunbar {Battles of). I. 27 April, 1296, in 
which the English, under John Earl of 
Warrenne, defeated Baliol's army with great 
slaughter. 

II. 3 Sept., 1650, in which Cromwell utterly 
defeated the Scotch, led by Leslie. After this 
victory, Edinburgh Castle and several other 
strong fortresses fell into the hands of Crom- 
well. 

Ten thousand prisoners fell into Cromwell's 
hands in this victory, with all the baggage 
and guns ; and as many as 3,000 were slain. 
Spain instantly recognised the commonwealth, 
and Holland offered its alliance. 

Dunes {Battle of the), 4 June, 1658, iu 
wiiich the English and French defeated the 
Spaniards. 

Dungan Hill {Battle of), 10 July, 1647, 
in which the Irish were defeated by Colonel 
Jones. 

Dunsin'nane {Battle of), 1057, won by 
Seward over the army of Macbeth. Macbeth 
fled and was slain at Lumphanan, in Aber- 
deenshire. 

*«* Called by Shakespeare Dunsinane. 

Dupplin Moor {Battle of), 1332, in 
which an army of 40,000 Scots was utterly 
defeated by some 3,0(K) Englishmen. Above 
13,000 of the Scotch were slain, and not above 
30 of the English. 

Durham {Battle of), 17 Oct., 1346, in which 
Queen Philippa defeated David Bruce king of 
Scotland, who was taken prisoner. 

Durham Station, North Carolina, the 
' Sedan ' of the American Civil War. Here (10 
May, 1865) General Johnston, who had the chief 
command of the Confederates, surrendered to 
General Sherman, and thus brought the war to 
an end. The war began in 1861. 

Durrenstein {Battle of), 11 Nov., 1805, 
in which the French were defeated by the 
Kussians. 

Ebersberg {Battle of), 13 May, 1809, in 
which the French Marshal Massena defeated 
the Austrians. 

Eckmiihl in Bavaria {Battle of), 22 April, 
18u9, won by Napoleon over the Archduke 
Karl, leader of the Austrians. All the Austrian 
artillery, fifteen standards, and 20,000 prisoners 
fell to the French in this battle. 

April 23, Napoleon was wounded in the heel. 

Ec'nomus {Naval battle of), B.C. 256, in 
the first Punic war. The Roman fleet was 
victorious over the Carthaginian. 

*.j.* Ecnomus, now Monteserrato. 

Eddington or Ethandun, near Westbury 
in Wilts {Battle of). May 11, A.D. 878, in which 
Alfred completely overthrew the Danes and 
recovered his throne. Finding it impossible 
to drive the Danes out of the kingdom, he 
allowed them to settle in East Anglia, &C., 
provided they became Christians, 

Edgecote {Battle of), 26 July, 1469, in 
which the royal forces were defeated by 
Lancastrian insurgents. 



EDGEHILL 



FREDERICKSBURG 



977 



Edgehill {Battle of), 23 Oct., 1642. An 
indecisive battle between the royalists led by 
Prince Rupert and the parliamentary party 
led by the Earl of Essex. This was the fi rst 
battle between Charles I. and his subjects. The 
king himself was personally present in this 
battle. 

Elchingen (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1805, in 
which the French under Marshal Ney defeated 
the Austrians. 
' Ellandun (Battle of), 823, in which Egbert 
defeated Beoruwulf of Mercia. Ellandun is 
Wilton, close by Salisbury, a little to the 
south-east of Ethandun or Eddington, famous 
for one of Alfred's victories. 

Elster (Battle of), 5 Oct., 1080, won by 
Heiurich IV. of Germany over Rudolf, the 
pseudo-emperor appointed by the diet of 
Forscheira. Rudolf died of his wounds. 

Emmendingen (Battle of). 19 Oct., 1796. 
The Archduke Karl of Austria defeated Moreau 
the French general. 

Engen (Battle of), April, 1799, in which 
Moreau the French general defeated the 
Austrians. 

Enghien (Baffle of), 3 Aug., 1692, won by 
the French under Marshal Luxembourg over 
William III. Enghien (3 syl.). 

Epila (Battle of), 1348, in which the 
Union of Aragon was overthrown. This was 
the last battle of Aragon fouglit in defence of 
public liberty. The ' Privilege of Union' was 
abolished, Peter himself cutting to pieces with 
his sword the original charter. 

Espierres (Battle of), 22 May, 1794, in 
which the French were repulsed by the allied 
English and Austrians. 

Essling (Battle of), 21, 22 May, 1809, won 
by Karl archduke of Austria over Napoleon. 
This was the greatest defeat that Napoleon 
himself had hitherto sustained. Marshal 
Lannes fell in the fight, and 30,000 French 
were made prisoners. 

Here Kaiser Rudolf, in 1276, overthrew 
Ottokar king of Bohemia. 

Eurymedon (Battle of), b.c. 470, won by 
Cimon, son of Miltiades, over the Persians. 

Eutaw Springs, U.S. (Battle of), 8 Sept., 
1781, in which Colonel Stewart and General 
Arnold (a renegade American) defeated the 
Americans in the American War of Indepen- 
dence. 

Evesham (Battle of), 3 Aug., 1265, in 
which Simon de Montfort and his son were 
defeated and slain by Prince Edward son of 
Henry III. It is said that at one period of the 
battle the king was on the point of being cleft 
down by a common soldier, and saved his life 
by exclaiming, 'Don't kill me, soldier; I am 
Henry of Westminster, the king.' See Hexham. 

Eylau (Battle of), 8 Feb., 1807, a doubtful 
battle between Napoleon and the combined 
Russian and Prussian armies. Napoleon 
claimed the rictory because the allied army 



decamped during the night. It was a most 

bloody fight. The French were 64,000 strong, 

the allied Prussians and Russians were 72,000. 

*** Pronounce Ey-low (ow as in now). 

Falkirk (Battles of). I. 22 July, 1298, in 
which Edward I. defeated Wallace, who was 
afterwards captured and beheaded. 

II. 17 Jan., 1746, in which the 'Young Pre- 
tender ' defeated General Hawley. 

Paraham, in Surrey (Battle of), a.d. 894, 
in which Alfred defeated the Danes under 
Hastings their leader. 

FSre - champenoise (Battle of), 25 
March, 1814, in which Marmont's French army 
was defeated by the Austrians led by Schwartz- 
enberg. 

Perozeshah (Battle of), in the Punjab, 
22, 23 Dec., 1845, in which Sir Hugh Gough 
defeated the Sikhs. 

Hugh Gough was created a baronet in 1842 
and a baron in 1846. (Gough = Gqf.) 

Plat-busll (Battle of), Long Island, 27 
Aug., 1776, in which the Americans were 
defeated by the British forces. 

Pleurus (Battle of), 17 June, 1794, in 
which the allied army, consisting of 10U,000 
men, under the command of the Prince of 
Coburg, marching to the relief of Charleroi, 
was signally defeated by the French revolu- 
tionary army commanded by Jourdan. In this 
battle the French made use of balloons to 
reconnoitre the enemy's army. 

Flodden Field (Battle of), 9 Sept., 1513, 
in which the Earl of Surrey defeated the Scots. 

Pontenoy (Battle of), 11 May, 1745, in 
which Marshal Saxe defeated the Duke of 
Cumberland at the head of an allied army of 
English, Dutch, and Hanoverian troops. 

Pormigny, in Normandy (Battle of), 18 
April, 1450, in which the Constable of Riche- 
mont defeated an army of 3,000 Englishmen, 
This battle was the coup de grdce of our claim 
upon France. A monument on the field of 
battle records the victory. 

Pornovo (BcUtle of), 6 July, 1495, in which 
Charles VIII. of France defeated the Italian 
allies. This was a most marvellous victory : 
the French did not number above 9,000, the 
allies exceeded 40,000. Yet the loss of the 
French was only 200, but that of the allies 
3,500. Paulus Jovius terms this battle 'the 
extinction of Cisalpine military glory, an igno- 
minious rout which made Italy contemptible, 
and the beginning of countless miseries.' This 
battle is also called ' The Battle of the Taro.' 

Prankenhausen (Battle of), 1525, in 
which the Elector of Saxony utterly defeated 
the Anabaptists, and took their leader, 
Munzer, prisoner. Munzer was iguominiously 
beheaded. 

Fredericksburg, in the United States 
(Battle of ), 13 Dec, 1862, in which the Con- 
federates under General Lee defeated the 
Northern army led by Genei^al Burnside. 
8R 



978 



FREIBURG 



HALIDON HILL 



Freiburg {Battle of), 1644, in which the 
French led by the Great Conde defeated Franc^ois 
de Merci, a general in the service of the Elector 
of Bavaria. 

It was in this battle that Cond6 flung his 
baton into the enemy's trenches. 

Friedland {Battle of), 14 June, 1807, won 
by N apoleon over the Russian army which had 
fought atEylau, 8 Feb., 1807. The peace of 
Tilsit was the result of this victory. 

Friedlingen {Battle of), 1702, won by the 
French commanded by Marshal Villars over 
the imperialists commanded by the Prince of 
Baden. 

Frithern {Battle of), a.d.584, won by the 
Saxons over the Britons. Cealwin was the 
Saxon chief. 

Fuentes de Onoro {Battle of), 5 May, 
1811, between the British and Spanish forces 
under Wellington and the French under Mas- 
sena. It was an indecisive battle, but the 
French retreated out of Portugal on the 10th, 
and therefore the advantage was on the side 
of Wellington. The Angio-Spanish loss was 
1,500, the French loss nearly 5,000. 

Gallip'oli {Battle of), 1294, a great naval 
victor}- won by the Genoese over the Vene- 
tians. 

Garigliano {Battle of ), 27 Dec, 1503, won 
by Gonsalvo, the great captain, over the 
French. 

Gaugamela {Battle of), 1 Oct., b.c. 331. 
Same as the ' Battle of Arbela ' {q.v.). 

Gemblours {Battle of), Jan., 1578, in 
which the Dutch were defeated by Don John 
of Austria. 

Genestrello {Battle of), 20 May, 1859, the 
first of the battles fought by the Sardinians 
against the Austrians. The allied army, con- 
sisting of Sardinians, Italians, and French, 
defeated the Austrians. 

Germantown, U.S. {Battle of), 4 Oct., 
1777. Here General Howe defeated the Ame- 
ricans in the American War of Independence. 

Gettysburg, Pennsylvania {Battle of), 
3 July, 1863, in which the Confederates under 
the command of General Lee were defeated by 
the Northern army. This was one of the great 
battles of the Civil War. 

Ghuznee {Battle of ), 23 July, 1839, won by 
the English, led by Sir J. Keane, over the 
Afghans. The citadel was attacked at 2 a.m. ; 
at 3 the gates were blown in, and at 5 the 
English colours were flying on the towers. 

(Jienlivet {Battle o/),3 Oct., 1594, a trial 
of strength between the Highlanders and 
the Lowlanders. The Earl of Argyll led the 
Highlanders and the Earl of Huntley the 
Lowlanders. Victory rested with the latter. 

Tbe encounter came to resemble that of Har- 
law (q.v.), where the force of the ancient Gael 
had been tried in mortal contest with that of 
the Low-country Saxons (Sir W.ScoTT, 'His- 
tory of Scotland,' xxxviii.). 



Goo'jerat, or Gujerat {Battle of), 21 
Feb., 1849, won by Lord Gough over the Sikhs. 
A magnificent afliair. 

*»* Gough, pronounce Goff. 

Gorey {Battle of), 4 June, 1798, in which 
the king's troops were defeated by the Irish 
insurgents. 

Grampian Hills {Battle of the), a.d. 79 
or 82, in which the Romans, under Agricola, 
utterly defeated the Caledonians led by 
Galgac. 

Grani'cus {Battles of the). I. May b.o. 334, 
in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius 
Codoman'us. 

II. B.C. 73, in which LucuUus defeated Mith- 
ridates. 

Grans on {Battle of), 1476, in which the 
Swiss fell upon the army of Charles le T6m6- 
raire duke of Burgundy, and put it to utter 
rout. 

Gravelotte {BattU of), 18 Aug., 1870, in 
the Franco- Prussian war ; won by the Prus- 
sians. 

Grochow {Battle of), 20 Feb., 1831, won by 
the Poles over the Russians. 

Gross Beeren {Battle of), 23 Aug., 1813, 
when the French were repulsed by the Swedes. 

Guildford, or Guilford {Battle of), 
1781, in which Lord Cornwallis with 1,600 men 
utterly defeated Greene, the American general, 
who had 6,600 or 7,000 men. Marshall, in his 
' Life of Washington,' says : ' No battle in the 
whole course of the war reflects more honour on 
the courage of the British troops than this of 
Guildford ' (in North Carolina), 

Guinegate, near Calais {Battle of), 18 
Aug., i513, won by the allied armies of Henry 
VIII. of England, the Kaiser Maximilian, and 
the Swiss, over the French. Called the ' Battle 
of the Spurs,' because the French used their 
spurs in flight more than their swords in 
fight. 

Guzerat. '(SeeGoojerat.' 

Gwenystrad (Battle of), a.d. 547, won 
by Urien over Ida the Saxon invader. 

Hadriano'ple {Battles of). I. 3 July, Aj). 
323, in which the Roman emperor Licinius was 
defeated by Constantine. 

II. 9 Aug., A.D. 378, in which the Roman em- 
peror Vaiens was utterly defeated by the Goths, 
and lost his life. No battle, except that of 
Cannae, could be compared to this in its fatal 
consequences on the Romans. 

Halidon Hill {Battle of), near Berwick, 
19 July, 1333, in which Edward III. defeated 
the Regent Douglas (brother of the famous 
' Good Sir James '). By this victory Berwick- 
upon-Tweed remained to the English, and 
Baliol was restored to the throne as sub-king to 
the English crown, but the wars with France 
drew Edward out of the country, Baliol fled, 
and David Bruoe returned to his kingdom. 

It is said that 30,000 Scots were killed ; but 
only 1 knight, 1 esquire, and 13 privates on 
Edward's side. 



HALLE 



ISLIP 



979 



Halle {Battle of), 16, 17 Oct., 1806. Here 
Bernadotte defeated the Prussians. 

H.an&VL( Battle of), 29 Oct., 1813. The French 
claim the victory because the Austrians were 
compelled to retreat. The French were led by- 
Napoleon and the Austrians by General Wrede. 
The affair was doubtful, though the French 
army was double that of the adversary. 

H.3iTln.Mr {Battle of), 24 July, 1411, atrial 
of strength between the Gaels and Saxons. 
The Saxons, or Lowlanders, were led by the Earl 
of Mar ; the Gaels, or Highlanders, by Donald 
of the Isles. Thelatter army was considerably 
more in number, but all the benefits of victory 
remained with the Saxons. On 3 Oct., 1594, 
a similar trial occurred at Glenlivet, when 
the Karl of Argyll led the Highlanders and 
Huntley the Lowlanders. In this case also the 
victory rested with the Lowlanders. 

Hastings {Battle of), 14 Oct., 1066, where 
William duke of Normandy conquered and 
slew Harold II., and thus won, by conquest, the 
throne of England. Also called the 'Battle of 
Senlac' 

Hatfield, in Yorkshire {Battle of), 14 Oct., 

633. Called the ' Battle of Hatfield Chase,' in 
which Edwine king of Northumbria was de- 
feated and slain by Penda of Mercia. 

Havenfeld, or Hefenfield {Battle of), 

634, in which the Welsh under CadwaUon were 
utterly defeated by Oswald king of Northum- 
bria. Havenfeld means ' heaven's field,' so called 
because Oswald just before the battle threw 
himself on his knees in the midst of the army, 
and asked God to give him the victory. Cad- 
waUon fell fighting in this battle. Havenfeld 
was in Durham, not far from Hexham. 

Hefenfield. See Havenfeld. 

Heights of Komainville {Battle of 
the), 30 March, 1814, in which the French army 
under Joseph Bonaparte, Marmont, and Mortier 
was defeated by the allies, who entered Paris 
the next day. 

Heiisberg {Battle of), 10 June, 1807, in 
which the Prussians were defeated by the 
French. 

Hengestesdun {Battle of), 835, in which 
Egbert king of England defeated the Danes. 
Hengestesdun is now called Hengston Down, 
in (Jornwall. 

Heraclea {Battle of ), -3.0.280. In which 
the Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus. 

Heracleum {Battle of), b.c. 38, where 
Veiitidius (Antony's legate) defeated the Par- 
thians under PacSms. 

Herara {Battle of), in Aragon, 24 Aug., 
1837, in which Don Carlos of Spain defeated 
General Buerens. 

Hermanstadt {Battle of), 1442, won by 
Hunyades over the Turks. 

Hexh.ani, in Northumberland {Battle of ), 
15 May, 1464, in which the Lancastrians were 
defeated by Lord Montacute. There is a current 
legend that after the battle Queen Margaret, in 



her flight, encountered a brigand, and said to 
him, ' Man, I trust to your loyalty the son of 
your king.' We are furthermore assured that 
Margaret and her son escaped over the border 
under this robber's guidance. See Evesham. 

Hobkirk's Hill, South Carolina, U.S. 
{Battle of), 25 April, 1781, where Lord Rawdon 
defeated the American General Greene in the 
American War of Independence. 

Hochkirchen {Battles of). I. 14 Oct., 
1758, when Marshal Daun defeated Frederick 
II. the Great of Prussia. (In the Third Cam- 
paign of the Seven Years' War.) 

II. 22 May, 1813, when Napoleon defeated 
the combined Russian and Prussian armies, 

HocllSt {Battle of), 11 Oct., 1795, in which 
the Austrians defeated Marshal Joirrdan, and 
compelled the French to cross the Rhine. 

Hochstadt {Battle of), 19 June, 1800, won 
by Marshal Moreau, the French general, over 
the Austrians. 

Hogue {Naval battle off Cape la), 1692, in 
which the French were defeated by the League 
(consisting of England, Germany, HoUand, 
Spain, and Savoy). 

Hohenlinden {Battle of), 3 Dec, 1800, 
won by Marshal Moreau for the French over 
the Austrian Archduke John. In this battle he 
took 100 pieces of cannon and 11,000 prisoners. 

Holmedon Hill {Battle of), 14 Sept., 
1402, between the Scots headed by the Earl of 
Douglas and the Percys. Hotspur, one of the 
Percys, was the victor ; Douglas was taken 
prisoner, and so were the earls of Angus, Fife, 
Murray, and Orkney, with many more of the 
Scotch nobility and gentry. 

IconivLm {Battle of ), 1387, won by Amurath 
the Turkish sultan over the Caramanians. 
Here Prince Bajuzet greatlv distinguished him- 
self, and acquired the epithet of Yilderim 
(Lightning). 

Ingolstadt {Battle of), 20 April, 1809, won 
by Napoleon. 

Inkermann, in the Crimea {Battle of), 
5 Nov., 1854, • won by the allied British and 
French armies over the Russians. 

Inverlocliy, in Scotland {Battle of), 
2 Feb., 1645, in which the Marquis of Montrose, 
commander of the royal army in Scotland, 
defeated Argyll. 

Ipsus {Battle of), B.C. 301, a decisive battle 
which closed the great contest between the 
gener.^ls of Alexander the Great for the succes- 
sion to the empire. Antigonus being defeated 
and slain, Seleucus was confirmed in his king- 
dom. 

Irun {Battle of), 17 May, 1837, in which the 
Carlists of Spain were defeated by the British 
auxiliary legion under General Evans. 

Islip Bridge, Oxfordshire {Battle of), 
22 April, 1645, in which Cromwell routed four 
regiments of cavalry convoying the king's 
artillery from Oxford to Worcester. 

3r2 



ISSUS 



KOSSOVA 



Issus (Bittlfsof), Nov. B.C. 333, won by 
Alexander the Great over Darius Codoman'us 
king of Persia. The Persian army consisted of 
600,000 men. Alexander's army did not amount 
to 30,000 men. In this battle Sisygamia, the 
mother of Darius, and Statira his wife, fell into 
the hands of the conqueror. 

A.D. 194, Severus conquered Pescennius Niger 
in a decisive battle on the same plains. The 
loss of Pescennius Niger was 20,000 men and his 
own life. His head was sent to Rome. 

Ivry (Battle of), 1590, in which Henry IV. 
gained a brilliant victory over the Due de 
Mayenne. 

Jalula {Battle of), A.D. 637, won by the 
Saracens over Yzdegerd king of Persia. 

Janvilliers (Battle of), 14 Feb., 1814, won 
by the French over the Prussians under 
Bliicher. 

Jarnac (Battle of), 13 March, 1569, in the 
third religious war of France. The Catholics 
were victors, and the Prince de Cond6, the 
great Huguenot leader, was killed in cold blood 
by Moncontour. 

Jemappes, iu Belgium (Battle of), 5 Nov., 
1792. Tills battle lasted four days; it was 
between the French revolutionary army led 
by General Dumouriez and 28,000 Austrians en- 
trenched in woods and hills. Dumouriez was 
the victor ; but he lost 12,000 men, the loss of 
the Austrians being 10,000. 

Jena, in Saxe-Weimar (Battle of), 14 Oct., 
1806, in which Napoleon defeated the King 
of Prussia and advanced at once to Berlin. 
Here the Duke of Brunswick lost his life. 
On the same day Marshal Davoust routed the 
Prussians at Auerstadt. 

*,jf* Jena pronounce Ya-nah. 

Jsaszeg (Battle of), 5 April, 1849, in the 
"War of Indei)endence. It was won by the 
Hungarians. With this battle the demoralisa- 
tion of the Austrian army was complete. 

June 1st (Battle of), 1794, a naval victory 
in which Lord Howe defeated and crippled the 
French fleet off the coast of Brest. The battle 
is called that of the 'First of June.' The 
French admiral was Villaret-Joyeuse. 

Kadesiah. (Battle of), or ' Kudseah,' a.d. 
636, won by the Mahometans over the Per- 
sians. This battle decided the character of 
the Persian empire. 

K!ainard.ji,or Kutschuk-Kainardji (Treaty 
of), 21 July, 1774. A treaty of peace between 
Eussia and Turkey. By this treaty the Azof 
was ceded to Russia, and the freedom of 
the Black Sea. The Crimea was severed from 
Turkey and declared free. 

Kaiserlautern (Battle of), 30 Nov., 1793, 
won by the Duke of Brunswick over the 
French. 

'Ka.litscb.(Battleof), 13 Feb., 1813, in which 
the French were defeated by the Russians, 
The French general was Reguier and the 
Russian general was Winzingerode. 



Kalusz (Battle of), 15 Oct., 1667, won by 
Sobieski, the Polish general, after seventeen 
days' fighting, over the Cossacks and Tartars. 

Eapolna (Battle of), 1848, one of the 
battles of the War of Independence. Lost by 
the Hungarians, who were led by Dembinski. 
It is said that the jealousy of Gbrgey, who 
refused to obey orders, was the cause of this 
defeat. 

Kars (Battle of), 29 Sept., 1855, won by the 
Turks, commanded by General Williams, over 
the Russians, commanded by General Moura- 
vieflf. Certainly, the Russians were thrice 
the number of the Turks. The Turks lost 
1,094 men, the Russians lost 6,500. Kars was 
invested by Mouravieff, 16 June, 1885 ; after 
the battle it was obliged to capitulate, 12 
Dec, 1855 ; but when peace was restored 
Kars was by the treatv of Paris restored to 
Turkey, 1856. 

KatabachL (Battle of), 26 Aug., 1813, won 
by Bliicher over the French. 

KesseldorfiF (Battle of), 15 Dec, 1745, 
in which Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau de- 
feate<l the Saxons under Prince Charles of Lor- 
raine. (In the War of the Austrian Succession.) 

Kiblene (Battle of), St. Andrews' day, 
1335, won by the Scotch (led by Liddesdaie) 
over the English, under the command of the 
Earl of Athol. 

Kilcullen (Battle of), 23 May, 1798, in 
which General Dundas was routed by the 
Irish insurgents. 

In a subsequent engagement General Dundas 
overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen Bridge. 

Killiecrankie (Battle of), 17 July, 1689, 
in which John Graham viscount of Dundee 
(Claverhouse), a Jacobite, defeated General 
Mackay, who commanded an army in the 
service of the Prince of Orange (William 
III.) Claverhouse fell early in the battle. 

Kilsyth., in Scotland (Battle of), 15 Aug., 
1645, in which the Marquis of Montrose, 
commander of the royal forces in Scotland, 
defeated the Scots under Baillie. 

Knoc-Auadh. (Battle of), 1504, in which 
Kildare governor of Ireland (i.e. the Pale) 
utterly routed the confederated Irish. It is 
said that from 4,000 to 9,000 of the Irish fell, but 
not one single English soldier in Kildare's army. 

Kolin, in Bohemia (Battle of), 18 June, 
1757, where Marshal Daun defeated Frederick 
II. (the Great) of Prussia. (The Second Cam- 
paign of the Seven Years' War.) 

Ko'nieh (Battle of), 20 Dec, 1832, in 
Turkey. The Turks were defeated by Ibrahim 
Pasha. 

Koniggratz (Battle of), same as Sadowa 
(q.-o.). 

Konovics (Battle of), 28 Nov., 1443, in 
which Hunyadi defeated the Turks. 

Kossova (Battle of), 27 Aug., 1369, won by 
Amurath, the Turkish sultan, over the allied 



KOTZIM 



LEIPZIG 



981 



Christian army. Amurath was slain, probably 
by treachery, after the battle was won. 

Kotzim or Ctioczim {Battle of), 10 Nov., 
1673, won by Sobieski, tlie Polish general, over 
Capitan Pasha, the Turkish general. This was 
a truly marvellous victory, and 40,000 Turks 
were slain. 

Kowno {Battle of), 14 Dec, 1812, in which 
the French were defeated by the Russians. 

Krasnoi {Battle of), 16 Nov., 1812, in 
which Marshal Davoust ( Prince of Eckmlihl) 
and his French army were defeated by the 
Russians under the command of Kutusoff. 

Krefeld {Battle of), 23 June, 1758, in the 
third campaign of the Seven Years' War. Here 
the Duke of Biiinswick, fighting on the side of 
Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, drove the 
French army across the Rhine. 

Kulm {Battle of), 31 Aug., 1813, won by 
the allied armies of Austria and Russia over 
the French. 

Kunersdorf {Battle of), 12 Aug., 1759, 
the fourth campaign of the Seven Years' War. 
Here Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia 
suffered from the combined Austrian and 
Russian armies the greatest defeat in all his 
reign. He wrote in pencil to his chief minister, 
'AH is lost, save the royal family.' Strange 
to say, after this great victory, the Austrian 
and Russian generals feU to loggerheads, and 
Prussia was saved. 

La Hogue {Battle of), 19 May, 1692, in 
which the French fleet, under Admiral Tour- 
ville, was utterly destroyed by the English and 
Dutch. This was a most important victory, 
won by the Admirals Russell and Rooke, as it 
not only put an end to the threatened French 
invasion, and overthrew the hopes of James II. 
of recovering his throne, but so crippled the 
navy of France that it ceased to be formidable. 

La Rothi^re {Battle of), l Feb., 1814, 
won by Napoleon over the combined Prussian 
and Russian armies. 

Lake Champlain, in North America 
{Battles of). I. 11 and 13 Oct., 1776, when the 
American fiotUla was defeated by the English. 

II. 11 Sept., 1814, when the Americans de- 
feated the English squadron. 

Lake Erie, in Canada {Battle of), 10 Sept., 
1813, in which the Americans captured the 
British squadron. 

Fort Erie, in Canada, was taken by General 
Brown from the British, 3 July, 1814 ; but 
5 Nov. the same year was abandoned by the 
captors. 

Lake Lemanus, in Geneva {Battle of). 
B.C. 108, in which Cassus Longinus the consul 
was slain, and his whole army cut to pieces 
by the Cimbrians. 

Lake Merom {Battle at the), b.c. 1450, 
where the kings of the hill country and their 
allies were defeated by Joshua. 

Lake Begillus. See ' Regillus.' 



Landau, or Pirmasens {Battle of), 14 Sept.' 
1793, won by the Duke of Brunswick over the 
French. 

*,jf* Pronounce Lahn-dow (ow as in now). 

Landen {Battle of), 29 July, 1603, in 
which Marshal Luxembourg defeated William 
III. of England. 

Langensalza, in Prussia {Battles of). I. 
14 Feb., 1701, in which the Hanoverians 
defeated the French (in the sixth campaign 
of the Seven Years' War.) 

II. 27 June, 1866, in which General Flies 
defeated the Hanoverians in the Austro- 
Prussian war (in the Seven Weeks' War.) 

Langport, in Somersetshire {Battle of), 
June, 1645, in wliich Fairfax routed the royal 
forces. 

Langside, in Scotland {Battle of), 13 
May, 1568, in which the Hamiltons, who sup- 
ported the cause of Mary Queen of Scots, were 
defeated by the Earl of Murray. After this 
defeat Mary crossed the Solway and took 
refuge in the castle of Carlisle. Here she 
demanded one of two things — either her resto- 
ration to the throne of Scotland or a safe 
passage to France. 

Lansdowne Hill, near Bath {Battle of ), 
5 July, 1643, in which the royalist army, under 
Sir Bevil Granville, defeated Sir William Waller 
and his parliamentarian forces. 

Laon (Battle of), 9 March, 1814, won by 
the allied armies of Bernadotte of Sweden and 
Bliicher over Napoleon. 

Laufeld or Lawfield {Battles of). I. 
1747, in which the French, under Marshal 
Saxe, defeated the allied English and Dutch, 
under the command of the Duke of Cumber- 
land. 

II. 1794, in which the French were vic- 
torious. 

Laupen, Beme (Battle of), 1339, in which 
the Bernois, commanded by Rudolph d'Erlach, 
defeated the Austrians. 

Lech {Battle of). 1632, won by Gustavus 
Adolphus over the German Catholic League. 
Here Tilly was mortally wounded. This was 
one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 

Lechfeld {Battles of). I. a.d. 743 Pepin 
defeated the Bavarians and Saxons. 

II. 794 Charlemagne defeated the Huns. 

III. 910 the Hungarians defeated the Franks 
and Bavarians. 

IV. 955 Otto L of Germany defeated the 
Hungarians. 

Legnano, near Como (Battle of), 29 May, 
1176, in which Frederick Barbarossa was de- 
feated by the Milanese, and the independence 
of Lombardy was recognised by him in the 
treaty of Constance, 1183. 

Leipzig {Baltl's of). I. 7 Sept., 1631, in 
which Gustavus Adolphus defeated Tilly. This 
was in the Tliirty Year' War, and was one of 
the three great battles. 

The other two were LUtzen, won by Gusta- 



982 



LENS 



LUTZEN 



vus Adolphus in 1632 ; and Nordlingen, won 
b V the Kaiser's son (afterwards Ferdinand III.) 
in 1634. 

II. 16, 18, 19 Oct., 1813, won by the alUed 
Russian, Austrian, and Prussian armies over 
Napoleon. 

The bridge over the Elster, blown up by a 
mine, was tlie most disastrous part of this 
sanguinary battle. The French numbered 
180,000 men. the aUied army 300,000. The 17 
German battalions in the French army deserted 
to the aUies. 

Xiens, in the Pas-de-Calais {Battle of), 
1648, in which the great Conde defeated 
Leopold brother of the Kaiser of Germany. 

Lepanto {Naval battle of), 7 Oct., 1571, in 
which Don John of Austria defeated the Turks. 
It was recaptured by the Venetians in 1678, 
and restored to the Turks by the treaty of 
Carlowitz in 1699, 

The naval victory of Lepanto was one of the 
most splendid ever achieved. 25,000 Turks 
were slain, 4,000 were taken prisoners ; 12,000 
Christian slaves were released ; 130 ships were 
captured, 130 others were abandoned and de- 
stroyed, and 80 were sunk during the battle. 

Leuctra {Battle of), 8 July, B.C. 371, in 
which the Lacedsemonians, led by Cleombrotus, 
received a crushing defeat from the Thebans, 
led by Epaminondas and Pelopldas. 

Leutlien, in Silesia {Battle of), 5 Dec., 
1757, in which Frederick II. of Prussia de- 
feated the Austriaiis under Prince Charles of 
Lorraine. This was just one month after the 
rout of Rosbach (in the second campaign of 
the Seven Years' War). 

Lewes {Battle of), in Sussex, 14 May, 1264, 
in which Simon de Montf ort and his Londoners 
defeated and captured both King Henry III. 
and Richard earl of Cornwall, king of the 
Romans. Prince Edward escaped, and subse- 
quently surrendered. 

Lexington {Battle of), in Massachusetts. 
I. 19 April, 1775. The first skirmish in the 
American War of Independence. Gage, the 
British general, had the worst of it, and so far 
it may be scored as an American victory ; but 
the affair, though honourable to the American 
militia, was not important, and was not a 
battle, but a mere skirmish. 

II. Lexington, in Missouri, is noted for a 
battle between the Federals (or Northern 
States) and the Confederates (or Southern 
States) in Sept., 1861. In this case the town 
remained in the hands of the Confederates. 

Liegnitz, in Silesia {Battles of). I. 9 April, 
1241, in which Baton Khan defeated Duke 
Henry of Silesia and the Christian allies. 

II. 3 May, 1634, in which the Saxons, under 
Arnheim, defeated Jerome CoUoredo, comman- 
der of the Bohemians. 

III. 16 Aug., 1760, in which Frederick II. 
(the Great) of Prussia, defeated the Austrians 
under Laudon (in the fifth campaign of the 
Seven Years' War). 



Ligny {Battle of), 16 June, 1815, won by 
Napoleon over Blucher ; but the defeat was not 
sufficiently grave to prevent Blucher from as- 
sisting at the field of Waterloo on the 18th. 

Lincoln {Battles of). I. 2 Feb., 1141, where 
Stephen king of England was both defeated 
and captured by Ralph and Robert of Glouces- 
ter. After this victory Matilda (the wife of 
Geoffrey the Handsome, or Geoffrey Planta- 
genet, and daughter of Henry I.) entered 
London, and was received as ' the Lady of Eng- 
land.' 

II. 19 May, 1217, in which Louis the dau- 
phin of France was utterly defeated by the 
army of Henry III. 

Linlithgow Bridge {Battle of), 1525, 
won by Su- James Hamilton over the Earl of 
Lenox, who wanted to obtain possession of the 
King (James V, of Scotland). Lenox was slain 
by Hamilton. 

Lippstadt {Battle of). See 'Liitzen.' 

Lissa {Battle of), in Silesia, 5 Dec, 1757, in 
which Frederick 11. of Prussia defeated Prince 
Charles of Lorraine. 

Llongborttl {Battle of), 530, won by 
Cerdic over the Britons. In this battle Arthur 
was the commander of the British army, and 
Geraint prince of Devonslure united with him 
against the Saxons. Geraint was slain. 

Lobositz {Battle of), Oct., 1756, between 
Frederick II. of Prussia and the Austrians 
under General Brown. It was indecisive, but 
Frederick claimed the victory. (First cam- 
paign of the Seven Years' War.) 

Loch, Gary (Battle of), 26 July, 1654, in 
which General Middleton and his Highlanders 
were defeated by the Protector's army. 

Lodi {Battle of), 10 May, 1796. At the 
bridge of Lodi Bonaparte beat the Austrians, 
and on the 15th entered Milan without opposi- 
tion. 

Logron'o {Battle of), 10th century, in the 
reign of Ramiro II. king of Asturias, when 
the Arabs under Abderrahman II. were over- 
thrown. This was the famous battle in which 
St. James on his white horse fought, as we are 
told, for Spain. 

Lonato (Battle of), 3 Aug. 1796, in which 
Bonaparte vanquished the Austrians led by 
Wurmser. 

Lone Island {Battle of). North America, 
27 Aug., 1776, in which Sir William Howe de- 
feated the American troops. Same as Flatbush. 

Lundy {Battle of), 25 July, 1814, between 
the United States and the United Kingdom. 
The American generals were Winfield Scott 
and General Brown ; the British forces were 
commanded by General Drummond and General 
Riall. The victory was doubtful. 

Sometimes called the battle of Bridgewater, 
battle of Niagara, battle of Lundy's Lane, &c. 

Ltxtzen (Battles of). I. 6 Nov., 1632, won 
by the Swedes over the German Catholic 
League. Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden 



MACATO 



MARSTON MOOR 



983 



died of wounds received in this battle ; some 
say foully in the moment of victory. This 
was one of the battles of the Thirty Years' 
War. Also called the battle of Lippstadt. 

II. 2 May, 1813, won by Napoleon I. over 
the allied armies of Prussia and Russia. 

Macato {Battle of), 11 Oct., 1427, in which 
Carmaguuola defeated the Milanese forces led 
by Carlo Malatesta. 

Macziewice {Battle of), 10 Oct., 1794, in 
which the Polish general Kosciusko was de- 
feated and taken prisoner by Suwarof, the 
Russian general. 

Mag'dolon {Battle of). So Herodotus 
calls the battle of Megiddo {Hist. ii. 159). The 
Romans called Megiddo ' Legio,' and it is still 
called 'Lejjun.' The battle referred to by 
Herodotus is that in which Josiah was over- 
come and slain by Pharaoh-Necho king of 
Egypt (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30). 

Magenta {Battle of), 4 June, 1859, won by 
the French Marshal M'Mahon over the Aus- 
trians. Por this brilliant action M'Mahon was 
created 'Due de Magenta' by Napoleon IIL 
The Austrian general was Gyiilay. 

Magheracloon {Battl'- of\ 1843. This 
was no battle in the usual sense of the word, 
but an affray between the police and some Irish 
rioters. A Mr. Shirle}', being unable to obtain 
his rents, obtained an order for 'substitution 
of service ; ' the process was to be attached to 
the walls of the Cathohc chapel of Maghera- 
cloon. "When the bailiif attempted to attach 
the process to the chapel wall, he was assailed 
by a volley of stones, and he ordered the police 
to fire on the rioters. One man was shot dead 
and others wounded, but the rioters became so 
violent that the bailiff and the police had to 
make off with all speed in order to save their 
lives. This the rioters called a victory, and the 
affray is still called in Ireland ' the Battle of 
Magheiacloon.' 

Magheracloon is near Carrickmacross, in 
Mon'aghan. 

Magnano {Battle of), 5 April, 1799; won 
by the Austrian General Kray over Scherer the 
French general. 

Magnesia {Battle of), b.c. 190, in which 
Antiochus king of Syria was utterly defeated 
by the two Scipios, and lost all his conquests in 
Asia Minor, 

Maid a {Battle of), 4 July, 1806. Sir John 
Stuart routed the French under the command 
of Regnier. 

Makla {Battle of), in Algeria, 1834, in 
which the French were defeated by Abd-el- 
Kader. 

Mal'aga (Naval battle of), 1704, won by 
Admiral Rooke over the French. 

Malplaquet, in Prance {Battle of), 11 
Sept., 1709, where the Duke of Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene defeateti the French under 
Marshal Villars. The French lost 12,000, the 
allies many more, though they won the victory. 
The cause of this battle was this : the allies 



insisted that Louis XIV. should compel his 
grandson to give up the crown of Spain. Louis 
replied, ' If I must wage war, it shall be vnih 
my enemies and not with my own children.' 
*ijt* Pvonoxxnce Mal-pla-ka'. 

Mantine'a {Battles of). I. b.c. 418, won 
by Agis the Spartan general over the Argive 



II. B.C. 362, won by the Thebans, led by 
Epaminondas, over the Lacedaemonians and 
Arcadians. 

III. B.C. 207, won by Philopoemen, head of 
the Achsean League, over the Lacedfemonians. 

Marathon {Battle of), 28 Sept., b.c 490, in 
which Miltiades the Athenian defeated the 
Persians under Datis and Artaphernes. This 
was one of the most important and decisive 
battles of the world— the ' Waterloo ' of ancient 
history. If the Persians had been victorious, 
Attica would have been a mere satrapy of 
Persia, but as the Athenians were victorious 
they became one of the most brilliant people 
of all history. 

One of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen Decisive 
Battles of the World. 

Marengo, in Italy {Battle of), 14 June, 
1800, in which Napoleon Bonaparte defeated 
the Austrians under General Melas. The French 
army was retreating, when General Dessaix 
arrived with reinforcements and turned the 
fortunes of the day. 

Marignano, in ItaXj {BaMes of ). I. 14, 
15 Sept., 1515, in which Francois I. of France de- 
feated the allied Italian-Swiss armies, called by 
Trivulzio ' The battle of the giants,' from the 
great valour displayed on both sides. As many 
as 6,000 French and 10,000 of the allies were left 
dead on the field. 

II. 8 July, 1859, in which the Austrians were 
driven from their position by Napoleon III. 

Also called the battle of Melegnano. 

Maritza {Battle of the), 1375, won by 
Amurath, the Turkish sultan, over the crusa- 
ders. This was the first of a long series of 
Turkish victories 

Markfeld, near Vienna {Battle of), 1278, 
in which Ottokar king of Bohemia was utterly 
defeated by Rudolf I. king of Germany, and was 
slain in the battle. 

Here, 5 July, 1809, was fought the battle 
of Wagram, in which Napoleon defeated the 
Austrians, and took 20,000 prisoners. 

Marsala {Battle of), 11 May, 1860, certainly 
the most marvellous and heroic battle in all 
history. Garibaldi, with 1,000 Itahan volunteers, 
6 smaU cannons, and 1,200 peasants, utterly de- 
feated 50,000 Austrian troops with numerous 
artillery, posted in strong fortresses, and sup- 
ported with a fleet of 500 guns. After this 
victorv, he crossed the mountains and took 
Palermo on the 27th of the same month. The 
thing seems wholly increilible, but is j-et an 
historic fact without hyperbole or exaggeration. 

Marston Moor, in Yorkshire (7?rt//Zeo/), 
2 July, 1644, in which Cromwell defeated Prince 



984 



MASEEFELD 



MONTENOTTE 



Eupert. The whole of the Prince's artillery 
fell into the hands of Cromwell, and the 
royalists never afterwards recovered the loss of 
that disastrous day. 

Maserfeld {Battle of the), 655, in which 
Oswald king of Northumbria was defeated and 
slain by Penda king of Mercia. 

Maxen, in Saxony {Battle of), 20 Nov., 
1759, where Marshal Daun took Fink, a Prus- 
sian general, prisoner. (In the fourth cam- 
paign of the Seven Years' War.) 

Meg'aletaph'ros, the 'Great Ditch' 
{Battle of), in which Aristomenes and theMes- 
senians were completely defeated by the Spar- 
tans. In this battle the Arcadians deserted in 
a body from the Messenians. 

Megiddo (-BaWes of). I. The overthrow 
of Jabin and Sisera was 'at the waters of 
Megiddo' {Judges v. 19). 

II. HerePharaoh-necho overthrew and slew 
Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30). 

ULeiitenk {Battle of), a.d. 576, in which 
Chosroes I. king of Persia was defeated by 
Justinian, general of Tiberias empei'or of the 
East. This was the last conflict of the Persians 
with the Romans. 

Meloria {Battle of), 1284, in which the 
whole navy of Pisa was utterly destroyed by 
the Genoese, and Pisa ceased to be a maritime 
power. 

Merseburg, in Saxony {Battle of), 934, 
in which Heiurich I. tlie Fowler of Germany 
conquered the Hiingarians with great slaughter. 

Mdry-sur- Seine {Battle of), 24 Feb., 
1814, won by Napoleon over the Austrian army 
under Schwartz enberg. 

Metaurus {Battle of), b.c. 207, in which 
the consuls Livius and Nero utterly cut to 
pieces the army of Hasdrubal sent to reinforce 
Hannibal in the south of Italy. 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

Mexico {Battle of), A.D. 1521, won by the 
Spaniards, because St. James on his white horse 
fought for them. Bernal Diaz, who was pre- 
sent and saw the mysterious rider, tells us he 
thought it was Francisco de Morla, but it 
might be St. James notwithstanding. 

Meyenfels {Buttle of ), 8 Oct., 876, where 
Louis the Younger of Saxony defeated Charles 
the Bald of France. 

Milazzo, or Melazzo {Battle of), 20 
June, 1860, in which Garibaldi defeated the 
Neapolitan General Bosco. 

Millesimo {Battle of ), 14 April, 1796, in 
which Bonaparte repulsed the Piedmontese. 

Minden, in Prussia {Battle of), 1 Aug., 
1759, in which Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
witli six English regiments defeated tlie French 
under Marshal Contades. (In the fourth cam- 
paign of the Seven Years' War. Ferdinand's 
army consisted principally of British and Hano- 
verian troops.) 



Marshal Contades said : ' I have seen this day 
what I never thought possible, viz. a single line 
of cavalry break through three lines of cavalry 
ranked in order of battle, and tumble them all 
to ruins.' Contades (2 syl.). 

Minorca {Naval battle off), 20 May, 1756. 
This was no battle, but a shameful retreat of 
Admiral Byng, who had been sent to the relief of 
Port Mahon. Byng was shot for his cowardice 
by sentence of court-martial 14 March, 1757. 

Mockern {Battles of). I. April 1813, in 
which the Prussian army was defeated by the 
French under Eugene Beauharnais. 

II. 14 Oct. 1813, between the French and the 
allies. The town of Mockern was taken and re- 
taken five times in this conflict. 

Mohatz {Battles of), in Lower Hungary. 
I. 29 Aug., 1526, in which the Turks under 
Solyman II. defeated Ludwig of Hungary, with 
the loss of 22,000 men. Ludwig after the battle 
was suffocated with his horse in a muddy brook 
called Csele. 

II. A.D. 1687, in which a Christian army, 
commanded bv Prince Charles of Lorraine, de- 
feated the Turks, who lost 10,000 men. 

Mohilow {Battle of ), 23 July, 1812. A san- 
guinary battle between the Russians under 
Prince Bagration and the French under Mar- 
shal Davoust. The Russians were defeated, and 
their loss in killed and wounded was immense. 

Moinmor {Battle of ), 1151, in which Tor- 
del vach O'Connor utterly defeated Thomond 
king of Munster with great slaughter, and be- 
came king of Ireland. 

Molwitz {Battle of), 30 March, 1741, won 
by Friedrich III. of Prussia over the Austrian 
army sent against him by Maria Theresa. This 
was the first battle in the War of the Austrian 
Succession. 

Moncontour {Battle of), 1570, in the 
third religious war of France. The Hugue- 
nots were defeated by Henri due d'Anjou, bro- 
ther of Cliarles IX. 

Mondovi {Battle of), 22 April, 1796, in 
which Bonaparte defeated the Piedmontese. 

Monmouth Court House, U.S. {Battle 
of), 28 June, 1778. Here Washington won his 
third victory over the British in the American 
War of Independence : (1) Trenton, (2) Prince- 
ton. At Brandywine he was defeated {q.v.). 

Mons en Puelle, in Flanders {Battle of), 
18 Aug., 1304, in which Philippe le Bel defeated 
the Flemings. 

Mont St. Jean {Battle of ), 18 June, 1815, 
called in English history the 'Battle of Water- 
loo ' {q.v.). 

Montebello {Battle of ),G June, 1800, won 
by Napoleon Bonaparte over Ott, the Austrian 
general. General Lannes for his valour in this 
battle was created Due de Montebello. 

Montenotte {Battle of), 11 April, 1796, in 
which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians, com- 
manded by Beaulieu. This was the first of hia 
series of brilliant victories. 



MONTEKEAU 



NAISSUS 



985 



Montereau (Battle of), 18 Feb., 1814, in 
which tlie allied armies were defeated by Napo- 
leon. 

Montlh^ry (Battle of), 1465, between 
Louis XI. and the ' League for the Public We<al.' 
The battle was indecisive, but led to the treaty 
pf Conflans, and the league was soon broken 
up. 

Montmirail (Battle of), 11 Feb., 1814, 
won by Napoleon over the Prussians led by 
Bliicher. 

Moodkee, in Hindustan (Battle of), 18 
Dec, 1845, in which Sir Hugh G-ough defeated 
the Sikhs. Sir Robert Sale was mortally 
wounded in this battle. 

Hugh Gough was created a baronet in 1842, 
and a baron in 1846. 

*s* Gough, pronounce Goff. 

Mooltan (Battle of ), 7 Novf, 1848, won by 

the Britisli over the Siklis. 

Tlie town was taken 2 Jan., 1849, and the 
citadel 22 Jan. 

Mopsuestia (Battle of), a.d. 838, called 
by Arabian writers 'Mamuriyah,' in which 
35,00U Greeks were left dead on the field. 

Morat, or Murden, Switzerland (Battle 
of), 22 June, 1476, in which the Swiss defeated 
the brilliant army of Charles le Temeraire. The 
celebrated Ossuaire of Morat was made of the 
bones of the Burgundiaus slain in this battle. 

Moravian 11oy<m (Battle of), 5 Oct., 1813, 
won by General Harrison over Proctor. 

Morgarten (Battles of). 1. 25 Oct., 1315, 
between 1,300 Switzers and 20,000 Austrians 
under the command of Duke Leopold. The 
Swiss army was made up of 600 men of Schwitz, 
400 of Uri, and 300 of Unterwalden. These 
1,300 slew 15,000 Austrians, and not a few of 
the army of Leopold were drowned in the 
Egrer See. This and Marsala (q.v.) are, per- 
haps, the most extraordinary battles of history, 
if we except that of Gideon, who with 300 men 
put to flight the allied Midianites and Amale- 
kites. Gideon's victory, however, was from 
panic, the other two the result of indomitable 
valour. 

II. A.D. 1798, between the French and the 
Switzers. The French loss was 2,754 dead, ex- 
clusive of wounded ; the Switzers' loss was 431 
men and women ; but the Assembly thought it 
prudent to come to terms with tlie" French and 
not renew tiie fight. 

III. In 1799 .the French defeated the Aus- 
trians on the same battlefield. 

Mortemer, in ancient Normandy (Battle 
of), 1054, where William (afterwards called the 
Conqueror) defeated Henri I. king of France. 

Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford (Battle 
of), 2 Feb., 1461, in which Edward duke of 
York defeated the Lancastrians under the com- 
mand of Jasper Tudor earl of Pembroke. 

Moskirch (Battle of), April 1799, in 
whicli Marshal Moreau, the French general, 
defeated the Austrians. 

42 



Moskwa (Battle of), 7 Sept., 1812, between 
the French under Napoleon and the Russians 
led by Kutusoff. Each claimed the victory. It 
was one of the most sanguinary conflicts in 
history. Also called the Battle of Borodino. 

Mosul (Battle of), also called 'The Battle 
of Nineveh,' I Dec, a.d. 627, won by Heraclius 
emperor of Constantinople over Chosroes II. of 
Persia. Elmacin says 500,000 Persians fell in 
this battle, but Gibbon thinks 50,000 too high 
a number. Twenty-seven standards were taken 
by the victorious Romans. 

Motta (Battle of), 7 Oct., 1513, in which 
the Venetians led by D'Alviano were defeated 
by the Spaniards. 

Mount Tabor (Battle of), 1799, won by 
Bonaparte over the Mamelukes. 

Muhlberg (Battle of), 1547, in which 
the Smalkaldic League was utterly defeated by 
Karl V. The Elector of Saxony and the Land- 
grave of Hesse were both taken prisoners. 

Muhldorf (Battle of), in Bavaria, 1322, 
between Friedricli the Handsome and Ludwig 
v., rivals for the throne of Germany. The 
latter was victorious, and Friedrioh was taken 
prisoner. 

Miinchengratz (Battle of), 28 June, 
1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. The Prussians 
defeated the Austrians. 

Mursa (Battle of), 28 Sept., a.d. 351, in 
which Constantius II. defeated tlie usurper 
Magnentius. Constantius lost 30,000 men out 
of an army of 80,000 ; and Magnentius lost 
24.000 men out of an army of ^6,000. 

Muta (Battle of), a.d. 629, in wliich 
Khaled, commander of the Khoreish cavalry, 
saved the army of Mohammed. 

Mycale ( Battle of), 22 Sept., B.C. 479, in 
which the Persians were completely defeated 
by the Greeks. On the same day Mardonius 
was defeated at Platea. 

Naas (Battle of), in Ireland, 24 May, 1798, 
in which the Irish rebels were defeated by the 
king's troops. 

Nachod, in Bohemia (Battle of), 27-29 
June, 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. The 
Crown Prince of Prussia defeated the Austrians. 

Nafels (Battle of), 6 April, 1388, in which 
350 of tlie men of G aris withstood 15,000 
Austrians with such terrible slaughter that the 
Austrians were obliged to retreat. 

Nahavund or Nehaveud (Battle of), 637, 
in which Yzdegerd III. king of Persia was 
defeated by the Saracens, and subsequently 
murdered. His loss is stated at 100,000 men. 
This battle, called by the Arabs ' The Victory 
of Victories.' brouglit to an end the famous 
dynasty of the Sassaaides (3 syL) aud also the 
religion of the Magi, which had existed ii^ 
Persia more than 1,200 years. 

Naissus (Bat lie of), A.D. 270, won by the 
Emperor Claudius over 320,000 Goths, of whom 
50,000 were left dead on the field. For this 
great victory Claudius was called Gothicits. 



9»6 



NAJARA 



NICOPOLIS 



Wajara, in Spain {Battle of), 3 April, 
T367, in which Henry of Trastamare was 
defeated by his brother Pedro the Cruel assisted 
by the Black Prince. In this battle Duguesclin 
constable of France was taken prisoner. 

Narva (^«^«e of), 30 Nov., 1700, in which 
Peter the Great of llussia was defeated by 
Carl XII. of Sweden. 

While dictating despatches, a bomb fell 
through the roof of the hoiase, whereupon his 
secretary dropped his pen in a fright. ' What's 
the matter ? ' asked Carl. ' The bomb, the 
bomb, sire 1' said the secretary. ' The bomb ? ' 
replied the king, 'what have we to do with 
the bomb ? Pray write on.' 

Naseby {Battle of), north-west of North- 
ampton, 14 June, 1645, in which Charles I. 
was defeated by Cromwell and Fairfax. The 
main body of the royal army was commanded 
by Lord Astley, the right wing by Prince 
Eupert, and the left by Sir Marmaduke Lang- 
dale. The king himself headefl the reserves. 
In this battle the king lost aU his cannon and 
baggage, and 5,000 of his army were made 
prisoners. This battle ended the war. 

Fairfax led the centre of the parliamentary 
army, Ireton the right wing, and Cromwell 
the left. Ireton was therefore opposite 
Rupert, and Cromwell was opposite Sir 
Marmaduke. Ireton was routed, Fairfax fell 
back, but Cromwell overthrew his opponents 
and redeemed the day. 

Navarete {Buttle of). Same as ' Najara ' 
{q.v.). The battle was fought between Najara 
and Navarete. 

Navari'no»(^««?e of), 20 Oct., 1827, won 
over the Turkish navy by the combined fleets 
of England, France, and Russia, under the com- 
mand of LordCodrington. The Turkish navy 
was well-nigh annihilated. 

This 'untoward event' occurred under 
Canning's administration. The weakening of 
Turkey and an alliance for such a purpose 
with Russia was certainly one of the greaitest 
blunders ever committed. 

Navas de Tolosa {Battle of Lns)^ 1214, 
in which Alfonso III. of Castile defeated the 
Almohades, and destroyed one of the largest 
armies that ever crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. 

Naxos {JVaml battle of), B.C. 376, won by 
the Atlienians, led by Chabrias, over the Lace- 
daemonian fleet. This victory restored to Athens 
the supremacy at sea. 

Wechlansmere, in Scotland {Battle of), 
20 May, 685, in which Egfrith king of 
Northumbria was defeated and slain by the 
Picts. ' A solitary fugitive alone escaped the 
slaughter to tell how Egfrith and the flower of 
his nobles lay dead on the field.' With this 
battle fell for ever the supremEicy of Nortlmm- 
bria; and Mercia succeeded to the overlordship. 

• Neer winden {Battles of), I. 19 July, 1693, 
in which the French Marshal de Luxembourg 
defeated William III. 

II. 18 March, 1793, in which the Austrians 
defeated General Dumourie*. 



Nehavend. *See ' Nahavund.' 

Neresheim {fiattle of), lO Aug., 1796, 
in which the Archduke Karl defeated Marshal 
Moreau, the French general. 

Wetad {Battle of), A.D. 453, a great battle 
won by various dependent nations over the 
sons of Attila, after his death. Ellak, his 
eldest son, and above 30,000 of his people were 
slain. The great empire of Attila soon after 
this defeat crumbled away. 

Neumarkt {Battle of), 22 Aug., 1796, in 
which the Archduke Karl defeated the French. 

Neville's Cross {Battle o/), near Durham, 
12 Oct., 1346, in which David 11. of Scotland 
was both defeated and taken prisoner. Aug. 
26 the same year is noted for the battle of 
Cressy. 

This battle was won by Philippa while 
Edward III. .(lier husband) was in France. 
King David was taken prisoner, and between 
16,000 and 20,000 Scots were slain. Of the 
English, only one leader (Lord Hastings) fell. 

New Orleans, in Louisiana {Battle of), 
8 Jvme, 1815, in which the American general 
Jackson defeated the Enghsh, and their gene- 
ral. Sir Edward Pakenham, was slain. 

This, of course, was not the General Jackson 
who was one of the Confederate leaders in the 
American Civil War, 1861-1865. 

Newark {Battle of), 21 March, 1644, in 
which the royal army, under Prince Rupert, 
was defeated by the parliamentarians. 

Newburn {Battle of), 28 Aug., 1640. This 
was no battle at all, but a stampede. Lord 
Conway with 6,000 English troops was sent by 
Charles I. to resist the Scotch covenanters, 
but immediately the covenanters crossed the 
river the English fled without offering any 
resistance. 

Newbury, in Berkshire {Battle of). 20 
Sept., 1643, in which Charles I. repulsed the 
Earl of Essex, commander of the parliamentary 
army. Next year (27 Oct., 1644), was an 
indecisive engagement at Newbury between 
Charles I. and the Earl of Manchester. 

In the former of these battles fell Lord Falk- 
land. 

Newtown Butler, in Ireland {Battle of), 
1689, between James II. aided by French 
troops and the army of William III. The 
Protestants were besieged in Londonderry, and 
had food only for two days, when the men of 
Enniskillen came to their relief, and drove the 
besiegers before them 1 ike wild geese ; the 
panic spread through Hamilton's whole army, 
which took refuge in Dublin, where James lay 
helpless. His French ally, Comte d'Avaux, 
advised the general massacre of all Protestants 
in the districts which remained still in 
James's interest ; but James revolted from the 
proposal, whereupon the Frenchman sullenly 
replied, 'Mercy to Protestants is cruelty to 
Catholics.' 

Nicop'olis, in Turkey {Battles of). I. 28 
Sept., 1396, in which Kaiser Sigismund waa 
defeated by Bajazet. 



NILE 



PAKRET 



987 



II. A.D. 1799, in which the French were 
defeated by the Albanians. 

Nile {BatlU of the), 1 Aug., 1798, in which 
Admiral Nelson defeated the French fleet. 
This victory obtained for the admiral a peer- 
age, under the title of Baron Nelson of the 
Nile. His battle cry was ' Victory or West- 
minster Abbey 1 ' The French admiral was 
Bfueys. 

Often called, especially in French history, 
the Battle of Aboukir iq.v.). 

Ninevell {Battle of ),l Dec, a.d. 627, won by 
Heraclius the emperor of the East over Chosroes 

II. the Great King. The slaughter was very 
great. 

Nisbet {Battle of), 7 May, 1402, won by 
the English over the Scotch. It is said that as 
many as 10,000 Scots fell in this encounter. 

Nordlingen, in Franconia {Battles of). I. 
6 Nov., 16.34, won by Ferdinand, son of Kaiser 
Ferdinand II. over the Protestants. This was 
one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 

n. 6 Sept., 1645, won by the Due d'Enghien 
over the imjierial German army. (Ferdinand 

III. was kaiser.) This also was one of the 
battles of the Thirty Years' War. 

Noreia {Battle of), b.c. 113, in which 
Cneius Papirius Carbo the consul was slain by 
the Cimbrians and his whole army was cut to 
pieces. 

Northallerton {Battle of), in Yorkshire, 
22 Aug., 1138, in which David I. of Scotland 
was defeated by Stephen king of England- 
The battle is generally called ' The Battle of 
the Standard.' 

Northampton {Battle of), 10 July, 1460, 
in wliich Henry VI. was defeaterl and captured 
by the Y'orkists. Margaret the queen fled to 
Scotland. 

Novara {Battle of), 23 March, 1849, in 
which the Sardinians (under Charles Albert) 
were defeated by the Anstrians led by Marshal 
Radetzky (a Bohemian). 

Novi {Battles of). I. 15 Aug., 1799, in which 
Suwarrow, general of the allied Russian and 
Austrian armies, defeated Marshal Joubert and 
the French army. Joubert was slain in this 
battle and 4,000 French were taken prisoners. 

II. 8 Jan., 1800, in which the French were 
defeated by the Austrians. 

Nurnberg {Battle of), 1456, in Bavaria, 
between the barons and the townsmen. Eight 
times the barons were victors, but in the ninth 
contest the townsmen were the conquerors and 
Niirnberg vindicated its freedom. 

In this battle Albrecht the Achilles and 
Ulysses of Germany was taken captive by 
the citzen soldiers. 

CEnoph'yta {Battle of), b.c. 456, won by 
the Athenians over the Boeotians. The 
Athenian general was Myronides. 

Ohud {Battle of), a.d. 623, in which Kha- 
led, commander of the Koreish cavalry, de- 
feated Mohammed. 



Olmlitz {Battle of), 15 July, 1866, the last 
battle of the Seven Weeks' War, won by the 
Prussians over the Austrians. 

Oltenitza {Battle of), 4 Nov., 1853, won 
by Omar Pasha, the Turkish general, over the 
Russians. 

Orthes {Battle of), 27 Feb., 1814, in which 
the French under Marshal Soult were defeated 
by the Marquis of Wellington, commander of 
the allied British and Spanish armies. 

Ostrach {Battle of), 20 March, 1799, in 
which the Archduke Karl defeated Marshal 
Jourdan, the French general. 

Ostrolenca {Battle of), 26 May, 1831, be- 
tween the Russians and the Poles. It was a 
most sanguinary affair, and both sides claimed 
the victory. 

Otford {Battle of), on the Derwent, 773, in 
which Offa king of Mercia defeated the 
Kentish men. By this victory Offa became 
lord of Kent and all East Anglia. 

Otterburn {Battle of), 10 Aug., 1388, in 
wWch the Scots under Sir William Douglas 
defeated the English under the Earl of North- 
umberland and his two sons. Douglas was 
slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, but 
both the Percys were made prisoners. See p. 
165, ' Chevy Chase.' 

Oudenarde {Battle of), in Belgium, 11 
July, 1708, in which the Duke of Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene defeated the Freuch under 
the Dukes of Burgundy and Vendome. Louis 
XIV. gave up ten Flemish fortresses to the 
Dutch, surrendered to the empire all that 
France had gained since the peace of West- 
phalia, acknowledged Anne, offered to banish 
the pretender from his dominions and to de- 
molish the fortifications of Dunkirk. 

By the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, Louis XIV. 
agreed to recognise William III. ; but on the 
death of James II. in 1701 he recognised James 
the pretender as the lawful king of England, 
under the name and title of James III. This, 
in fact, involved him in the wars with Marl- 
borough, so disastrous to France. 

Oulart {Battle of), 27 May, 1798, in which 
the North Cork Militia were cut to pieces by the 
Irish insurgents. 

Ouriqne {Battle of), 25 July, 1139, in 
which Alfonso of Portugal defeated a pro- 
digious army of Moors, in which were live 
Saracen kings. 

Palestro {Battle of), 31 May, 1859, in 
which the Austrians were defeated by the 
allied army of Sardinians and French. 

Panormus {Battle of), b.c. 254, in which 
the Romans conquered the Carthaginians. 
Metelluswasthe Roman general and Hasdrubal 
the Carthaginian. This was the chief battle 
of the First Punic War, 

Parret {Battl'^ of the), 845, in which Eal- 
stan (bishop of Sherborne) and Osric defeated 
the Northmen. 



PATAY 



PEAGUE 



Patay {Battles of). I. 18 June, 1429. Talbot 
defeated by the Maid of Orleans and taken 
prisoner. This was the first battle lost by the 
English since their victory at Cressy in 1346. . 
Talbot was taken prisoner. 

II. 1 Dec, 1870, the Bavarians were repulsed. 

Pa'via (Battle, of). I. A.D. 774, where Charle- 
magne overthrew Desiderius, whom he atter- 
Avards confined in the monastery of Corbie, in 
France. 

II. 24 Feb., 1525, in which Francois I. of 
France M'as taken prisoner, and all the flower 
of his army was cut to pieces. FraiK;ois, it is 
said, wrote to his mother, ' All is lost," Madam, 
except honour' {Tout est perdu, Madame, fors 
Vhonneur). 

Peterwaradin {Battles of). I. 1691, won 
by the Austrians over the Turks. Kaprioli, son 
and brother of two former viziers, fell in this 
fight. 

II. A.D. 1711, in which Prince Eugene de- 
feated the Turks with great slaughter. 

PfafFendorf {Battle of), 15 Aug., 1760, in 
which the Austrians were defeated by the 
Prussians. 

Pharsa'lia {Battle of), 12 May, B.C. 48, 
won by Julius Caesar over Pompey the Great. 
This victory made Caesar the foremost man of 
Bome. 

Philipliaugh, in Scotland {Battle of), 
Sept., 1645, in which Montrose, called 'the 
Great Marquis,' commander of the royal forces 
in Scotland, sustained a crushing and irre- 
trievable defeat. This was ten months after 
the defeat of Charles at Marston Moor. 

Philippi {Battle of), Oct., B.C. 42, in which 
Brutus and Cassius both met their death, 
and Antony and Octavian became masters of 
Rome. 

Pinkie, in Scotland {Battle of), 10 Sept., 
1547, in which the Lord Protector Somerset de- 
feated the Scotch with such great slaughter 
that the day was called ' Black Saturday.' 

Plains of Abraham {Battle of the), 
13 Sept., 1759, in which the French of Canada 
were defeated by the English under General 
Wolfe, who fell dead at the moment of victory. 

Plassey {Battle of), in Hindustan, 23 June, 
1757, in which Colonel Clive defeated Surajah 
Dowlah, and laid the foundation of our empire 
in the East. Clive's army consisted of 1,000 
Englishmen and 2,000 sepoys; the Surajah's 
army numbered 50,000 foot and 14,000 horse. 
The victory was complete, and Surajah Dowlah 
was one of the slain. 

Platsea {Battle of), 22 Sepo., B.C. 479, in 
which the Grecian army (110,000 men) under 
Pausanias utterly defeated the Persian army, 
which amounted to 300,000 men, under the com- 
mand of Mardonius. Mardonius was slain at 
the very onset, and it is said that 200,000 of the 
Persians were left dead on the field. On the 
same day was won the battle of Mycale. 



Plattsburg {Battle of ), 11 Oct., 1814, won 
by the Americans, under Gen. Macomb, over 
the English under Sir George Prevost. 

Podaic {Battle of), 1672, won by Sobieski, 
the Polish general, over the Tartars. 

Poitiers {Battles of). I. Oct., a.d. 732, in 
which Charles le Martel utterly defeated the 
Saracens under the command of Abd-el-Rah- 
mah, viceroy of Spain. 

II. 19 Sept., 1356, in which Edward the Black 
Prince defeated and took captive Jean II. le 
Bon of France. The English force was 8,000, 
the French 60,000. It is almost incre lible, but 
we are assured on good authority, that 8,000 of 
the French were slain and 2,000 taken prisoners. 
Never was victory so unexpected, never was 
victory more complete. 

Pola {Battle of). May, 1379, between a fleet 
of 22 Genoese galleys commanded by Luciano 
Doria and 20 galleys of the Venetians under 
Pisani. Doria was slain, but the Genoese won 
the victory, taking 15 gaUeys and 1,900 pri- 
soners. 

Pollentia, in Italy {Battle of), 29 March, 
A.D. 403 (Easter Day). In this battle Stilicho 
attacked Alaric, and caused liim to retreat. 

Polotsk {Battle of), 30, 31 July, 1812, in 
which the Russians, under Wittgenstein, de- 
feated the French under Marshal Oudinot. 

Portlevoi {Battle of), 1016, won by Fulc, 
called the Black Count, over the Count of Blois. 
This great victory crushed the rival house of 
Blois. 

Porto Bello (Naval battle of), 1739, won, 
with six ships, by Admiral Vernon over the 
Spaniards. All the fortifications of the port 
were demolished. • 

Porto Novo {Battle of), 1 July, 1781, in 
which Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali regent 
of Mysore. 

Also called the battle of Cuddalore (3 syL), 

Potsdam {Battle of), 25 Oct., 1806, where 
Napoleon defeated the Prussians. 

Praga {Battles of). 1. 10 Oct., 1794, in which 
30,000 Poles were butchered by the Russian 
general Suwarrow or Suwarof. 

II. 31 March, 1831, won by the Poles, led by 
Skrznecki, over the Russians under the com- 
mand of General Giesmar. Above 6,000 Rus- 
sians were taken prisoners. 

Prague {Battles of), in Bohemia. I. 8 Nov., 
1620, when Maximilian of Bavaria defeated 
Frederick V. the Elector Palatine. This was 
the first of the battles of the Thirty Years' 
War. Prague (1 syL). 

II. 6 May, 1757, when Frederick IL(the Great) 
of Prussia defeated Prince Charles of Lorraine. 
This victory was followed (June 18) by a 
crushing defeat at Kolin by Marshal Daun. 
(Second campaign of the Seven Years' War). 
This is the great and memorable battle of 
Prague. 



PRESCOTT 



EIGOMAGO 



989 



Prescott {Battle of), in Upper Canada, 
17 Nov., 1838, in which the Canadian rebels 
were defeated by Lieutenant-Colonel Dundas. 

Preston {Battles of), in Lancashire. I. 
17 Aug., 1648, in which Cromwell defeated the 
Scotch royalist army, le<l by the Duke of 
Hamilton. 

II. 12, 13 Nov., 1715, after the ' clap of Sheriflf- 
muir.' A very poor affair, where the Jacobites 
were cooped up, and driven to a most cowardly 
surrender. (Reign of George I.) 

All that is known of James the Pretender 
only confirms the wisdom of setting him 
aside. 

Preston-pans {Battle of), in Scotland, 
21 Sept., 1745, in which the 'Young Pretender ' 
Charles Edward (grandson of James II.) de- 
feated Sir John Cope. 

Never was a battle so quickly decided. It is 
said not to have lasted more than five or six 
minutes. Never was a defeat more absolute. — 
Ho WITT, Hist, of England, George II. p. 501. 

Princeton, New Jersey, U.S. {Battle of), 
2 Jan., 1777. Here Washington defeated Lord 
Cornwallis in the American War of Indepen- 
dence. This was Washington's second victory. 
See ' Battle of Trenton.' 

Pultowa or Pultawa {Battle of), 9 July, 
1709, in which Czar Peter the Great utterly 
defeated Charles XII. of Sweden. 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

Pultusk {Battles of). I. 1 May, 1703, in 
which the Saxons were defeated by the Swedes. 

II. 26 Dec, 1806, between the French under 
Napoleon and the allied Prussians and Rus- 
sians. Both sides claimed the victory. 

Pydna {Battle of), b.c. 168, in which Per- 
seus, last of the Macedon kings, was utterly 
defeated and his army annihilated by ^milius 
Paulus, the Roman consul. Perseus was taken 
captive, and Macedonia was made a Roman 
province. 

Pyramids {Battle of the), 21 July, 1798, in 
which Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes. 

Pyrenees {Battle of the), 28 July, 1813, 
won by Lord Wellington over the French under 
the command of Marshal Soult. Souit was sent 
by Napoleon to supersede Jourdan, who had 
been utterly defeated at Vittoria on the 21st, 
and to drive Wellington across the Ebro, but 
the French marshal met with a series of defeats 
between 25 July and 2 Aug., with the loss of 
20,000 men. 

Quatre-Bras, in Brabant {Battle of), 
16 June, 1815. Two days before the battle of 
Waterloo. It was a combat between the British 
allied army and the French under Marshal Ney. 
The British under the Duke of Brunswick, the 
Prince of Orange, and Sir Thomas Picton, held 
their ground, but the Duke of Bruns\vick was 
slain and the Prince of Orange was taken pri- 
soner. At the close of the day the French 
marshal withdrew his men. 



Quebec, in Canada {Battle of), 13 Sept., 
1759, where General Wolfe defeated the 
Marquis de Montcalm, commander-in-chief of 
the French armies in Canada. The taking of 
Quebec was the conquest of Canada. Wolfe 
died on the day of battle, and Montcalm the 
day after from his wounds. See below ' Quiberon 
Bay.' 

Qneenstown, Upper Canada {Battle of), 
13 Oct., 1812, in the Second American War, 
where General Sheafife defeated the Americans 
commanded by Van Rensselaer. 

Quesnoy {Battle of), ll Sept., 1793, in 
which the British forces defeated the French. 
%* Pronounce Keen-wah. 

Quiberon Bay {Xavai battle of ), 20 Nov., 
1795, where Lord Hawke defeated the French 
fleet, which was utterly ruined. The commander 
of the French fleet was Marshal Conflans. In 
one year the English won three great victories 
over the French, viz. Minden, Quebec, and Qui- 
beron Bay. 

Baab {Battles of). 1. 1 Aug., 1664, won by 
Montecuciili, general of the imperial army, over 
the Tiirks. 

n. June, 1809, in which the Austrian Arch- 
duke John was totally defeated by Eugene 
Beauharnais, and the country bordering on the 
Adriatic was annexed to the French empire. 
Raab (1 syl.). 

Baclawice {Battle of), 4 April, 1794, in 
which Kosciusko the Polish general defeated 
the Russians. 

Bam-hormuz {Battle of), b.c. 226, in 
which Artaxerxes (called by the Persians Arde- 
shur Babegan, or Ardeschir ben Babek) utterly 
defeated Artabanes IV., shook off the Parthian 
yoke, and restored the empire of Persia Proper. 

Bamillies, in Belgium {Battle of), 23 May, 
1706, where the Duke of Marlborough defeated 
the French and Bavarians. The French general 
was Marshal Villeroy. France lost Flanders, 
and soon afterwards Italy. 

*»* This word is often caUed Ram'-e-liz in 
English, but it is called by Belgians Ra-mel-ya'. 

Bathmines {Battle of), 2 Aug., 1649, be- 
tween Ormond the royalist and Colonel Jones 
governor of Dublin. The royalists were de- 
feated, and 2,000 of them were taken prisoners. 

Bavenna, in Italy {Battle of), 11 April, 
1512, between the French under Gaston de Foix 
(nephew of Louis XII.) and the combined 
Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix won the 
battle, but was left dead on the field. 

Gaston de Foix was called ' The thunderbolt 
of Italy.' 

Begillus {Battle at the Lake), B.C. 499, be- 
tween the Romans and the allies who sought to 
restore Tarquin. In this battle it is said that 
Castor and PoUux on their white horses fought 
for the Romans and won the battle. 

Bigomago {Battle of), 1447, lost by 
Huuyadi, governor of Hungary through the 
treachery of the voivod of Wallachia. This 
was one of the bloodest battles ever fought. 



990 



EIVOLI 



SALAMIS 



Biv'oli {Battle of), 14, 15 Jan., 1797, where 
Bonaparte defeated the Austrians led by Wurm- 
ser and Alvinzy. 

Kocroy {Battle of), 1643, in which the 
French, led by the Great Gond6, sustained a 
most crushing defeat. 

Kolipa (Battle o/), 16 Aug., 1808, the first 
encounter of Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
Duke of Wellington) with the French in Por- 
tugal. The French under Delaborde were de- 
feated. 

Roncesvalles {Battle of ), \jd. 778. It was 
here that the rear-guard of Charlemagne's army 
on their return from Spain were attacked by 
the Moors and annihilated. Among the slain 
was Roland, the famous paladin, the king's 
nephew. 

Roland in Italian romance is called Orlando. 

Rosbachi, in Prussia {Battles of). I. 17 
Nov., 1382, in which 40,000 insurgent Flemings 
were cut to pieces by the French. 

II. 5 Nov., 1757, where Frederick II. defeated 
the allied Austrian and French armies. This 
defeat was so disgraceful to the French that the 
' Rout of Rosbach ' is still a proverb and a by- 
word. The loss of the Prussians was only 300 
men, that of the allies was 1,300 slain and 6,000 
prisoners. (In the second campaign of the 
Seven Years' War.) 

Rosbecque {Battle of), Nov. 1382, in which 
Charles VI. of Prance defeated the republican 
army of Flanders, and re-established the earl 
who had been deposed. Philip van Artevelde, 
leader of the democratic party, fell in this 
battle. 

Ross, in Ireland {Battleof), 4 June, 1798,in 
which the Irish insurgents, commanded by 
General Beauchamp Bagenel Harvey, were de- 
feated by the royal troops under the command 
of General Johnston. 

Rothiere {Battle of), l Feb., 1814, won by 
Napoleon over the combined armies of Bliicher 
and Schwartzenberg. 

ROUCOUX, or Raucoux {Battleof), 11 
Oct., 1746, in which the French, under Marshal 
S'axe, defeated the allied English and Dutch 



Round-way Down, near Devizes {Battle 
of). 13 July, 1643, in which the royalists under 
Prince Rupert defeated Sir W. Waller, a parlia- 
mentary officer. 

Roveredo {Battle of), 4 Sept., 1796, in 
which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians. 

3a.alf eld {Battle of), 10 Oct., 1806, won by 
Napoleon over the confederates. 

Saarbriick {Battle of), 2 Aug., 1870. In 
the Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Prus- 
sians the same day as they won the battle of 
Worth. 

31 July, 1870, it was seized by Napoleon III., 
and here the young Prince Imperial received 
his • baptism of fire ; ' a battle was fought 
2 Aug., in which the French were dislodged. 



and on 6 Aug. it was occupied by the German 
allies. 

Sadowa, in Bohemia {Battle of), 3 July, 
1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. King Wil- 
liam I. of Prussia defeated Benedek, the Aus- 
trian general. 

St. Albans, Herts {Battles of). I. 22 May, 
1455, in which Richard duke of York defeated 
and took prisoner Henry VI. of England. 

II. 7 Feb., 1461 {Shrove Tuesday), in which 
battle Queen Margaret defeated the Earl of 
Warwick. 

St. Denis {Battle of), 1567, in the Second 
Religious War of France. Here Anne de Mont- 
morency, the last of the French Triumvirate 
{q.v.), lost his Ufe, but the Huguenots were 
defeated. 

St, Denis, pronounce Sahn Dnee, 

St. Dizier {Battle of), 27 Jan., 1814, won by 
Napoleon over BlUcher. 

Pronounce Sahn De-ze-a. 

St. Jacob's {Battle of), in the vicinity 
of Basle, 1444. Here 1,600 Swiss kept 32,000 
French soldiers at bay for ten hours, and would 
not surrender till their number was reduced to 
ten men only. 

St. Quintin {Battle of), 10 Aug., 1557, 
won by Philip II. of Spain over the French. 
This was their most severe defeat since the 
battle of Agincourt. 

Pronounce Sahn Kahn-tohn (nasal). 

St. Sebastian {Battles of). I. 5 May, 
1836, won by General Evans, commander of the 
English Auxiliary Legion, against the Carlists 
of Spain. 

II. 1 Oct., 1836, the Carlists were repulsed 
by De Lacy Evans. 

St. Vincent, in Portugal {Battles of). I. 
17 June, 1693, in which Admiral Toiu-ville 
marshal of Prance defeated the allied English 
and Dutch fleets under the command of Sir 
G. Rooke. The allies lost 12 men-of-war and 
80 merchantmen in this great naval battle. 

II. 16 Jan., 1780, in which Admiral Rodney 
defeated Juande Langara the Spanish admiral, 
who was also taken prisoner. 

III. 14 Feb., 1797, in which Admiral Jervis 
defeated and won a great victory over the 
Spanish fleet, for which he was raised to the 
peerage under the name and title of John Jervis 
earl of St. Vincent. 

IV. 2 Ju'y, 1833, in which Admiral Napier 
captured the Miguelite squadron. 

Salamanca {Battle of), 22 July, 1812, won 
by Lord Wellington over the French forces led ' 
by Marshal Mai-mont. This was the seventh 
French marshal defeated by Lord Wellington 
in four years. In this battle 7,141 prisoners 
fell into "the victor's hands, 11 cannons, 6 stand 
of colours, and 2 eagles. 

Sal'amis {Naml battle of), 20 Oct., b.c. 480, 
in which the Greeks, under Themistocles, with 
only 371 triremes, defeated the Persian fleet, 
which consisted of 928 sail of much larger size. 
Of this formidable fleet only 300 ships escaped 



SAMINAKA 



SHANNON 



991 



destruction. The Persian loss must have been 
very great indeed, that of the Greeks was only 
40 men all told. 

Xerxes, who was a spectator of the fight, re- 
turned at once to Asia. 

Saminara {Battle of), north-east of 
Reggie, 21 April, 1503, won by Gonzalvo of 
Cordova over the French. 

Santes {Battle of), in which St. Louis of 
France defeated the insurgents under the 
Comte de la Marche. Santes (1 syl.). 

Sapienza {Battles of), 4 Nov.,1354, in wliich 
the Venetian fleet under Niecolo Pisani was 
surprised and captured by the Genoese fleet 
under Paganini Doria. 

II. 6 Oct., 1403, in which the Venetian fleet 
under Zeno defeated the Genoese fleet com- 
manded by Boucicault. 

Saratoga, New York, U.S. {Battle of), 
11 Oct., 1777. Here the American General 
Gates defeated the British General Burgoyne. 
This was the worst disaster hitherto sustained 
by the English in the American War of Inde- 
pendence. General Burgoyne surrendered to 
General Gates, and, on cavitulation, had a 
free passage to Great Britain, on condition of 
not serving again against America. After this 
terrible overthrow, France at once recognised 
the independence of America. Sir John Bur- 
goyne, of course, retired from the army, and 
spent his tinje in writing for the stage. 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

Sasbach {Battle of), 1675, between Monte- 
cuculi on the German side and Marshal Tu- 
renne on the side of the French. Turenue was 
killed by a cannon ball, and victory was claimed 
by the Germans. 

Scearstan {Battle of), 1016, won by 
Canute over Edmund Ironside ; but Canute re- 
treated at night towards Loudon, unwilling to 
renew the fight. 

Schellenberg {Battle of), 2 July, 1704. 
Here Marlborough defeated the Bavarians, and 
returned to England with 121 standards, 179 
colours, the Bavarian general, and twenty-six 
ofiicers of high distinction. 

Schleitz {Battle of), Oct., 1806, won by 
Napoleon over the confederates. 

Sch.liengen {Battle of), 20 Oct., 1796. The 
Archduke Karl of Austria defeated Moreau, 
the French general. He had defeated him the 
day before at Emmendingen. 

Secandun {Battle of), a.d. 755, in which 
the Mercians were defeated by the West Saxons. 
Ethelbald was slain in this battle. 

Sedan {Battle of). I. ll Sept., 1870, in the 
Franco-Prussian war, won by the Prussians. 
On 2 Sept. the Emperor Napoleon III. gave up 
his sword to William I. king of Prussia. 

This was just a month after the war began. 
The occupation of Saarbriick and ' baptism of 
fire' was 2 Aug., and Napoleon gave up his 
sword 2 Sept. 



n. 10 May, 1865, General Johnston, at Dur- 
ham's Station, North Carolina, surrendered to 
General Sherman, and thus brought the Ameri- 
can civil contest to a close. This was the Ameri- 
can ' Sedan.' 

Sedgemoor {Battle of), 5 July, 1685, in 
which the Duke of Monmouth was completely 
defeated by the army of James II. The duke 
was made prisoner, and was soon afterwards 
beheaded. 

Seidlitz {Battle of), in Poland, 10 April, 
1831, won by the Poles over the Russians. 

Sellasia {Battle of), b.c. 221, in which 
CleomenC'S the Spartan was utterly defeated by 
Antigonus and the Achaean League. 

Semincas {Battle of), a.d. 938, won by 
Ramirez II. king of Leon and the Asturias over 
the Moors. It is said that 80,000 of the Moors 
were slain in this conflict. 

Sempach {Battle of), 9 July, 1386, in which 
1,400 Switzers utterly defeated the Austrian 
army under Duke Leopold. The Austrian army 
consisted of 4,000 knights of high rank, and a 
numerous well-appointed host of foot soldiers. 
The duke and most of the knights were slain. 
It was in this battle that Arnold Struthan von 
Winkelried of Unterwalden rushed on the ad- 
vancing spears of the Austrians, grasped as 
many of them as he could reach, buried them 
in his bosom and bore them to the gi'ound ; 
thus making a gap into which the Swiss rushed 
and slaughtered the Austrians right and left. 
The loss of the Swiss was about 200, of the 
Austrians at least 6,000. 

Probably a part of this tale is onty legendary. 

Senef {Battle of), 1674, a drawn battle 
between WilUam prince of Orange and the 

Great Cond6. 

Senlac {Bottle of), 14 Oct., 1066, where 
William duke of Normandy conquered Harold 
II., and thus won, by conquest, the throne of 
England. Also called 'The Battle of Hast- 
ings.' 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

Serin' gapatam' {Battles of). I. 15 May, 
1791. Lord Oornwallis defeated Tippoo Saib 
sultan of Mysore. In 1799 the city was as- 
signed to the British. 

II. 4 May, 1799, won by Major-General 
Baird. In this battle Tippoo Saib was slain. 

Shannon and Chesapeake {Battle of 
the), 1 June,1813. The 'Shannon' was an English 
ship, commanded by Captain Broke ; the 'Chesa- 
peake ' was an American vessel, commanded by 
Captain Lawrence. In the second American 
war Captain Broke sent a challenge to Captain 
LaAvi-ence to meet him, in order to prove whether 
the English or Americans were the better men. 
The two combatants met ; and, after a most 
furious and murderous engagement, which 
lasted about fifteen minutes, the English sea- 
men hauled down the American colours. Cap- 
tain Lawrence was s'.ain, and Captain Broke 
was made a baronet, under the style and title 



992 



SHERIFFMUIE 



STRASBURG 



of Sir Philip Bowes Yere Broke, of Nacton, 
Suffolk. 

Stierififinuir {Battle of), in Dumblane, 
13 Nov., 1715, in which the Duke of Argyll de- 
feated the Jacobites led by the Earl of Mar. 
The worthless Pretender, James, arrived too 
late for the battle, and proved a more incom- 
petent leader than even the Earl of Mar. James 
kft England, and the clans dispersed like a 
dream. 

Both claimed the victory; but, as the Pre- 
tender lost the battle of Preston on the same 
day, his cause hopeless 'y collapsed. 

Shiloh, Tennessee {Battle of), 6 Feb., 
180^, in the American Civil War. Won by the 
Pederals. 

Shrewsbury (Battle of), 23 July, 1403, in 
which Henry IV. defeated the Percys. 

Sliropsllire (Battle of), a.d. 51, in which 
the Britons were completely svibjugated to the 
Eomans, and Caradoc [Caractacus] king of 
the Silures was made a prisoner. 

Silverhausen (Battle of), 1553, in which 
Maurice elector of Saxony was slain. His 
antagonist was Albert of Brandenburg, 

Sin'gara (Battle of), a.d. 348, between Con- 
stautius II. the emperor of the East and Sapor 
the Persian. The Eomans had won the battle, 
and had given themselves up to joy and revelry ; 
but Sapor crept upon them in the darkness of 
night, recovered the victory, and made most 
dreadful havoc of the panic-stricken Romans. 

Sinope (Naval battle of), 30 Nov., 1853, 
won by the Russians over the Turks. 

Sluys (Naval battle of), in the Netherlands, 
24 June, 1340, in which Edward III. defeated 
the French fleet, which for a time was utterly 
ruined. (Pronounce Slu-iz). 

Smolensko (Battle of), 17 Aug., 1812, 
won by the French over the Russians, led by 
Barclay de ToUi. 

Sobraon (Battle of), in the Punjab, 10 
Feb., 1846, won by General Gough and Sir 
Henry Hardinge over the Sikhs. In this battle 
a bridge of boats over the Sutlej broke, and 
thousands of the Sikhs in their flight were 
drowned. It was the greatest battle ever 
fought in India. 

Gongh= Goff. 

Socza-wa (Battle of), 1676, won by John 
in. (Sobieski) of Poland over the Turks. 

Soissons (Battle of), A.D. 486, in which 
Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, de- 
feated Syagrius, son of ^gidius. After this 
victory Clovis made Soissons the capital of his 
kingdom. In 507 he removed to Paris. 

Solebay (Naval battle of), 28 May, 1672, 
in which the Diitch were defeated by the 
English under the command of James duke of 
York [James II.]. 

Solferi'no, in Italy (Battle of), 24 June, 
185 y, in which Napoleon III. and Victor 
Emmanuel defeated Francis Joseph emperor of 
Austria. 



Solonium (Battle of), b.c. 61, in which 
C. Pomptinus the praetor defeated the Allo- 
broges. 

Solway Moss, in Cumberland (Battle of), 
25 Nov., 1542, in which the Scots under Oliver 
Sinclair were defeated by the Duke of Norfolk. 

Somerton (Battle of), a.d. 733, in which 
the royal town of Somerton was captured by 
Ethelbald king of Mercia. This great victory 
ended the war with the West Saxons. 

SommersJiausen (Battle of), n April, 
1648, won by Turenne and Wrangel. This 
was the last of the battles of the Thirty Years' 
War. 

Spurs (Battle of the), 18 Aug., 1513, won 
by the English over the French, who used 
their spurs in flight more than their swords in 
fight. 

Stamford Bridge, near York (Battle 
of), 25 Sept., 1066, in which Tostig, son of Earl 
Godwin, was defeated and slain by Harold IL 
king of England, his brother. 

Steinkerke (Battle of), 4 Aug., 1692, in 
which the French Marshal de Luxembourg 
defeated William III. and his allies. The loss 
on both sides was about equal. 

Stillwater (Battle of), 19 Sept. and 7 
Oct., 1777, won by the British over the 
Americans. The loss of the British was 350 
killed and wounded, of the Americans 1,500 
slain. 

Stillwater is a town on the river Hudson, 
belonging to the State of New York. 

Stirling Bridge (Battle of), 10 Sept., 
1297, in which William Wallace utterly 
defeated the English under the command of 
Warenne earl of Sm-rey. 

Stockach. (Battle of), 25 March, 1799, in 
which Marshal Jourdan, the French general, 
was defeated by the Archduke Karl, and 
Germany was lost to France. 

Stoke, near Newark (Battle of), 1487, in 
which the conspiracy of Simnel was utterly 
crushed by Henry VII. 

Stonar (Battle of), a.d. 465, in which 
Vortinier defeated Hen gist, and drove the 
Saxons to their ships. They did not return till 
the death of Vortimer, five years afterwards. 

Stony Creek, U.S. (Battle of), 6 June, 
1813, where General Vincent surprised and 
defeated the American General Winder, in the 
Second American War. 

Stony Point (Battle of), 1779. StonyPoint, 
in New York, 30 May, was taken by Clinton. 
An engagement took place 20 June at Stone 
Perry. General Wayne recovered Stony Point 15 
July, but abandoned it to the British next day. 

Stowe, in Bucks (Battle of), 1645, in 
which the Irish royalists, under the command 
of Lord Astley, were defeated by the parlia- 
mentary troops led by Colonel Morgan. Lord 
Astley was taken prisoner. 

Strasburg (Battle of), Aug., a.d. 357, won 
by Julian over the Alemanui. In this battle 



STKATTON HILL 



TOGGENBUKG 



993 



Chnodomar or Gundomar, the huge leader of 
the Germans, was taken prisoner. 

Stratton Hill (fiattleof), in Devonshire, 
16 May, 1043, in which the royalists defeated 
the parliamentary army led by the poet 
Waller. 

Strom'boli (Navnl battle of), 1676, won by 
Duquesne over the Dutch. 

Duquesne =DuJi-kam. 

. Sukoro {Battle of), 29 Sept., 1848, between 
the Croats led by Baron Jeiachich, and the 
Magyars, led by Moga. The former numbered 
50,udu, and were well arme<l ; the latter not 
above 5,000, armed with scythes, pitchforks, 
and old muskets. The Hungarians, however, 
were completely victorious. This was the first 
battle in the War for Independence. 

Tagina (Battle of), July, a.d. 552, in which 
Totila the Gothic king was defeated and slain 
by Narses the eunuch, commander-in-chief of 
Justinian's army. 

Tagliamento (Battle of), 16 March, 1797, 
in which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians, led 
by the Archduke Karl. 

Talavera, in Spain (Battle of), 27, 28 
July, 18U9, won by Sir Arthur Wellesley (Duke 
of Wellington), commander of the united 
British and Spanish forces, over Victor and 
Jourdan, marshalsof France. The French loss 
was 10,000 men and 20 pieces of cannon ; the 
allied British and Spanish forces lost 800 
killed and 4,000 wounded or missing. 

For this victory Sir Arthur (already Baron 
Douro) was created Viscount Wellington of 
Talavera. 

Taillebourg (Battle of), 1242, in which 
St. Louis of France defeated the insurgents 
under the Comte de la Marche. 

Taliacot'a, or Tagliacozzo,in Italy (Battle 
of), 23 Aug., 12G8, in which Charles of Anjou 
overthrew Conradin. 

Tar a (Battles of), I. 980, in which Malachy 
monarch of Ireland defeated the Danes. 
This was the most decisive of all the battles 
fought by the Irish against the Danes, except 
the battle of Clontarf in 1014. 

(II.) 2G Mav,.1789. in which the Irish rebels 
were defeated by the royal troops. 

Tarbes (Battle of), in France, 20 March, 
1814, in which the French army under 
Marshal Soult was defeated by the Duke of 
Wellington. Tarbes (1 syl.). 

Taro (Battle of the), 6 July, 1495, won by 
Charles VIII. with 9,000 men over an allied 
Italian, German, and Spanish army of 40,000. 
Of the French not above 200 fell, of the allies 
15,000. The Venetians caUed this a victory, 
and erected a tablet to one of the Provveditori 
with this barefaced lying inscription : ' Here 
lies Melchior Trivisano, wlio fought success- 
fully against Charles [VIII.] king of France 
at the battle of the Taro.' 

Tchernaya (Battle of the), 16 Aug., 
1855, in which the French and Sardinians 



defeated the Russians. This was one of the 
great battles of the Crimejin War (q.v.). 

Tel-el-Kebir (Battle of), 13 Sept., 1882, 
won by the English under General Wolseley over 
Arabi the Egyptian rebel. 

Temesvar (Battle of), 1849. One of the 
battles of the War of Independence. The 
Hungarians were utterly routed by the allied 
Russian and Austrian armies. 

Tenna (Battle of), 9 Nov., 1439, in which 
the Venetians led by Sforza utterly defeated 
the Milanese under the command of Piccinino. 

Tewkesbury (Battle of), in Gloucester- 
shire, 4 May, 1471, in which Edward IV. 
defeated and took prisoner Queen Margaret. 
Her sou either feU on the field or was stabbed 
after the battle ; and the death of Henry VI. 
in the Tower, some eighteen days afterwards, 
left Edward IV. of the House of York the 
undisputed sovereign of the kingdom. 

Thapsus (Battle of), 4 Feb., B.C. 46, ia 
whicli Julius Caesar utterly defeated Juba 
king of Numidia and the senatorial army 
which befriended the cause of Pompey. 

Thermop'ylee (Battles of), I. 7 Aug., b.c. 
480, between the Greeks and the Persians. Leo- 
uidas king of Sparta was sent with 300 Spartans 
to withstand the whole Persian army at the 
defile of Thermopylae. He held his ground for 
three days, when Ephialtes perfidiously led the 
enemy by a secret path to the rear of the 
Greeks, who were thus hemmed in between two 
forces. All but one man perished figliting 
gloriously, leaving 20,000 Persians dead in the 
pass. This was one of the most heroic acts iu 
all history. 

II. B.C. 191, in which Antiochus III. king of 
Syria was utterly defeated by the Romans. 

TMonville, or Diedenhofen (Battle of), 
June, lt)3D, one of the minor battles of the 
Thirty Years' War, General de Feuquieres 
was defeated by Ottavio Piccolomini. 
Pronounce Te-onlg^-veel. 

Thrasymenus (Battle of), b.c. 217, in 
which the Romans under Flaminius were 
defeated by the Carthaginians under Hannibal. 
Of the Romans, 15,000 were slain and 10,000 
taken prisoners. 

Till (Battle of the), A.D. 556, in which the 
Asiatic Turks slew the Khan of the Ogors with 
300,000 of his subjects (1 1). 

Tinchebrai (Battle of), 28 Sept., 1106 
where Robert duke of Normandy (son of Wil- 
liam the Conqueror) was utterly defeated by his 
younger brother Henry I. king of England. 
In consequence of this victory the duchy 
became a dependency of the English crown. 

Tippermuir (Battle of), Sept., 1644, in 
which the Marquis of Montrose, commander 
of the royal forces in Scotland, defeated the 
Covenanters. 

Toggenburg or Tockemburg, in 
Switzerland. This has been the site of two 
contests, called the ' first ' and ' second war of 

ss 



994 



TOLBIAC 



VASCAPE 



Tockemburg.' The first in 1436 was a contest 
between the Count of Zurich and the Count of 
Schwitz for the succession. The second, in 
1712, was the revolt of the Toclcemburgers 
against the abbot of St. Gall their ruler, end- 
ing in favour of the revolters. 

Tolbiac {Battle of), A.D. 496, in which 
Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, 
repulsed the Alemanni, a Teutonic league, 
with great slaughter. 

Tolbiac is now called Zulpich ; it is near 
Cologne. 

Toplitz {Battle of), 1762, in which the 
Prussians were defeated by the Austrians. 

Torgau {Battle of), in Prussia, 3 Nov., 
1760, in which Frederick II. of Prussia en- 
countered Marshal Daun. The battle was in- 
decisive ; but Frederick claimed the victory, 
because Marshal Daun decamped during the 
night. (In the fifth campaign of the Seven 
Years' War.) 

Pronounce Tor-gow (ow as in now). 

Torres Vedras, in Portugal. The French 
marshal arrived before the ' Lines ' constructed 
by Wellington in Oct., but retreated Nov. 14, 
1810. See p. 521, ' Lines of Torres Vedras.' 

Toulon, in Prance {Battles of). 1. 22 Feb., 
1744. when Admiral Matthews was repulsed by 
the allied French aud Spanish fleets. 

II. 15 Nov., 1793, a conflict between the 
English and the French, in which the French 
were repulsed. 

Toulouse {Battle of), 10 April, 1814, won 
by the Duke of Wellington over the French, 
led by Marshal Soult. This was the last of 
Wellington's peninsular battles. 

Tours {Battle of), 10 Oct., A,D. 732, in 
which Charles Martel, mayor ot the palace, 
leader of the Franks, utterly defeated the 
Saracens under Abderahman. This was one of 
the most important and decisive of victories. 
If the Saracens had succeeded, without doubt 
they would have planted in France the reli- 
gion of Mahomet, and there, as in Spain, it 
would have dominated, at least for a time. It 
was the battle between the Crescent and the 
Cross. 

This is one ot Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

Towton {Battle of), in Yorkshire, 29 
March, 1461 (Palm Sunday), in which Edward 
IV. defeated Henry VI. This was one of the 
most terrible struggles in English history, 
second only to the battle of Hastings or Senlac. 
The number brought into the field on either 
side was about 60,000 men, and for six hours the 
fight lasted in themiilst of a severe snow-storm. 
The loss on each side was more than 20,000. 
The Lancastrians lost six barons, the Earls of 
Devon and Wiltshire were taken prisoners 
and beheaded, the Lords Oxford and Aubrey 
were subsequently executed. An enormous 
number of the Lancastrians were charged 
with treason, and all their lands were confis- 
cated. 



Trafalgar {Battle of), 21 Oct., 1805, won by 
Admira! Lord Nelson over the combined French 
and Spanish fleets, commanded by Admiral 
Villeneuve (French) and two Spanish admirals. 
All the three admirals were taken prisoners. 
Nelson commanded in the ship called the 
'Victory,' and lost his life in the battle. It 
was in this engagement he is credited with the 
signal, ' England expects every man to do his 
duty.' This is our most glorious naval victory. 

Trasimene {Battle of Lake), same as 
Thrasymenus {q.v.). 

Trautenau {Battle of), 27 June, 1866, in 
the Seven Weeks' War. Prince Frederick 
Charles defeated the Austrians. 

*jj5* Trautenau, pronounce Ti'ou'-ta-now. 

Tre'bia {Battles of the). I. b.c. 218, in which 
Hannibal the Carthaginian defeated Publius 
Seipio and Sempronius. This great battle ended 
Hannibal's first campaign. 

II. 17-19 June, 1799, Suwarof, the Russian 
general, defeated Macdonald and his French 
army. 

Trenton, in New Jersey, U.S. {Battle of), 
26 Dec, 1776, Here Washington won his first 
victory over the British and Hessian troops in 
the American War of Independence. 

Tricamarum {Battle of), a.d. 534, in which 
Belisarius defeated Gellmer, last of the Vandal 
kings of Africa. 

Turin {Battle of), 1706, won by Prince 
Eugene over the French commanded by La 
Feuillade. 

Usnant {Naval battle of ), 27 July, 1778, in 
which the British fleet under Admiral Keppel 
defeated the French fleet commanded by the 
Comte d'Orvilliers. It was not a defeat, but the 
French withdrew their ships under cover of the 
night. 

Val-fes-'Dunes, near Caen {Battle of), 
1047, in which William duke of Normandy de- 
feated his revolted nobles. 

"Valmy', in France {Battle of), 20 Sept., 
1792, in which the French Marshal Kellermann 
defeated the Duke of Brunswick. The duke 
looked on the French revolution as a contemp- 
tible riot, and was thunderstruck with the re- 
ception he met with at Valmy. 

This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen 
Decisive Battles of the World. 

YsiTnSi{ Battle of), 10 Nov., 1444, won by 
Amurath II. sultan of Turkey over the Hun- 
garians, led by Ladislaus and Hunyadi. Ladis- 
laus had sworn to preserve peace with Amurath 
for ten years, but, persuaded by Cardinal Julian 
and other churchmen, had scandalously broken 
his oath, and the defeat of Varna was the fruit 
of his perjury. 

Vasag {Battle of), 1422, won by Hunyadi 
the Hungarian general over the Turks under 
Amurath II. 

Vascape {Battle of), 1441. The greatest 
of all the victories of Hunyadi, won over the 



VERCELL^ 



WARSAW 



995 



Turks under the command of Sciabedin Bey. 
The Turks were 80,000, the Hungarians not 
15,000. 

Vercellse {Battle of), 30 July, B.C. 101, in 
which the Cimbrian host was annihilated by 
Marlus the Roman consul. 

Verneuil, in France (Battle of), 16 Aug. 
1424, in wliich the Duke of Bedford defeated 
the allied French and Scotch. This battle was 
hardly less disastrous to the French than that 
of Agincourt, for full one-third of the knight- 
hood were left dead on that fatal field. The 
loss of the French was 4,000, that of Bedford's 
army 1,G00. 

Among the slain were the Earl of Buchan, 
Earl Douglas, Lord James Douglas (the earl's 
son). Sir Alexander Meldrum, &c. 

Verona (Battle of), 30 March, 1799, in 
which the Austrian General Kray defeated the 
French. 

Veszprem (Battle of), 997, won by St. 
Stephen king of Hungary, soon after his bap- 
tism, over Kopan, a nobleman of the old Shaman 
faith. By this victory Christianity was estab- 
lished in the laud. 

Vienna (Battle of ), 12 Sept., 1683, in which 
Sobieski king of Poland, with a relief force of 
40,000 men, utterly defeated Kara Mustapha 
vizier of the Stiltau Mahomet II., whereby the 
siege of Vienna was raised. This is one of the 
most important and decisive victories ever won. 
If the Turks had been victorious, probably 
Vienna, like Constantinople, would have been 
subject to the Crescent, and the Eastern and 
Western empires would have been united again, 
but under the power and religion of the sultan. 

Villa Viciosa (Battle of), 1710, won by 
the French, commanded by the Due de Ven- 
dome, over the Archduke Karl. 

Villafranca, in SicUy (Battles of), 1. 1718, 
In which the Spaniards won over the Austrians. 

II. 10 April, 1812, in which the British 
cavalry, led by Sir Stapleton Cotton, defeated 
Marshal Soult. Napoleon greatly blamed Soult 
for this defeat. 

Villingshausen (Battle of), 15 July, 
1761, in which Ferdinand duke of Brunswick 
defeated the French. (In the sixth campaign 
of the Seven Years' War.) 

Vimeira, in Portugal (Battle of), 21 Aug., 
1808, in which Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
Duke of Wellington) defeated the allied French 
and Spanish forces under Marshal Junot This 
was the first of his peninsular victories. 

Vindalum (Battle of), b.c. 121, in which 
Cn. Domitius the pro-consiil defeated the AUo- 
brSges. 

Vinegar Hill, near Wexford (Battle of), 
21 June, 1798. This could hardly be called a 
battle. The Irish had risen in revolt, and mus- 
tered 15,000 strong on Vinegar Hill. General 
Lake was sent to put down the revolt. He took 
their camp, and utterly suppressed the rebel- 
lion. In the autiunn 1,000 French soldiers, 



under General Humbert, landed in Mayo, and 
defeated Lake and Hutchinson, who had about 
3,000 men under them, at Castlebar, 27 Aug., 
1798 ; and then Lord Cornwallis, the lord-lieu- 
tenant, with 30,000 men, forced Humbert to 
surrender. 

Vionville (Battle of), 16 Aug., 1870, in the 
Franco-Prussian war, won by the Prussians. 

Vittoria (Battle of), 21 June, 1813, won by 
Lord Wellington over the French ai-my com- 
manded by Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal 
Jourdan. This was one of the most brilliant 
victories in the British annals. Marshal Jour- 
dan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 ammunition 
waggons, all his baggage and treasure, and even 
his marshal's baton, 

Voglade. See below ' Vougle.' 

Volturno (Battle of the), 17 Sept., 1860, won 
by Garibaldi over the Neapolitan troops of 
Francis II. 

VougM, near Poitiers (Battle o/), a.d. 507, 
in which Clovis, founder of the French monar- 
chy, ovtrthrew Alaric II, king of the West- 
Goths. Alaric himself was slain on the field. 

VSTagram, in Austria (Battle of), 6 July, 
1809, in which the French, lefl by Napoleon, 
overthrew the Austrians, led by the Archduke 
Karl. This battle led to a treaty of peace, in 
which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; 
the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were also 
enlarged at the expense of Austria. 

"Wakefield, in Yorkshire (Battle of ), 31 
Dec, 1460, in which Queen Margaret defeated 
Richard duke of York. This was the only 
great victory of the Lancastrians in the long 
War of the Hoses. 

Walcourt, in Holland (Battle of),27 Aug., 
1689. Here Marshal d'Humieres was defeated 
by the Prince of Waldeck. Marlborough was 
present in this battle, and laid the foundation 
of his future fame. 

"WandevT'ash., in Hindustan (Battle of ), 
Jan., 1760, in which Thomas Arthur comte de 
Lally, the French governor in India, was de- 
feated by Sir Eyre (Joote, and Pondicherry fell 
into the hands of the English. 

"Wareham (Battle of), A.D. 876, in which 
the Danish fleet was repulsed by King Alfred. 
The Danes then allied themselves with the 
Welsh. Being hard pressed, the Danes swore 
to leave Wessex, but reappeared at Chippenham 
in the winter of 878. 

Warna (Battle of), 10 Nov., 1444, in which 
Amurath II. defeated Ladislaus V. king of 
Hungary, who was also slain. 

"Warsaw (Battles of ). 1. 10, 12 Oct., 1794, 
in which the Poles were defeated by the Rus- 
sians. 

II. 20 Feb., 1831, in which the Russians were 
defeated. This is also called the battle of 
Growchow. 

III. 7, 8 Sept., 1831, won by the Russians over 
the Poles. 



WARTENBUEG 



YERMUK 



"Wartenburg, in Prussia {Battle of), 
3 Oct., 1813, won by the alUes over the French. 

■Waterloo {Battle o/),18 June, 1815, the 
most momentous victory ever won by the Bri- 
tish arms, and the most happy in its results. 
Napoleon commanded the French and the Duke 
of Wellington the British and their allies. The 
battle lasted from seven in the morning tiU nine 
at night. Napoleon's career ended with this 
battle. He delivered himself into the hands of 
Captain Maitland, 3 July, and was banished to 
Longwood in St. Helena, where he landed, 16 
Oct., 1815. 

Tlie Duke ot Marlborough won a battle over 
the French at Waterloo, 17 Aug., 1705. 

»#» The battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 1815, 
was exactly six centuries to a day of the signa- 
ture of Magna Charta by King John, 18 June, 
1215. See Colonel Gurwood's 12th vol. Creasy's 
• Fifteen Decisive Battles.' 

"Wattignies, near Lille {Battle of), 15, 16 
Oct., 1793. The Austrians defeated Jourdan, the 
French marshal, here. 

"Wawz {Battle of),U March, 1831, in which 
the Russians were defeated by the Poles under 
the command of Skrzynecki. 

"Weissenburg {Battles of). I. a.d. 1620, 
won by the Roman Catholics over the Protes- 
tants of Bohemia. Maximilian duke of Bavaria 
affirms that his success was due to the aid of 
St. John Nepomuk. 

II. 4 Aug., 1870. The first 'battle' of the 
Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Crown 
Prince of Prussia. 

Wertingen {Battle of ), 8 Oct., 1805, in 
which the French defeated Mack, general of the 
Austrian army. 

■White Plains, near New York, U.S. 
{Battle of), 28 Oct., 1776, where General Howe 
defeated the Americans in the American War 
of Independence. 

Wig'an {Battles of). I. 1643, in which the 
royal forces, under the Earl of Derby, were de- 
feated by the parliamentary anny led by Sir 
John Smeaton. 

II. 1651, in which the Earl of Derby was 
again defeated by the parliamentary army, 
led by Colonel Lilburne. 

Wilhelmsthal {Battle of), 24 June, 1762, 
won for Prussia by the two Dukes of Bruns- 
wick. This was the last battle of the Seven 
Years' War, 

Wilton {Battle of), A.D. 823, which Egbert 
king of Wessex won over Beornwulf king of 
Mercia. This victory led to the absorption of 
Mercia into the kingdom of Wessex. 

Winceby-on-the-Wolds, Lincoln- 
shire {Battle of), 1G43, won by Cromwell and 
Fairfax over the Marquis of Newcastle. Here 
Cromwell had a horse shot under him. 

Winwoed, near Leeds {Battle of), 665, also 
called Winwidfeld. In this battle Penda was 
slain by Os^vi of Northurabria. Win weed is 
Weewood in York, 



In this battle Oswi vowed, if God gave him 
the victory, he would dedicate his daughter to 
the Lord and build twelve monasteries. 

Witepsk {Battle of), 11 Nov., 1812, in 
which the French, under Marshal Victor, were 
defeated by the Russians commanded by 
General Wittgenstein. 

Wittstock {Battle of), 4 Oct., 1636, won 
by the Swedes, in the Protestant interest, over 
tlie German Catholic League. This was one of 
the battles of the Thirty Years' War. 

Wodensfleld {Battle of), a.d. 910, in 
which Edward, son of Alfred, defeated the 
Anglo-Danes with great slaughter. 

Wodnesbeorgh. {Badles of). I. a.d. 591, 
in which Cealwin the Saxon was defeated by 
his nephew Ceolric, who had allied liimself with 
the Cymry and Scoti. The death of Cgalwin 
soon followed, in the thirtv-+i)ird year of his 
reign. 

IT. 714, in which ' ^e greatest of the 
kings of Wessex, c. ..3d and slew Ceobred 
king of Mercia. Wodnesbeorgh is Woodbury 
in Devonshire. 

Woerden {Battle of), in Holland, June, 
1672. Marshal de Luxembourg defeated the 
Hollanders. 

Worcester {Battle of), 3 Sept., 1651, in 
which Cromwell utterly routed Charles II. 
Some 3,000 royalists were slain and ]i),000 were 
taken prisoners, who were sent as slaves to the 
plantations. Charles made his escape to France, 
and his adventures make one of the most mar- 
vellous romances of history. 

Cromwell says for four or five hours this 
battle was 'the stillest contest he had seen.' 
The Scotch lost all their baggage and artil- 
lery, with 6,000 men, amongst whom was the 
Duke of Hamilton, their leader. 

Worth {Battle of), 6 Aug., 1870, in the 
Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Prussians 
over MacMahon, the French marshal. 

Wurtschen {Battle of), 1813, in which 
Napoleon defeated the allied Russian and 
Prussian armies. The carnage on both sides 
was terrible. 

Wiirtzburg {Battle of), 3 Sept., 1796. 
Archduke Charles of Austria defeated Moreau, 
the French general. 

Wyppeds Fleot {Battle of), a.d. 465, 
won by Hengist over the Britons. 

Xeres {Battle of), a.d. 1237, won by Al- 
fonso, ' infant ' of Ferdinand III, over Aben- 
hud, the Moorish king of Seville. In this 
battle, we are told, St. James on his white 
horse fought for Spain. 

Ximera {Battle of), 10 Sept., 1811, in 
which the Spaniards, imder General BaUasteros, 
defeated the French under the command of 
General Regnier. 

Yerrauk, in Syria {Battle of the), Nov. a.d. 
638, in which Khalid and Abu Obeidah, with 
their Saracen troops, defeated the Greeks undei 
Heraclius. 



I 



YOKK 



ZUTPHEN 



997 



York {Baflle of), A.D. 807, in which the 
two sons of Ragnar Lodbrog the Dane defeated 
Osbert and Ella, the Saxons, with great slaugh- 
ter. Both Osbert and Ella feU. 

Yvres (Battle of), 1591, won by Henri 
IV. king of France over the Catholic League. 

Zalaca, in Spain (Baffin of), 23 Oct., 1086, 
in which Alfonso VI. of Castile was defeated 
by Jussef ben Taxfyn or Taschfin of Morocco. 

Zama (Battle of), b.c. 202, in which Scipio 
defeated Hannibal, and ended the Second Punic 
War. Zama is called the Waterloo of Han- 
nibal, as Cannee is called his Austerlitz. 

Zelia, or Zeleia, in Mysia ( Battle of), B.C. 47, 
where Cfesar defeated Pharnaces IV, king of 
Pontus. Csesar announced his victory in the 
famous despatch Veni, Vroi, Vici. 

Zelichow (Battle of), 6 April, 1831, in 
which the P ^•^d by General Diebitsch, 

were defeaic^ Poles with great 

slaughter. 

Zenta, in Hungary (Battle of), 1697, won by 
Prince Eugene over" the Turks. The prince 
fought contrary to orders; but so judicious 
were his plans and so well carried out, that he 
received a written licence from the kaiser to 
act ever after entirely on his own judgment. 
Certainly a most extraordinary licence. 

Zingara (Battle of), a.d. 350, between the 
Persians, led by Shapflr Zoolaclaf, and the 



Romans, led by the Emperor Julian The 
Romans won the field, but Shapflr recovered 
his advantage in a night attack. 

Zlotzow (Battle of), won by John III. 
(Sobicski) of Poland over the Tartars. 

Zomdorf ( Battle of), 25, 2G Aug., 1758, in 
which Frederick II. of Prussia defeated the 
Russians under General Fermor, who retreated 
into Poland (in the third campaign of the 
Seven Years' War). This was one of the most 
tenaciously contested fields ever fought. It 
began at 9 A.M., and continued long after the 
moon had risen. As many as 19,000 Russians 
and 11,000 Prussians were slain. 

Zutphen, in the Netherlands (Battle of), 
22 Sept., 1586. Zutphen was under the power 
of Spain from 1572, but the States twice be- 
sieged it, in 1584 and in 1586, but without suc- 
cess. The second of these sieges is well known, 
because it was there that Sir Philip Sidney, ' the 
Marcellus of England,' and author of the prose- 
poem called ' Arcadia,' met his death. This was 
a mere skirqjish, not a battle, Lord Leicester, 
with 8,000 men, being sent to assist the 
Flemish. 

The tale is that he was mortaUy wounded in 
this batt'e; and, as he was raising a small 
bottle of vrine to his lips, he cast his eyes upon 
a common soldier dying beside him. 'Poor 
fellow!' said Sir Philip, 'thy necessity is 
greater than mine ; ' so saying, he handed to 
the man the bottle, and died. 



*>* For battles named incidentally, or circumstantially— as the ' Battle of the Standard,' the 
'Battle of the Forty,' &c.— and not geographically, see the word ' Battle,' pp. 78, 79, 80. 



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